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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44396 ***
+
+                      CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS
+
+
+
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                      NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO
+                         DALLAS · SAN FRANCISCO
+
+                        MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
+                       LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
+                               MELBOURNE
+
+                   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+                                TORONTO
+
+
+
+
+                              CHILD LABOR
+                            IN CITY STREETS
+
+                                   BY
+
+                        EDWARD N. CLOPPER, PH.D.
+
+              SECRETARY OF NATIONAL CHILD LABOR COMMITTEE
+                         FOR MISSISSIPPI VALLEY
+
+
+
+
+                                New York
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                                  1913
+
+                         _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT, 1912,
+                       BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1912. Reprinted
+January, 1913.
+
+
+                             NORWOOD PRESS
+                 J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+                         Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Text originally marked up as bold is surrounded by =, text in italics by
+_, text in different font with ~. All footnotes can be found after the
+chapter "Conclusion", before the Bibliography. Obvious printer's errors
+have been remedied, a list of all other changes can be found at the end
+of the document.
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+This volume is devoted to the discussion of a neglected form of child
+labor. Just why the newsboy, bootblack and peddler should have been
+ignored in the general movement for child welfare is hard to
+understand. Perhaps it is due to "the illusion of the near." Street
+workers have always been far more conspicuous than any other child
+laborers, and it seems that this very proximity has been their
+misfortune. If we could have focused our attention upon them as we did
+upon children in factories, they would have been banished from the
+streets long ago. But they were too close to us. We could not get a
+comprehensive view and saw only what we happened to want at the
+moment--their paltry little stock in trade. Now that we are getting a
+broader sense of social responsibility, we are beginning to realize
+how blind and inconsiderate we have been in our treatment of them.
+
+The first five chapters of the book review present conditions and
+discuss causes, the next two deal with effects, and the final ones are
+concerned with the remedy. The scope has been made as broad as
+possible. All forms of street work that engage any considerable number
+of children have been described at length, and opinions and findings
+of others have been freely quoted. I have attempted to show the bad
+results of the policy of _laissez-faire_ as applied to this problem.
+Simply because these little boys and girls have been ministering to
+its wants, the public has given them scarcely a passing thought. It
+has been so convenient to have a newspaper or a shoe brush thrust at
+one, it has not occurred to us that, for the sake of the children,
+such work would better be done by other means. Although good examples
+have been set by European cities, we have not introduced any
+innovations to clear the streets of working children.
+
+The free rein at present given to child labor in our city streets is
+productive of nothing but harmful results, and it is high time that a
+determined stand was taken for the rights of children so exposed. A
+few feeble efforts at regulation have been made in some parts of this
+country, but this is an evil that requires prohibition rather than
+regulation. There is no valid reason why just as efficient service in
+streets could not be rendered by adults. Certainly it would be far
+more suitable and humane to reserve such work for old men and women
+who need outdoor life and are physically unable to earn their living
+in other ways. We could buy our newspaper from a crippled adult at a
+stand just as easily as we get it now from an urchin who shivers on
+the street corner. It is only a question of habit, and we ought to be
+glad of the change for the good of all concerned.
+
+                                                             E. N. C.
+
+    Cincinnati, 1912.
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                           PAGE
+
+     I. THE PROBLEM OF THE STREET-WORKING CHILD--PUBLIC
+         APATHY--RELATION TO OTHER PROBLEMS                            1
+
+    II. EXTENT TO WHICH CHILDREN ENGAGE IN STREET ACTIVITIES IN
+         AMERICA AND EUROPE                                           24
+
+   III. NEWSPAPER SELLERS                                             52
+
+    IV. BOOTBLACKS, PEDDLERS AND MARKET CHILDREN                      83
+
+     V. MESSENGERS, ERRAND AND DELIVERY CHILDREN                     101
+
+    VI. EFFECTS OF STREET WORK UPON CHILDREN                         128
+
+   VII. RELATION OF STREET WORK TO DELINQUENCY                       159
+
+  VIII. THE STRUGGLE FOR REGULATION IN THE UNITED STATES             189
+
+    IX. DEVELOPMENT OF STREET TRADES REGULATION IN EUROPE            214
+
+  CONCLUSION                                                         243
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                       245
+
+  APPENDICES                                                         255
+
+  INDEX                                                              277
+
+
+
+
+                      CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+THE PROBLEM OF THE STREET-WORKING CHILD--PUBLIC APATHY--RELATION TO
+OTHER PROBLEMS
+
+
+The efforts which have so far been made in the United States to solve
+the child labor problem have been directed almost exclusively toward
+improvement of conditions in mines and manufacturing and mercantile
+establishments. This singling out of one phase of the problem for
+correction was due to the uneducated state of public opinion which
+made necessary a long and determined campaign along one line, vividly
+portraying the wrongs of children in this one form of exploitation,
+before general interest could be aroused. Within very recent years
+this campaign has met with signal success, and many states have
+granted a goodly measure of protection to the children of their
+working classes as far as the factory, the store and the mine are
+concerned. The time has now come for attention to be directed toward
+the premature employment of children in work other than that connected
+with mining and manufacturing, for there are other phases of this
+problem which involve large numbers of children and which, up to the
+present, have received but little thought from students of labor
+conditions. The three most important of these other phases are the
+employment of children in agricultural work, in home industries and in
+street occupations. This volume will deal with the last-named
+phase--with the economic activities of children in the streets and
+public places of our cities, their effects and the remedies they
+demand.
+
+The street occupations in which children commonly engage are:
+newspaper selling, peddling, bootblacking, messenger service, delivery
+service, running errands and the tending of market stands. The first
+three are known as street "trades," owing to the popular fallacy that
+the children who follow them are little "merchants," and are therefore
+entitled to the dignity of separate classification. Careful usage
+would confine this term to newsboys, peddlers and bootblacks who work
+independently of any employer. Many children are employed by other
+persons to sell newspapers, peddle goods and polish shoes, and such
+children technically are street traders no more than those who run
+errands, carry messages or deliver parcels. Consequently the term
+"street trades" is limited in its application, and by no means
+embraces all the economic activities of children in our streets and
+public places.
+
+Wisconsin has written into her laws a definition of street trading,
+declaring that it is "any business or occupation in which any street,
+alley, court, square or other public place is used for the sale,
+display or offering for sale of any articles, goods or merchandise."[1]
+This covers neither bootblacking nor the delivery of newspapers.
+
+In Great Britain the expression "street trading" has been officially
+defined as including: "the hawking of newspapers, matches, flowers,
+and other articles; playing, singing, or performing for profit; plying
+for hire in carrying luggage or messages; shoe blacking, or any other
+like occupations carried on in streets or public places."[2]
+
+Street traders and street employees may be classified by occupation as
+follows:--
+
+  STREET TRADERS              STREET EMPLOYEES
+  (WORKING FOR THEMSELVES)    (WORKING FOR OTHERS)
+
+  Newspaper sellers           Newspaper sellers (on salary)
+                              Peddlers (on salary)
+  Peddlers                    Bootblacks (in stands)
+                              Market stand tenders
+  Bootblacks (on street)      Messengers
+                              Errand children
+                              Delivery children
+
+This classification is based upon the well-known economic distinction
+between profits and wages. It is unfortunate that this distinction has
+been applied to juvenile street workers, for it has operated to the
+great disadvantage of the "traders." This class has been practically
+ignored in the general movement for child welfare, on the ground that
+these little laborers were in business for themselves, and therefore
+should not be disturbed. Recently the conviction has been dawning
+upon observant people that, in the case of young children at least,
+the effects of work on an independent basis, particularly in city
+streets, are just as bad and perhaps even worse than work under the
+direction of employers. The mute appeal of the street-working child
+for protection has at last reached the heart of the welfare movement,
+and the first feeble efforts in his behalf are now being put forth,
+regardless of whether he toils for profits or for wages.
+
+This alleged distinction between street trading and street employment
+should be clearly understood, as any movement designed to remedy
+present conditions must be sufficiently comprehensive to avoid the
+great mistake of protecting one class and ignoring the other. On the
+one hand there is said to be an army of little independent "merchants"
+conducting business affairs of their own, while on the other there is
+an array of juvenile employees performing the tasks set them by their
+masters. For purposes of regulation this distinction is hairsplitting,
+narrow-minded and unjust, as it has been made to defeat in part the
+beneficent aim of the great campaign for child welfare, but
+nevertheless it must be reckoned with. Children under fourteen years
+of age at work in factories and mines are often properly called
+"slaves," and their plight is regarded with pity coupled with a
+clarion cry for their emancipation. But tiny workers in the streets
+are referred to approvingly as "little merchants" and are freely
+patronized even by the avowed friends of children, who thereby
+contribute their moral support toward continuing these conditions and
+maintaining this absurd fiction of our merchant babyhood. As an
+instance of this remarkable attitude, there was proudly printed in the
+Pittsburgh _Gazette-Times_ of April 11, 1910, the picture of a
+four-year-old child who had been a newsboy in an Ohio town since the
+age of _thirty months_, and this was described as a most worthy
+achievement!
+
+That the term "child labor," whose meaning has so long been popularly
+restricted to the employment of children in factories, mills, mines
+and stores, is properly applicable to the activities of children in
+all kinds of work for profit, is now virtually recognized by a few
+states which prohibit employment of children under fourteen years of
+age "in any gainful occupation." But unfortunately the courts have
+rigidly construed the word "employ" to mean the purchasing of the
+services of one person by another, hence newsboys, peddlers,
+bootblacks and others who work on their own account, do not enjoy the
+protection of such a statute because they are not "employed." Under
+this interpretation a fatal loophole is afforded through which
+thousands of boys and girls escape the spirit of the law which seeks
+to prevent their _labor_ rather than their mere employment. It is for
+this reason that, in states having otherwise excellent provisions for
+the conservation of childhood, we see little children freely
+exploiting themselves on city streets. This situation has been calmly
+accepted without protest by the general public, for, while the people
+condemn child labor in factories, they tolerate and even approve of it
+on the street. They labor under the delusion that merely because a few
+of our successful business men were newsboys in the past, these little
+"merchants" of the street are receiving valuable training in business
+methods and will later develop into leaders in the affairs of men. A
+glaring example of this attitude was given by a monthly magazine[3]
+which fondly referred to newsboys as "the enterprising young merchants
+from whose ranks will be recruited the coming statesmen, soldiers,
+financiers, merchants and manufacturers of our land."
+
+It is extremely unfortunate that this narrow conception has prevailed,
+as it raises the tremendous obstacle of popular prejudice which must
+be broken down before these child street workers can receive their
+share of justice at the hands of the law. The only fair and logical
+method of approach toward a solution of the child labor problem in all
+its phases is to take high ground and view the subject broadly in the
+light of what is for the best interests of children in general.
+
+The state recognizes the need of an intelligent citizenship and
+accordingly provides a system of public schools, requiring the
+attendance of all children up to the age of fourteen years. In order
+that nothing shall interfere with the operation of this plan for
+general education, the state forbids the employment of children of
+school age. In respect of both these mandates, the state has really
+assumed the guardianship of the child; it has accepted the principle
+that the child is the ward of the state and has based its action on
+this principle. A guardian should be ever mindful of the welfare of
+his wards, and so, to be consistent, the state should carefully shield
+its children from all forms of exploitation as well as from other
+abuses.
+
+However, in the matter of the regulation of child labor, a curious
+anomaly has arisen--no one may employ a child under fourteen years in
+a _factory_ for even one hour a day without being liable to
+prosecution for disobeying the law of the state, because such work
+might interfere with the child's growth and education; all of which is
+right and indorsed by public opinion, but--merely because a child is
+working independently of any employer, he is allowed to sell
+newspapers, peddle chewing gum and black boots for any number of
+hours, providing he attends school during school hours! Could anything
+be more inconsistent? To this extent the state, as a guardian, has
+neglected the welfare of its ward.
+
+This lack of consideration for street workers was emphasized in a
+British government report a number of years ago. Referring to the
+statutory provisions for preventing overwork by children in
+factories, workshops and mines, the report declared: "But the labour
+of children for wages outside these cases is totally unregulated,
+although many of them work longer than the factory hours allowed for
+children of the same age, and are at the same time undergoing
+compulsory educational training, which makes a considerable demand on
+their energies. We think this is inconsistent. In the interests of
+their health and education, it seems only reasonable that remedies
+which have proved so valuable in the case of factory children should
+in some form be extended to cover the whole field of child labour."[4]
+
+To insure a good yield, a field requires cultivation as well as
+planting; to effect a cure, a patient requires nursing as well as
+prescription. So with the aim of the state--to insure a strong,
+intelligent citizenship, its children must be cared for, as well as
+provided with schools. If a patient is not nursed while the physician
+is absent, his treatment is of little avail; if children are not
+protected out of school hours, the purpose of the school is
+defeated. No manufacturer would allow his machinery to run, unwatched,
+outside regular work hours, for he knows how disastrous would be the
+consequences; yet this is precisely what the state is doing by
+ignoring the activities of children in our city streets--the delicate
+machinery of their minds and bodies is allowed to run wild out of
+schools hours, and the state seems to think nothing will happen! These
+thoughts impel us to the conclusion that the state must watch over the
+child at least until he has reached the age limit for school
+attendance, and in the matter of labor regulation its care must not be
+confined to the prevention of one form of exploitation while other
+forms, equally injurious, are permitted to flourish unchecked.
+
+Legislation regulating street trading by children in this country is
+now in the stage corresponding to that of the English factory acts in
+the early part of the nineteenth century,--the first meager
+restrictions are being tried. Several of the street occupations, viz.
+messenger service, delivery service and errand running, are ordinarily
+included among those prohibited to children under fourteen years by
+state child labor laws, because to engage in such work children have
+to be employed by other persons. These occupations are covered by the
+provision common to such laws which forbids employment of such
+children "in the distribution or transmission of merchandise or
+messages." The street "trades" of newspaper selling, peddling and
+bootblacking are, as yet, almost untouched by legislation in the
+United States, for there exist only a very few state laws and city
+ordinances relative to this matter, and these of the most primitive
+kind. The public does not yet realize the injustice of permitting
+young children to engage, uncontrolled, in the various street-trading
+activities. It was slow to appreciate the dangers involved in the
+unrestricted employment of children in factories, mills and mines, but
+when the awakening finally came, the demand for reform was insistent.
+This gradual development of a sentiment favoring regulation
+characterizes also the problem of street employment; the present stage
+is that of calm indifference, ruffled only by occasional misgivings.
+Even this is an encouraging sign, inasmuch as the factory agitation
+passed through the same experience, and emerged triumphant,
+crystallized in statute form.
+
+It is hard to understand how the public conscience can reconcile
+itself to the chasm between the age limit of fourteen years for
+messenger service and freedom from all restraint in newspaper
+selling--both essentially street occupations. Child labor laws are
+framed in accordance with public sentiment, hence the people by
+legislative omission practically indorse street trading by little
+children while condemning their employment in other kinds of work.
+Thus the state virtually assumes the untenable position that it is
+right to allow a child of tender years to labor in the streets as a
+newsboy without any oversight or care whatever, and that it is wrong
+for him to work in the same field as a messenger, or an errand boy, or
+a delivery boy, although such occupations are subject to some degree
+of supervision by older persons. In other words, it is held that
+little children are capable of self-control in some street
+occupations, but not able to withstand the dangers of other similar
+street work, even under the control of adults! After having described
+the conditions prevailing in Philadelphia among newsboys, Mr. Scott
+Nearing says: "There are many causes leading up to this condition.
+Beneath all others lies the fundamental one--the lack of public
+sentiment in favor of protecting these children. Closely allied to
+this is another almost equally strong--the lack of public knowledge of
+the true state of affairs."[5]
+
+The Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit pointed out the fact that street
+trades are quite untouched by child labor legislation in the city and
+also in the state, declaring that in Illinois a boy or girl too young
+to be permitted to do any other work may haunt the newspaper offices,
+the five-cent shows, the theaters and saloons, selling chewing gum and
+newspapers at all hours of the night.[6]
+
+Among the arguments advanced in support of the unsuccessful effort to
+secure legislation on street trading in Illinois in 1911 was the
+following: "Each boy or girl street trader is a merchant in his or her
+own right, and therefore before the law is not considered a wage
+earner, although there is merely a fine-spun distinction between the
+child who secures _wages_ as the result of his work and one who
+obtains his reward in the form of _profits_. The effect on the child
+of work performed under unsuitable conditions, at unsuitable hours and
+demanding the exercise of his faculties in unchildish ways, is in no
+wise determined by the form in which his earnings are calculated. That
+the results of street trading are wholly bad in the case of both boys
+and girls is universally recognized."[7] Miss Jane Addams has deplored
+this situation in a public statement: "A newsboy is a merchant and
+does not come within the child labor regulations of Illinois. The city
+of Chicago is a little careless, if not recreant, toward the children
+who are not reached by the operation of the state law."[8]
+
+Even in the few localities where regulation of street trading has been
+attempted, the delusion that there is some essential difference
+between child labor in factories and child labor in streets persists
+in the legislation itself. The latter form of exploitation is assumed
+to merit a wider latitude for its activity, hence it is hedged about
+by much less stringent rules. Attention is invited to this
+inconsistency by the report of a recent investigation in New York
+City: "We have in New York 4148 children between 14 and 16 years
+employed in factories with their daily hours of labor limited from 8
+A.M. to 5 P.M., while in mercantile establishments there are 1645 more
+of similar age limit, none of whom can work before 8 in the morning or
+after 7 in the evening. But on the streets of New York City we have
+approximately 4500 boys licensed (to say nothing of the little fellows
+too young to be licensed) to sell newspapers. That means 4500
+legalized to work at this particular trade from 6 o'clock in the
+morning until 10 o'clock in the evening (save during the school year,
+when they are supposed to attend school from 9 A.M. to 3 P.M.) any day
+and every day, seven days to the week if they so desire to do."[9]
+
+
+                    _Broader Aspects of the Problem_
+
+Let us consider the matter from another point of view and discuss the
+opportunities for constructive work rather than confine our attention
+to the need of the merely negative remedy of restrictive legislation.
+
+The street is painted as a black monster by some social workers, who
+can discern nothing but evil in it. Nevertheless the street is closely
+woven into the life of every city dweller, for his contact with it is
+daily and continuous. If it is all evil, it ought to be abolished; as
+this is impossible, we must study it to see what it really is and what
+needs to be done with it. It is the medium by which people are brought
+into closer touch with one another, where they meet and converse,
+where they pass in transit, where they rub elbows with all the
+elements making up their little world, where they absorb the
+principles of democracy,--for the street is a great leveler.
+
+Dr. Delos F. Wilcox, in speaking to the subject "What is Philadelphia
+Doing to Protect Her Citizens in the Street?" recently said: "The
+street is the symbol of democracy, of equal opportunity, the channel
+of the common life, the thing that makes the city.... I fancy that the
+civic renaissance which must surely come, ... will never get very far
+until we have awakened to a realization of the dignity of the
+street--the common street where the city's children play, through
+which the milk wagon drives, where the young men are educated, along
+which the currents of the city's life flow unceasingly."[10]
+
+An English writer has expressed a similar thought: "We have spoken of
+the street as a dangerous environment from which we would gladly
+rescue the children if we could, and so it undoubtedly is in so far as
+it supplants the influence of the home, tends to nullify that of the
+school and lets the boys and girls run wild just when they most need
+to be tamed.... It is, in fact, so strange a mixture of good and evil,
+so complex an influence in the growth of boy and girl, of youth and
+man, among our great city population, that it is necessary to attempt
+to analyze it a little more exactly. It is for the majority the medium
+in which the social conscience is formed, and through which it makes
+its power felt. In it the all-powerful agents of progress, example,
+imitation, the spread of ideas and the discussion of good and evil are
+incessantly at work."[11]
+
+It is only natural that such a general agency for communication should
+have been abused. Its popularity alone would inevitably lead to such a
+result, with no restrictions imposed upon street intercourse. The very
+popularity of the games of billiards, pool and cards and of dancing
+led to their abuse and consequent disrepute in the eyes of many
+persons who were blinded to their intrinsic worth as diversions, by
+the abuses to which they were subjected. The marked success attending
+the proper use of all these amusements in social settlements and
+parish houses stimulates the imagination as to what might be
+accomplished with the street if its abuses also were eliminated.
+
+It is of course absurd to pass judgment summarily upon the street, for
+the street can exert no influence of itself; the evil issues from its
+abuse by those who frequent it, and it is this abuse that should be
+suppressed. This immediately raises the question as to what
+constitutes this abuse. We must bear in mind that the real purpose of
+the street is to serve as a means of communication, a passageway for
+the transit of passengers and commerce. It was never intended for a
+playground, nor a field for child labor, nor a resort for idlers, nor
+a depository for garbage, nor a place for beggars to mulct the public.
+These fungous growths from civic neglect ought to be cut away. "A
+place for everything and everything in its place" would be an
+efficacious even if old-fashioned remedy: playgrounds for the
+children, workshops for the idlers, reduction plants for the garbage
+and asylums for the beggars. With these reforms effected and carefully
+maintained, the street would soon become much more wholesome and
+attractive.
+
+These considerations have been advanced to indicate the intimate
+relation which exists between the problem of the child street worker
+and many other problems with which social workers are now struggling.
+Child labor in city streets must be abolished, but at the same time
+coöperation with other movements is necessary before a satisfactory
+solution of the problem can be assured.
+
+For example, it would be a short-sighted policy to prohibit young
+children from selling goods in home market stands without reporting to
+the housing authorities cases in which large families live in one or
+two filthy rooms, displaying and selling their wares in the doorway
+and from the window. Our Italian citizens are not committing race
+suicide, but in spite of their numerous progeny they crowd together in
+extremely limited space, combining their home life with the customary
+business of selling fruit. Their young children assist in tending the
+stands on market days and nights or sit on the sidewalk selling
+baskets to passers-by; at closing time their goods are often stored in
+the same room that serves for sleeping quarters, cots being brought
+out from some dark hiding place. In such circumstances the mere
+prevention of child labor is not sufficient--the housing conditions
+also should be remedied so as to give the children a more suitable
+place in which to play, study and sleep, a better home in which to use
+their leisure.
+
+Again, a movement to prohibit street work by children should give
+impetus to that which seeks to make the public school a social center,
+and especially to that for public vacation schools. Many of the homes
+of city children very largely lack the element of attractiveness which
+is so essential in holding children under the influence of their
+parents, and this want must be filled as far as possible by making
+the school an instrument not merely for instruction, but also for the
+entertainment and socializing of the entire neighborhood.
+
+Again, the regulating of street trading should be undertaken jointly
+with the movement to supply adequate playground facilities.
+Playgrounds are not a municipal luxury, but a necessary. Children must
+have some suitable place for recreation. It is not a function of the
+street to furnish the space for play, and as children cannot and
+should not be kept at home all the time, it follows that ground must
+be set apart for the purpose. On these points a British report says:
+"We have no doubt that insanitary homes and immoral surroundings, with
+the want of any open spaces where the children could enjoy healthy
+exercise and recreation, are strong factors in determining towards
+evil courses in the cases of the children of the poor."[12] The need
+for more playgrounds in Chicago was partially supplied by having one
+block in a congested district closed to traffic during August, 1911,
+so that children could play there without risking their lives, from
+eight in the morning to eight in the evening. In providing this
+emergency playground, Chicago has set an example that will undoubtedly
+be imitated by other cities.
+
+In this way the abolition of child labor in city streets would result
+in benefit not only to the children, but to the entire community as
+well. It would promote a general civic awakening that would make each
+town and city a better place to live in, a better home for our
+citizens of the future.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER II
+
+EXTENT TO WHICH CHILDREN ENGAGE IN STREET ACTIVITIES IN AMERICA AND
+EUROPE
+
+
+There are no reliable figures either official or unofficial showing
+the number of children engaged in street activities in any city of the
+United States or in the country at large. The figures given by the
+United States Census of 1900 are so inadequate that they can hardly
+mislead any one endowed with ordinary powers of observation. It
+solemnly declares that in that year there was a grand total of 6904
+newspaper carriers and newsboys, both adults and children, in the
+entire United States, of whom 69 were females.[13] In all probability
+there was a greater number at that time in some of our larger cities
+alone. In the group called "other persons in trade and transportation"
+only 3557 children ten to fifteen years of age are reported, although
+this group embraces nine specified occupations, of which that of the
+newsboy is only one. Besides these, many other occupations (in which
+63 per cent of the total number of persons reported are engaged) are
+not specified.[14] Consequently the number of newsboys ten to fifteen
+years old reported by the enumerators for the entire country must have
+been ridiculously small.
+
+Again, the total number of bootblacks ten years of age and upwards in
+the country was reported as 8230, they being included in the group
+called "other domestic and personal service." Only 2953 children ten
+to fifteen years of age were reported in this group, which includes
+five specified occupations, of which that of the bootblacks is only
+one, and many others (in which 67 per cent of the total number of
+persons reported are engaged) which are not specified.[15]
+
+The inadequacy of these figures to convey any idea whatsoever as to
+the extent of child labor in street occupations in this country is
+painfully apparent; they are quoted here merely to show the poverty
+of statistics on this subject. Their inaccuracy is practically
+conceded by the report itself in the following words: "The limitations
+connected with the taking of a great national census preclude proper
+care upon the question of child employment. There is great uncertainty
+as to the accuracy of a mass of information of this character taken by
+enumerators and special agents, who either do not appreciate the
+importance of the investigation or find it impracticable to devote the
+time to the inquiry necessary to secure good results."[16]
+
+There is reason to hope for more reliable data from the 1910 census;
+but unfortunately the figures will probably not be available until
+1913. The enumerators employed by the Federal government for the
+Census of 1910, were instructed to make an entry in the occupation
+column of the population schedule for every person enumerated, giving
+the exact occupation if employed, writing the word "none" if
+unemployed, or the words "own income" if living upon an independent
+income. It was stated positively that the occupation followed by a
+child of any age was just as important for census purposes as the
+occupation followed by a man, and that it should never be taken for
+granted without inquiry that a child had no occupation.[17]
+
+However, upon inquiry by enumerators at the time of the census taking
+as to the occupation of children, many parents undoubtedly replied in
+the negative, even though their children may have been devoting
+several hours daily outside of school to street work, under the
+impression that this was not an occupation. Consequently it is safe to
+assume that the figures for street-working children in the United
+States according to the Census of 1910 when published will be under
+the true number. Nevertheless, they can hardly fail to reflect
+conditions far better than did the figures for 1900.
+
+
+                               _Chicago_
+
+It is only from the reports of occasional and very limited local
+investigations that material as to the actual state of affairs can be
+obtained. Social workers of Chicago had a bill introduced into the
+Illinois legislature at its session of 1911, providing that boys
+under ten years and girls under sixteen years should be prohibited
+from selling anything in city streets, and some material was gathered
+to be used in support of this measure. In connection with what has
+already been said in Chapter I, it is interesting to note that
+although the provisions of this bill were very mild, and strong
+efforts were put forth by social workers to secure its passage, it was
+not allowed to become a law largely because of the absence of public
+opinion and partly because of the opposition by newspaper publishers
+and others who were afraid that their interests might suffer through
+the granting of protection to such little children.
+
+In one of the schools of Chicago, pupils were found to be trading in
+the streets in addition to attending school in the following
+percentages:--
+
+  65 per cent of 5th grade children
+  35 per cent of 4th grade children
+  15 per cent of 2d grade children
+  12 per cent of 1st grade children
+  (Figures for 3d grade were not given.)
+
+All of these children were attending school twenty-five hours a week,
+and many cases of excessive work out of school hours were found. Some
+allowance should be made for possible exaggeration on the part of
+these children, but nevertheless it is certain that many of them were
+working to an injurious extent. The hours given were as follows:--
+
+  1 boy over 50 hours
+  4 boys over 40 hours
+  5 boys over 35 hours
+  7 boys over 30 hours
+  18 boys over 20 hours
+
+Their average earnings per week were found to be as follows:[18]--
+
+  5th grade children      $1.18
+  4th grade children        .85
+  3d grade children         .60
+  2d grade children         .43
+  1st grade children        .36
+
+In referring to the weekly income of the children from this source,
+the Handbook of the Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit declared that it was
+"a pitiable sum to compensate for the physical weariness and moral
+risk attending street trades in a large city. School reports show that
+street trades, when carried on by young children, lead to truancy,
+low vitality, dullness and the breaking down of parental control.
+Since the children are on the streets at all hours, careless habits
+are developed which often lead to moral ruin to both boys and
+girls."[19]
+
+An instance was related wherein the teacher of a fifth grade in a
+Chicago school asked those of her pupils who worked for money to raise
+their hands. In the class of 38 pupils, 26 acknowledged that they were
+little breadwinners! One boy said he worked ten hours a day besides
+attending school; others had less striking records, spending from
+twenty to forty hours a week selling chewing gum and newspapers,
+blacking boots and pursuing the various other street occupations which
+the Illinois law leaves open to children of all ages.[20]
+
+Referring to the economic and home conditions surrounding young
+children in Chicago and the many phases of danger to their moral
+well-being, the Vice Commission of that city reported that its agents
+had found small boys selling newspapers in segregated districts and
+that one night an investigator had counted twenty newsboys from eleven
+years upwards so engaged at midnight and after. Besides these
+newsboys, many little boys and girls were found peddling chewing gum
+near disorderly saloons where prostitutes were soliciting. Numerous
+examples of employment in vicious environment are cited, principally
+of the peddling of newspapers and chewing gum by young children at all
+hours of the night in the "red light" districts, about saloons and
+museums of anatomy. Even in the rear rooms of saloons, boys were seen
+offering their wares and heard to join in obscene conversation with
+the patrons of these resorts.[21]
+
+A folder published in Chicago by the advocates of street-trade
+regulation calls attention to these conditions, and states, with
+regard to little newsgirls who sell papers in the vice regions: "It is
+not surprising if some of them, becoming so familiar with the
+practices of the district, take up the profession of the neighborhood.
+The Juvenile Protective Association reports one little girl who
+entered the life of a professional prostitute at the age of fourteen,
+after having sold newspapers for years in the district."[22]
+
+Another element of this problem, seldom considered, is described also
+in this folder--the vagrants, who constitute a large and growing class
+deserving the attention of both city and citizen. "Three classes of
+persons, who add little to the general circulation, while detracting
+much from the tone of the business and working a real injury to
+themselves, are engaged in selling newspapers; these are the small
+boy, the semi-vagrant boy, and the young girl. The business of selling
+newspapers in Chicago is so systematized that the 'vagrant' cannot
+prosper, and yet the 'vagrant' is in our midst. He can be found on
+State Street at 11 o'clock on a Saturday night with one newspaper
+under his arm--not attempting to sell it, but using it as a bait to
+beg from the passers-by. He can be found in the _American_ news alley,
+sometimes fifty, sometimes a hundred strong, sleeping on bags, under
+boxes, or on the floor of the newspaper restaurant. With this boy,
+and with all those who are obviously too young to be permitted to
+engage in street trading, it is our duty to deal if we are to preserve
+the attitude the American city takes toward the dependent child."
+
+
+              NATIONALITIES OF BOSTON CHILD STREET TRADERS
+
+  ====================================+======+==========
+           PLACE OF BIRTH             |NUMBER|PERCENTAGE
+  ------------------------------------+------+----------
+          { Boston             1,556  |      |
+  America { Elsewhere in Mass.   171  | 1860 |   70.
+          { Other states         133  |      |
+  Russia                              |  473 |   17.5
+  Italy                               |  161 |    6.
+  Other foreign countries             |  162 |    6.
+  Not given                           |    8 |     .5
+                                      |----- | ------
+                                      | 2664 |  100.0
+  ====================================+======+==========
+
+
+                                _Boston_
+
+In Boston, during the year 1910, there were issued to newsboys,
+peddlers and bootblacks from eleven to thirteen years of age
+inclusive, 2664 licenses. Of these nearly all (2525) were issued to
+newsboys, while 114 were issued to bootblacks and 25 to peddlers. Of
+these license holders 904 were eleven years old, 900 were twelve
+years old, and 860 were thirteen years old. It is interesting to note
+that nearly three fourths of these children were born in the United
+States; the table on page 33 shows their distribution among
+nationalities.
+
+
+                            _New York City_
+
+The actual number of children engaged in street activities at any
+given time is less than the number of licenses issued during the year,
+inasmuch as not all such children persist in pursuing this work, many
+of them working only a few weeks, while a few never enter upon the
+tasks which they have been licensed to perform. This is borne out by
+the experience of investigators in New York City; the report of a
+study made there recently says: "We are told by the department of
+education issuing newsboy badges that 4500 boys have these badges, yet
+when we secured the addresses of some of these from their application
+cards ... we found that not 30 per cent of the 100 cases investigated
+lived at listed addresses. Many such were bogus numbers, open lots,
+factories, wharves, and in some cases the middle of East River would
+wash over the house number given. When we did find a correct address,
+the children so located in six cases out of ten were not following the
+trade. In some instances they never sold papers, obtaining badges
+simply because other boys were applying for them, and after receiving
+a badge tucked it away in a drawer or maybe sold it or gave it
+away."[23]
+
+
+                              _Cincinnati_
+
+In Cincinnati from June to December, 1909, 1951 boys from ten to
+thirteen years of age were licensed to sell newspapers, this number
+being about 15 per cent of the total number of boys of these ages in
+the city. Their distribution according to age was as follows:--
+
+  10 years         424
+  11 years         466
+  12 years         539
+  13 years         522
+                  ----
+      Total       1951
+
+The Cincinnati figures do not include bootblacks, peddlers or market
+children, as no licenses were issued for such occupations, although
+they are specifically covered by the municipal ordinance regulating
+street trades.
+
+The above data were available only because there has been some attempt
+in Boston, New York and Cincinnati to restrict the employment of
+children in street occupations; as in the great majority of cities and
+states there is absolutely no regulation of this kind, there are of
+course no figures to indicate conditions.
+
+
+                          _The Padrone System_
+
+In almost every city of the United States having a population of more
+than 10,000, there is to be found the padrone system, which is
+operated principally in the interests of the bootblacking business
+which the Greeks control. The peddling of flowers, fruit and
+vegetables in Chicago and New York is partly subject to the same
+methods. The labor supply furnished by this system for peddling and
+bootblacking consists generally of children from twelve to seventeen
+years of age.[24]
+
+The Immigration Commission states in its report that there are several
+thousand shoe-shining establishments in the United States operated by
+Greeks who employ boys as bootblacks, and that with few exceptions
+they are under the padrone system.[25] A few boys under sixteen years
+of age are employed under the Greek padrone system as flower vendors,
+and these are found chiefly in New York City. They are hired by
+florists to sell flowers in the streets and public places--largely old
+stock that cannot be handled in the shops. These boys usually live in
+good quarters, are well fed and receive their board and from $50 to
+$100 a year in wages. When not engaged in peddling, they deliver
+flowers ordered at the shops. The boys employed by the padrones to
+peddle candy, fruit and vegetables usually live in basements or in
+filthy rooms; here they are crowded two, three and sometimes four in
+one bed, with windows shut tight so as to avoid catching cold. The
+fruit and vegetables still on hand are stored for the night in these
+bedrooms and in the kitchen. In each peddling company there are
+usually three or four wagons and from four to eight boys.[26]
+
+
+                       _Minor Street Occupations_
+
+There are a few so-called street trades in which a relatively small
+number of children are engaged which so far have not been mentioned in
+this volume. These are the leading of blind persons and the
+accompanying of beggars in general, little children being found
+valuable for such work because they help to excite the sympathy of
+passers-by. A few children also are employed as lamplighters to go
+about towns lighting street lamps in the evening and extinguishing
+them in the early morning. A class of street boys who have as yet
+received no name in this country, but in England are called "touts,"
+haunt the neighborhood of railroad depots and lie in wait for
+passengers with hand baggage, offering to carry it to the train for a
+small fee.
+
+Some children are used as singers or performers upon musical
+instruments, but this is in reality only another form of begging. The
+writer found one instance of a young boy who was employed by the
+public library of one of our large cities to gather up overdue books
+about the city and to collect the fines imposed for failure to return
+the same. Very frequently in the course of his work this boy had to
+enter houses of prostitution, as the inmates are steady patrons of the
+public library, reading light literature, and are quite negligent in
+the matter of returning the books within the prescribed time.
+Immediately upon the librarian's learning of the situation, he was
+relieved of this duty, and a man was detailed to perform the task.
+Such special occupations as these do not constitute a real factor in
+the problem because of the small number of children involved, and
+hence they are omitted from consideration.
+
+
+                     _Conditions in Great Britain_
+
+Turning to Europe we find much more information on this subject. In
+Great Britain the House of Commons in 1898 ordered an inquiry to be
+made into the extent of child labor among public school pupils, and
+the education department sent schedules to the 20,022 public
+elementary schools in England and Wales for the purpose of determining
+the facts. A little more than half of the schools returned the
+schedules blank, stating that no children were employed; this
+introduced a large element of error into the return, as many of the
+schoolmasters misunderstood the meaning of the schedules, and
+consequently quite a number of children who should have been included
+were omitted from the total. The 9433 schedules which were filled and
+returned showed that 144,026 children (about three fourths boys and
+one fourth girls) were in attendance full time at the public
+elementary schools of England and Wales and known to be employed for
+profit outside of school hours.
+
+The ages of these children reported as employed were as follows:[27]--
+
+  Under 7 years       131
+   7 years          1,120
+   8 years          4,211
+   9 years         11,027
+  10 years         22,131
+  11 years         36,775
+  12 years         47,471
+  13 years         18,556
+  14 and over       1,787
+  Not given           817
+                  -------
+    Total         144,026
+
+The standards or school grades in which these working children were
+enrolled and the total enrollment for the year ended August 31, 1898,
+were as follows:[28]--
+
+  ==========================+============
+                            |  TOTAL
+      WORKING CHILDREN      | ENROLLMENT
+  --------------------------+-----------
+  No Standard           329 |
+  1st standard        3,890 | 2,875,088
+  2d standard        11,686 |   723,582
+  3d standard        24,624 |   679,096
+  4th standard       36,907 |   590,850
+  5th standard       37,315 |   421,728
+  6th standard       21,975 |   212,546
+  7th standard        6,382 |    66,442
+  Ex-7 standard         382 |     7,534
+  Not stated            536 |
+                    ------- | ---------
+      Total         144,026 | 5,576,866
+  ==========================+============
+
+The occupations followed by these children were divided into three
+main groups, and each of these groups was further divided into three
+classes. These divisions and the number of children in each were as
+follows:[29]--
+
+  =======================+=======================+=========================
+                         |                       |  DOMESTIC EMPLOYMENT,
+    PIECEWORK, CHIEFLY   |  TIME-WORK, CHIEFLY   |  GIRLS ONLY, WITH ONE
+           BOYS          |         BOYS          |    OR TWO EXCEPTIONS
+  -----------------------+-----------------------+-------------------------
+  Selling                | In shops or           | Minding babies   11,585
+  newspapers      15,182 | running               |
+                         | errands for           | Other housework,
+  Hawking goods    2,435 | shopkeepers    76,173 | including
+                         |                       | laundry work,
+  Sports, taking         | Agricultural          | etc.              9,254
+  dinners,               | occupations     6,115 |
+  knocking-up,           |                       | Needlework and
+  etc.             8,627 | Boot and knife        | like occupations  4,019
+                         | cleaning, etc.        |
+                         | (house boys)   10,636 |
+  =======================+=======================+=========================
+
+The return revealed a surprising variety of occupations followed by
+these children--about 200 different kinds in all.
+
+  HOURS PER WEEK     NUMBER OF CHILDREN
+      Under 10             39,355
+      10-20                60,268
+      21-30                27,008
+      31-40                 9,778
+      41-50                 2,390
+      51-60                   576
+      61-70                   142
+      71-80                    59
+      Over 81                  16
+      Not stated            4,434
+                          -------
+          Total           144,026
+
+The number of hours per week devoted by these children to the various
+employments will be found in the above table; it should be remembered
+that these hours were given to work in addition to the time spent at
+school.[30]
+
+It was recognized that the figures given by this parliamentary return
+did not represent the real situation, but nevertheless its revelations
+were sufficiently startling to show the need of further investigation.
+Accordingly in 1901 there was appointed an interdepartmental committee
+which after careful study reported that the figures in the
+parliamentary return were well within the actual numbers, but that the
+facts it contained were substantially correct.[31] This committee
+estimated the total number of children who were both in attendance at
+school and in paid employments in England and Wales at 300,000;[32] it
+declared that cases of excessive employment were "sufficiently
+numerous to leave no doubt that a substantial number of children are
+being worked to an injurious extent."[33]
+
+Referring to the amount of time devoted by the children to gainful
+employment outside of school, the committee reported, "On a review of
+the evidence we consider it is proved that in England and Wales a
+substantial number of children, amounting probably to 50,000, are
+being worked more than twenty hours a week in addition to twenty-seven
+and one-half hours at school, that a considerable proportion of this
+number are being worked to thirty or forty and some even to fifty
+hours a week, and that the effect of this work is in many cases
+detrimental to their health, their morals and their education, besides
+being often so unremitting as to deprive them of all reasonable
+opportunity for recreation. For an evil so serious, existing on so
+large a scale, we think that some remedy ought to be found."[34] The
+committee estimated the total number of children selling newspapers
+and in street hawking at 25,000.[35]
+
+With reference to conditions in Edinburgh, an English writer says, "Of
+the 1406 children employed out of school hours in Edinburgh, 307 are
+ten years of age or under. Four of them are six years old, and eleven
+are seven years of age. We hear of boys working seventeen hours (from
+7 A.M. to 12 P.M.) on Saturday. For children to work twelve, thirteen
+and fourteen hours on Saturday is quite common. The average wage seems
+to be three farthings an hour, but one hears of children who are paid
+one shilling and sixpence for thirty-eight hours of toil."[36]
+
+In New South Wales boys are permitted to trade on the streets at the
+age of ten years, and up to fourteen years may engage in such work
+between the hours of 7 A.M. and 7 P.M. except while the schools are in
+session; after they are fourteen years old they may trade between 6
+A.M. and 10 P.M. Such children are licensed, and during the six months
+ending March 31, 1910, 714 licenses were issued, 72 per cent of them
+being to children under fourteen years of age; 92 per cent of these
+children were engaged in hawking newspapers, the others being
+scattered through such occupations as peddling flowers, fruit and
+vegetables, fish, fancy goods, matches, bottles, pies and milk.[37]
+
+
+                        _Conditions in Germany_
+
+In December, 1897, the German Imperial Chancellor, referring to the
+incomplete census returns as to child labor, requested the
+governments to furnish him with information as to the total number of
+children under fourteen employed in labor other than factory labor,
+agricultural employment and domestic service, and the kinds of work
+done. In this circular he said: "But, above all, where the kind of
+occupation is unsuitable for children, where the work continues too
+long, where it takes place at unseasonable times and in unsuitable
+places, child labor gives rise to serious consideration; in such cases
+it is not only dangerous to the health and morality of the children,
+but school discipline is impaired and compulsory education becomes
+illusory. For children cannot possibly give the necessary attention to
+their lessons when they are tired out and when they have been working
+hard in unhealthful rooms until late at night. I need only instance
+employment in skittle alleys late in the evening, in the delivery of
+newspapers in the early morning and the employment of children in many
+branches of home industry. The most recent researches undertaken in
+different localities show that the employment of children in labor
+demands earnest attention in the interests of the rising
+generation."[38]
+
+Inquiries extending over almost the whole German Empire were
+accordingly made by the different states from January to April, 1898.
+It was found that 544,283 children under fourteen years were employed
+in labor other than factory labor, agricultural employment and
+domestic service. This was 6.53 per cent of the total number of
+children of school age (8,334,919).
+
+With regard to the effects of such work, this German report says: "As
+the children who carry around small wares, sell flowers, etc., go from
+one inn to another, they are exposed to evil influences, and are
+liable to contract at an early age, bad habits of smoking, lying,
+drinking.... The delivery of newspapers is a particularly great strain
+on the children, as it occupies them both before and after school
+hours."
+
+Seven divisions of these children were made according to occupation,
+four of them relating to street work. Under the heading _Handel_ were
+included children in many kinds of work, among them hawking fruit,
+milk, bread, brooms, flowers, newspapers, etc.; under _Austragedienste_
+were included only the delivery and carrying around of bread, milk,
+vegetables, beer, papers, books, advertisements, circulars, bills,
+coals, wood, boots and shoes, washing, clothes, etc.; under
+_Gewöhnliche Laufdienste_ were included only errand boys and
+messengers; under _Sonstige gewerbliche Thätigkeit_ were included,
+among other occupations, blacking boots, leading the blind, street
+singers and players, etc.
+
+========================+========+========+=========+=========+============
+                        |        |        | SEX NOT |         |
+                        |  BOYS  | GIRLS  | STATED  |  TOTAL  | PERCENTAGE
+------------------------+--------+--------+---------+---------+------------
+Handel (retail trade)   |  7,507 |  4,540 |   5,576 |  17,623 |    3.31
+                        |        |        |         |         |
+Austragedienste         |        |        |         |         |
+(delivery service)      | 67,188 | 36,966 |  31,676 | 135,830 |   25.52
+                        |        |        |         |         |
+Gewöhnliche Laufdienste |        |        |         |         |
+(general  messenger     |        |        |         |         |
+service)                | 23,321 |  2,134 |  10,454 |  35,909 |    6.75
+                        |        |        |         |         |
+Sonstige  gewerbliche   |        |        |         |         |
+Thätigkeit (other forms |        |        |         |         |
+of labor)               |  6,281 |  2,387 |   3,119 |  11,787 |    2.21
+========================+========+========+=========+=========+============
+
+
+                        _Conditions in Austria_
+
+The Austrian Ministry of Commerce began an investigation of actual
+conditions in Austria late in 1907 in response to the agitation for a
+new law that would regulate child labor not only in factories, but
+also in home industries, in commerce, and even in agriculture. In his
+Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, Mr. C. W. A. Veditz
+refers to the findings of this investigation in a number of the
+provinces. In Bohemia, of 676 children in trade and transportation,
+but still attending school, 169 were engaged in peddling and
+huckstering; in delivering goods and going errands 1554 children were
+employed, being generally hired to deliver bread, milk, meats,
+groceries, newspapers, books, telegrams, circulars--in fact, all
+manner of goods.[39] In the province of Upper Austria children are
+paid from two to seven crowns (40.6 cents to $1.42) a month for
+delivering newspapers daily, while in the duchy of Salzburg the pay
+varies from twenty to fifty hellers (4 to 10 cents) a day for
+delivering bread or newspapers.
+
+In the province of Lower Austria, "referring now to the other main
+occupations in which school children are employed outside of industry
+proper, the report [of the investigation] shows that ... those
+working in trade and transportation usually help wait on customers in
+their parents' stores; a number, however, sell flowers, shoe laces,
+etc., or huckster bread, butter and eggs, or carry passengers' baggage
+to and from railway stations. Most of those put down as delivering
+goods are engaged in delivering bread, milk, newspapers and
+washing."[40] Children who sell flowers, bread or cigars in Vienna
+earn one to two crowns (20.3 to 40.6 cents) a day during the week, and
+on Sundays as much as three crowns (60.9) cents. "The children
+employed [in Lower Austria] to deliver goods and run errands are also
+usually employed by non-relatives and receive wages in money. Those
+who deliver milk, and who work one half to one hour a day, generally
+receive twenty hellers to one crown (4 to 20.3 cents) weekly; in
+exceptional cases two crowns (40.6 cents), and in some instances only
+food and old clothes. For delivering bread and pastry, wages are
+reported as thirty hellers (6 cents) a week and some meals, or fifty
+hellers to two crowns (10 to 40.6 cents) a week without meals; in
+exceptional cases, 10 per cent of the receipts. For delivering
+papers, which requires one to two hours a day, children receive two to
+ten crowns (40.6 cents to $2.03) a month. For delivering of washing,
+thirty hellers (6 cents) for a two-hours' trip, or sixty hellers to
+two crowns (12 to 40.6 cents) a week. Children who carry dinner to
+mill laborers, requiring one half to one hour daily, get eighty
+hellers to five crowns (16 cents to $1.02) a month. Messengers for
+stores, hotels, etc., get a tip of two to ten hellers (.4 to 2 cents)
+per errand, or, if employed regularly, twenty hellers to one crown (4
+to 20.3 cents) a week."[41]
+
+"The delivery of milk, pastry, newspapers, etc., in which many
+children are employed in Vienna and other large cities, does not cause
+frequent absences, but is responsible for tardy arrival at school in
+the morning and for the fatigue that reduces attention and prevents
+mental alertness."[42]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+NEWSPAPER SELLERS
+
+
+By far the majority of the children in street occupations are engaged
+in the sale or delivery of newspapers. The newsboy predominates to
+such an extent that he is taken as a matter of course. As Mrs.
+Florence Kelley says, "For more than one generation, it has been
+almost invariably assumed that there must be little newsboys." Ever
+since he became an institution of our city life, the public has been
+pleased to regard him admiringly as an energetic salesman of
+penetrating mind and keen sense of humor. There seems to be a tacit
+indorsement of the newsboy as such.
+
+Ordinarily there are five classes of newsboys to be found in all large
+cities--(1) the corner boys, (2) those who sell for corner boys on
+salary, (3) others who sell for them on commission, (4) those who sell
+for themselves, and (5) those with delivery routes. The bulk of the
+business is handled by the first three of these classes, which are
+always associated together and found on the busy corners of the
+downtown sections of all our cities. The choice localities for the
+sale of newspapers, namely, the corners in the downtown sections where
+thousands of pedestrians are daily passing, come under the control of
+individuals by virtue of long tenure or by purchase, and their title
+to these corners is not disputed largely on account of the support
+they receive from the circulation managers of the newspapers. In
+former years the proprietorship of the corner was settled by a fight,
+but now it undergoes change of ownership by the formal transfer of
+location, fixtures and goodwill in accordance with the most approved
+legal practice.
+
+In Chicago a system of routes has been established by the newspapers
+which send wagons out with the different editions published each day
+to supply the men who control the delivery and sale of newspapers in
+the various districts. These route men employ boys to deliver for them
+to regular customers and also to sell on street corners on a
+commission basis. In Boston, ex-newsboys known as "Canada Points" are
+employed by the publishers at a fixed salary to distribute the
+editions by wholesale among the twenty odd places in the city from
+which the street sellers are supplied.
+
+
+               _Ages, Earnings and Character of the Work_
+
+The following individual cases will serve to illustrate the various
+forms this business takes. One nineteen-year-old boy paid $65 for his
+corner in Cincinnati about five years ago; he now earns from $4 to $5
+a day clear and would not sell the location for many times its cost.
+He works there from 11 A.M. to 6.30 P.M. on week days, starting an
+hour earlier on Saturdays, while on Sundays he delivers the morning
+newspapers over a route to regular customers. Two boys of about twelve
+years of age work for him, to one of whom he pays 25 cents a day and
+to the other 30 cents a day; their duties are to hawk the different
+editions and to dispose of as many copies as possible by hopping the
+street cars and offering the papers to pedestrians from 3.45 to 6.30
+P.M. daily on week days. If they do not hustle and make a large number
+of sales, they lose their job.
+
+A corner in another part of the city is "owned" by a thirteen-year-old
+boy who earns about 80 cents a day clear for himself in eight hours,
+and on Saturdays in nine hours. He has two boys working for him on
+commission, to whom he pays one cent for every four papers sold; they
+average about 15 cents a day apiece for three hours' work. When
+questioned, these commission boys admitted that they could make more
+money if working for themselves, but in that case would have to work
+until all the copies they had bought were sold, while on the
+commission plan they did not have to shoulder so much responsibility.
+
+Regulations made by the circulation managers of newspapers concerning
+the return of unsold copies greatly affect the newsboys' business.
+Naturally these regulations are made with an eye to extending the
+circulation. Corner boys are allowed to return only one copy out of
+every ten bought, being reimbursed by the office for its cost.
+Consequently they urge their newsboy employees and commission workers
+to put forth every effort to dispose of the supply purchased. The
+independent sellers are never permitted to return any unsold copies,
+except in the case of certain energetic boys who can be relied upon to
+work hard in any event. These are known as "hustlers," and owing to
+their having won the confidence of the circulation manager they are
+granted the special privilege of returning at cost all copies they
+have been unable to sell.
+
+In Boston, beginners are often on a commission basis; "in this way
+they secure the advice and protection of the more experienced while
+serving their apprenticeship. These _strikers_, as they are called,
+keep one cent for every four collected; few of them earn more than 25
+cents a day, while many of them earn less than 10."[43]
+
+An eleven-year-old Jewish boy who has been a newsboy for several years
+now controls a comparatively quiet corner in Cincinnati, where he nets
+from 40 to 50 cents a day, working about three hours. This boy's
+father and mother are both living.
+
+Submission to older persons is natural among children, and an
+interesting instance of tyranny over small boys by adults was found in
+the case of a newspaper employee who works inside the plant and
+employs several young boys to sell newspapers on the streets for him.
+These boys together earn about $1.30 when working about seven hours,
+but only half of this amount goes into their pockets, the other half
+being paid to their "employer." In New York City certain busy sections
+having points of strategic value are under the control of men who
+employ small boys to do the real work for a mere pittance, usually the
+price of admission to a moving-picture show. However, under certain
+circumstances, these little fellows often display a sturdy spirit of
+independence. An amusing instance is innocently recorded by an old
+wartime report of a newsboys' home: "It had been decided to give the
+boys a free dinner on Sundays, on condition that they attend the
+Sunday School; but last Sunday they desired the Matron to say that
+they were able and willing to pay for the dinner."[44]
+
+Independent newsboys must not stand in the territory controlled by
+another; they must select some uncontrolled spot, or else run about
+hither and yon, selling where they can. Under the unwritten law of
+this business a boy who chances to sell in another's territory must
+give the corner boy the money and receive a newspaper in exchange;
+this results the same as if the corner boy himself had made the sale.
+The earnings of these independent boys range from 15 to 65 cents daily
+out of school hours, while on Saturdays they make from $1 to $1.50
+working from 11 A.M. to 6.30 P.M.
+
+An eleven-year-old lad who has been a newsboy for three years, selling
+on his own account, disposes of most of his copies in saloons located
+in the middle of a busy square, earning from 50 cents to $1.25 a day
+even when attending school. His mother and father are both living.
+Another example of this class is a sixteen-year-old boy who devotes
+all his time to the trade, his net income averaging about $7.50 per
+week. His attitude toward regular work is both interesting and
+significant; he hopes to get a better job, but says that although he
+has hunted for one, so little is offered for what he can do ($2 to $3
+per week) that it would hardly suffice for spending money. Discussing
+this difference between factory wages and street-trading profits, an
+English report says: "Working from 11 A.M. to 7 or 8 P.M., with
+intervals for gambling, newsboys over 14 years old can make from
+10_s._ to 14_s._ a week if they have an ordinary share of alertness.
+In a factory or foundry, working from 6 A.M. to 6 P.M., a boy earns
+about 13_s._ a week. The comparison needs no comment. The excitement
+of their career tends to make them more and more reluctant to work
+steadily.... Many newsboys protest that they want more permanent work,
+but they rarely keep it when it is found for them."[45] The life of
+the streets lacks the discipline involved in steady work and fixed
+earnings.
+
+As an example of the route boy there is a fourteen-year-old lad in
+Cincinnati who has a list of fifty customers to whom he delivers
+newspapers regularly, earning in this way 25 cents daily, delivering
+after school hours. He declares that he finds it much easier to work
+on a route than to sell on the corners or at random.
+
+The morning papers employ a man as circulation manager for the
+residence districts who controls all the corners in those sections.
+When a corner becomes vacant, he assigns a youth to it. These older
+boys are not to sell their corners nor to dispose of them in any way,
+nor are they allowed to have any one working for them; they must "hop"
+all the street cars passing their corners and are expected to put
+forth every effort to accomplish a great number of sales. They get
+their supply of copies at the branch office at 5 A.M., hurrying then
+to their corners, where they remain until nearly noon, averaging in
+this time from $2 to $3 per day clear. Nearly all of the afternoon
+papers sold in the residence districts are delivered by route boys;
+after having gone over their routes, some of these boys go to the
+busier localities and sell the sporting extra during the baseball
+season until about seven o'clock.
+
+
+                             _Environment_
+
+Strong emphasis was laid upon the evils of street trading by the New
+York Child Welfare Exhibit of 1911, the Committee on Work and Wages
+declaring that "The ordinary newsboy is surrounded by influences that
+are extremely bad, because (1) of the desultory nature of his work;
+(2) of the character of street life; and (3) of the lack of
+discipline or restraint in this work. The occupation is characterized
+by 'rush hours,' during which the boy will work himself into
+exhaustion trying to keep pace with his trade, and long hours in which
+there is little or nothing to do, during which the boy has unlimited
+opportunities to make such use of the street freedom as he sees fit.
+During these light hours newsboys congregate in the streets and commit
+many acts of vandalism. They learn all forms of petty theft and
+usually are accomplished in most of the vices of the street. In
+building up their routes, the boys often include places of the most
+degrading and detrimental character. On the economic side, the loss is
+due to failure of the occupation to furnish any training for
+industrial careers."[46]
+
+The irregularity of newsboys' meals and the questionable character of
+their food form one of the worst features of street work and are a
+real menace to health. Many newsboys are in the habit of eating
+hurriedly at lunch counters at intervals during the day and night,
+while some snatch free lunches in saloons. In New York City their
+diet has been found to consist chiefly of "such hostile ingredients as
+frankfürters, mince pies, doughnuts, ham sandwiches, cakes and
+'sinkers'."[47] The use of stimulants is common, and the demand for
+them is to be expected because of the nervous strain of the work.
+Liquor is not consumed to any appreciable extent by street-trading
+children, but coffee is a favorite beverage. In the largest cities,
+where "night gangs" are found, from four to six bowls of coffee are
+usually taken every evening. Tobacco is used in great quantities and
+in all its forms; many boys even appease their hunger for the time by
+smoking cigarettes, and the smallest "newsies" are addicted to the
+habit. Evidence that this is not a recent development among street
+workers is found in a report made nearly a quarter of a century ago,
+which, with reference to newsboys, says "many of them soon spend their
+gains in pool rooms, low places of amusement and for the poisonous
+cigarette."[48]
+
+An English report on the street traders of Manchester says:
+"Drunkenness is rare among these boys ... they are in many ways
+attractive; but the closer our acquaintance grows with them the more
+overwhelming does this propensity to gambling appear. Indeed, it may
+reasonably be said that the whole career of the street trader is one
+long game of chance.... They tend to become more and more unwilling to
+work hard; they are the creatures of accident and lose the power of
+foresight; they never form habits of thrift; and their word can be
+taken only by those who have learnt how to interpret it."[49]
+
+There are tricks in newspaper selling as well as in other trades, and
+children are not slow to learn them. A careful observer cannot fail to
+note that certain newsboys seem always to be without change. Their
+patrons are generally in a hurry and willingly sacrifice the change
+from a nickel, even priding themselves on their unselfishness in thus
+helping to relieve the supposed poverty of the newsboys. As a matter
+of fact, such an act does real harm, for it arouses the cupidity of
+boys and leads them to believe that honesty is not the best policy.
+The temptation for newsboys to develop into "short change artists" is
+an ever present one, for the bustle of the street creates a most
+favorable condition for the practice of such frauds. Yet in spite of
+the many temptations which assail them, numbers of newsboys are
+scrupulously exact in the matter of making change, even under the most
+trying circumstances. Another common form of deceit, used to play upon
+the sympathy of passers-by, is practiced after nightfall by boys of
+all ages in offering a solitary newspaper for sale and crying in
+plaintive tone, "Please, mister, buy my last paper?" A kind-hearted
+person readily falls a victim to this ruse, and as soon as he has
+passed by, the newsboy draws another copy from his hidden supply and
+repeats his importuning. Commenting on these features of street
+trading, Dr. Charles P. Neill, United States Commissioner of Labor,
+has said: "Unless the child is cast in the mold of heroic virtue, the
+newsboy trade is a training in either knavery or mendicancy. Nowhere
+else are the wits so sharpened to look for the unfair advantage,
+nowhere else is the unfortunate lesson so early learned that
+dishonesty and trickery are more profitable than honesty, and that
+sympathy coins more pennies than does industry."[50]
+
+
+                                _Hours_
+
+Work at unseasonable hours is most disastrous in its effects upon
+growing children, and the newspaper trade is one that engages the
+labor of boys in our larger cities at all hours of the night. This
+fact is not generally known. A prominent social worker recently said:
+"I was astounded to find the other day that my newspaper comes to me
+in Chicago every morning because two little boys, one twelve and the
+other thirteen, get it at half-past two at night. These little boys,
+who go to school, carry papers around so that we get them in the
+morning at four o'clock all the year around. They are working for a
+man with whom we contract for our newspapers. I was quite shocked in
+St. Louis twice this fall (1908) to find a girl five or six years of
+age selling newspapers near the railroad station in the worst part of
+town after dark. We hear a great deal of sentimental talk about
+newsboys' societies doing so much for newsboys, but they do not seem
+to care anything for work of this kind."[51] In passing it may be
+remarked that in the city of Toledo there is an active association
+organized for the benefit of newsboys, which openly encourages street
+work by boys of from eight to seventeen years. The manager insists
+that such work affords the means of alleviating the poverty in the
+families of these boys, but upon inquiry it was found that he had
+never heard of the provision for the financial relief of such cases of
+child labor, which is made by the Ohio law, and which had been, at the
+time, most successfully administered for three years by the Board of
+Education of his own city.
+
+The Chicago newspapers have their Sunday editions distributed on
+Saturday night, consequently the newsboys are up all night so as to
+assure prompt service to patrons. In the absence of public opinion in
+the matter, this abuse flourishes unrestricted, and the children's
+health is sacrificed to meet the demand for news. Agents of the
+Chicago Vice Commission reported having seen boys from ten to fifteen
+years of age selling morning papers at midnight Saturday in the evil
+districts of the city.[52]
+
+The early rising of newsboys to deliver the morning week-day editions
+also contributes to the breaking down of their health. The old adage
+is a mockery in their case. There is abundant testimony relative to
+the evil effects of such untimely work. "Children who go to school and
+sell papers get up so early in the morning that they are so stupid
+during the day they cannot do anything. That was clearly demonstrated
+to me during my experience in teaching school."[53]
+
+Another teacher said: "I have had instances in school where children
+have gone to sleep over their tasks because they got up at two or
+three o'clock in the morning to put out city lights and to sell
+papers. In those instances we wanted the parents to take the children
+away from their work. Where they would not do it, we prosecuted them
+for contributing to the delinquency of their children."[54]
+
+The delivery of newspapers by young boys in the strictly residence
+sections of cities appears to be unobjectionable, yet even this simple
+work should be under restriction as to hours, because otherwise the
+boys would continue to rise at unseemly hours of the night in order to
+reach the branch offices in time to get the newspapers fresh from the
+press. In fact, every phase of street work should be under control.
+Dr. Harold E. Jones, medical inspector of schools to the Essex County
+Council, has testified that among the most injurious forms of labor
+performed by boys is the early morning delivery of newspapers and
+milk.[55] In his Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, Mr. C.
+W. A. Veditz states, "Delivering milk before school in the morning
+must be condemned, because it fatigues the children so that they
+become, to say the least, intellectually less receptive."[56]
+
+In his article on "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia,"[57] Mr.
+Scott Nearing gives a graphic account of conditions in the City of
+Brotherly Love. Although this description was written some years ago,
+local social workers find that the same conditions still obtain, as
+there is neither law nor ordinance to bring about a change. In this
+city the closing of the theaters at eleven o'clock marks the beginning
+of Saturday night's work. The last editions of the evening newspapers
+are offered at this time, often as a cloak for begging. After the
+theater, the restaurant patrons are available as customers until
+midnight. Then the morning papers begin to come from the press, and
+the newsboys abandon their begging and gambling and rush to the
+offices for their supplies. A load of forty pounds is often carried by
+the smallest newsboys, hurrying along the streets in the early morning
+hours. The cream of the business is done at this time, for most of the
+purchasers are more or less intoxicated and therefore inclined to be
+generous with tips and indifferent as to change; sometimes a newsboy
+takes in as much money on Saturday night and Sunday morning as during
+the entire remainder of the week. In relating his experiences, Mr.
+Nearing says, "On one night we saw fifteen boys in a group just as the
+policeman was chasing them out of Chinatown at half-past three Sunday
+morning; the youngest boy was clearly not over ten and the oldest was
+barely sixteen." At this hour the officers of the law interfere and
+quell the revels of the district. The open gratings in sidewalks
+through which warm air comes from basements, are then sought, and here
+the boys pass the time dozing until dawn, when they go abroad again to
+cry the Sunday papers.
+
+
+                       _Home Conditions--Poverty_
+
+One of the reasons why the public is so indulgent toward the street
+worker is that it takes for granted that the child is making a manly
+effort to support a widowed mother and several starving little
+brothers and sisters. Mrs. Florence Kelley calls this "perverted
+reasoning" and scores the public which "unhesitatingly places the
+burden of the decrepit adult's maintenance upon the slender shoulders
+of the child."[58] Poverty has been made an excuse for child labor
+from time immemorial by those who profit by the system. Newspapers are
+not an exception to the rule; the newsboys extend their circulation
+and incidentally give them free advertising in the streets--hence they
+see nothing but good in the newsboys' work and fight lustily to defend
+what they claim to be the mainstay of the widows. That this popular
+impression and appealing argument are false and without justification
+has been shown by students of the problem everywhere. The following
+table gives the family condition of Cincinnati newsboys:--
+
+  Both parents dead          12
+  Father dead               239
+  Mother dead                69
+  Both parents living      1432
+                           ----
+    Total                  1752
+
+Through a special inquiry it was found that in only 363 cases out of
+this total were the earnings of the children really needed. These 1752
+children, ten to thirteen years of age, were licensed from July to
+December, 1909; their distribution as to age was as follows:--
+
+  10 years      303
+  11 years      348
+  12 years      564
+  13 years      537
+               ----
+    Total      1752
+
+Upon investigation of the home conditions of several hundred newsboys
+in New York City it was declared that "in the majority of cases
+parents are not dependent on the boys' earnings. The poverty
+plea--that boys must sell papers to help widowed mothers or disabled
+fathers--is, for the most part, gross exaggeration."[59]
+
+Concerning a study of Chicago newsboys, Myron E. Adams says, "A
+careful investigation of the records of the Charity Organization
+Society shows that of the 1000 newsboys investigated, the names of but
+sixteen families are found, and of these ... only four received direct
+help, such as coal, clothing or food."[60]
+
+Mr. Scott Nearing says: "In many cases the boys want to go on the
+streets in order to have the pocket money which this life affords, and
+the ignorant or indifferent parents make no objections, but take the
+street life as a matter of course. Sometimes, though not nearly as
+often as is generally supposed, there is real need for the
+selling."[61]
+
+The British interdepartmental committee appointed in 1901 to inquire
+into the employment of school children, denounced the tolerance of
+street trading on the ground of necessity: "We think that in framing
+regulations with regard to child labour and school attendance ... the
+poverty of the child or its parents ought not to be made a test of the
+right to labour.... We do not think it is needed; we think that all
+children should have liberty to work as much and in such ways as is
+good for them and no more."[62]
+
+Another argument in favor of street trading advanced by those who are
+interested in maintaining present conditions, is that it affords a
+splendid training for a business career because of the competition
+that rages among the boys. This is doubtless true, as far as it goes,
+but the great difficulty is that street trading leads nowhere. It is a
+blind alley that sooner or later leaves its followers helpless against
+the solid wall of skilled labor's competition. An occupation that fits
+a boy for _nothing_ and is devoid of _prospects_, is a curse rather
+than a blessing in this day of specialization. In spite of the
+division of labor so elaborately realized to-day, a boy or girl who
+enters any of the regular industries has at least a fighting chance
+for acquiring a trade. If the child is honest, capable and diligent he
+will be promoted to a better position in time if misfortune does not
+overtake him. The trapper boy in a coal mine is in a fair way to
+become a miner. The lad who works in a machine shop has the
+opportunity to make a machinist of himself. The girl who begins as a
+wrapper in a dry goods shop may become a saleswoman, and then possibly
+a buyer for her department. Yet in most states children may not enter
+upon such work until they have reached the age of fourteen years,
+while some states prohibit boys under sixteen years from being
+employed in mines or in connection with dangerous machinery either in
+machine shops or elsewhere. Bitter experience has taught us that these
+restrictions are right and just, and we now have no hesitancy in
+barring young children from such employment, regardless of the
+training it affords. Why, then, do we exempt many forms of street work
+from the operation of the law? Why do we allow little children to
+work at any age, both night and day, as newsboys, bootblacks and
+peddlers in the essentially dangerous environment of the street? Such
+employment offers but a gloomy future--the useless life of the casual
+worker. There is no better position to which it leads, no chance for
+the discovery and development of ability, no reward for good service.
+It seems incredible that we have been so engrossed with throwing
+safeguards about the children in regular industries that we have
+altogether neglected the street worker, for the arguments against
+child labor in factories, mills, mines and retail shops apply with
+even greater force to the work of children in our city streets.
+
+
+                          _Better Substitutes_
+
+There is no reason why newsboys should not be replaced as the medium
+for the sale and delivery of newspapers by old men, cripples, the
+tuberculous and those otherwise incapacitated for regular work. In
+London, the _Westminster Gazette_, the _Pall Mall Gazette_, the
+_Evening Standard_ and the _Globe_ (all penny papers) are sold in the
+streets by old men; the _Westminster Gazette_ pays them a wage of
+1_s._ for selling eighteen copies and after having disposed of this
+number they are given a commission of 8_d._ a quire of twenty-six
+copies, a few men selling from six to eight quires a day. This
+newspaper has followed this method for many years, and its general
+manager declares that it is the most satisfactory system that they
+have been able to evolve. Boys have no sense of responsibility, while
+old men cling to their posts very faithfully. He admitted that the
+_Westminster Gazette_ employed some boys as carriers and that the
+whole subject lay somewhat heavily on his conscience because,
+"practically speaking, these boys have no future ... a few of them may
+become cyclists carrying the newspapers ... in a few years their
+usefulness as cyclists has gone ... then they simply drift away, we
+don't know where, but we do know that they drift to places like
+Salvation Army Shelters, etc. How they earn their living is always one
+of the mysteries of London.... But they have learned nothing from us,
+nothing that gives them any usefulness for any other occupation....
+The great majority become casual labourers dependent entirely on
+casual work.... It is a life in which very little is gained, although
+one would suppose that the open air would be of great benefit. But
+one must remember the insufficient food that these street traders
+have, and the bad conditions of living and the irregular hours. Many
+of these boys, of course, are up all hours of the night.... It is
+quite as bad for a boy in the long run to be engaged as a carrier
+distributor as for him to sell newspapers in the street. There is no
+possible argument for the system except that one's competitors do it,
+and that so long as they do it we must do the same.... We get
+practically all our men from Salvation Army and Church Army Shelters.
+There is an abundant supply.... The ordinary man whom we employ is
+over fifty years of age and runs up to about seventy years.... I think
+if the police would give us every facility for introducing kiosks it
+would be a great improvement upon the present system. If boys were
+prohibited from selling newspapers altogether on the streets, it would
+automatically send the public to the kiosk; ... the public get into
+the habit of getting the newspapers from the boys."[63]
+
+It should be remembered in connection with the above statements that
+the _Westminster Gazette_ is a penny paper, and its manager was of
+opinion that the half-penny papers could not afford to employ men
+because they depended largely for their circulation upon the
+persistence of newsboys in thrusting copies upon the attention of
+people in the streets; he believed that the use of old men would
+curtail their circulation because men are not so active as boys. On
+the other hand, news agents protested against the competition of
+street traders and maintained that they alone were fully able to meet
+the demands of the public. The departmental committee of 1910
+reported: "There can, we think, be little doubt that an active child
+is an effective agent in promoting the circulation of half-penny
+papers, and that if the employment of children were forbidden,
+newspapers would have to rely upon facilities of a more staid and less
+mobile character. But we see no reason to think that purchasers of
+newspapers need be put to any inconvenience, since the news agents
+would be in a position considerably to extend their business, and it
+might reasonably be expected that the system of employing old men as
+salesmen would also be developed. It appears to us economically
+unjustifiable to use children to their own detriment for work which
+can be done by other means."[64]
+
+Referring to the great possibilities for good involved in confining
+the sale and delivery of newspapers to adults who need outdoor work
+and are unable to provide for themselves in other ways, the Secretary
+of the New York Child Labor Committee says: "Where such cities as
+Paris and Berlin do entirely without newsboys--corner stands taking
+their places--it would seem that the least that can be done in
+American cities is to adopt some adequate system of regulation. In
+this connection, the opportunity presented in newspaper selling to
+give work to the aged and handicapped--who otherwise would have to be
+supported by private charity--should not be overlooked."[65]
+
+
+                         _The Newsboys' Court_
+
+In an effort to control to some extent the tendency of newsboys to
+become delinquent and to imbue them with a sense of personal
+responsibility, an interesting experiment in juvenile suffrage and
+jurisprudence has been undertaken in Boston.
+
+During the year 1909, about three hundred newsboys were taken before
+the juvenile court of that city charged with violation of the local
+license rules. As the docket of this court was crowded, these newsboy
+cases were necessarily delayed, and as a result of this situation the
+boys conceived the idea of establishing a newsboys' court which should
+have jurisdiction in all cases of failure to observe the rules
+governing their trade. The following year a petition was presented to
+the Boston School Committee which was favorably acted upon by that
+body, and accordingly on the regular election day of that year the
+newsboys cast their ballots to select three juvenile judges of the
+court. These three boys, together with two adults appointed by the
+School Committee, compose the court. Election of these boy judges is
+held annually, and all licensed newsboys who attend the public schools
+are qualified electors. The court is empowered to investigate and
+report its findings with recommendations to the School Committee in
+all cases of infraction of the newsboy rules. Under the Massachusetts
+law the School Committee is authorized to regulate street trading by
+children under fourteen years of age, hence the newsboys are subject
+to purely local supervision. The supervisor of licensed minors, also
+an appointee of the School Committee, can, in his discretion, take
+complaints in his department before the newsboys' court instead of the
+juvenile court. The newsboy judges are paid fifty cents for their
+attendance at each official session of the court. The charges made
+before the Trial Board, as the Boston newsboys' court is called, range
+from selling without a badge or after eight o'clock in the evening or
+on street cars, to bad conduct, irregular school attendance, gambling
+or smoking. The disposition of these cases varies from reprimands and
+warnings to probation or suspension of license for a definite period,
+or complete revocation of license.[66]
+
+
+                               _Summary_
+
+Although the work of selling newspapers has been, to some extent,
+subdivided and systematized by circulation managers, it has so many
+features highly objectionable for children that a radical departure
+from present methods of handling this business should be taken. We
+know that the work of the newsboy lacks the oversight and discipline
+of adults, that it exposes the children to the varied physical dangers
+lurking in the streets, that the early and late hours cause fatigue,
+that the opportunities for bad companionship are frequent, that
+irregularity of meals and use of stimulants tend to weaken their
+constitutions, that it offers no chance for promotion and leads
+nowhere. We know further that the presence of the newsboy in our
+streets cannot be justified on the ground of poverty. It has been
+demonstrated in other countries that children are not essential to the
+sale and delivery of newspapers; in fact, it has been shown that
+selling at stands and the use of men instead of children in the
+streets are both feasible and satisfactory. Why cannot such practices
+be introduced into the United States? There can be but little doubt as
+to the advisability of this step, but the innovation will certainly
+not be made voluntarily by the newspapers. The law must force the
+issue by prohibiting street work by children.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+BOOTBLACKS, PEDDLERS AND MARKET CHILDREN
+
+
+                              _Bootblacks_
+
+The itinerant bootblack is gradually disappearing from our cities, but
+he is still found in Boston, Buffalo, New York City and a few other
+places. He is being supplanted by the worker at stands, which are
+conducted almost invariably by Greeks. As a result of this change the
+bootblacking business will soon cease to be a street occupation; it is
+discussed here because of the abuses it involves and because it is
+unregulated in many states, owing to its omission from the list of
+employments covered by child labor laws.
+
+
+                          _The Padrone System_
+
+The New York-New Jersey Committee of the North American Civic League
+for Immigrants reports that: "The condition of Greek boys and young
+men in such occupations as pushcart peddling, shoe-shining parlors and
+the flower trade is one of servitude and peonage. It has been found
+that many boys apparently from fourteen to eighteen years of age
+arrive here alone, stating that they are eighteen years old, but in
+reality less than this, and that they are going to relatives. They
+have been found working in the shoe-shining parlors seven days a week
+from 7 A.M. to 9 P.M. and living with the 'boss' in groups varying
+from five to twenty-five under unsanitary conditions, overcrowding and
+irregularity of meals wholly undesirable for young boys. They are
+isolated from learning English or from American contact, and receive
+for their work from $7 to $15 a month and board and lodging. The
+majority of the flower peddlers have been unable to obtain permits,
+with the result that the boys who work for them are arrested for
+violating the law. Boys who have been in the country from three months
+to a year state they have been arrested several times--their first
+experience in this country--and are already hardened so that they
+think nothing of paying fines."[67]
+
+The bootblack business is the chief industry to which the Greek
+padrone system is applied. The United States Immigration Commission
+found[68] that boys employed as bootblacks live in extremely
+unwholesome quarters. Wherever the room is large enough, several beds
+are gathered together with three and sometimes four boys sleeping in
+each bed. In some places the boys merely roll themselves up in
+blankets and sleep on the floor. The bootblacking stands are opened
+for business about 6 o'clock in the morning, consequently the boys are
+obliged to rise about an hour earlier, and wherever their sleeping
+quarters are located at considerable distance from the stands, they
+have to get up as early as 4.30. Arrived at the stands, they remain
+working until 9.30 or 10 at night in cities, and on Saturday and
+Sunday nights the closing hour is usually later. The boys eat their
+lunch in the rear of the establishment, this meal consisting generally
+of bread and olives or cheese. Supper is eaten after the boys reach
+"home," and after having eaten it they retire without removing their
+clothes. Even after their excessively long work day, two of the boys
+are required to wash the dirty rags used for polishing the shoes daily
+so they can be used the next day.
+
+These boys are compelled to work every day in the year without
+vacation. The Immigration Commission found that they are under
+constant espionage, as at every stand the padrone places relatives who
+both work for him and act as spies on the other boys. Their employer
+instructs them to make false statements to questions asked by
+outsiders relative to their ages or conditions of work; many padrones
+also censor the letters written by the boys to their parents or others
+and examine all incoming mail, so as to forestall any efforts made by
+outsiders to induce the boys to leave for other places.
+
+The majority of them cannot read or write their own language, and are
+unable to secure any education in this country because of their long
+work hours. According to the Immigration Commission their mental
+development is perceptibly arrested by the physical fatigue they
+suffer as a result of their long-sustained work without recreation.
+They receive no good advice, nor do they hear anything that would
+tend to elevate them morally. The Commission does not hesitate to
+brand these conditions as deplorable; it declares that the ravages on
+the constitutions of these boys laboring in shoe-shining
+establishments under this system are appalling. It attributes these
+effects to the following causes: long hours, close confinement to
+their work in poorly ventilated places, unsanitary living conditions,
+unhealthful manner of sleeping, excessive stooping required by their
+work, inadequate nourishment due to the "economy" of the padrones who
+furnish the food, the microbe-laden dust from shoes, the inhaling of
+injurious chemicals from the polish they use, the filthy condition of
+their bodies resulting from their failure to bathe and the lack of
+proper clothing for the winter season.
+
+The Greek Consul General at Chicago, himself a physician, in a letter
+to the Immigration Inspector of that city under date of November 16,
+1910, declared that as a result of his experience in examining and
+treating boy bootblacks he was convinced that all boys under eighteen
+years of age who labor for a few years in shoe-shining establishments,
+develop serious chronic stomachic and hepatic troubles which
+predispose them to pulmonary disease; he further declared that
+because of the conditions under which they work the majority of them
+ultimately contract tuberculosis, and that in his opinion it would be
+more humane and infinitely better for young Greeks to be denied
+admission into the United States than to be permitted to land if they
+are intended for such employment. Similar statements are made by other
+Greek physicians of Chicago.
+
+The importation of Greek boys for use as bootblacks in the United
+States started about 1895, when the Greeks began to secure their
+monopoly of the industry by taking it away from the Italians and the
+Negroes, confining it, however, to stands or booths. Most of the early
+padrones have become financially independent. Their success attracted
+other Greeks to this industry, and in a short time almost every
+American city with a population of more than 10,000 had bootblack
+stands operated by them. Thus the traffic in Greek boys began to
+flourish.
+
+The Bureau of Immigration helped to have a number of padrones indicted
+and convicted for offenses against the conspiracy statute and the
+Immigration Act, and these prosecutions made the importers very
+careful as to their manner of procedure. They now bring the boys here
+through the instrumentality of relatives in Greece in such a way that
+the padrones are almost beyond the reach of our criminal statutes.
+
+In some cases it has been found that on leaving Greece for this
+country the boys are told to report to a saloon keeper in Chicago or
+in some other western city, hence they do not know their final
+destination. The saloon keeper has his instructions from the padrones
+and acts as their distributing agent. Padrones who operate in places
+distant from ports of entry easily avoid detection in this way.
+
+In most cases these padrones derive an income from each boy of from
+$100 to as high as $500 a year. The Commission explains this as
+follows: The wages paid by the padrones now to Greek boys in
+shoe-shining establishments range from $80 to $250 per year, the
+average wages being from $120 to $180 per year. The boys are bound by
+agreement to turn their tips over to their padrones: in most cases as
+soon as the tipping patron has departed the boy deposits his tip in
+the register, while in other places tips are put into a separate box
+to which the padrone holds the key. In smaller cities and even in the
+poorest locations each boy's tips may exceed the sum of 50 cents per
+day, while in large cities they average higher. The Greek padrone,
+therefore, receives in return from tips alone nearly double the amount
+of wages paid. By deducting the wages and the annual boarding expenses
+for each boy--an expenditure seldom exceeding the sum of $40 per
+year--there is still a sum left to the padrone to pay him for the
+privilege of allowing the boy to work in his place. In other words,
+from the total amount of tips--money that belongs to the boy by
+right--the padrone is enabled to pay the boy's annual wages and still
+have a respectable sum left, all this independently of the legitimate
+profits of his business.
+
+Relatives of the padrones in Greece often pay the steamship passage of
+boys with the understanding that they are to go to the United States
+and serve the padrone for one year to reimburse him for the passage
+money advanced. A mortgage is placed on the property of the boys'
+father as security, purporting that the father is to receive in cash
+an amount equal to the wages commonly paid to Greek bootblacks for
+one year in the United States, but as a matter of fact a steamship
+ticket and $12 or $15 in money are all that is given. The cash is to
+serve as "show money" to help secure admission to this country past
+the immigration officers at the ports of entry. Advertising is
+systematically carried on throughout all the provinces of Greece with
+a view to exciting the interest of the parents so that they will send
+their boys to the United States, and no efforts are spared in letting
+it become known that there is a great demand here for boy labor at the
+bootblack stands. The padrones themselves even go to Greece every two
+or three years, and while there manage to become godfathers to the
+children of many families; this relationship gives them great
+influence, and through it they are able to secure many boys for their
+service.
+
+Concerning the prevention of these abuses, the report says: "In the
+investigations conducted by the Bureau of Immigration many conferences
+were held with United States attorneys in various jurisdictions with
+the view of instituting proceedings against padrones, if possible,
+under the peonage statutes. The attorneys generally agreed that under
+the evidence submitted to them those laboring in shoe-shining
+establishments are peons, but as the elements of indebtedness and
+physical compulsion to work out the indebtedness are missing, peonage
+laws cannot apply.
+
+"Our immigration laws as now on the statute books provide specifically
+for the exclusion of boys under sixteen years of age only when not
+accompanied by one or both of their parents. This provision cannot
+apply to those boys that come in company with their parents, nor to
+those who have their parents in the United States, nor to such as
+successfully deceive immigration officers by posing as the sons of
+immigrants in whose charge they come. If held for special inspection
+at the ports of entry, these aliens can only be excluded if it appears
+that they are destined to an occupation unsuited to their tender
+years. In the absence of any such evidence, the boards of inquiry
+generally admit. Once landed, it becomes a hard matter to trace them
+and almost impossible to secure evidence in the majority of cases, for
+the boys understand that they will be punished by deportation. This
+knowledge makes them persistent in withholding any information as to
+the manner of their entry into the United States."[69]
+
+Quite recently a young Greek bootblack who was working at a stand in
+an Indianapolis office building confessed to a truant officer that he
+was twelve years old, whereupon the chief truant officer of the city
+went to the place, but on his arrival the boy had changed his mind and
+declared that he was fourteen years old, and every one connected with
+the stand supported the statement. Nevertheless the chief truant
+officer proceeded with the case and found that the boy had been in
+this country only about six months, his parents being still in Greece.
+An older brother had a position as a railroad porter but did not stay
+with the little fellow even on the few occasions he was in the city.
+The boy lived at the home of the proprietor of the stand, whose
+relationship to him was a combination of employer and guardian. This
+man operated four stands in the city, and his dozen or more other
+employees all lived at the same place. The chief truant officer
+charged the man with having worked the boy from 7 A.M. to 9 P.M.
+seven days in the week, which was admitted before the Juvenile Court
+by the defendant, who also volunteered the information that the boy
+worked until 11 P.M. on holidays and on Saturdays. Of course the boy
+was being kept out of school.
+
+In its issue of August 12, 1911, the _Survey_ published a letter from
+a correspondent concerning a case of peonage among bootblacks in the
+city of Rochester, N.Y. This particular case was of a pale, thin,
+under-sized Greek lad who worked at a large stand in a local office
+building. He explained that he worked every day in the week from 7
+A.M. to 9 P.M., including Sundays, and that on Saturdays the hours
+were lengthened to 11 P.M., adding that he had not been absent from
+his stand one day in four years except at one time when he was sick in
+the hospital.
+
+A letter which was written by a Greek in Syracuse, N.Y., on May 4,
+1911, to the editor of the Syracuse _Post-Standard_ was printed in the
+same magazine.[70] This letter recites the wrongs of the bootblacks
+and is reproduced below because of its value as one of the rare
+protests which come from the victims of the system:--
+
+"Before I came to this country from Greece, I heard that this country
+is free, but I don't think so. It is free for the Americans, not for
+the shoe shiners. In this city are too many shoe shiners' stands, and
+the boys which work there--they work fifteen hours a day, and Sunday,
+and almost eighteen on Saturdays. They make only from $12 to $18 a
+month and board, but we don't have any good board neither, but our
+patrons give us bread, tea and a piece of cheese for dinner, supper,
+but no breakfast. We don't have any time to go to the church, not in
+school, and without them we won't be good citizens. They won't let us
+read newspapers, because they are afraid if we learn something we will
+quit, but we can't quit because we can't speak English, and we can't
+find another job. Now I don't mean the boys working in the barber
+shops. They make $10 to $18 a week, and they don't work as hard as we
+do. We wish to work as they do. We want the public and Mr. Mayor to
+cut the hours from fifteen to ten, not Sundays, because we want time
+for school, and weekly work, not monthly. I think I wrote enough."
+
+
+                     _Peddlers and Market Children_
+
+The licensed peddlers of Boston are under orders not to engage little
+children to sell for them with or without compensation. "These
+peddlers have hitherto crowded the markets of this city by inviting
+children to help them in the business, frequently for no other
+compensation than the offal of their pushcarts or stands."[71]
+
+The peddling of chewing gum is a common form of street occupation for
+children. In reality it is merely begging in disguise. The Chicago
+Vice Commission reports that its agents found boys under fourteen
+years of age selling gum late at night in the segregated districts of
+the city. At intervals of from two to three hours their investigators
+returned to the same neighborhood and found these little children
+still engaged in this very questionable form of work. One agent
+reported having seen two little girls of about eleven years in the
+company of a small boy of about eight years selling chewing gum in
+front of a saloon in the vice district between nine and ten o'clock at
+night.[72]
+
+The following table gives the sex, age, nationality, standing in
+school, orphanage and occupation of seventeen children found by one
+person in a single trip through the markets of Cincinnati:--
+
+  ====+=====+====+=====+===========+==========+==========+==============
+      |     |    |     |           |  FATHER  | MOTHER   |
+      |     |    |     |           |  LIVING  | LIVING   |
+      |     |    |     |           +-----+----+-----+----+--------------
+  BOYS|GIRLS|AGE |GRADE|NATIONALITY| YES | NO | YES | NO | SELLING
+  ----+-----+----+-----+-----------+-----+----+-----+----+--------------
+   1  |     |  9 | 2d  |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | baskets
+   1  |     | 10 | 4th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | fruit
+   1  |     | 10 | 3d  |  German   |     |  1 |  1  |    | vegetables
+   1  |     | 10 | 2d  |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | fruit
+      |  1  | 10 | 4th |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | fruit
+      |  1  | 10 | 3d  |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | baskets
+   1  |     | 11 | 4th |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | fruit
+   1  |     | 11 | 3d  |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | baskets
+      |  1  | 11 | 6th |  German   |  1  |    |     | 1  | vegetables
+   1  |     | 12 | 4th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | vegetables
+   1  |     | 12 | 3d  |  American |  1  |    |     | 1  | baskets
+   1  |     | 12 | 4th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | sassafras
+   1  |     | 12 | 6th |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | fruit
+   1  |     | 13 | 5th |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | baskets
+   1  |     | 14 | 3d  |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | sassafras
+   1  |     | 14 | 8th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | vegetables
+      |  1  | 14 | 4th |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | fruit
+  ====+=====+====+=====+===========+=====+====+=====+====+==============
+
+Of these seventeen children nine were Italians, six were Americans,
+two were Germans. Five of the children, all of whom except one were
+Italian, were engaged in selling baskets to the passers-by in markets.
+Six of the children, all of whom except one were Italian, were selling
+fruit. Six of the children were selling vegetables and herbs, all of
+them being Americans and Germans. The occupational characteristics of
+these different peoples are shown by their children, the Italians
+predominating in the sale of fruit, the Germans in the sale of the
+products of their market gardens, the Americans, all of whom were
+boys, in the sale of the herbs they had gathered or the vegetables
+cultivated on their home farms.
+
+Of these seventeen children nine were in their normal grades at
+school, while eight were backward and none ahead of their proper
+grades. This large percentage of retardation is due principally to the
+lack of time for preparation of school lessons on the part of these
+children, as much of their afternoons and evenings is taken up either
+with the work of selling in the markets or with the work of assisting
+with the garden duties at home. Of the eight backward children, four
+were Italians and four were Americans. One of the backward Italian
+girls was fourteen years of age and had left school three weeks prior
+to the inquiry; she was the oldest of six children; her father was
+dead, and she was working for her mother in their fruit store selling
+the fruit from early morning until midnight every day in the week
+except Sunday. As she was the oldest child in the family, it is of
+course easily seen that her retardation in school was largely due to
+her having been kept at work in the shop during the afternoons and
+evenings while she was still attending school. An American boy, who,
+although twelve years of age, was only in the third grade at school,
+was employed by his parents to sell baskets in the market, in spite of
+the fact that his father had a store and was fully able to support the
+child properly. This boy was found, as were many other such children,
+selling baskets in the market at eleven o'clock at night after having
+been there since early in the morning. A thirteen-year-old Italian boy
+was only in the fifth grade; he was selling baskets in one market in
+the morning and in another market during the afternoon and evening;
+both of his parents were living, and his father had a "city job."
+There were six children in the family, two of whom were older and
+employed. The entire family of eight persons occupied two rooms.
+
+It is noteworthy that the fathers of twelve of the children were
+living, only five being dead; while the mothers of fifteen were
+living, only two being dead. Not a single child was a full orphan. In
+the great majority of cases it was not necessary for these children to
+work so prematurely.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+MESSENGERS, ERRAND AND DELIVERY CHILDREN
+
+
+Accustomed to seeing messenger boys engaged during the day in the
+unobjectionable task of delivering telegrams to residences and
+business offices, one is likely to regard this service as an
+occupation quite suitable for children and to give it no further
+thought. However, the character of the work done by the messenger boy
+changes radically after nine or ten o'clock at night. At that hour
+most legitimate business has ceased, and the evil phases of city life
+begin to manifest themselves. From that time on until nearly dawn the
+messenger's work is largely in connection with the vicious features of
+city life. The ignorance of the general public as to the evil
+influences surrounding the night messenger service is strikingly
+illustrated by what one Indiana boy told an investigator; he declared
+that if his father knew what kind of work he was doing, a strap would
+be laid across his back and he would be compelled to abandon it. But
+the father did not know; he thought his boy was simply delivering
+telegrams.
+
+The delivery of telegrams forms but a small part of the boy's work at
+night, because few messages are dispatched after business hours.
+Instead, calls are sent to the office for messengers to go on errands.
+The boys wait upon the characters of the underworld and perform a
+surprising variety of simple tasks; they carry notes to and from the
+inmates of houses of prostitution and their patrons, take lunches,
+chop suey and chile con carne to bawdyhouse women, procure liquor
+after the closing hour, purchase opium, cocaine and other drugs, go to
+drug stores for prostitutes to get medicines and articles used in
+their trade, and perform other tasks that oblige them to cultivate
+their acquaintance with the worst side of human nature. One instance
+was found in which the boy was required to clean up the room of a
+prostitute and to make her bed. The uniform or cap of the messenger
+boy is a badge of secrecy and enables him to get liquor at illegal
+hours or to procure opium and other drugs where plain citizens would
+be refused; hence these boys are thrown into associations of the
+lowest kind, night after night, and come to regard these evil
+conditions as normal phases of life. Usually the brightest boys on the
+night force become the favorites of the prostitutes; the women take a
+fancy to particular boys because of their personal attractiveness and
+show them many favors, so that the most promising boys in this work
+are the ones most liable to suffer complete moral degradation.
+
+Messenger service not only gives boys the opportunity to learn what
+life is at night in "tenderloin" districts, but the character of the
+work actually _forces_ them into contact with the vilest conditions
+and subjects them to the fearful influences always exerted by such
+associations. Some believe that this evil could be prevented by
+forbidding the office to allow messenger boys to go on such errands,
+but this is not practicable for two reasons: first, because an
+essential feature of the messenger service is secrecy--the office does
+not inquire into the nature of the errand to be performed, and even if
+it did so, a false statement could easily be made by the patron over
+the telephone; and second, it would be necessary to send a detective
+along with the boy on each trip to see that he observed the rules.
+Boys are eager to run errands for prostitutes for various reasons, one
+being the extra income assured, as these women give tips with liberal
+hand.
+
+Like other street occupations, the messenger service is a blind alley;
+it leads nowhere. A very few boys are promoted to the position of
+check boy in the telegraph office, and fewer still have an opportunity
+to learn telegraphy. Some of the boys become cab drivers because they
+have familiarized themselves with the city streets; others become
+saloon keepers because they have become well acquainted with this
+method of making a livelihood; some are attracted by the life of
+"ease" which opens before them and enter into agreement with
+prostitutes, upon whose earnings they subsist; others have the courage
+to get away from these influences and secure work as office boys or in
+some other line entirely different from the messenger service.
+
+A considerable number of the inmates of state reform schools were
+formerly messenger boys, indicating that this service is one of the
+roads to delinquency. As the immoral influences surrounding this work
+are especially active among youths, the age limit for such employment
+at night should be made high enough to prevent their being so exposed.
+New York State was first to declare that if this work is to be done at
+night it must be done by men, and has fixed the age limit at
+twenty-one years. The late Judge Stubbs, of the Indianapolis Juvenile
+Court, speaking before the Conference of Juvenile Court Officers held
+in that city in November, 1910, said that messenger boys, and newsboys
+who sell papers in the downtown streets, were the boys most frequently
+charged with delinquency before his court, and declared that
+twenty-one years was low enough as an age limit for night messenger
+service.
+
+Other temptations assail the messenger boy in his work, and are
+frequently yielded to. The old practice of raising the amount of
+charges on the envelope of a telegram is notorious and is still an
+ever present problem to the companies. When a boy has been detected in
+this petty crime and is questioned about it, he too often adds to the
+one misdeed the other equally grievous one of lying, whereupon his
+dismissal usually follows.
+
+Under the direction of the writer an investigation of the night
+messenger service was made in 1910 in Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana, the
+following cases being typical of the conditions found in all cities.
+In one of the larger towns of Indiana, a fourteen-year-old messenger
+boy was interviewed one night by an agent of the National Child Labor
+Committee who had called up the telegraph office by telephone
+requesting that a messenger be sent to him. Early in the course of
+conversation, of his own volition, the boy referred to houses of
+prostitution. Upon being asked what he knew about such places, he
+replied: "Too much--I am there half the night. You see they call for
+messengers to run errands for them. Sometimes I get them drinks,
+opium, medicines from drug stores or anything they want. No matter
+what they ask us to do--it's our business to go ahead and do it." The
+boy led the agent to a disreputable negro district and described his
+activities in this region. "No night passes without my making a dollar
+down here," said he. "The niggers are great smokers of opium, and I
+get it for them; they give me a little jar, and I have it filled up
+for them. It costs them $1.50, and I usually get the change from $2."
+The agent feigned doubt so as to elicit more information, whereupon
+the boy offered to get some opium if he were given a tip. The agent
+gave the boy one dollar and told him he might keep the change; in ten
+minutes he returned with a card of opium which was subsequently
+analyzed in a laboratory and found to be the kind ordinarily prepared
+for smoking purposes. This experience was repeated again and again by
+agents of the National Child Labor Committee in different cities and
+proved beyond the shadow of a doubt that these young boys are forced
+into familiarity with the most degrading conditions.
+
+Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in the same town told the
+agent that there were but few business calls at night, and that nearly
+all of their work was in connection with houses of prostitution. This
+boy spoke of the money he received in tips from inmates and patrons of
+these houses, of his receiving liquor and cigarettes from them, and
+remarked, "I do not have to do this work, but I like it; this job is
+too good to give up; I'm learning a lot of things." This little fellow
+described some extremely revolting scenes of which he had been
+witness in these houses, and upon being asked whether his manager was
+aware of the kind of places he was called to, he replied, "Sure he
+does, for he gets the message over the telephone, then he calls one of
+the boys and sends him to the house."
+
+Another messenger in the same city, who was seventeen years old and
+had been in this service for four years, working daily until half past
+two in the morning, said, in talking about the use of drugs by
+prostitutes, "When they are so full of dope that they don't know what
+to do, they call up for a messenger, and sometimes I have had them
+send me out to a drug store for paris green; they want to kill
+themselves, they are crazy with opium; of course I take their money
+and never show up again." This boy also bought a small package of
+opium for the agent. He declared that he knew every house of
+prostitution in the city and was well acquainted with their
+proprietresses. To prove this, he wrote out a list of fourteen such
+places, putting down the streets and numbers at once from memory.
+These were subsequently referred to persons familiar with the city and
+verified.
+
+It is very distressing to read the testimony of a fourteen-year-old
+messenger boy of another city who had been thrown by his work so much
+in contact with evil conditions that he had come to regard these as
+normal. Although only fourteen years of age, he had lost all faith in
+womankind. In walking through the segregated district with the agent,
+this boy called out in advance the number of each house of
+prostitution, thus showing his familiarity with the whole region. In
+his childish, schoolboy hand, he wrote on a slip of paper a list of
+the bawdyhouses, putting down very promptly from memory the names of
+the proprietresses, the names of the streets and numbers of the
+houses.
+
+Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in this city related many
+disgusting details of his experiences in the service at night--of
+prostitutes smoking, cursing and sprawling on the floor dead drunk. He
+stated that he had never smoked before he became a messenger, but that
+when he saw the women using tobacco in all the houses, he thought
+there could be no harm in it. "If ladies do it, why shouldn't I? So I
+began, and now I smoke a pack of cigarettes a day. I get twenty for a
+nickel and smoke all night. If I didn't, I suppose I'd fall asleep. I
+once lit a cigarette from an opium pipe in one of the houses--but no
+more opium for me." When asked whether his manager knew that he was
+sent to these houses, he replied: "Sure he does, he's the one that
+sends us; if we don't go, we get fired. He knows all the women, too,
+because he jokes with them over the telephone when they call up for a
+boy."
+
+A fifteen-year-old night messenger, when asked what he did with the
+money he received as tips, replied: "Last week I lost a dollar in a
+crap game, and I go to moving-picture shows during the day and buy
+different things; I suppose if my people knew the kind of work I was
+doing, I would get a thick leather strap over my back. They have an
+idea that the messenger business is just taking telegrams to reputable
+people. There are very few business calls at night at our office;
+almost all of them come from houses of prostitution. This is going to
+be a very busy week with us because a convention starts to-morrow, and
+the delegates will want us to take them to the houses."
+
+Another Hoosier messenger was only sixteen years of age, although he
+had been in the service of one company for four years and had
+previously been discharged from another company for having defrauded a
+patron. This lad was a typical boy of the street; his features were
+drawn, black lines were below his eyes, and his walk could be
+described best as a drag. "I know every single house of prostitution
+in this city," said he. "I have been in every one. I get drinks in
+most of them, and many a time I was drunk for a whole day in some
+woman's room." This boy, having been in the service several years,
+spoke of the ravages dissipation had wrought on the women of the
+underworld. He had known many of them when they were just starting in
+their life of shame, and remarked their rapid decline. Voluntarily he
+spoke of the venereal diseases from which he had suffered. He said
+that he had been discharged from his first job as a messenger for
+having defrauded patrons. To illustrate how the scheme worked, he
+said: "A woman wanted me to carry a package to some place and asked me
+what it would cost; I said one dollar, and she said she wouldn't pay
+it because it was too much. I told her to speak to the manager and
+gave her the telephone number where my pal was waiting for the call.
+She asked him whether he was the manager, and he said, 'Yes'; then she
+asked how much the charge was, and he answered one dollar. Then I went
+on the errand, and we split the difference. Somehow the manager got
+wise, and out we went." This boy's conversation was a continuous flow
+of vulgarity. When the agent mentioned gambling, the boy drew from his
+pocket two sets of dice and said they were "ready at any time to do
+business. When the first of the month comes around, I am generally
+short or ahead $5. I lost $8 once. When I have no ready cash, I play
+on account of my salary."
+
+An eighteen-year-old messenger said: "I have been in this business
+here for five years, and a night never passes that I don't go to a
+house of prostitution; that's our main business at night. They could
+not afford to have a messenger service in this town at night if it
+were not for the red light district. We have to do all their work,
+because they trust us." This boy spoke of the venereal diseases other
+boys in the service had, and admitted that he had contracted them
+twice himself.
+
+Another eighteen-year-old messenger boy, who has been in the service
+four years and is afflicted with an exceptionally bad venereal
+infection, said among other things, "There are lots of messengers who
+are kept by women. The boys work only for appearances. I knew two
+messengers who worked with me who were kept by two prostitutes for a
+year, then they gave up the job at the same time and took the
+prostitutes to Chicago, where the women worked for them. One of these
+boys is only about nineteen years old now. You don't learn anything in
+the messenger business except to knock down (overcharge a patron) and
+to go around with prostitutes and gamblers. It kills a fellow. I know,
+because I went down the line, and I'm coming out the wrong end." When
+asked why he didn't quit the job, he replied: "You don't suppose I
+want to work for $3 or $4 a week? I'm used to making pretty good money
+and having a good time." He said that he made from $40 to $75 a month
+according to the tips he received, and spent it as fast as he got it.
+Most of it went in gambling.
+
+A fourteen-year-old messenger boy in another city who works from 6
+P.M. to 7 A.M., in speaking of the use of whisky in houses of
+prostitution, said: "We get it for them; the saloons know the
+messengers, and we stand in with them; the more a house sends for
+whisky the better they stand in with the saloon keeper. If the
+proprietress gets locked up, she will always be bailed out by the
+saloon keeper, but if she don't buy enough stuff from him, he will
+refuse to do it. When a proprietress is put in jail, the cops ring up
+for a messenger from the station house, and they send me to the cell
+where the woman is, and she always gives me a note to take to the
+saloon keeper and he goes down and gets her out." This boy said his
+manager knew the kind of places he visited, but was not in the office
+all night. During the late hours of the night the telegraph operator
+and the clerk were left in charge, and the boy remarked that they had
+told him to try to get a woman into the office if he found one on the
+street, and related instances in which this had been done. He was paid
+a salary of $22 a month.
+
+Another fourteen-year-old messenger in this town is paid $17 a month
+salary and makes $10 or $12 a month in tips.
+
+A thirteen-year-old messenger in another city, after having related
+some of his experiences in the segregated district, said: "I tell you,
+it's mighty dirty work for a boy to be in, but I suppose a fellow has
+to learn these things somehow, and I may as well learn them in the
+messenger service as in any other way. I smoke perique so I can sleep
+in the daytime."
+
+A fourteen-year-old messenger in the same city, employed from noon to
+midnight, had been in the service only one week when interviewed by
+the agent; among other things he said: "All the last week I have been
+doing nothing but go to the red light district. I didn't know what
+this messenger business was until I got into it, and I am going to
+quit just as soon as I see a little more of that kind of thing."
+
+In a certain Indiana city there was found a "kid line" messenger
+service, so called because the proprietor was a mere boy who was
+formerly in the service of another messenger company. He had two day
+boys, but at night answered the calls himself. He was fourteen years
+old and told the agent that he had lived in the "red light" district
+more than at his home on account of the number of calls he had to
+answer there, but of course this was exaggeration intended to convey
+the fact that most of his business was with that region. When he
+entered into business for himself, he went to all the prostitutes in
+the "red light" district and told them that he was commencing on his
+own account and that he wanted them to be his customers. "I get a good
+deal of their business. I get it because I know how to treat them. I
+can get them beer on Sunday and can sneak it into their houses. I know
+all the women and can introduce you to any of them, and can get you
+any amount of beer or whisky that you want. When I was working for
+the---- messenger company there was another boy on the force who tried
+to take all the good calls; he divided his tips with the manager, so
+he was sent to all the houses where good tips were given. There was
+one prostitute who liked me pretty well and gave me ten or fifteen
+cents for myself every time I went to her house. I started to answer a
+call there one night, and the other boy ran after me. We got to the
+place at the same time and had a fight in the hall; the men and women
+in the place gathered around us and offered to give us two dollars
+each if we would scrap for them, so we started right in, and before I
+was through with him he had two black eyes and his face was bleeding,
+then he pulled out a knife, but they took it away from him, and the
+next day I was fired. There is a young girl in one of the houses who
+is a chambermaid and wants me to live with her, and maybe I will but
+I'm afraid my mother will get wise."
+
+The fifteen-year-old messenger of another office showed the agent the
+list of about one hundred calls sent in the previous night, nearly
+every one of which came from the "red light" district.
+
+After weighing such evidence we can readily comprehend the justice of
+the opinion rendered by Dr. Charles P. Neill in the following words:
+"The newsboys' service is demoralizing, but the messenger service is
+debauching.... And, saddest of all, this service appeals strongly to
+the children. The prurient curiosity of the developing boy would
+itself incline him to like these calls to houses of prostitution, but
+they quickly learn also that women who live in these sections are more
+generous with their earnings in the way of tips than are the people in
+the more respectable sections of the city.... It can be said that all
+the boys who go into the messenger service do not go to the bad, but
+it can be said with equal truth that it ruins children by the dozens,
+and that if any boy comes out of this service without having suffered
+moral shipwreck he can thank the mercy of God for it, and not the
+protecting arm of the community that stands idly by and makes no
+attempt to save him from temptation."[73]
+
+In 1908 Congress passed a child labor law for the District of Columbia
+which provided, among other restrictions, that no messenger boy under
+sixteen years should be employed between 7 P.M. and 6 A.M.,--_sixteen
+years_, the beginning of the period of adolescence, when boys have the
+greatest need of protection from the vices running riot in cities!
+
+The Chicago Vice Commission devotes several pages of its report to a
+recital of the experiences of messenger boys in connection with their
+work in the segregated districts. One of the telegraph companies
+maintains a branch office close to one of these districts, where eight
+boys from fifteen to eighteen years of age are employed as
+messengers. These boys are called upon to work at all hours of the day
+and night, their tasks being the same as those of the messengers in
+other cities. A number of specific instances of the wretched
+environment into which these boys are thrown, are given. One of them
+who works from midnight until 10 A.M. was sent by a prostitute to a
+drug store for a package of cocaine hydrochloride, for which he paid
+$5.78, receiving $1 from the prostitute as a tip for the service.
+Another messenger was sent out on a similar errand by another
+prostitute two weeks later and purchased for her a hypodermic needle
+for a syringe; he was charged $2 for this needle, the cost to the
+druggist being 19 cents. A few days later a boy was called by another
+prostitute who confided to him that she had discontinued the use of
+messenger boys for purchasing "dope" because she found that they
+talked too much and could not be trusted, adding that she now had a
+newsboy, who sold papers at a near-by corner, buy the cocaine for her.
+A woman who lives in an apartment house and is the owner and
+proprietor of houses of prostitution in the restricted district, is in
+the habit of sending in an order for cocaine to a druggist, who calls
+a messenger boy to deliver it to her residence. This messenger opened
+one of the packages and, suspecting that it was cocaine, sniffed a
+little of it himself. He confessed that he had done this quite often
+since, and it appeared that he had derived a good deal of pleasure
+from it. The same messenger is sent about three times monthly by a
+certain man to a Chinaman, from whom he buys a package of opium for
+$4. On returning from one of these trips he watched the man open the
+package, take a quantity of the stuff, roll it and heat it, but at
+this point the messenger was told to leave the room. Another messenger
+boy has been employed at this particular branch office for more than
+three years, although he is now only seventeen years old; his earnings
+average about $10 per week, including tips. He is of small stature,
+not mentally bright and at present is afflicted with syphilis of three
+months' duration. Another messenger is a boy of foreign parentage,
+only fifteen years of age, who said he had recently been called quite
+often to a certain house of prostitution where an inmate gave him a
+box with a note to a druggist; the contents cost $1.75, but upon
+returning to the woman he would declare that he had paid $2.50, thus
+obtaining 75 cents on false pretenses, and in addition a tip of half a
+dollar. On one of his trips for this prostitute he had opened the note
+and found that it was a requisition for cocaine; on returning he
+placed some of the contents upon his tongue, but did not like the
+sensation and never repeated it. He is in the habit of picking up
+discarded cigarettes and smoking them. In spite of his age, he knows
+the name of nearly every prostitute in this district and can recognize
+these women at sight; he stated that whenever he entered a house of
+prostitution they would nearly always kiss him, and at different times
+he had had sores on his lips.
+
+Another boy who was attending high school was employed as a messenger
+in the downtown district during Christmas week of 1910. He was sent to
+deliver a message in a house of prostitution, and the girl who
+received it offered to cohabit with him free of charge as a Christmas
+present, stating that it was customary to do this for messenger boys
+on Christmas Day.[74]
+
+A number of other messengers told of similar experiences, stating that
+they were often called to houses of prostitution to perform small
+personal services for the inmates. As to regulation of the service, a
+police order was issued in Chicago in April, 1910, to the effect that
+no messenger or delivery boy under eighteen years was to be allowed in
+the segregated districts at any time.
+
+In arguing against the further restriction of the night messenger
+service, the telegraph companies and other interested organizations
+insist that the majority of these boys are working to support their
+widowed mothers or incapacitated fathers; a recent government report
+says, in referring to the table of families in which there are
+messengers and errand and office boys ten to fourteen years of age,
+classified by percentage of older breadwinners, for Boston, Chicago,
+New York and Washington, "These statistics point to the conclusion
+that the greater part of the families now furnishing children from ten
+to thirteen years of age and fourteen years for the occupation of
+messengers and errand and office boys are by no means either entirely
+or largely dependent upon the earnings of such children for the
+family support."[75] The restriction advocated does not contemplate
+the prohibition of this work to boys of fourteen years and upwards in
+the _daytime_; its object is to shield the youths from the vile
+associations necessarily connected with this work at _night_.
+
+
+                  _Night Service by Men--Not by Boys_
+
+Mr. Owen R. Lovejoy of the National Child Labor Committee, in speaking
+of the study of the night messenger service undertaken by this
+organization, says: "The evidence collected justified the committee in
+cooperating with its affiliated organizations to secure legislation,
+and, counting on the _moral interest of the public_ to promote the
+effort, we made the question one for practical and immediate decision.
+Results apparently justify the policy chosen. A bill was unanimously
+passed by the legislature of New York State [in 1910], excluding any
+person under twenty-one years of age from this occupation between ten
+o'clock at night and five o'clock in the morning."
+
+Massachusetts in 1911 forbade the employment of messengers under
+twenty-one years of age between the hours of 10 P.M. and 5 A.M.,
+except by newspaper offices. Utah fixed the same age limit for this
+work in cities of first and second classes between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M.
+New Jersey did likewise as to cities of the first class, fixing the
+age limit at eighteen years for smaller places, the prohibited hours
+being from 10 P.M. to 5 A.M.
+
+Wisconsin also passed a law in 1911, prohibiting the employment of any
+one under twenty-one years of age as a messenger between 8 P.M. and 6
+A.M. in cities of the first, second and third classes. Ohio, in 1910,
+fixed the age limit for messenger service between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M. at
+eighteen years.
+
+Michigan now prohibits the employment of messengers under eighteen
+years between 10 P.M. and 5 A.M., as do also New Hampshire, Oregon,
+Tennessee and California.
+
+Other states having the advanced type of child labor law prohibit the
+employment of children under fourteen years in the messenger service
+during the day and under sixteen years at night. The states of
+Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico, North
+Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia and Wyoming do
+not yet provide any age limit for this work.
+
+The evil effects of the messenger service have also been noted in
+Great Britain. A schoolmaster of Edinburgh says, "Insolence, coarse
+intonation, swearing, lying, pilfering and lewdness are the chief
+products of message going by boys."[76]
+
+A London health officer has testified as follows: "There is a very
+large employment of boy labour now, boys employed as messengers and
+errand boys, which teaches them nothing useful for their future life;
+and when they have outgrown the age at which they can be employed in
+this way, the risk of drifting into the ranks of the unskilled
+labourer is a very large one."[77]
+
+"The government post office telegraph messengers are not employed
+unless they have passed the seventh standard at school and each
+candidate has to provide a satisfactory certificate of health from his
+own medical attendant. A boy of fourteen must also be over four feet
+eight inches in height. The minimum starting wage in London is seven
+shillings a week, rising by a shilling a week annually to eleven
+shillings. On reaching the age of sixteen the boy has to pass a
+further examination in order to qualify for retention. The various
+_private_ telegraph companies offer much the same terms, though in
+some cases they are able to get boys slightly cheaper, as the
+qualifying standard is not such a high one. It is only during the rare
+periods when the supply of boy labour is more plentiful than usual
+that the private telegraph companies will refuse a boy on account of
+his size. The varied nature of the work they are called upon to
+perform is an undoubted attraction in the eyes of many.... That it is
+bad for them morally is less open to doubt. Even when they are more
+actively employed the most that they can hope to learn is a very small
+amount of discipline. A more serious point is the future of the boys
+when they cease to be messengers."[78]
+
+"It is well to point out that the commonest of these occupations, that
+of errand boy or messenger boy, is seldom a desirable one, quite
+apart from the fact that it generally leads nowhere. It lacks almost
+necessarily what the boy most needs--the compulsory training of the
+habit of disciplined effort."[79]
+
+As Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "The test of the work, however, should
+be not whether boys can do it, but what it does to boys."[80]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VI
+
+EFFECTS OF STREET WORK UPON CHILDREN
+
+
+All the evil effects of street work upon children observed by students
+of the problem have been here divided into three groups, under the
+headings of physical, moral, and material deterioration. It must be
+understood that this is a summary of such effects and that while the
+influences of the street are unquestionably bad, any one child exposed
+to them is not likely to suffer to the full extent suggested below.
+However, deterioration in one form or another is invariably noted in
+children who have been engaged in street work for any length of time,
+and this is sufficient proof of the undesirability of such employment
+for our boys and girls.
+
+
+                   EFFECTS OF STREET WORK ON CHILDREN
+
+  Material        { Form distaste for regular employment.
+  Deterioration   { Small chance of acquiring a trade.
+                  { Drift into large class of casual workers.
+
+                  { Night work.
+                  { Excessive fatigue.
+                  { Exposure to bad weather.
+  Physical        { Irregularity of sleep and meals.
+  Deterioration   { Use of stimulants--cigarettes, coffee, liquor.
+                  { Disease through contact with vices.
+
+                  { Encouragement to truancy.
+                  { Independence and defiance of parental control.
+  Moral           { Weakness cultivated by formation of bad habits.
+  Deterioration   { Form liking for petty excitements of street.
+                  { Opportunities to become delinquent.
+                  { Large percentage of recruits to criminal population.
+
+These are the insidious influences permeating street work and rampant
+in all our cities. They are minimized and even denied by certain
+ignorant or interested parties who base their assertions upon the fact
+that prominent men of to-day were once newsboys or bootblacks, and
+therefore jump to the conclusion that their success is due to the
+training received in this way when young. The truth is more likely to
+be that such individuals have succeeded, not because of this early
+training, but in spite of it. Boys of exceptionally strong character
+will force themselves out of such an environment unscathed, but the
+great majority of children have not sufficient mental and moral
+stamina to withstand these influences. The minority will take care of
+itself under any circumstances,--it is with the weaker majority that
+we must deal. The problem is an urgent one, but generally ignored,
+for, as Myron E. Adams says, the public sees the street worker at his
+best and neglects him at his worst.
+
+The charge that in street work a child has small chance of acquiring a
+suitable trade is one of the worst counts in the indictment. Street
+work leads to nothing else; the various occupations are so many
+industrial pitfalls, and the children who get into them must sooner or
+later struggle out and begin over again at some other line of work, if
+they would succeed.
+
+"These children (street traders) furnish a very large proportion of
+recruits to the criminal population. Those who do not graduate into
+crime form a liking for the petty excitements of the street and a
+distaste for regular employment. They lack skill and perseverance,
+shun the monotony of a permanent job, and as they grow older either
+follow itinerant and questionable trades or become ill-paid and
+inefficient casual laborers. Therefore these young people are a source
+of waste to society rather than of profit."[81]
+
+The large percentage of former newsboys among the inmates of boys'
+reformatories recently induced an active social worker to send an
+inquiry to the superintendents of such institutions and to juvenile
+court judges in different parts of the country relative to the effect
+of newspaper selling on schoolboys. The statements received in reply
+are set forth in a leaflet which was published in 1910.[82]
+
+These officials are practically unanimous in condemning street trading
+by boys, declaring that newsboys are generally stupid and almost
+always morally defiled; that the pittance they earn is bought at great
+sacrifice; that the spending of their earnings without supervision is
+the worst thing that can befall them; that the life leads to gambling,
+dishonesty and spendthrift habits; that it is a dead-end occupation
+leading to nothing; that it abounds in evil temptations; that the boys
+are comparatively idle and see and hear the worst that is to be seen
+and heard on the street; that the work subjects boys to bad influences
+before they are strong enough to resist them; that delinquency results
+from their enforced association with all classes of boys; and
+concluding that every possible protection should be thrown about the
+young boy. Some of these officers gave due consideration to the
+advantages of street trading, and one made the naïve statement that
+newspaper selling was not a bad business for a boy who could withstand
+its temptations.
+
+Although the law of New York State provides a modicum of regulation
+for street trading, nevertheless it has not been effective because of
+extremely indifferent enforcement. Like almost all other
+street-trading laws in the United States, it places the age limit at
+the ridiculous age of ten years. A movement was started recently in
+Buffalo to remedy the situation, and the following statement was
+published:--
+
+"During the past year we have sought to discover, not by theorizing,
+but by uncovering the facts, what is the effect of street work on the
+boy. School records of 230 Buffalo newsboys were secured. Eighteen per
+cent were reported as truants; 23 per cent stood poor or very poor in
+attendance and deportment. Twenty-eight per cent stood poor or very
+poor in scholarship, while only 15 per cent of the other children in
+the same schools failed in their work. An investigation at the truant
+school showed that 46.6 per cent of the boys there had been engaged in
+the street trades. On the basis of these facts and studies made in
+connection with the schools, juvenile courts and reformatories
+elsewhere, we hope to secure legislation raising the age below which
+boys may not engage in the street trades to twelve years, and making
+it illegal for boys under fourteen to sell after 8 P.M. We are also
+striving to secure better enforcement of this law in Buffalo and other
+cities."[83]
+
+This folder also states that circular letters were sent to all Buffalo
+school principals asking about the effect on scholarship of the early
+morning delivery of newspapers by their pupils, and also to
+physicians inquiring about the effect of such work on physical
+development. The hours for such newspaper delivery were from 4.30 A.M.
+to 7 A.M. Eight principals and six physicians denounced such work to
+every one who favored it. Referring to the occupational history of
+reformatory inmates, a recent report for New York City says: "The
+parental school (school for truants) statistics show that 80 out of
+its 230 inmates were newsboys, while 60 per cent of the entire number
+have been street traders. The Catholic Protectorate, full of Italians
+(noted as street traders), gives us a record of 469 or 80 per cent out
+of their 590 boys interviewed, who have followed the street
+profession, and 295 or 50 per cent had been newsboys selling over
+three months. The New York Juvenile Asylum gives us 31 per cent of its
+inmates as newsboys and 60 per cent as street traders. The House of
+Refuge repeats the same story: 63 per cent of those committed to that
+institution had been street traders, of whom 32 per cent were
+newsboys. If 63 per cent of the House of Refuge inmates have been
+street traders, and if the majority of such have begun their so-called
+criminal careers, which end invariably in the state penitentiary, why
+do we permit children to trade on our streets?"[84]
+
+Another American writer says: "Whatever the cause, the effect on the
+newsboy is always the same. He lives on the streets at night in an
+atmosphere of crime and criminals, and he takes in vice and evil with
+the air he breathes. If he grows into manhood and escapes the
+tuberculosis which seizes so many of these boys of the street, the
+things that he has learned as a professional newsboy lead in one
+direction,--toward crime and things criminal. The professional newsboy
+is the embryo criminal."[85]
+
+The dangers to the morals of children are particularly emphasized by
+those who have given this subject any attention. Mr. John Spargo says:
+"Nor is it only in factories that these grosser forms of immorality
+flourish. They are even more prevalent among the children of the
+street trades,--newsboys, bootblacks, messengers and the like. The
+proportion of newsboys who suffer from venereal diseases is alarmingly
+great. The superintendent of the John Worthy School of Chicago, Mr.
+Sloan, asserts that 'one third of all the newsboys who come to the
+John Worthy School have venereal diseases and that 10 per cent of the
+remaining newsboys at present in the Bridewell are, according to the
+physician's diagnosis, suffering from similar diseases.' The newsboys
+who come to the school are, according to Mr. Sloan, on an average of
+one third below the ordinary standard of physical development, a
+condition which will be readily understood by those who know the ways
+of the newsboys of our great cities--their irregular habits, scant
+feeding, sexual excesses, secret vices, sleeping in hallways,
+basements, stables and quiet corners. With such a low physical
+standard the ravages of venereal diseases are tremendously
+increased."[86]
+
+The economic aspect of this work is magnified by most people beyond
+its true proportion; the earnings of street-working children are not
+needed by their families in most cases, and even in those instances
+where their poverty demands such relief it is wrong to purchase it at
+the price paid in evil training and bad effects of every kind.
+Commenting on this point the chief truant officer for Indianapolis
+says: "A large number of truants are recruited from that large
+unrestricted class whose members are to be found competing with one
+another on our street corners from early until late. The pennies which
+many of them earn are a material aid in replenishing the depleted
+resources of some of our homes. Yet, it is a question whether such
+child laborers will not in the future bequeath to society an abundant
+reward of human wreckage which may be traced to such traffic and its
+many temptations."[87]
+
+As to the bad judgment of parents in seeking the premature earnings of
+their children, a Chicago physician says: "The average newsboy, if he
+works 365 days a year, does not earn over a hundred dollars; if he
+becomes delinquent it costs the state at least two hundred dollars a
+year to care for him. When we remember that twelve out of every one
+hundred boys between ten and sixteen become delinquent, and that over
+60 per cent of these boys come from street trades, it does not take
+long for a business man to figure out that it is rather poor economy
+to let a ten-year-old boy go into at least this field of labor....
+From an economic standpoint the family that sends out a ten-year-old
+boy to sell papers loses a great deal more in actual money from the
+boy's lack of future earning capacity than the boy can possibly earn
+by his youthful efforts. In other words, this sort of labor from an
+economic standpoint is an absurdity."[88]
+
+In its splendid report on street trading, the British departmental
+committee of 1910 stated: "We learnt that much of this money, so
+readily made, is spent with equal dispatch. The children spend it on
+sweets and cigarettes, and in attending music halls, and in very many
+cases only a portion, if any, of the daily earnings is taken home....
+In many towns the traders are drawn from the poorest of homes, but
+numerous witnesses have emphatically stated that their experience
+leads them to think that cases where real benefits accrue to the home
+are rare."[89]
+
+The lack of proper training during childhood almost invariably brings
+about a tragedy in the lives of working people. The premature
+employment of children at any kind of labor which interferes with
+their education and their training in work for which they are fitted
+is most disastrous in its effects and far outweighs in future misery
+the little income thus secured in childhood. A careful student of the
+working class declares: "Many bright and capable men and women in this
+neighborhood [Greenwich Village, New York City] would undoubtedly have
+been able to occupy high positions in the industrial world if they had
+not been _forced into unskilled work when young_."[90]
+
+With reference to the effects of street trading an English writer
+says: "It is difficult to imagine a life which could be worse for a
+young boy. Apart from the moral dangers, it is a means of earning a
+livelihood which perhaps more than any other is subject to the most
+violent fluctuations. But the uncertainty of the income is a trifling
+evil by comparison with the certainty of the bad moral effects of
+street trading on boys and youths. The life of the street trader is a
+continual gamble, unredeemed by any steady work; it is undisciplined
+and casual, and exposed to all the temptations of the street at its
+worst. The great majority of the boys who sell papers drift away into
+crime or idleness or some form of living by their wits."[91] The same
+writer also declares: "Few things could have a worse effect than this
+street trading on those engaged in it. It initiates them into the
+mysteries of the beggar's whine and breeds in them the craving for an
+irregular, undisciplined method of life."[92] And the editor of these
+English studies adds: "It is part of the street-bred child's precocity
+that he acquires a too early acquaintance with matters which as a
+child he ought not to know at all. His language and conversation often
+reveal a familiarity with vice which would be terrible were it not so
+superficial."[93]
+
+Speaking of immorality in the narrow sense of the word, the same
+writer says: "We do not believe that immorality of this kind is
+universal among the boys and girls of the labouring classes, nor do we
+believe that the town youth is any worse than his brother and sister
+of the country. Coarseness and impurity are not the distinguishing
+mark of any one class or any one place. We question whether comparison
+of sins and self-indulgence would work out at all to the disadvantage
+of the town labouring class as a whole. It must be remembered that one
+commonplace factor, the glaring publicity of the street, is all on the
+side of the town youth's virtue. The street has its safeguards as well
+as its dangers."[94]
+
+With reference to the blind alley character of street work, another
+English writer avers: "As in London, the labours of the school
+children [in Manchester] are in no wise apprenticeship or preparation
+for their future lives. The grocer's little errand boy will be
+discharged when he grows bigger and needs higher wages; the chemist's
+runner is not in training to become a chemist. The three farthings an
+hour on the one hand, and the physical, moral and intellectual
+degeneration on the other, are all that the little ones here, as
+elsewhere, get out of toil from which many a grown man would
+shrink."[95]
+
+Another English student of labor conditions declares:
+"Teachers--together with magistrates, police authorities, ministers of
+religion and social workers--are practically unanimous in condemning
+street trading as an employment of children of school age. In this
+occupation children deteriorate rapidly from the physical, mental and
+moral point of view."[96]
+
+Still another writer says: "One great evil which results from this
+life of street trading in childhood is the fact that it is fatal to
+industrial efficiency in after life."[97]
+
+The testimony of Sir Lauder Brunton, M.D., given in 1904, on the
+occasion of the inquiry into physical deterioration in Great Britain,
+is to the point, in spite of the fact that the committee directing the
+inquiry stated that "The impressions gathered from the great majority
+of the witnesses examined do not support the belief that there is any
+general progressive deterioration."[98] Sir Lauder Brunton's testimony
+was as follows: "The causes of deficient physique are very numerous
+... it is very likely that in order to eke out the scanty earnings of
+the father and mother the child is sent, out of school hours, to earn
+a penny or two, and so it comes to school wearied out in body by
+having had to work early in the morning, exhausted by not having had
+food, and then is sent to learn. Well, it cannot learn."[99] Later the
+same witness testified, "One of the very worst causes [of physical
+deterioration] is that children in actual attendance at school, work
+before and after schooltime."[100]
+
+In a special inquiry into the physical effects of work upon 600 boys
+of school age made in 1905 by Dr. Charles J. Thomas, assistant health
+officer to the London County Council's education department, it was
+found that many of the children suffered from nervous strain, heart
+disease and deformities as a result of prolonged labor. Of the 600
+boys, 134 were shop boys, 63 were milk boys, 87 were newsboys and the
+others were scattered among various employments. It was found that
+work during the dinner hour and also the long work-day on Saturday
+were particularly harmful. As to fatigue among the newsboys, of those
+working 20 hours or less, 60 per cent were affected; of those working
+between 20 and 30 hours, 70 per cent; while of those working more than
+30 hours per week, 91 per cent showed fatigue. As to anæmia, among the
+newsboys, of those working 20 hours or less it appeared among only 19
+per cent; but of those working 20 to 30 hours, 30 per cent showed it;
+while of those working over 30 hours per week, 73 per cent were
+afflicted in this way. As to nerve strain, of those working 20 hours
+or less 16 per cent were suffering from it; of those working 20 to 30
+hours, 35 per cent; while of those working over 30 hours, 37 per cent
+showed nerve strain. As to deformities, none were noted among boys
+working less than 20 hours a week, but 10 per cent of those working 20
+to 30 hours or more were found to be afflicted. All elementary
+schoolboys showed deformities to the extent of 8 per cent, but of
+those engaged in different kinds of work from 20 to 30 hours a week,
+21 per cent showed deformities. Flatfoot was found to be the chief
+deformity produced by newspaper selling, this being caused by the
+boys' having to be on their feet too much.[101]
+
+One of the most decisive blows delivered against street work by
+children in Great Britain was the statement of Thomas Burke of the
+Liverpool City Council, a son of working people, who had lived in a
+crowded city street for twenty years, had attended a public elementary
+school until fourteen years of age, where the number of child street
+traders was very large, and had become convinced that "work after
+school hours was decidedly injurious to health and character."
+Referring to the material condition of his street-trading
+acquaintances, he said: "Almost all the boys sent out to work after
+school hours from the school referred to have failed in the battle of
+life. Not one is a member of any of the regular trades, while all who
+were sent to trade in the streets have gone down to the depths of
+social misery if not degradation ... a great proportion of those who
+did not work after school hours, or frequent the streets as newspaper
+sellers, occupy respectable positions in the city."[102]
+
+Miss Ina Tyler of the St. Louis School of Social Economy in a study of
+St. Louis newsboys made in 1910, found that of 50 newsboys under 11
+years of age, 43 gambled, 42 went to cheap shows and 23 used tobacco;
+while of 100 newsboys 11 to 16 years of age, 86 gambled, 92 went to
+cheap shows and 76 used tobacco.[103]
+
+Among the conclusions of the British interdepartmental committee of
+1901 is the following: "Street hawking is not injurious to the health
+if the hours are not long, and the work is not done late at night; but
+its moral effects are far worse than the physical, and this employment
+in the center of many large towns makes the streets hotbeds for the
+corruption of children who learn to drink, to gamble and to use vile
+language, while girls are exposed to even worse things."[104]
+
+The British departmental committee of 1910 declared: "In the case of
+both boys and girls the effect of this occupation on future prospects
+cannot be anything but thoroughly bad, except, possibly, in casual and
+exceptional cases. We learn that many boys who sell while at school
+manage to obtain other work upon becoming fourteen, but for those who
+remain in the street the tendency is to develop into loafers and
+'corner boys.' The period between fourteen and sixteen is a critical
+time in a boy's life. Street trading provides him with no training; he
+gets no discipline, he is not occupied the whole of his time; for a
+few years he makes more money and makes it more easily than in an
+office or a workshop, and he is exposed to a variety of actively evil
+influences."[105]
+
+An important division of the study of street-working children concerns
+their standing in the schools. In New York City a few figures are
+available through a study recently made there. The distribution of 200
+newsboys under fourteen years of age among the school grades is shown
+in the following table:[106]--
+
+  ========================================================
+        |            GRADES             |         |
+   AGES +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ SPECIAL |TOTALS
+        | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |         |
+  ------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---------+-------
+      7 | 2 |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |         |   2
+      8 |   | 3 | 2 |   |   |   |   |   |         |   5
+      9 |   | 1 | 6 | 1 |   |   |   |   |         |   8
+     10 |   |   | 6 | 3 | 3 |   |   |   |         |  12
+     11 |   | 5 | 7 |10 | 7 | 4 | 1 |   |    2    |  36
+     12 |   | 1 | 1 |19 |21 | 9 | 7 | 1 |    3    |  62
+     13 |   |   |   |15 |10 |23 |17 | 7 |    3    |  75
+        +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---------+-------
+  Totals| 2 |10 |22 |48 |41 |36 |25 | 8 |    8    | 200
+  ========================================================
+
+Applying the rule that in order to be normal a child must enter the
+first grade at the age of either six or seven years and progress with
+enough regularity to enable him to attend the eighth grade at the age
+of either thirteen or fourteen, it is found that of the 177 newsboys
+ten to thirteen years of age inclusive, 118 are backward, 57 are
+normal and 2 are beyond their grades. This is shown in the following
+table:--
+
+  ==============================================
+     AGES    |BACKWARD | NORMAL | AHEAD | TOTAL
+  -----------+---------+--------+-------+-------
+       10    |    6    |    6   |   0   |  12
+       11    |   22    |   11   |   1   |  34
+       12    |   42    |   16   |   1   |  59
+       13    |   48    |   24   |   0   |  72
+             +---------+--------+-------+-------
+  Totals     |  118    |   57   |   2   | 177
+  Percentages|  67%    |   32%  |   1%  | 100%
+  ===============================================
+
+This table shows that of the 177 newsboys ten to thirteen years of
+age, 67 per cent are backward and 32 per cent are normal, while only 1
+per cent are ahead of their grades. Boys of these ages are subject to
+the restrictions prescribed by the state law as to hours, and it is
+probable that the percentage of retardation would have been even
+greater if work at night had not been to some extent prevented.
+
+A report of New York City conditions made in 1907, before the newsboy
+law was enforced, says: "The shrewd, bright-eyed, sharp-witted lad is
+stupid and sleepy in the schoolroom; 295 newsboys compared with
+non-working boys in the same class were found to fall below the
+average in proficiency. They were also usually older than their
+classmates, that is, backward in their grades."[107]
+
+Referring to Manchester newsboys above the age of fourteen years, an
+English report[108] says: "They are not stupid, or even markedly
+backward, judged by school standards.... As they grow older they sink
+to a lower level, both morally and economically--in fact, little
+better than loafers, without aspiration, and content with the squalor
+of the common lodging-houses in which they live, if only they have
+enough money for their drink and their gambling." Concerning the
+younger newsboys the same report continues: "Those who are the
+children of extremely poor, and often worthless parents, are often
+upon the streets selling their papers during school hours, and their
+attendance at the schools, in spite of prosecution of their parents,
+is so irregular that they make very little progress. These boys take
+to the streets permanently for their livelihood; a few of them
+continue, after the age of fourteen, to earn their living by selling
+newspapers, but most of them sink into less satisfactory kinds of
+occupation." In connection with these statements it should be
+remembered that they portray conditions existing prior to the adoption
+in 1902 of local rules on street trading. With reference to the
+alleged cleverness of street Arabs, a British observer draws this
+distinction: "Street-trading children are more cunning than other
+children, but not more intelligent."[109]
+
+In St. Louis there was no regulation until the Missouri law of 1911
+was passed; and in 1910 Miss Ina Tyler, in a study of 106 newsboys of
+that city, found the following conditions:--
+
+                           NUMBER BELOW NORMAL
+  YEARS                      SCHOOL GRADE
+
+  10                       10  out of  16  62%
+  11                       12  out of  16  75%
+  12                       16  out of  28  57%
+  13                       25  out of  33  75%
+  14                       11  out of  13  84%
+                           --         ---  ---
+                           74         106  70%
+
+These figures were copied by the writer from charts displayed at the
+child labor exhibit of the National Conference of Charities and
+Correction in St. Louis in 1910, but efforts to ascertain the method
+of determining these percentages were unavailing. Therefore they
+cannot be compared with the figures in the preceding tables, because
+it is by no means certain that the standard ages for normal school
+standing were adopted in the compilation of this table.
+
+In Toledo, Ohio, there is no regulation governing street work by
+children, although a local association makes an effort to look after
+the welfare of newsboys. In October, 1911, the writer visited the four
+public common school buildings nearest the business district of this
+city and found 287 children in attendance who were regularly engaged
+in some form of street work out of school hours. The great majority of
+them were newsboys. The distribution of these children according to
+age and grade is given below:--
+
+                                  AGES
+  =====================================================================
+  Grade | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | Totals
+  ------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------
+    1   | 1 | 8 | 5 | 4 | 4 |  1 |    |    |    |    |    |    |  23
+    2   |   |   | 7 |12 | 8 |  2 |  3 |    |  2 |    |    |    |  34
+    3   |   |   | 1 | 5 | 8 | 22 |  4 |  7 |  3 |  1 |    |    |  51
+    4   |   |   |   | 3 | 7 | 17 |  9 | 11 |  6 |  2 |  1 |  2 |  58
+    5   |   |   |   |   |   |  8 | 10 | 10 |  7 |  5 |  4 |    |  44
+    6   |   |   |   |   |   |    |  7 |  7 | 16 |  3 |  4 |    |  37
+    7   |   |   |   |   |   |    |  1 |  5 |  6 |  9 |  3 |  1 |  25
+    8   |   |   |   |   |   |    |    |    |  5 |  7 |  3 |    |  15
+  ------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------
+  Totals| 1 | 8 | 13| 24| 27| 50 | 34 | 40 | 45 | 27 | 15 |  3 | 287
+  =====================================================================
+
+Adopting the same method for determining retardation as in the case of
+the New York figures, we find that of these 287 street-working school
+children of Toledo, 55 per cent are backward, 43 per cent are normal
+and 2 per cent are ahead of their grades. Or, selecting the children
+ten to thirteen years of age, as was done with the New York figures,
+we have the following results:--
+
+  =========================================================
+    AGES     |   BACKWARD  |  NORMAL  |   AHEAD  |  TOTAL
+  -----------+-------------+----------+----------+---------
+     10      |      25     |    25    |          |    50
+     11      |      16     |    17    |     1    |    34
+     12      |      28     |    12    |          |    40
+     13      |      34     |    11    |          |    45
+   Totals    |     103     |    65    |     1    |   169
+  -----------+-------------+----------+----------+---------
+  Percentages|      61%    |    38%   |     1%   |   100%
+  =========================================================
+
+These percentages show that conditions in Toledo are only slightly
+better than in New York City. This is surprising because of the great
+difference in the working conditions of the two cities, the
+metropolitan street children being subjected to far greater nervous
+strain because of the more congested population and heavier street
+traffic.
+
+
+      RETARDED CHILDREN IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (TOLEDO), 1910-1911
+
+             _Grades_
+
+               |    FIRST
+             +-+--------------
+             | |NORMAL AGE 6-7
+             |
+             |      |   SECOND
+             |    +-+--------------
+             |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |
+             |    |      |    THIRD
+             |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 8-9
+             |    |    |
+             |    |    |      |    FOURTH
+             |    |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |      |     FIFTH
+             |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 10-11
+             |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |      |     SIXTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 11-12
+             |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |      |    SEVENTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 12-13
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |     EIGHTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 13-14
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |PER CENT OF
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |ALL RETARDATIONS
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     +-----+----------
+             V    V    V    V    V    V    V    V           V
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+======
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    TOTAL
+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------+------
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+1 year    | 325| 449| 500| 483| 528| 507| 366| 209| 3,367| 53.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+2 years   |  91| 170| 215| 346| 384| 324| 194|  72| 1,796| 28.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+3 years   |  33|  53| 101| 152| 219| 119|  33|  17|   727| 11.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+4 or more |  16|  42|  74| 131| 105|  19|   3|   5|   395|  6.2
+years     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Total     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+retarded  | 465| 714| 890|1112|1236| 969| 596| 303| 6,285|
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Enrollment|    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+each grade|3114|2680|2548|2400|2209|1856|1284| 901|16,992|
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Per cent  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+each grade|14.9|26.6|34.8|46.3|55.9|52.2|46.4|33.6|  36.9|
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+=======
+
+
+  RETARDED STREET WORKERS IN FOUR TOLEDO COMMON SCHOOLS, OCTOBER, 1911
+
+             _Grades_
+
+               |    FIRST
+             +-+--------------
+             | |NORMAL AGE 6-7
+             |
+             |      |   SECOND
+             |    +-+--------------
+             |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |
+             |    |      |    THIRD
+             |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 8-9
+             |    |    |
+             |    |    |      |    FOURTH
+             |    |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |      |     FIFTH
+             |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 10-11
+             |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |      |     SIXTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 11-12
+             |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |      |    SEVENTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 12-13
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |     EIGHTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 13-14
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |PER CENT OF
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |ALL RETARDATIONS
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     +-----+----------
+             V    V    V    V    V    V    V    V           V
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+======
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |TOTAL |
+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------+------
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+1 year    |   4|   8|  22|   9|  10|  16|   9|   3|    81| 51.6
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+2 years   |   4|   2|   4|  11|   7|   3|   3|    |    34| 21.7
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+3 years   |   1|   3|   7|   6|   5|   4|   1|    |    27| 17.2
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+4 or more |    |   2|   4|   5|   4|    |    |    |    15|  9.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Total     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+retarded  |   9|  15|  37|  31|  26|  23|  13|   3|   157|
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Enrollment|  23|  34|  51|  58|  44|  37|  25|  15|   287|
+street    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+workers   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Per cent  |39.1|44.1|72.5|53.4|  59|62.1|  52|  20|  54.7|
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+=======
+
+A comparison between the table given in the report of the Toledo Board
+of Education for 1911 showing the total number of retarded children in
+the elementary schools, and a similar table compiled from the figures
+for the street-trading children in four Toledo schools given on pages
+154 and 155, is most significant. The retardation among the total
+number of pupils enrolled is to be found on page 154.[110]
+
+The corresponding figures for the 287 street-trading children in the
+four schools are to be found on page 155.
+
+It is especially noteworthy that the percentage of retardation among
+the street workers is very much greater than among the total number of
+pupils, in every grade except the eighth, while for all the grades it
+is 17.8 per cent greater. This becomes all the more significant when
+it is remembered that the figures for the total enrollment include the
+street workers; hence the excess of retardation among the latter makes
+the showing of the former worse than if they were excluded, and
+consequently the comparison on page 155 does not appear to be as
+unfavorable to the street workers as it is in reality.
+
+On consideration of the figures in the tables on pages 154 and 155,
+the conclusion is inevitable that street work greatly promotes the
+retardation of school children. There are, of course, other factors
+which contribute to bring about this condition of backwardness, such
+as poverty, malnutrition and mental deficiency, but there can be no
+doubt that the evil effects of street work are in large measure
+responsible for the poor showing made in the schools by the children
+who follow such occupations.
+
+The many quotations in this chapter from authoritative sources with
+reference to the harmful effects of street work upon children
+constitute a most severe indictment. Students of labor conditions,
+specialists and official committees bitterly denounce the practice of
+permitting children to trade in city streets, and cite the
+consequences of such neglect. Material, physical and moral
+deterioration are strikingly apparent in most children who have
+followed street careers and been exposed to their bad environment for
+any length of time. We have provided splendid facilities for the
+correction of our delinquent children through the medium of juvenile
+courts, state reformatories and the probation system, but surely it
+would be wise to provide at the same time an ounce of prevention in
+addition to this pound of cure. Social workers have returned a true
+bill against street work by children. What will the verdict of the
+people be?
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+RELATION OF STREET WORK TO DELINQUENCY
+
+
+The most convincing proof so far adduced to show that delinquency is a
+common result of street work is set forth in the volume on "Juvenile
+Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"[111] being part of the
+Report on the Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+States, prepared under the direction of Dr. Charles P. Neill, United
+States Commissioner of Labor, in response to an act of Congress in
+1907 authorizing the study. The object of this official inquiry into
+the subject of juvenile delinquency was to discover what connection
+exists between delinquency and occupation or non-occupation, giving
+due consideration to other factors such as the character of the
+child's family, its home and environment. This study is based upon the
+records of the juvenile courts of Indianapolis, Baltimore, New York,
+Boston, Newark, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, showing cases of
+delinquency of children sixteen years of age or younger coming before
+these courts during the year 1907-1908. The total number of
+delinquents included in the study is 4839, of whom 2767 had at some
+time been employed and 2072 had never been employed. The entire number
+of offenses recorded for all the delinquents was 8797, the working
+children being responsible for 5471 offenses, or 62.2 per cent, while
+the non-working children were responsible for 3326 offenses, of 37.8
+per cent. This shows that most juvenile offenses are committed by
+working children. The ages of the children committing the offenses
+recorded, ranged from six to sixteen years, and the report adds, "When
+it is remembered that a majority, and presumably a large majority, of
+all the children between these ages are not working, this
+preponderance of offenses among the workers assumes impressive
+proportions."[112]
+
+With reference to the character of the offenses it was found that the
+working children inclined to the more serious kinds. Recidivists were
+found to be far more numerous among the workers than among the
+non-workers. Summing up the results of the discussion to this point
+the report says: "It is found that the working children contribute to
+the ranks of delinquency a slightly larger number and a much larger
+proportion than do the non-workers, that this excess appears in
+offenses of every kind, whether trivial or serious, and among
+recidivists even more markedly than among first offenders."[113]
+
+With reference to the connection between recidivism and street work
+the report says: "The proportion of recidivism is also large among
+those who are working while attending school, and the numbers here are
+very much larger than one would wish to see. Some part of the
+recidivism here is undoubtedly due to the kind of occupations which a
+child can carry on while attending school. Selling newspapers and
+blacking shoes, acting as errand or delivery boy, peddling and working
+about amusement resorts account for over two-thirds of these boys
+(478 of the 664 are in one or another of these pursuits). These are
+all occupations in which the chances of going wrong are numerous,
+involving as they usually do night work, irregular hours, dubious or
+actively harmful associations and frequent temptations to dishonesty.
+In addition, something may perhaps be attributed to the overstrain due
+to the attempt to combine school and work. When a child of 13, a
+bootblack, is 'often on the street to 12 P.M.,' or when a boy one year
+older works six hours daily outside of school time, 'often at night,'
+as a telegraph messenger, it is evident that his school work is not
+the only thing which is likely to suffer from the excessive strain
+upon the immature strength, and from the character of his
+occupation."[114]
+
+While reflecting on the excess of working children among the
+delinquents, one may be inclined to attribute this to bad home
+influences; but the report shows that only one-fifth of the workers as
+opposed to nearly one-third of the non-workers come from distinctly
+bad homes, while from fair and good homes the proportion is
+approximately 76 per cent to 65 per cent. Consequently, the working
+child goes wrong more frequently than the non-working child in spite
+of his more favorable home surroundings.[115]
+
+Of the total number of delinquent boys, both working and non-working,
+under twelve years of age, 22.4 per cent were workers, while of those
+twelve to thirteen years old, 42.4 per cent were workers, and of those
+fourteen to sixteen years old, 80.8 per cent were workers. As
+comparatively few children under twelve years are at work, the fact
+that more than one-fifth of the delinquent boys in this age group are
+working children "becomes exceedingly significant." Of all children
+twelve to thirteen years of age, the great majority are not employed
+because of the fourteen-year age limit prevailing in all the states
+studied except Maryland; hence the larger proportion of working
+offenders cannot be explained by the influences of age. The increase
+of working delinquents above fourteen years is to be expected, because
+so many children go to work on reaching that age.
+
+Remembering that the proportionate excess of workers varies from two
+to nine times the ratio of non-workers, it is evident that this excess
+cannot be explained by a corresponding excess of orphanage, foreign
+parentage, bad home conditions or unfavorable age. As the report says,
+"It seems rather difficult to escape the conclusion that being at work
+has something to do with their going wrong."[116]
+
+The strongest argument against street work by children is to be found
+in the following table[117] of occupations pursued by the largest
+number of delinquents and giving the percentage of total delinquents
+engaged in each.
+
+As the report says, the following classification shows that the
+largest number of delinquent boys were found in those occupations in
+which the nature of the employment does not permit of supervision--namely,
+newspaper selling, errand running, delivery service and messenger
+service. Boys engaged in these occupations, together with bootblacks
+and peddlers, all work under conditions "which bring them into
+continual temptations to dishonesty and to other offenses."[118]
+
+====================================================================
+                       | PER CENT |                      |PER CENT
+        BOYS           |   OF     |        GIRLS         |   OF
+                       |  TOTAL   |                      |  TOTAL
+Industry or Occupation |DELINQUENT|Industry or Occupation|DELINQUENT
+                       |  BOYS    |                      |  GIRLS
+-----------------------+----------+----------------------+----------
+Newsboys               |   21.83  | Domestic service:    |
+Errand boys            |   17.80  |  Servant in private  |
+Drivers and helpers,   |          |    house             |  32.18
+   wagon               |    7.30  | In hotel, restaurant |
+Stores and markets     |    4.23  |    or boarding house |   5.44
+Messengers, telegraph  |    2.59  | Home workers         |  16.33
+Iron and steel         |          |    Total in domestic |----------
+Iron and steel         |    1.84  |         service      |  53.95
+Textiles, hosiery and  |          |                      |
+  knit goods           |    1.84  | Textiles, hosiery and|
+Bootblacks             |    1.77  |   knit goods         |  12.36
+Peddlers               |    1.71  | Stores and markets   |   5.44
+Building trades        |    1.64  | Clothing makers      |   4.95
+Theater                |    1.57  | Candy and            |
+Office boys            |    1.43  |   confectionery      |   4.45
+Glass                  |    1.30  |  Laundry             |   1.98
+====================================================================
+
+The offenses with which the boys were charged are divided in the
+report into sixteen classes. The messenger service furnishes the
+largest proportionate number of offenders charged with "assault and
+battery" and "immoral conduct"; the delivery service those charged
+with "burglary"; bootblacking those charged with "craps and gambling,"
+"incorrigibility and truancy"; peddling those with "larceny and
+runaway," and "vagrancy or runaway." The report calls attention to the
+greater tendency of messengers to immorality, and remarks that it is
+easy to see a connection between bootblacking and the offenses in
+which bootblacks lead. The report continues: "It is worthy to note
+that neither the newsboys nor errand boys, both following pursuits
+looked upon with disfavor, are found as contributing a _leading_
+proportion of any one offense. They seem to maintain what might be
+called a high general level of delinquency rather than to lead in any
+particular direction, errand boys being found in fourteen and newsboys
+in fifteen of the sixteen separate offense groups."[119]
+
+For the purpose of clearly defining the connection between occupation
+and delinquency, and determining whether the delinquency inheres in
+the occupation or in the conditions under which it is carried on,
+there were selected six kinds of employments which are generally
+looked upon by social workers as morally unsafe for children, and a
+comparison was made of conditions as to the parentage, home
+surroundings, etc., prevailing among the workers in these occupations,
+the working delinquents generally, and the whole body of delinquents,
+both working and non-working. Of the delinquent boys under twelve
+years engaged in these six groups of employments (delivery and errand
+boys, newsboys and bootblacks, office boys, street vendors, telegraph
+messengers and in amusement resorts), nearly three-fourths were found
+to be newsboys and bootblacks. As four-fifths of the working
+delinquents under twelve years of age in all occupations are found in
+these six groups, it is evident that this class is largely responsible
+for the employment of young boys, and "comparing these figures with
+those for the working delinquents in all occupations we find that 58.6
+per cent, or nearly three-fifths of all the working delinquents up to
+twelve, come from among the newsboys."[120]
+
+It was found that 54.6 per cent of all the working delinquents had
+both parents living, while newsboys and bootblacks, street vendors and
+telegraph messengers were found to be more fortunate in this respect
+than the great mass of working delinquents, even surpassing the whole
+body of delinquents, working and non-working. As the report says, "One
+so frequently hears of the newsboy who has no one but himself to look
+to that it is rather a surprise to find that the orphaned or deserted
+child appears among them only about half as often relatively as among
+the whole group of workers."[121]
+
+Of the delinquent delivery and errand boys, 78.9 per cent were found
+to have fair or good homes, of the newsboys and bootblacks 75.8 per
+cent, of the street vendors 65 per cent, and of the telegraph
+messengers 78.9 per cent, and in this connection the report declares,
+"Certainly the predominance of these selected occupations among the
+employments of delinquents cannot be explained by the home conditions
+of the children entering them."[122]
+
+The findings with respect to the messenger service fully corroborate
+the charges brought against it by the National Child Labor Committee.
+The report says: "Turning to the messengers, it is seen that they are
+in every respect above the average of favorable conditions. Moreover,
+it is well known that boys taking up this work must be bright and
+quick; there is no room in it for the dull and mentally weak. Plainly,
+then, in this case the occupation, not the kind of children who enter
+it, must be held responsible for its position among the pursuits from
+which delinquents come ... the chief charges brought against it are
+that the irregular work and night employment tend to break down
+health, that the opportunities for overcharge and for appropriating
+packages or parts of their contents lead to dishonesty, and that the
+places to which the boy is sent familiarize him with all forms of vice
+and tend to lead him into immorality."[123] Referring again to the
+messenger service, the report says: "The unfortunate effects of the
+inherent conditions of the work are, however, manifest. Its
+irregularity, the lack of any supervision during a considerable part
+of the time, the associations of the street and of the places to which
+messengers are sent, and the frequency of night work with all its
+demoralizing features, afford an explanation of the impatience of
+restraint, the reckless yielding to impulse shown in the large
+percentage of incorrigibility and disorderly conduct. A glance at the
+main table shows that the two offenses next in order are assault and
+battery and malicious mischief, both of which indicate the same
+traits. On the whole, there seems abundant reason for considering that
+the messenger service deserves its bad name."[124]
+
+With reference to errand and delivery boys, the report finds that as
+the level of favorable conditions keeps so near to the average, it
+seems necessary to attribute the number of delinquents furnished by
+this class more to the conditions of the work than to the kind of
+children taking it up.
+
+The occupational influences of amusement resorts, street vending and
+newspaper selling "are notoriously bad, but a partial explanation of
+the number of delinquents they furnish is unquestionably in the kind
+of children who enter them. It is a case of action and reaction. These
+occupations are easily taken up by immature children, with little or
+no education and no preliminary training. Such children are least
+likely to resist evil influences, most likely to yield to all that is
+bad in their environment."[125]
+
+Having shown that a connection can be traced between certain
+occupations and the number and kind of offenses committed by the
+children working in them, the report next determines to what extent a
+direct connection can be traced between occupation and offense. If a
+working child commits an offense, first, during working hours, second,
+in some place to which his work calls him, and third, against some
+person with whom his work brings him in contact, a connection may be
+said to exist between the misdemeanor and the employment. The report
+insists that either all three of the connection elements must be
+present, or else the offense must be very clearly the outcome of
+conditions related to the work, before a connection can be asserted;
+and it reminds the reader that the number of connection cases shown
+represents an understatement, probably to a considerable degree, of
+the real situation. The number of boy delinquents in occupations which
+show more than five cases of delinquency chargeable to occupation was
+found to be 308; of these, 100 were errand or delivery boys, 129 were
+newsboys, 16 were drivers or helpers, 13 were street vendors and 10
+were messengers.
+
+The number of boy delinquents working at time of last offense and the
+number whose offenses show a connection with the occupation are
+compared, by occupation, in the following table,[126] p. 173.
+
+"Among the errand and delivery boys the percentage (of connection
+cases) is large and the connection close. Larceny accounts for over
+nine-tenths of these cases, the larceny usually being from the
+employer when the boy was sent out with goods, though in some cases
+it was from the house to which the boy was sent. It will be remembered
+that in respect to parental and home condition, age, etc., the
+delinquent errand boys came very close to the average, and their
+antecedents gave no reason to expect they would go wrong so
+numerously. That fact, together with the large proportion of
+connection cases, seems to indicate that the occupation is distinctly
+a dangerous one morally."[130]
+
+  ========================+=============+========================
+                          |             | BOY DELINQUENTS WHOSE
+                          |             |    OFFENSES SHOW A
+                          |     BOY     |    CONNECTION WITH
+                          | DELINQUENTS |       OCCUPATION
+                          | WORKING AT  +--------+---------------
+   OCCUPATION OR INDUSTRY |   TIME OF   |        |   Per Cent
+                          |    LAST     |        |    of Boy
+                          |   OFFENSE   | Number |  Delinquents
+                          |             |        | in Occupation
+                          |             |        |    Working
+  ------------------------+-------------+--------+---------------
+  In amusement resorts    |     40[127] |    7   |     17.5
+  Domestic service        |     50[128] |   14   |     28.0
+  Driver or helper        |    107      |   16   |     14.9
+  Errand or delivery boys |    261      |  100   |     38.3
+  Iron and steel workers  |     27      |    7   |     25.9
+  Messengers              |     38      |   10   |     26.3
+  Newsboys and bootblacks |    346[129] |  129   |     37.2
+  Street vendors          |     25      |   13   |     52.0
+  Stores and markets      |     62      |   12   |     19.3
+  ========================+=============+========+===============
+
+As the various forms of immorality are practiced in secret, the report
+truly says that the evils which are most associated with a messenger's
+life could hardly appear in these studies. "A trace of them is found
+in the case of one boy sentenced for larceny. After his arrest it was
+found that he was a confirmed user of cocaine, having acquired the
+habit in the disreputable houses to which his work took him. Perhaps
+something of the same kind is indicated by the fact that one of the
+few cases of drunkenness occurring among working delinquents came, as
+a connection case, from this small group of messengers. For the most
+part, however, the connection offenses (by messengers) were some form
+of dishonesty, usually appropriating parcels sent out for delivery,
+though in some cases collecting charges on prepaid packages was added
+to this."[131]
+
+The newsboys almost equal the errand boys in their percentage of
+connection cases, though their offenses have a much wider range; in
+fact, the connection cases for newsboys include a greater variety of
+offenses than any other occupation studied. Beggary appears for the
+first time, there being two cases, in both of which the selling of
+papers was a mere pretext, enabling the boys to approach passers-by.
+Street vendors were found to show the highest percentage of connection
+cases, larceny being the leading offense.
+
+The report concludes: "It is a striking fact that in spite of the
+incompleteness of the data, a direct connection between the occupation
+and the offense has been found to exist in the cases of practically
+one-fourth of the boys employed at the time of their latest offense.
+It is also a striking fact that while the delinquent boys working at
+the time of their latest offense were scattered through more than
+fifty occupations, over six-sevenths of the connection cases are found
+among those working in street occupations, and that more than
+three-fifths come from two groups of workers--the errand or delivery
+boys, and the newsboys and bootblacks. It is also significant that the
+connection cases form so large a percentage of the total cases among
+the street traders, the messengers, and the errand or delivery boys,
+their proportion ranging from over one-fourth to over one-half,
+according to the occupation."[132]
+
+In considering the effect of night work upon the morals of children,
+the report says, "The messengers and newsboys show both large numbers
+and large percentages of night work, thus giving additional ground for
+the general opinion as to the undesirable character of their work";
+and again, "In the following occupations the cases of night work are
+more numerous than they should be in proportion to the number ever
+employed in these pursuits: bootblacks, bowling alley and pool room,
+glass, hotel, messengers, newsboys and theaters and other amusement
+resorts."[133]
+
+More than one-fourth of the working boy delinquents were found to be
+attending day school. More than half of these pupils were newsboys and
+bootblacks. It was found that the more youthful the worker, the
+stronger is his tendency toward irregular attendance at school.
+
+Eighty-three boy delinquents were devoting eleven or more hours per
+day to work, and of these, 31 were errand or delivery boys, 7 were
+hucksters or peddlers, 6 were messengers and 2 were newsboys or
+bootblacks.
+
+"For both sexes, the workers show a greater tendency than the
+non-workers to go wrong, even where home and neighborhood surroundings
+appear favorable, but this tendency is not so marked among the girls
+as among the boys."[134]
+
+This report of the government investigation furnishes most conclusive
+evidence as to the evil character of street trading in general. It
+bears out the description so aptly made by a recent writer: "The
+streets are the proverbial schools of vice and crime. If the factory
+is the Scylla, the street is the Charybdis."[135]
+
+Another American writer has lately declared: "A prolific cause of
+juvenile delinquency is the influence of the street trades on the
+working boy. No other form of work has such demoralizing
+consequences.... These boys are brought into the juvenile court, and
+their misdemeanors are often so great that reformatory treatment is
+necessary for them. Accordingly they represent a large proportion of
+the boys in the different institutions. The demoralization produced by
+the street trades affects others than those engaged in such trades,
+but the latter are the chief sufferers; therefore the importance of
+legislation which will shut off this source of infection."[136]
+
+A Chicago physician took occasion to look into the records of the
+juvenile court of that city in 1909, and found that the first 100 boys
+and 25 girls examined that year were representative of the 2500
+delinquents brought into the court during the preceding year. Not less
+than 57 of these boys had been engaged in street work--43 as newsboys,
+12 as errand boys and messengers and 2 as peddlers. Only 13 out of the
+entire number had never been employed. Sixty of them were physically
+subnormal; the general physical condition of the girls was found to be
+much better than that of the boys of the same age, although 40 per
+cent of the girls were suffering from acquired venereal disease.[137]
+
+In the autumn of 1910 there were 647 boys confined in the Indiana
+state reformatory, which is known as the Indiana Boys' School, at
+Plainfield. Of this number 219, or 33.8 per cent, had formerly been
+engaged in street work. To determine the relative delinquency of
+street workers and boys who have never pursued such occupations, it
+would be necessary to compare these 219 delinquents with the total
+number of street workers in Indiana and also to compare the total
+number of inmates who had never followed street occupations with the
+total number of boys within the same age limits in Indiana. A
+comparison of the two percentages would be illuminating, but is
+impossible because it is not known how many street workers there are
+in the state. However, it is safe to assume that the number of
+street-working boys in Indiana is much less than one third of the
+total number of boys. If we accept this as true, then the figures
+indicate that street work promotes delinquency, because one third of
+all the delinquents in the state reformatory had been so engaged. The
+frequent assertion that, merely because a large percentage of the
+inmates of correctional institutions were at some time engaged in
+street work, such employment is therefore responsible for their
+delinquency, cannot be accepted alone as proof of the injurious
+character of this class of occupations, as it is not known how long
+each offender was engaged in such work, nor are the other causes
+contributing to the delinquency of each boy properly considered or
+even known. This defect is avoided in the government's Report on
+Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, which, with
+reference to the common practice of jumping at conclusions in this
+way, says, "This appears to show that selling newspapers is a morally
+dangerous occupation, but the danger cannot be measured, since it is
+not known what proportion of the working children are newsboys, or
+what proportion of the newsboys never come to grief."[138] The
+following tables are of interest as showing in detail the facts as to
+Indiana's delinquent boy street workers, who are confined in the state
+reformatory:--
+
+
+              STREET WORKERS IN INDIANA BOYS' SCHOOL, 1910
+
+            _Table A. Distribution among Street Occupations_
+
+  ==============+============+=====+======+=====+========+======+=====
+  COMMITTED FOR | MESSENGERS |NEWS-|BOOT- |PEDD-|DELIVERY|CAB   |TOTAL
+                |            |BOYS |BLACKS|LERS |BOYS    |DRIVER|
+                +-----+------+     |      |     |        |      |
+                | Day |Night |     |      |     |        |      |
+  --------------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+--------+------+-----
+  Larceny       |  3  |  22  |  88 |   3  |  6  |   3    |      | 125
+  Incorrigi-    |     |      |     |      |     |        |      |
+     bility     |     |   5  |  30 |   1  |  3  |        |   1  |  40
+  Truancy       |     |   2  |  27 |      |  3  |        |      |  32
+  Assault       |     |      |     |      |     |        |      |
+  and battery   |     |   2  |   5 |   1  |     |        |      |   8
+  Burglary      |     |   1  |     |      |     |   2    |      |   3
+  Forgery       |     |   2  |     |      |     |        |      |   2
+  Manslaughter  |     |      |   1 |      |     |        |      |   1
+  Other charges |  1  |   2  |   5 |      |     |        |      |   8
+  --------------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+--------+------+-----
+  Totals        |  4  |  36  | 156 |   5  |  12 |    5   |   1  | 219
+  ==============+=====+======+=====+======+=====+========+======+=====
+
+
+           _Table B. Ages when at Work at these Occupations_
+
+  ==================+=======+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+========
+                    | UNDER |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+                    |   10  | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | TOTALS
+  ------------------+-------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------
+  Day messengers    |       |    |    |  1 |  1 |  2 |    |    |    4
+  Night messengers  |    1  |  2 |  2 |  5 | 12 | 11 |  3 |    |   36
+  Newsboys          |   29  | 29 | 28 | 36 | 19 | 14 |  1 |    |  156
+  Bootblacks        |    3  |    |  1 |    |  1 |    |    |    |    5
+  Peddlers          |    1  |  4 |    |  2 |  3 |  1 |    |  1 |   12
+  Delivery boys     |       |  2 |    |  1 |  1 |    |    |  1 |    5
+  Cab drivers       |       |    |    |    |  1 |    |    |    |    1
+  ------------------+-------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------
+    Totals          |   34  | 37 | 31 | 45 | 38 | 28 |  4 |  2 |  219
+  ==================+=======+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+========
+
+
+                 _Table C. Ages at Time of Commitment_
+
+================+=======+===+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======
+                | UNDER |   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+ COMMITTED FOR  |   9   | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | Total
+----------------+-------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------
+Larceny         |   1   | 2 |  8 | 16 | 16 | 24 | 28 | 19 | 10 |  1 |  125
+Incorrigibility |       | 1 |  4 |  4 |  2 |  7 |  7 |  7 |  8 |    |   40
+Truancy         |       | 2 |  3 |  6 |  4 |  7 |  6 |  3 |  1 |    |   32
+Assault and     |       |   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  battery       |       |   |    |    |  1 |  1 |  5 |  1 |    |    |    8
+Burglary        |       |   |    |    |    |    |  2 |    |    |  1 |    3
+Forgery         |       |   |    |    |    |    |  1 |  1 |    |    |    2
+Manslaughter    |       |   |    |    |    |    |  1 |    |    |    |    1
+Other charges   |       |   |    |    |  3 |  1 |  2 |  2 |    |    |    8
+----------------+-------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------
+  Totals        |   1   | 5 | 15 | 26 | 26 | 40 | 52 | 33 | 19 |  2 |  219
+================+=======+===+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======
+
+
+         _Table D. Nationality and Orphanage of Street Workers_
+
+                                                         OCCUPATIONS
+                  +--------------------------------------- Day messengers
+                  |     +--------------------------------- Night messengers
+                  |     |     +--------------------------- Newsboys
+                  |     |     |     +--------------------- Bootblacks
+                  |     |     |     |     +--------------- Peddlers
+                  |     |     |     |     |     +--------- Delivery boys
+                  |     |     |     |     |     |     +--- Cab driver
+                  |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+                  V     V     V     V     V     V     V    Totals
+===============+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+AMERICAN       |   3 |  25 |  69 |   4 |   6 |   2 |   1 |  110
+NEGRO          |     |   5 |  59 |   1 |   2 |   3 |     |   70
+GERMAN         |     |   3 |  13 |     |   1 |     |     |   17
+IRISH          |     |   1 |   8 |     |   1 |     |     |   10
+POLISH         |   1 |   1 |   3 |     |   1 |     |     |    6
+FRENCH         |     |     |   2 |     |   1 |     |     |    3
+SCOTCH         |     |   1 |     |     |     |     |     |    1
+ITALIAN        |     |     |   1 |     |     |     |     |    1
+JEWISH         |     |     |   1 |     |     |     |     |    1
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+FATHER   | Yes |   4 |  30 | 107 |   5 |   7 |   4 |     |  157
+  LIVING | No  |     |   6 |  49 |     |   5 |   1 |   1 |   62
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+MOTHER   | Yes |   3 |  30 | 119 |   5 |  11 |   5 |   1 |  174
+  LIVING | No  |   1 |   6 |  37 |     |   1 |     |     |   45
+=========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+
+
+            _Table E. Hours and Earnings of Street Workers_
+
+(In only 91 cases were the hours given, and earnings in only 116
+cases.)
+
+                                                       OCCUPATIONS
+                       +-------------------------------- Day messengers
+                       |    +--------------------------- Night messengers
+                       |    |    +---------------------- Newsboys
+                       |    |    |    +----------------- Bootblacks
+                       |    |    |    |    +------------ Peddlers
+                       |    |    |    |    |    +------- Delivery boys
+                       |    |    |    |    |    |    +-- Cab driver
+                       |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+                       V    V    V    V    V    V    V   Totals
+====================+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+=======
+HOURS               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  Day               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+    All             |  3 |    | 29 |  5 | 11 |  5 |    |   53
+    Morning         |    |    | 10 |    |    |    |    |   10
+    Afternoon       |    |    | 11 |    |    |    |    |   11
+--------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------
+  Night             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+    All             |    |  6 |  1 |    |    |    |    |    7
+    Before midnight |    |  2 |  4 |    |  1 |    |  1 |    8
+    After midnight  |    |  1 |  1 |    |    |    |    |    2
+      Totals        |  3 |  9 | 56 |  5 | 12 |  5 |  1 |   91
+====================+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+=======
+DAILY EARNINGS      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  Under 50 cents    |  1 |    | 47 |  1 |  6 |    |    |   55
+  50-75 cents       |  1 |  8 | 23 |  3 |  3 |  3 |    |   41
+  75 cents-$1.00    |  1 |  4 |  5 |    |  3 |  2 |  1 |   16
+  $1.25-$1.50       |    |  1 |  3 |    |    |    |    |    4
+    Totals          |  3 | 13 | 78 |  4 | 12 |  5 |  1 |  116
+====================+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+=======
+
+
+      _Table F. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910_
+
+                                                   COMMITTED FOR
+                  +--------------------------------- Larceny
+                  |     +--------------------------- Truancy
+                  |     |     +--------------------- Incorrigibility
+                  |     |     |     +--------------- Burglary
+                  |     |     |     |     +--------- Assault and battery
+                  |     |     |     |     |     +--- Other charges
+                  |     |     |     |     |     |
+                  V     V     V     V     V     V    Totals
+===============+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+AMERICAN       | 156 |  66 |  53 |   5 |   2 |  11 |  293
+NEGRO          |  40 |  10 |   7 |   1 |   2 |   5 |   65
+GERMAN         |  12 |   4 |   4 |     |   1 |   2 |   23
+IRISH          |   7 |   3 |   5 |     |   1 |   1 |   17
+POLISH         |  10 |   3 |   3 |     |     |     |   16
+ENGLISH        |   3 |     |   1 |   1 |     |     |    5
+JEWISH         |   1 |     |   1 |     |     |     |    2
+SWEDISH        |     |     |   1 |     |     |     |    1
+FRENCH         |   2 |     |     |     |     |     |    2
+MEXICAN        |   1 |     |     |     |     |     |    1
+ITALIAN        |   1 |     |     |   1 |     |     |    2
+HUNGARIAN      |   1 |     |     |     |     |     |    1
+---------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+TOTALS         | 234 |  86 |  75 |   8 |   6 |  19 |  428
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+FATHER   | Yes | 168 |  62 |  44 |   6 |   3 |  15 |  298
+  LIVING | No  |  66 |  24 |  31 |   2 |   3 |   4 |  130
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+MOTHER   | Yes | 182 |  62 |  50 |   7 |   5 |  17 |  323
+  LIVING | No  |  52 |  24 |  25 |   1 |   1 |   2 |  105
+=========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+
+
+      _Table G. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910_
+
+                                               COMMITTED FOR
+              +--------------------------------- Larceny
+              |     +--------------------------- Truancy
+              |     |     +--------------------- Incorrigibility
+              |     |     |     +--------------- Burglary
+              |     |     |     |     +--------- Assault and battery
+              |     |     |     |     |     +--- Other charges
+ AGES AT      |     |     |     |     |     |
+COMMITMENT    V     V     V     V     V     V    Totals
+===========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+ UNDER   9 |   9 |   7 |   1 |     |     |   2 |   19
+         9 |   7 |  10 |   7 |     |     |   3 |   27
+        10 |  10 |  10 |   4 |   1 |     |   2 |   27
+        11 |  20 |  10 |   9 |   2 |     |   3 |   44
+        12 |  25 |  17 |   8 |     |     |   1 |   51
+        13 |  33 |  14 |  10 |   2 |   1 |   1 |   61
+        14 |  46 |  10 |  14 |   1 |   1 |   1 |   73
+        15 |  47 |   5 |   8 |   1 |   2 |   3 |   66
+        16 |  28 |   3 |  12 |     |   1 |     |   44
+        17 |   9 |     |   2 |     |     |   3 |   14
+ OVER   17 |     |     |     |   1 |   1 |     |    2
+-----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+  TOTALS   | 234 |  86 |  75 |   8 |   6 |  19 |  428
+===========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+
+
+                   _Table H. Behavior in Institution_
+
+  =========+================+====================
+           | STREET WORKERS | NON-STREET WORKERS
+  ---------+----------------+--------------------
+  Good     |    39 or 18%   |      95 or 22%
+  Average  |   175 or 80%   |     321 or 75%
+  Bad      |     5 or  2%   |      12 or  3%
+  ---------+----------------+--------------------
+    Totals |   219          |     428
+  =========+================+====================
+
+By far the largest number of street-working delinquents had been
+newsboys, these being followed by messengers, peddlers, bootblacks and
+delivery boys in the order given. From a hasty glance at these tables
+one might conclude that street workers are not so liable to become
+delinquent as those who never follow street occupations, because of
+the smaller number of the former; but it should be remembered that the
+ratio of street-working inmates to the entire number of street-working
+boys in Indiana is much greater than the ratio of the other inmates to
+the whole body of non-street-working children in the state.
+
+In comparing Tables C and G it is seen that the street workers and the
+non-street workers were committed for practically the same offenses,
+and that their distribution according to offense does not vary widely.
+It is significant that a much smaller proportion of the street workers
+were committed to the institution under the age of ten years, than of
+the non-street workers, indicating that street occupations (which are
+not usually entered upon before the age of ten years), if followed for
+a year or two, contribute largely to the promotion of delinquency.
+
+From a comparison of Tables D and F it will be observed that the
+prevalence of delinquency among the street workers cannot be explained
+on the ground of orphanage, as only 28 per cent were fatherless and 21
+per cent motherless, while of the non-street workers 30 per cent were
+fatherless and 25 per cent were motherless. This indicates (1) that
+street work in the great majority of cases is not made necessary by
+orphanage, and (2) that street work causes delinquency in spite of
+good home conditions so far as the presence of both parents
+contributes to the making of a good home. Furthermore, it will be
+noted in Table E that nearly half of the children for whom figures on
+income could be obtained earned less than fifty cents per day--a small
+return on the heavy investment in the risk of health and character.
+
+The difference in behavior at the institution between the street
+workers and the others is shown in Table H to be almost negligible,
+the latter making a slightly better showing.
+
+An English writer says: "There is no difficulty in understanding how
+street trading and newspaper selling lead to gambling. We are told by
+those who are best able to judge, that of the young thieves and
+prostitutes in the city of Manchester, 47 per cent had begun as street
+hawkers. For the younger boys and girls such an occupation, especially
+at night, turns the streets into nurseries of crime. The newspaper
+sellers are not exposed to quite the same dangers, but they are nearly
+all gamblers. They gamble on anything and everything, from the horse
+races reported hour by hour in the papers they sell, to the numbers on
+the passing cabs, and they end by gambling with their lives."[139]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE STRUGGLE FOR REGULATION IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+The economic activities of children in city streets, commonly called
+street trades, are not specifically covered by the provisions of child
+labor laws except in the District of Columbia and the states of
+Massachusetts, Missouri, New York, Oklahoma, Colorado, Utah, Nevada,
+New Hampshire and Wisconsin. The laws of many other states as well as
+of those mentioned, however, prohibit children under fourteen years of
+age from being employed or permitted to work in the distribution or
+transmission of merchandise or messages. If newspapers are
+merchandise, then children under fourteen years would not be allowed
+to deliver newspapers under the provision just stated. This raises a
+nice question as to what is included in the term "merchandise." That
+there is any distinction between newspapers and merchandise is
+practically denied by the street-trades laws of Utah and New
+Hampshire which provide that children under certain ages shall not
+sell "newspapers, magazines, periodicals or _other_ merchandise in any
+street or public place"; the question of delivery, however, is left
+open by these laws. The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia,
+in the case of District of Columbia _vs._ Reider, sustained the
+juvenile court of the District in its decision that newspapers are not
+merchandise and consequently that children under fourteen years of age
+engaged in delivering newspapers are not affected by the law.[140] The
+judge of the trial court stated in his opinion, "No one will seriously
+contend that the nature of the employment in the case at bar is at all
+harmful to the child." The case at bar was the prosecution of a route
+agent for a morning newspaper on account of having employed a minor
+under fourteen years of age to deliver newspapers. This opinion is
+typical of the misplaced sympathy so commonly bestowed upon these
+young "merchants" of the street. In the case cited, the court
+permitted itself to be drawn aside into an interpretation of the
+letter of the law instead of viewing the matter in the light of its
+spirit. The purpose of such a law is to _prevent the labor_ of
+children, not to distinguish between closely related forms of labor.
+Its object is to afford protection, not to provoke discussion of
+purely technical points. The _labor_ of delivering merchandise does
+not differ in any respect from the _labor_ of delivering newspapers
+(the possibly greater weight of merchandise does not alter the case,
+inasmuch as it is usually carried about in wagons); and as the child
+labor law of the District of Columbia forbids the delivery of
+merchandise by children under fourteen years at any time, it follows
+that the delivery of newspapers by such children should not be
+allowed, because the intent of the law is to protect them from the
+probable consequences of such work. Moreover, the District of Columbia
+law prohibits children under sixteen years from delivering merchandise
+before six o'clock in the morning; yet, under the interpretation given
+by the juvenile court, it is perfectly proper for a child even under
+the age of _fourteen_ years to perform the _labor_ of delivery before
+that hour, provided he handles newspapers instead of packages. The
+inconsistency of this is only too apparent. The spirit of the law is
+lost sight of in the close interpretation of its wording. This is one
+of the obstacles always encountered in the movement for child labor
+reform after prohibitory legislation has been enacted.
+
+American legislation on street trading still clings persistently and
+pathetically to the theory that uncontrolled labor is much better for
+children than labor under the supervision of adults, and consequently
+authorizes very young children to do certain kinds of work in the
+streets on their own responsibility, while forbidding them to work at
+other street occupations even under the control of older and more
+experienced persons. This official incongruity must ultimately be
+rescinded and replaced by more rational and comprehensive legislation.
+The fallacy of permitting such a distinction on the ground that the
+child is an independent "merchant" in the one case and an employee in
+the other, must also be abandoned in favor of a more enlightened
+policy.
+
+
+                     _Present Laws and Ordinances_
+
+The following table shows all the laws and ordinances governing
+street trading by children in existence in the United States in 1911.
+
+The city council of Detroit passed an ordinance in 1877 which forbids
+newsboys and bootblacks to ply their trades in the streets without a
+permit from the mayor. No age limit is fixed, no distinction is made
+between the sexes and no hours are specified. Applicants for the
+permit are customarily referred to the chief truant officer for
+approval, and as a rule permits are not issued to boys under ten years
+of age or to girls. An annual license fee of ten cents is charged, and
+the license holder is supplied with a numbered badge which must be
+worn conspicuously. Owing to its manifest weakness, this ordinance is
+of little avail.
+
+It will be observed from the following table that the common age limit
+for boys in street trading is ten years. When we pause to reflect on
+the import of this, it is hard to realize that intelligent American
+communities actually tolerate such an absurdly meager restriction; yet
+the movement for reform has progressed even this far in only a very
+small part of the country--in most places there is no restriction
+whatever! Some day, and that not in the very remote future, we shall
+look back upon the authorized exploitation of the present period with
+the same degree of incredulity with which we now regard the horrors of
+child labor in England during the early part of the nineteenth
+century.
+
+
+                                STATE LAWS
+
+============+===========+==========+=======+=============+=================
+   STATES   | AGE LIMIT | LICENSES | HOURS | ENFORCEMENT |    PENALTIES
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Colorado,   |Girls, 10; |          |       |Factory      |$5-$100 fine for
+1911        |any work   |          |       |inspectors   |first offense,
+            |in streets |          |       |             |$100-$200 fine or
+            |           |          |       |             |imprisonment 90
+            |           |          |       |             |days for 2d
+            |           |          |       |             |offense for
+            |           |          |       |             |employers. $5-$25
+            |           |          |       |             |fine for parents
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+District of |Boys, 10;  |Boys,     |6 A.M. |Factory      |Left to
+Columbia,   |Girls, 16; |10-15     |10 P.M.|inspectors   |discretion of
+1908        |bootblack- |          |       |             |juvenile court
+            |ing,       |          |       |             |
+            |selling    |          |       |             |
+            |anything   |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Missouri,   |Boys, 10;  |          |       |Factory      |Max. fine $100 or
+1911        |girls, 16; |          |       |inspectors   |max. imprisonment
+            |selling    |          |       |             |one year, for
+            |anything   |          |       |             |child
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Nevada, 1911|Boys, 10;  |          |       |             |Child dealt with
+            |girls, 10; |          |       |             |as delinquent
+            |selling    |          |       |             |
+            |anything   |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+New Hamp-   |Boys, 10;  |          |       |Factory      |$5-$200 fine or
+shire, 1911 |girls, 16; |          |       |inspectors;  |imprisonment
+            |publica-   |          |       |truant       |10-30 days, for
+            |tions or   |          |       |officers     |employers and
+            |other mdse.|          |       |             |parents
+            |Boys, 10;  |          |       |             |
+            |girls, 10; |          |       |             |
+            |bootblack- |          |       |             |
+            |ing        |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+New York,   |Boys, 10;  |Boys,     |6 A.M. |Police and   |Dealt with accor-
+1903        |girls, 16; |10-13     |10 P.M.|truant       |ding to law
+            |publica-   |          |       |officers     |
+            |tions      |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Oklahoma,   |Girls, 16; |          |       |Commissioner |$10-$50 fine or
+1909        |publica-   |          |       |of Labor     |imprisonment
+            |tions      |          |       |             |10-30 days for
+            |           |          |       |             |child
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Utah, 1911, |Boys, 12;  |Boys,     |Not    |             |$25-$200 fine or
+1st& 2d     |girls 16;  |12-15     |after  |             |imprisonment
+class       |publica-   |          |9 P.M. |             |10-30 days, for
+cities      |tions or   |          |       |             |employers and
+            |other mdse.|          |       |             |parents
+            |Boys, 12;  |Boys,     |       |             |
+            |girls, 12; |12-15     |       |             |
+            |bootblack- |Girls,    |       |             |
+            |ing        |12-15     |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Wisconsin,  |Boys, 12;  |Boys,     |5 A.M. |Factory      |$25-$100 fine or
+1909, as    |girls, 18; |12-15     |6.30   |inspectors   |imprisonment 10-
+amended     |publica-   |          | P.M., |             |60 days for pa-
+1911, 1st   |tions.     |          |winter |             |rents permitting,
+class       |Boys, 14;  |          |7.30   |             |and others em-
+cities      |girls, 18, |          | P.M., |             |ploying, child
+            |all others |          |summer;|             |under 16 to
+            |           |          |publi- |             |peddle without
+            |           |          |cations|             |permit. Same for
+            |           |          |       |             |newspapers allow-
+            |           |          |       |             |ing boys under
+            |           |          |       |             |16 about office
+            |           |          |       |             |between 9 A.M.
+            |           |          |       |             |and 3 P.M. on
+            |           |          |       |             |school days
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Massachu-   |Mayor and aldermen or selectmen may make re-|Max. fine $10 for
+setts, 1902 |gulations of bootblacking and sale of news- |child; max. fine
+as amended, |papers, merchandise, etc; may prohibit such |$200 or max.
+1910        |sale or trades; or may require license to be|imprisonment 6
+            |obtained from them. School committees in    |months for parent
+            |cities have these powers as to children     |allowing, person
+            |under 14 years.                             |employing, or
+            |                                            |any one furnish-
+            |                                            |ing articles to,
+            |                                            |a child to sell
+============+============================================+=================
+
+
+                             CITY ORDINANCES
+
+==========+===============+==========+=========+=============+=============
+  CITIES  |   AGE LIMIT   | LICENSES |  HOURS  | ENFORCEMENT | PENALTIES
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Boston,   | Boys, 11;     | Boys,    | 6 A.M.  | Supervisor  |Revocation
+1902, by  | girls, 14;    | 11-13    | 8 P.M., | of licensed |of license
+school    | bootblacking, |          | winter  | minors,     |and fine as
+committee | selling       |          | 9 P.M., | police and  |stated for
+          | anything      |          | summer  | truant      |Massachusetts
+          |               |          |         | officers    |
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Cincin-   | Boys, 10;     | Boys,    | 6 A.M.  | Police,     |Fine $1-$5
+nati, 1909| girls, 16;    | 10-13    | 8 P.M.  | truant and  |for child
+          | bootblacking, |          |         | probation   |
+          | selling       |          |         | officers    |
+          | anything      |          |         |             |
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Hartford, | Boys, 10;     | Boys,    | Not     |             |Revocation
+1910      | girls, 10;    | 10-13    | during  |             |of license
+          | selling       | Girls,   | school  |             |by school
+          | anything      | 10-13    | hours   |             |superinten-
+          |               |          | or      |             |dent
+          |               |          | after 8 |             |
+          |               |          | P.M.    |             |
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Newark,   | Boys, 10;     | Boys,    | Not     | Police and  |Child placed
+1904      | girls, 16;    | 10-13    | between | truant      |on probation
+          | newspapers    |          | 9 A.M.  | officers    |or committed
+          |               |          | and 3   |             |to Newark
+          |               |          | P.M.    |             |City Home at
+          |               |          | nor     |             |expense of
+          |               |          | after   |             |parent
+          |               |          | 10 P.M. |             |
+==========+===============+==========+=========+=============+=============
+
+In an attempt to minimize the bad effects of street trading most of
+the communities which have enacted laws or ordinances on the subject
+provide for the issuance of licenses to boys, and in some cases also
+to girls, in the belief that in this way the work of the children can
+best be brought under some degree of control. However, this is merely
+temporizing, although it affords an opportunity to gather facts and
+undoubtedly marks a step toward a better solution of the problem. This
+is brought out clearly by a recent British report on street trading:
+"Our general impression, gathered in towns in which by-laws had been
+made, was that, though in exceptional cases much good had resulted
+from their adoption, on the whole this method of dealing with what we
+have come to consider an unquestionable evil, has not proved adequate
+or satisfactory. In many instances it has been pointed out to us that
+a system of licensing and badging is but a method of legalizing what
+is indisputably an evil, and that a set of by-laws, however rigorously
+enforced, can at best only modify the difficulties of the
+position."[141]
+
+The social workers of Chicago, keenly alive to the menace of the
+situation, bewail the lack of protection for street workers in the
+following words: "The child labor law and the compulsory school law
+and the juvenile court law form the body of protective legislation
+which has been developing in behalf of the children of Illinois during
+the past twenty years. By none of the three, however, except in so far
+as street trading by a child under ten is counted an element in
+dependency, is the street-trading child safeguarded against parental
+neglect or greed, the vicious sights and sounds of the city street and
+the demoralizing habit of irregular employment."[142]
+
+
+                       _Opposition to Regulation_
+
+The opposition to bringing the street trades under some degree of
+restriction has come, as might be expected, from very interested
+sources. In Illinois the newspaper publishers figured prominently in
+the movement to prevent the passage of the street-trades measure
+introduced in the legislature of that state at its session of 1911.
+This has not always been the case, however, as the circulation
+managers of the five leading daily newspapers of St. Louis wrote
+letters to the legislature of Missouri favoring the passage of that
+section of the child labor bill of 1911, which provided that boys
+under ten years and girls under sixteen years should not sell anything
+in any street or public place within the state. This provision was
+enacted into law, but it is safe to say that if the rational age limit
+of sixteen years for boys had been advocated instead of ten years, the
+newspapers would have been most active in opposing this section. In
+Cincinnati the circulation managers of the newspapers most affected by
+the street-trades ordinance passed by the City Council in 1909 agreed
+to its provisions before the measure was submitted to the Council,
+and consequently it passed without opposition.
+
+In New Haven and Hartford repeated attempts have been made to secure
+regulation of street trading by means of city ordinances, and at two
+sessions of the state legislature bills have been introduced which
+provided for such restriction, but all these efforts have been
+persistently fought by a leading newspaper of Hartford in which city
+it has always been customary to have girls as well as boys selling
+newspapers on the street. In 1910, a city ordinance was passed in
+Hartford providing that boys and girls under ten years should be
+prohibited from trading in the streets and that between the ages of
+ten and fourteen years they should be licensed and not allowed to sell
+after 8 P.M. The newsgirls were not banished from the street because
+it was held that they were "a pretty good sort of girl after all," and
+that so long as it could not be proved that they were _demoralized_ by
+the work, they should be permitted to go on with it. In other words,
+the city clings to the fine old American policy of delaying action
+until some calamity makes it necessary.
+
+The objections offered by interested parties to the by-laws drafted by
+the London County Council at a hearing held in 1906, show that the law
+of self preservation operates in England as in other quarters of the
+Earth. News agents, employing little boys to deliver newspapers,
+declared that conditions were not bad; that the work was healthful;
+that the wages were a great help to poor parents; that they could not
+afford to employ older boys; that the lads should be allowed to begin
+at 6 A.M. and work not more than ten hours a day outside of school
+with a maximum weekly limit of twenty-five hours; that to prohibit the
+delivery of newspapers before 7 A.M. and after 7 P.M. would be a great
+injustice to the trade; that boys wouldn't stay in bed even if 7 A.M.
+were fixed as the hour for beginning work; that such work does not
+interfere with schooling; that the boys are well looked after; in
+short, that the by-laws would ruin them and bring starvation to the
+children. One news agent in declaiming against the hours fixed for the
+delivery of newspapers, insisted that the restriction would throw boys
+out of employment and send them to trade in the streets with their
+undesirable associations, apparently unmindful of the fact that
+delivery boys themselves worked in that environment. The dairymen were
+horrified at the limit placed on hours, urging that the little boys in
+their employ should begin to deliver milk at 5 A.M., as early work was
+beneficial and the wages useful to poor parents. Shopkeepers denounced
+the by-laws as too drastic, because they would prevent such light work
+as errand running at noon and casual employment in the evening after
+7, resulting in hardship to both parents and children; one
+acknowledged that if he were prevented from employing cheap labor his
+business would suffer; another said that he employed a boy at noon and
+also from 5.30 to 9 P.M., the work being light and the parents
+satisfied, and that the training was good for boys. A fruiterer
+actually declared that the limit of eight hours on Saturday would make
+a boy valueless to him; another said he employed a boy for one hour in
+the morning, from 6 to 9 in the evening, and also on Saturday morning
+and evening, in running errands, and that the work was not heavy;
+another employed boys after school from 6 to 9.30 P.M., insisting that
+the work was good for them, as it kept them from the street and gave
+them an insight into business habits.[143] It should be remembered
+that all this work was performed by the children in addition to
+attending school both morning and afternoon.
+
+The testimony given before the British Interdepartmental Committee of
+1901 by the secretary of an association representing many thousand
+retail shopkeepers, would be amusing if it were not so sinister. He
+presented the subject of child labor in a most favorable aspect,
+declaring that the wages were needed on account of poverty in the
+families; that the work was light and had a _very beneficial_ effect
+on health because it was done in the open air; that good meals were
+given in addition to cash wages and were _very beneficial_; that the
+effect on the boys' character was _very beneficial_, as the work
+cultivated businesslike habits and kept the boys from running the
+streets, frequently affording promotion to the higher grades of
+shopkeeping.[144] Another British Committee, investigating conditions
+in Ireland, reported, "We found but one witness (a newspaper manager
+of Belfast) to testify that the present conditions of selling papers
+in the street were satisfactory and cannot be improved; and that
+instead of tending to demoralize, they have the opposite effect."[145]
+
+
+               _Ways and Means of Regulating Street Work_
+
+As to the control of street trading by children there are two methods
+by which the desired end may be approached. First, a mutual agreement
+as to self-imposed restrictions among the managers of all the business
+interests in connection with which children work on the streets. This
+method, however, can be dismissed from consideration at once on
+account of its impracticability. Street work embraces many different
+kinds of commercial activity, and as one manager is the competitor of
+all others in the same line of business and is free to adopt such
+lawful means of placing his wares on the market as he sees fit, it
+would be clearly impossible to force any one into such an agreement
+against his will. Moreover, new competitors may enter the field at
+any time who would not be bound by the agreement of the others, and
+consequently this would soon be broken by the force of competition
+following the intrusion of these new parties.
+
+Second, regulation by constituted legislative authority. This is the
+more feasible method, and such regulation may be obtained from either
+of two sources--the municipality or the state. There is a question as
+to which of the two is the better for the purpose. Regulation by the
+state has the advantage of making the provisions apply uniformly to
+all cities within its borders and is obtained by no more effort than
+is required to get an ordinance through the Council of a single
+municipality. On the other hand, the municipal ordinance has the
+advantage of being secured by residents of the community who are
+intelligently concerned in the local problem and who will therefore
+take an active interest in having its provisions enforced. However,
+the good features of both these methods are united in the English
+plan, a modification of which has been adopted by Massachusetts.
+According to this plan the state fixes a minimum amount of
+restriction and authorizes local authorities, including boards of
+education, to increase the scope of restriction, and provides
+penalties for violation of the same.
+
+As to the degree of regulation, an ultra-conservative measure would
+prohibit boys under ten and girls under sixteen years from selling
+anything at any time in the streets or public places of cities, while
+the age limit for boys is raised to fourteen years for night work. The
+issuance of licenses to boys ten to fourteen years of age who wish to
+engage in street trading is the usual accompaniment of such
+restriction, and while ordinarily of little avail, it could be made of
+some assistance to truant and probation officers in their efforts to
+enforce the compulsory education and delinquency laws. The age limit
+for boys has been advanced to eleven years by the School Committee of
+Boston, and to twelve years for newsboys and fourteen years for other
+street workers by the state of Wisconsin. But all efforts to secure
+such regulation should be based upon the principle that street trading
+is an undesirable form of labor for children, and consequently should
+be subject to at least the same restrictions as other forms of child
+labor.
+
+
+               _Probable Course of Regulation in Future_
+
+American child labor laws usually contain a provision to the effect
+that no child under sixteen years shall engage in any employment that
+may be considered dangerous to its life or limb or where its health
+may be injured or morals depraved. This is sonorous, but
+ineffective,--the particular kinds of improper work should be
+specified. In this list of undesirable forms of labor, street work
+should be included. Great Britain has had far more experience in the
+matter of regulating the work of children than any state of this
+country, and, in the light of all this experience, her departmental
+committee of 1910 has emphatically declared that street trading by
+boys under seventeen and girls under eighteen years should be
+absolutely prohibited. This should be our ideal in America. Commenting
+on the banishment of young girls from the streets of New York City,
+Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "If the law against street selling and
+peddling by girls to the age of sixteen years can be thus effectively
+enforced in a city in which the depths of poverty among the immigrants
+are so frightful as they are in New York, there is no reason for
+assuming that it is impossible to prohibit efficiently street selling
+by boys."[146] Girls under eighteen years should never be allowed to
+go out in the streets for commercial purposes, no matter how innocent
+these purposes may be in themselves. One of the most important
+features of the movement in America should be the absolute prohibition
+of such work by minors under eighteen years at night; this is urged
+because it is in harmony with the provisions of our most advanced
+child labor laws and is fully justified because of the evil character
+of the influences rampant in cities after dark, and because such night
+work affords children a constant opportunity to cultivate their
+acquaintance with, if not to know for the first time, conditions from
+which every effort should be made to isolate them. For night messenger
+service the age limit should be twenty-one years.
+
+The enforcement of such regulation as is now provided by the few
+states and cities which have given this subject any attention, is
+variously intrusted to factory inspectors, police, truant and
+probation officers, but in Boston the school committee has delivered
+this task into the hands of one man who is known as the supervisor of
+licensed minors. The Boston plan for enforcement seems to have given
+better results than the common system of intrusting the enforcement to
+officers already overburdened with other duties, but it is clearly
+impossible for one officer to handle the situation unaided in a large
+city--the plan would be considerably improved by the appointment of
+several assistants.
+
+"The licensing by the Boston School Committee of minors of school age
+to trade in the streets of Boston came about through an act of
+legislature in 1902. The need of supervision of minors licensed under
+this act became very apparent, as their numbers increased and their
+street influences reacting on their school life became better
+understood. To meet this need a supervisor of licensed minors was
+appointed whose duties are to secure the strict enforcement of the
+law, regulations governing the various forms of street work of
+children of school age, also to have general supervision of the
+details of the licensing department."[147]
+
+Human nature in children is not in the least unlike human nature in
+adults. Just as we need an interstate commerce commission backed by
+the federal government to supervise the large business affairs of men,
+so do we need a supervisor of children's commercial activities in city
+streets, clothed with authority by the municipal government.
+
+The Boston plan is now being advocated for New York City: "In the
+street trades the Committee recommends that the principle of
+supervision of licensed minors, as practised for a number of years in
+Boston, be adopted, and that an office be created in the Department of
+Education that shall have supervisory control of all minors engaged in
+street trades. It recommends furthermore that the minimum age limit
+for licensing boys be raised from ten to fourteen years, and that the
+legal limit for selling at night be reduced from 10 to 8, to
+correspond more nearly with the provisions of labor legislation
+dealing with children in factories."[148]
+
+The first attempt to control the situation in New York City was
+intrusted to the police, but the results were not satisfactory, as
+they looked upon the matter with indifference. Subsequently the truant
+officers also were charged with this duty, and in 1908 four men were
+assigned to give their entire attention to this work between 3 P.M.
+and 11 P.M., and at present eight men are so engaged, but no very
+marked improvement is noticeable. In Rochester the enforcement of the
+state law was brought about through the efforts of the women of that
+city; both business women and shoppers were asked to consider
+themselves members of a vigilance committee and to notify the board of
+education and the police department by telephone whenever any
+violations of the law were observed upon the streets. Within five days
+so many complaints had been received that both the superintendent of
+schools and the president of the board of education arranged a meeting
+at which their attention was invited to the widespread disregard of
+the law. As a result, steps were taken at once to insure enforcement,
+and finally the board of education appointed one truant officer, and
+the commissioner of police detailed a policeman especially for the
+work of reporting violations.
+
+In addition to providing an improved method of enforcement, efforts
+have been made in Boston to deal more effectively with the difficult
+problem of keeping street traders out of saloons, the licensing board
+having issued an order to all holders of liquor licenses to prohibit
+minors from loitering upon the licensed premises, more especially
+newsboys and messenger boys.
+
+The efforts of the school committee to regulate street trading in
+Boston have been further supplemented by organizing a Newsboys'
+Republic, which is described as follows: "Perhaps the most important
+result of supervision so far has been the gradual introduction of a
+plan for self government among the licensed newsboys through the
+so-called Boston School Newsboys' Association. This association is
+pledged to the enforcement of the license rules and the suppression of
+smoking, gambling and other street vices, more or less common among
+the street boys of certain neighborhoods. The association is run by
+the boys themselves, through officers of their own choosing,
+consisting of one newsboy captain and two lieutenants for each school
+district; also a chief captain and general secretary and an executive
+board of seven elected from the ranks of the captains. The general
+duties of the captains and lieutenants are, first, to see that all
+licensed newsboys of their respective school districts live up to
+their license rules, and the principles of the association. Secondly,
+to see that all boys not licensed shall not interfere with or in any
+way hurt the business of the licensed newsboys. These duties are
+performed through weekly inspections on the street, supplemented by
+monthly inspection at schools, at which time branch meetings of all
+the boys in each district are frequently held."[149]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IX
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF STREET TRADES REGULATION IN EUROPE
+
+
+                            _Great Britain_
+
+Attention was called to the problem of street trading by children in
+England for the first time, in a comprehensive way, in 1897. A few
+close observers of social conditions noticed that the situation was so
+grave as to demand an immediate remedy, and accordingly, upon their
+initiative, an organization was effected for the purpose of studying
+the subject. This organization took the form of a private association
+known as the Committee on Wage-Earning Children. The committee
+conferred with the officers of the board of education and succeeded in
+arousing their interest to the extent of securing a promise for the
+collection of a return from the elementary schools of England and
+Wales concerning the labor of public school pupils, their ages, and
+other relevant information. In 1898, the House of Commons ordered
+this inquiry to be made, and in June of that year copies of a schedule
+were sent by the educational department to all the public elementary
+schools in England and Wales. Many schoolmasters misunderstood the
+meaning of this schedule and failed to report the children of their
+schools who were actually engaged in various forms of work outside of
+school hours. Only about half of the schedules were filled and
+returned, but these showed that 144,026 children were following some
+kind of gainful occupation in addition to attending school. Many
+schoolmasters reported pitiable cases of child exploitation, as, for
+example, the following: "Boys helping milkmen are up at 5 o'clock in
+the morning, whilst those selling papers are about the streets to a
+very late hour at night. During lessons many fall off to sleep, and if
+not asleep the effort to keep awake is truly painful both to boy and
+teacher. The educational time, as a consequence, is materially
+wasted."[150] "These are sad cases, viz. one boy (aged eleven, in
+Standard III) works daily, as a grocer's errand boy, for 1_s._ 6_d._
+a week, from 8 to 9 A.M., from 12 to 1.30 P.M., and from 4.30 to 7.30
+P.M. On Saturday from 8 A.M. to 10 P.M. Another boy, aged ten in
+Standard III, works also as a grocer's errand boy for 1_s._ 6_d._ per
+week, from 8.30 to 9 A.M., from 12 to 1.30 and from 5 to 8 P.M., and
+on Saturday from 8.30 A.M. to 11 P.M." And all this in addition to
+twenty-seven and one half hours of school every week! A boy who works
+for 56-3/4 hours a week, selling papers, is employed as follows:
+"Monday to Friday, from 7 A.M. to 8.45 A.M., from 12 to 1 P.M., and
+from 4 to 10 P.M., and on Saturday from 7 A.M., to 10 A.M., from 12 to
+2 P.M. and from 3 to 11 P.M." "This is a very bad case: called at 2
+and 3 o'clock A.M., the boy (aged eight) is so tired that he is
+obliged to go to bed again, and is often absent from school, and made
+to work in the evening as well."[151] Many schoolmasters also
+testified to the need of a remedy; one of these wrote on the schedule:
+"May I be allowed to express my gratitude to the education department
+for making this inquiry, and express the hope that the department will
+be able to frame some regulation to meet and relieve the onerous
+conditions under which many of the young have to gain education.
+Without exaggeration I can truthfully assert that there are to-day in
+our national and board schools thousands of little white slaves."[152]
+
+Nothing more came of the movement until January, 1901, when the
+Secretary of State for the Home Department appointed an
+interdepartmental committee "to inquire into the question of the
+employment of children during school age, and to report what
+alterations are desirable in the laws relating to child labour and
+school attendance and in the administration of these laws." After
+making careful investigation this committee declared: "In the case of
+street-trading children very strong powers of regulation are required.
+These children are exposed to the worst influences; they enter public
+houses to ply their trade, they are kept up late at night and exposed
+to inclement weather, and the precarious nature of their trade
+disinclines them to steady work, and encourages them to dissipate
+their earnings in gambling ... there should be power to prohibit
+street trading by children; to make regulations as to the age and sex
+of street traders, and the days and hours on which they may ply their
+trade; to grant licenses to those permitted to trade and to require
+the wearing of badges or uniforms; to forbid street traders to enter
+public houses or to importune or obstruct passengers; and generally to
+control their conduct and to cope with the evil in every reasonable
+way."[153] The committee further reported: "Our main recommendation is
+that the overworking of children in those occupations which are still
+unregulated by law should be prevented by giving to the county and
+borough councils a power to make labour by-laws; ... further we
+suggest that the gaps that may be left by local by-laws should be
+filled up by a general prohibition of night labour by children and of
+labour manifestly injurious to health."[154] This committee reported
+that the number of children in England and Wales attending school and
+also in paid employment was far greater than as reported by the
+parliamentary return, estimating that the total number was no less
+than 300,000 in 1898.[155]
+
+One of the witnesses before this committee was a London truant officer
+of eighteen years' experience, who testified that every month he met
+with hundreds of cases of milk boys who "go to work at 5 A.M. and
+knock off at 8.30 and get to school at 9.45. At twelve they return to
+work, and after school at 4.30 they go again and wash up. The latest
+hour they work is about 8 P.M. I have frequently seen these children
+fast asleep in school. It is a common thing to see children of tender
+age outside the different theatres trying to sell newspapers at 11
+o'clock at night. The percentage of cases in which this work is
+necessary is very small; it simply means that a little more money is
+spent in the public houses."[156] The report of this committee
+contains a great mass of testimony from persons in many walks of life,
+nearly all of whom declared that street trading by children is bad and
+should be regulated. They differentiated between the hawking of
+articles in the streets and their delivery for employers, and one of
+the witnesses from Liverpool testified that the local regulation of
+street trading by children in that city did not apply to bootblacks
+nor to boys who carried parcels because they were not selling
+anything.[157]
+
+In 1902, an interdepartmental committee was appointed to study the
+subject in Ireland, and in its report stated: "The principal dangers
+to which they [street traders] are exposed are those arising from late
+hours in the streets, truancy, insufficient clothing, entering
+licensed premises to find sale for their goods, obstructing, annoying
+or importuning passengers, begging, fighting with other children,
+playing football or other games in the streets, using bad language,
+playing pitch and toss (a gambling game), smoking--all of which are
+matters of common observation, and have been testified to by many of
+the witnesses. In our opinion these evils can be lessened, if not
+entirely removed, by the simple system of regulation, licenses and
+badges."[158]
+
+The direct result of the reports of these committees was the passage
+by Parliament of the Employment of Children Act, 1903. Section 3 of
+this act provides, first, that no child under eleven years shall
+engage in street trading; second, no child under fourteen years shall
+be employed between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M.; third, no factory or workshop
+half-timer shall be employed in any other occupation; fourth, no child
+under fourteen years shall handle heavy weights likely to result in
+injury; fifth, no child under fourteen years shall engage in any
+injurious employment. Sections 1 and 2 of this act give to local
+authorities power to make by-laws regulating the employment of
+children. The provisions of Section 2 concerning street trading are in
+substance as follows: any local authority may make by-laws with
+respect to street trading by persons under the age of sixteen years
+and may prohibit such street trading subject to age, sex or the
+holding of a license; may regulate the conditions on which such
+licenses may be granted and revoked; may determine the days and hours
+during which and the places at which such street trading may be
+carried on; may require such street traders to wear badges and may
+regulate generally the conduct of such street traders; provided that
+the right to trade shall not be made subject to any conditions having
+reference to the poverty or general bad character of the person
+applying for this right, and provided also that the local authority
+shall have special regard to the desirability of preventing the
+employment of girls under sixteen years in streets and public places.
+
+Section 2 b of the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1904,
+imposes a penalty upon _adults_ who cause, procure or allow boys under
+fourteen or girls under sixteen to trade in the streets between 9 P.M.
+and 6 A.M.
+
+An official report made in 1907 gives the names of all counties,
+boroughs and urban districts in Great Britain which had up to that
+time made by-laws to regulate street trading by children. In England
+and Wales, 2 counties, 60 cities and boroughs and 4 urban districts
+had done so; in Scotland, 3 burghs and the school board districts of
+11 burghs and 12 parishes; and in Ireland, 4 cities and boroughs and 1
+urban district had made such by-laws.[159]
+
+By 1910, out of 74 county boroughs in England and Wales, not less than
+50 had made street-trading by-laws, and these included most of the
+larger places; but out of 191 smaller boroughs and smaller urban
+districts only 41 had done so; while among 62 administrative counties
+only 3 had made by-laws. In addition to these, 4 county boroughs and 2
+of the smaller boroughs had made street-trading by-laws under local
+acts.
+
+In Scotland, of the 33 county councils empowered to make by-laws, not
+one had done so by 1910; while of 56 burghs only 3 had passed by-laws;
+of 979 school boards only 27 had made such regulations. Edinburgh
+passed by-laws under a private act.
+
+In Ireland, out of 33 county councils not one had made by-laws; of the
+43 councils of urban districts with a population of over 5000, only 5
+had passed regulations.
+
+In 1909 the Secretary of State for the Home Department appointed a
+departmental committee to inquire into the operation of the Employment
+of Children Act, 1903, and to consider whether any and what further
+legislative regulation or restriction was required in respect of
+street trading and other employments dealt with in that act. This
+committee confined its report, which was submitted in 1910, to the
+subject of street trading; and its great contribution to the cause of
+child welfare is its recommendation that street trading should be
+_prohibited_ rather than regulated. The statute of 1903 prohibits all
+work by children under the age of eleven years, and its restrictions
+on street employment by children above that limit, out of school
+hours, are prohibitions of _night_ work after nine o'clock,
+consequently a child above the age of eleven years who engages in
+street trading is restrained, during the day, only by such by-laws as
+may have been adopted by the local authority. The committee found that
+even in communities where by-laws had been adopted they were not
+always observed, and also that where no by-laws had been passed the
+minimum statutory restrictions were frequently ignored. The report
+declared that: "A considerable amount of street trading is still done
+by children under eleven. Special censuses taken in Edinburgh revealed
+the fact that children as young as seven were trading in the streets.
+The great bulk of the evidence received in and from Scotland points
+to the conclusion that the Act [of 1903] has been almost a dead-letter
+in that country.... Infringements of the Act in Ireland are no less
+common. In Waterford newspapers are sold by children of nine years old
+up to 11 P.M. and later."[160] The issuance of licenses and badges was
+denounced as giving the stamp of official approval to what is
+recognized as an evil, the adoption of by-laws resulting merely in a
+partial improvement of conditions even when rigorously enforced.
+
+After having devoted several months to the inquiry, during which
+evidence was gathered in London, Manchester, Edinburgh, Glasgow,
+Dublin, Belfast, Birmingham and Liverpool in addition to receiving the
+testimony of witnesses from Sheffield, Nottingham, Bolton and other
+centers, the committee made this very noteworthy and significant
+declaration: "We have come to the conclusion ... that the effect of
+street trading upon the character of those who engage in it is only
+too frequently disastrous. The youthful street trader is exposed to
+many of the worst of moral risks; he associates with, and acquires the
+habits of, the frequenters of the kerbstone and the gutter. If a match
+seller, he is likely to become a beggar--if a newspaper seller, a
+gambler; the evidence before us was extraordinarily strong as to the
+extent to which begging prevails among the boy vendors of evening
+papers. There was an almost equally strong body of testimony to the
+effect that, at any rate in crowded centres of population, street
+trading tends to produce a dislike or disability for more regular
+employment; the child finds that for a few years money is easily
+earned without discipline or special skill; and the occupation is one
+which sharpens the wits without developing the intelligence. It leads
+to nothing practically, and in no way helps him to a future career.
+There can be no doubt that large numbers of those who were once street
+traders drift into vagrancy and crime.... Much evidence was given to
+the effect that the practice of street trading, even though only
+carried on in the intervals of school attendance, tends to produce a
+restless disposition, and a dislike of restraint which makes children
+unwilling to settle down to any regular employment. So far as girls
+are concerned, there must be added to the above evils an
+unquestionable danger to morals in the narrower sense. The evidence
+presented to us on this point was unanimous and most emphatic. Again
+and again persons specially qualified to speak, assured us that, when
+a girl took up street trading, she almost invariably was taking a
+first step toward a life of immorality. The statement that the
+temptations are great, and the children practically defenseless, needs
+no amplification. An occupation entailing such perils is indisputably
+unfit for girls."[161]
+
+The need for _prohibition_ of street trading was realized by this
+committee, the change being urged in the following epoch-making
+statement: "After carefully considering the operation of the by-laws
+adopted since 1903, and comparing the present state of affairs with
+that existing before the passing of the act, we have come to the
+conclusion that the difficulties of the situation cannot be said to
+have been met, or any substantial contribution to a solution of the
+problem made, by the existing law and the machinery set up for its
+enforcement. Regulation, however well organized and complete, will not
+turn a wasteful and uneconomic use of the energies of children into a
+system which is beneficial to the community. Consequently we feel that
+we have no choice but to recommend the complete statutory prohibition
+of street trading either by boys or by girls up to a specific age. In
+the case of boys we feel that it would be wise to name an age which
+would render it likely that they would have had full opportunities of
+taking to regular work before they could legally trade in the streets.
+We think the most suitable age would be seventeen, which gives an
+interval of three or four years after the ordinary time of leaving an
+elementary school.... So far as girls are concerned, we feel that the
+arguments in favor of prohibiting trading increase rather than
+diminish in force as the age of the traders advances. The entire body
+of testimony laid before us has forced upon us the conclusion that
+street trading by girls is entirely indefensible, and that no system
+of regulation is sufficient to rid the employment of its risks and
+objections. On the other hand, we have not been able to discover any
+trace of hardship having resulted in any of those towns in which
+by-laws have prohibited trading by girls, or have restricted the ages
+during which trading is permitted. We think that the age of
+prohibition should be higher for girls than for boys, and, while we
+feel that it should, in any event, not be less than eighteen, we
+should be willing to see it fixed as high as twenty-one."[162]
+
+As to the administration of the law, the committee declared that this
+should be delivered into the hands of the education authorities who
+could charge the regular truant officers with the work of enforcement
+or employ special officers for the purpose. The placing of
+responsibility upon the parents of child offenders was indorsed, but
+the committee criticised administrators because of the small penalties
+imposed as fines, the amounts being easily covered by the earnings of
+the traders, and hence an increase of the maximum fine was
+recommended.
+
+A minority report was submitted by four members of this committee who
+declined to support the recommendation of the majority that street
+trading should be immediately and universally prohibited in the case
+of boys up to the age of seventeen. These members held that the cause
+of street trading should first be removed by organizing employment
+bureaus for children, by giving the children the benefit of vocational
+direction, and by promoting industrial education for boys both while
+attending the elementary schools and after.
+
+
+                              _Liverpool_
+
+As to local efforts to regulate the street-trading evil, the first
+steps were taken in Liverpool. In this city the condition of child
+street traders was particularly bad; half of them were girls, and the
+stock in trade was usually newspapers and matches--the children were
+dirty, ragged and running the streets at all hours of the night, the
+apparent trade in newspapers and other articles being frequently used
+to cover up much worse things; in fact, many of the girls were
+practically prostitutes. Quite a number of these children were nothing
+more or less than beggars, and deliberately appeared in ragged
+clothing for the purpose of exciting sympathy. A local association
+undertook to supply them with clothing, but many refused this aid
+"because it would interfere with their trade." Commenting on similar
+practices among the street traders of Dublin, Sir Lambert H. Ormsby,
+M.D., said in 1904: "They sell other things besides ... matches
+principally. Of course the selling of matches is merely a means of
+evading being taken up by the police for begging. The matches are only
+humbug; they do not want to sell them ... they do it for begging
+purposes."[163] In 1897 the Liverpool Watch Committee appointed a
+subcommittee to consider the question of children trading in streets,
+and this subcommittee reported that: "The practice is attended, first,
+with injury to the health of the children; second, with interference
+with the education of such as are of school age; third, with danger to
+the moral welfare of the children inasmuch as the practice frequently
+leads to street gambling, begging, sleeping out and other undesirable
+practices, and in some cases to crime." They were of opinion--in which
+the inspector of reformatories concurred--that much of the money
+earned by the children went to indulge the vicious and intemperate
+propensities of parents and guardians.
+
+By the Liverpool Corporation Act, 1898, Parliament gave the city power
+to regulate street trading by children, and accordingly the following
+provisions were made by the city council: (1) no licenses to any child
+under eleven; (2) boys eleven to thirteen and girls eleven to fifteen
+inclusive, to be licensed if not mentally or physically deficient,
+with consent of parent or guardian; (3) licenses good one year; (4)
+badges also to be issued; (5) no charge for license or badge; (6)
+licenses may be revoked by Watch Committee for cause; (7) no licensed
+child to trade after 9 P.M., nor unless decently clothed, nor without
+badge, nor in streets during school hours unless exempted from school
+attendance, and no licensed child may alter or dispose of badge, or
+enter public houses to trade, or importune passengers. These
+regulations took effect May 31, 1899, and marked the formal beginning
+of the movement against street trading by children.
+
+In 1901 the Liverpool subcommittee reported that it was "of opinion
+that the application of the powers conferred by the Act has had the
+effect of greatly reducing the number of children trading in the
+streets, especially during school hours and late in the evenings, and
+of improving the condition, appearance, and behaviour of those
+children who still engage in street trading." This subcommittee
+recommended raising the boys' age limit for licenses from fourteen to
+sixteen years, and was inclined to advise the total prohibition of
+street trading by girls.[164]
+
+
+                                _London_
+
+Under the powers conferred on local authorities by the Employment of
+Children Act 1903, the London County Council framed in February, 1905,
+a set of by-laws, the provisions of which seemed quite innocuous.
+Nevertheless a considerable outcry was raised by persons whom they
+would affect, and thereupon the Secretary of State withheld his
+confirmation and authorized Mr. Chester Jones to hold an inquiry at
+which complaints could be heard as well as arguments in favor of the
+by-laws. This inquiry was held in June and July of 1905, and
+schoolmasters, attendance officers, police inspectors, news agents and
+others testified. Mr. Jones held that it was his duty "to endeavour to
+discover where the line should be drawn, and that it was not open to
+argument either that child labour should entirely be prohibited or
+that it should be unregulated."[165]
+
+In his report Mr. Jones took up each by-law separately and discussed
+it, recommending that it be either confirmed or rejected in accordance
+with his findings. He also drafted a set of by-laws and submitted them
+with the recommendation that they be adopted instead of the ones
+originally passed by the London County Council. Referring to these, he
+says: "An important respect in which my suggested by-laws differ from
+the County Council by-laws is in differentiating between employment in
+connection with street stalls and other forms of street trading. It
+seemed to be the general opinion [of witnesses] that the former
+employment, being under the supervision of some adult person, probably
+the parent, is not so harmful in its effects on the morals of the
+child as the latter, and it must be remembered that the main objection
+to street trading was on the ground rather of its affecting the
+morality than the health and education of the children."[166] The
+regulations drafted by Mr. Jones were not even so drastic as those
+proposed by the London County Council, and in recommending milder
+restrictions Mr. Jones says: "A set of by-laws should not err upon the
+side of overstringency, nor should they be in advance of public
+opinion; the first, because taking a step more or less in the dark
+might cause hardships impossible to avoid, and the second, because any
+by-laws of this sort, being most difficult of enforcement, will
+certainly be evaded unless backed up by the weight of public
+opinion."[167]
+
+The County Council, however, did not follow Mr. Jones's
+recommendations in their entirety, but adopted a more stringent set of
+by-laws which were put in force in October, 1906. In December, 1909,
+the County Council again amended the by-laws, and an inquiry relative
+to these changes was held by Mr. Stanley Owen Buckmaster in October,
+1910. Mr. Buckmaster recommended a number of changes of minor
+importance which were adopted by the Council, and accordingly the new
+by-laws were adopted and took effect on June 3, 1911. This set of
+by-laws will be found in the Appendix, page 264. The most significant
+feature which they present is the raising of the age limit for boys to
+fourteen years and for girls to sixteen years without exemption. The
+old by-laws prohibited street trading by children under sixteen years
+between the hours of 9 P.M. and 6 A.M., and this provision was
+retained in the new by-laws, applying, however, only to boys, inasmuch
+as girls under that age are prohibited from trading in the streets at
+any time. These London by-laws on street trading are identical with
+the provisions of the most advanced American child labor laws on
+factory employment, and consequently they blaze the way for the
+application of these provisions in the United States to street trading
+as well as to employment in factories, mills and mines.
+
+
+                              _Manchester_
+
+Although the British departmental committee of 1910 was not favorably
+impressed by the results of regulation as a cure for the evils of
+street trading, nevertheless it gave due credit to the city of
+Manchester for what had been accomplished there under the license
+system. Referring to this city, the report says: "In Manchester such
+good results as can be arrived at by the method of regulation were,
+perhaps, more apparent than anywhere else. In that city the entire
+evidence testified to the fact that the regulation of street trading
+is very highly organized; a special staff of selected, plain-clothes
+officers, giving their whole time to the work, knowing the traders
+personally, visiting the homes, advising the parents, clothing the
+children and apparently exerting a most beneficial influence. All that
+can be done through the instrument of regulation seems to be done
+there, the various authorities working together to that end."[168]
+
+An English writer says that regulation in Manchester "has greatly
+improved the conditions of the newspaper boys and others who earned
+their living by hawking goods in the streets. It is something to the
+good at any rate that a boy should be compelled to be decently
+dressed and so avoid the obvious temptation of appealing to the
+sympathies of the public by the picturesque raggedness of his
+clothing. At the same time one cannot help feeling that halfway
+legislation of this sort is only playing with the problem and that the
+only really satisfactory law would be one which prohibited street
+trading by children altogether."[169]
+
+
+                           _New South Wales_
+
+The British Colony of New South Wales has adopted some mild
+restrictions under the Employment of Children Act, 1903, and the
+president of the State Children Relief Board for New South Wales
+states in his report for the year ending April 5, 1910, that "the
+Board is not favorably impressed with the principle of street trading
+by juveniles, realizing that even under the most careful
+administration children, when once licensed to engage in street
+trading, are exposed to great temptations."
+
+
+                                _Canada_
+
+The province of Manitoba, Canada, forbids children under twelve years
+from trading in the streets at any time; licenses are issued to boys
+twelve to sixteen years old, who are not allowed to sell after 9 P.M.
+Some boys have been denied licenses because of their poor school
+record, others because of lack of proof as to age, others on account
+of not being physically qualified, and still others because there was
+no need for their earning money in this way. The licensed boys are
+kept under supervision; their attendance at school is watched; and if
+they persist in selling after 9 P.M. or disobey instructions, their
+licenses are revoked.[170]
+
+
+                               _Germany_
+
+The Industrial Code of Germany prohibits children under fourteen years
+from offering goods for sale on public roads, streets or places, and
+peddling them from house to house. In localities in which such sale or
+peddling is customary, the local police authorities may permit it for
+certain periods of time not exceeding a total of four weeks in any
+calendar year. "Under this provision there was considerable street
+trading, especially in the larger cities. In Berlin, for instance,
+during the weeks preceding Christmas, numerous children under fourteen
+were thus employed. Protests against the practice were made by the
+Consumers' League and similar organizations, and resulted in the
+passage of a police regulation, for its restriction; and in 1909 a
+further step was taken by providing that no exceptions of this sort be
+thereafter permitted, so that now the employment of children under
+fourteen years of age in street trading is absolutely forbidden in
+Berlin."[171]
+
+The Industrial Code forbids children under twelve years to deliver
+goods or perform other errands except for their own parents. Children
+over twelve years may so engage for not more than three hours daily
+between 8 A.M. and 8 P.M., but not before morning school nor during
+the noon recess nor until one hour after school has closed in the
+afternoon; on Sundays and holidays such children may do this work only
+for two hours between 8 A.M. and 1 P.M., but not during the principal
+church service or the half hour preceding it. Such children must
+first obtain the _Arbeitskarte_ from the local police authority, which
+is issued upon request of the child's legal representative. Employers
+must notify the police authority in advance of the employment of such
+children.
+
+
+                                _France_
+
+The labor of children in France is regulated by the law of November 2,
+1892, as amended by the act of March 30, 1900. This law applies to
+factories, workshops, mines and quarries, exempting home industries,
+agricultural work and purely mercantile establishments.[172] The work
+of children in city streets is not even mentioned. New legislation has
+recently been proposed to regulate the employment of minors under 18
+years of age and of women in the sale of merchandise from stands and
+tables on sidewalks outside of bazaars and large stores. According to
+its provisions, the work of such persons would be prohibited for more
+than two hours at a time and for more than six hours a day, while
+seats and heating facilities would have to be supplied the same as
+for employees inside the large establishments.[173]
+
+In Paris, newspapers are sold almost exclusively at kiosks on street
+corners, presided over by middle-aged women.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONCLUSION
+
+
+Many years ago Macaulay declared, "Intense labor, beginning too early
+in life, continued too long every day, stunting the growth of the
+mind, leaving no time for healthful exercise, no time for intellectual
+culture, must impair all those high qualities that have made our
+country great. Your overworked boys will become a feeble and ignoble
+race of men, the parents of a more feeble progeny; nor will it be long
+before the deterioration of the laborer will injuriously affect those
+very interests to which his physical and moral interests have been
+sacrificed. If ever we are forced to yield the foremost place among
+commercial nations, we shall yield it to some people preëminently
+vigorous in body and in mind." To-day these words seem to us a
+veritable prophecy--but we must not forget that they apply to America
+no less than to England. If our civilization is to continue and to
+improve with time, every child must have a proper opportunity to grow
+under conditions as nearly normal as possible; we must secure to the
+children their birthright--the right to play and to dream, the right
+to healthful sleep, the right to education and training, the right to
+grow into manhood and into womanhood with cleanness and strength both
+of body and of mind, the right of a chance to become useful citizens
+of the future. Eternal vigilance is the price of protection for
+childhood, and while "Women and children first" is a rigid law of the
+sea, "Children first" is the fundamental law both of Nature and
+civilization.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Wisconsin Statutes, Section 1728 p., Laws of 1911.
+
+  [2] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment of
+  Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Minutes of Evidence, Q.
+  71. Cf. also Great Britain--Employment of Children Act, 1903, Section
+  13.
+
+  [3] _The Newsboy_, Pittsburgh, April, 1909.
+
+  [4] Great Britain--Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment
+  of School Children, 1901, pp. 18, 19.
+
+  [5] Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia," _Charities
+  and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [6] "The Child in the City," Handbook of Chicago Child Welfare
+  Exhibit, 1911, p. 25.
+
+  [7] "A Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City Streets," a
+  folder issued by Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+  representing local organizations, 1911.
+
+  [8] Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee, p. 8.
+
+  [9] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [10] _The Survey_, April 22, 1911, p. 138.
+
+  [11] "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England)," edited by E. J.
+  Urwick, 1904, p. 296.
+
+  [12] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment of
+  Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
+
+  [13] Twelfth Census of United States, Vol. II, Population, Part II, p.
+  506.
+
+  [14] Twelfth Census of United States, Special Reports, Occupations,
+  1904, pp. xxiv, cxxxiii.
+
+  [15] _Idem_, pp. xxiii, cxxxiii.
+
+  [16] Twelfth Census of United States, 1900, Vol. VII, p. cxxv.
+
+  [17] Instructions to Enumerators, Thirteenth Census of the United
+  States, pp. 32-34.
+
+  [18] These tables were copied from charts displayed at the Chicago
+  Child Welfare Exhibit, May, 1911.
+
+  [19] "The Child in the City," Handbook of the Child Welfare Exhibit,
+  Chicago, May 11-25, 1911, p. 25.
+
+  [20] _Idem_, p. 25.
+
+  [21] "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, pp. 241-242.
+
+  [22] "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
+  Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+  representing local organizations, 1911.
+
+  [23] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [24] Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the Greek Padrone
+  System in the United States, 1911, p. 9.
+
+  [25] A more detailed presentation of this matter will be found in
+  Chapter IV.
+
+  [26] Immigration Commission's Report, p. 9.
+
+  [27] Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House of Commons
+  Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 17.
+
+  [28] _Idem_, p. 21.
+
+  [29] _Idem_, p. 17.
+
+  [30] Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House of Commons
+  Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 25.
+
+  [31] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 8.
+
+  [32] _Idem_, p. 9.
+
+  [33] _Idem_, p. 10.
+
+  [34] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 18.
+
+  [35] _Idem_, p. 16.
+
+  [36] Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, p. 178.
+
+  [37] Report of President of State Children Relief Board of New South
+  Wales for year ending April 5, 1910, pp. 39-40.
+
+  [38] Vierteljahrshefte des Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amts, 1900, Heft
+  III, p. 97. See also Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental
+  Committee on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 3, p. 294.
+
+  [39] Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 84.
+
+  [40] Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 56.
+
+  [41] _Idem_, p. 63.
+
+  [42] _Idem_, p. 65.
+
+  [43] _The Hustler_, organ of Boston Newsboys' Club, February, 1911.
+
+  [44] Report of the Newsboys' Home Association of Washington, D.C.,
+  1863-1864, p. 7.
+
+  [45] "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys Engaged in
+  Street Trading in Manchester," by E. T. Campagnac and C. E. B.
+  Russell; Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 45, pp. 456-457.
+
+  [46] Handbook of New York Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911, p. 33.
+
+  [47] "Child Labor on the Street," _The Newsboy_, leaflet of New York
+  Child Labor Committee, 1907.
+
+  [48] Report of Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington,
+  D.C., 1889, p. 10.
+
+  [49] "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys Engaged in
+  Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac and Russell, 1901.
+
+  [50] Child Labor at the National Capital, an address delivered in
+  Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of National Child Labor
+  Committee.
+
+  [51] Mary E. McDowell, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee,
+  pp. 6-7.
+
+  [52] "The Social Evil in Chicago" by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, p. 242.
+
+  [53] Miss Todd, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee, p. 12.
+
+  [54] National Child Labor Committee, Pamphlet 114, p. 12.
+
+  [55] Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken Before Departmental
+  Committee on Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, Q. 9724.
+
+  [56] Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 46.
+
+  [57] _Charities and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [58] "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 12.
+
+  [59] "Child Labor on the Street," _The Newsboy_, leaflet of New York
+  Child Labor Committee, 1907.
+
+  [60] "Children in American Street Trades," 1905, Pamphlet 14 of
+  National Child Labor Committee.
+
+  [61] _Charities and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [62] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 23.
+
+  [63] Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken before Departmental
+  Committee on Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, Q. 1837 _et seq._
+
+  [64] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
+
+  [65] George A. Hall, "The Newsboy," in Proceedings of Seventh Annual
+  Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 102.
+
+  [66] School Document, No. 14, 1910, Boston Public Schools, pp. 42-44.
+
+  [67] Report of New York-New Jersey Committee of the North American
+  Civic League for Immigrants, December, 1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.
+
+  [68] Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the Greek Padrone
+  System in United States, 1911, p. 10.
+
+  [69] Abstract of Report on Greek Padrone System in United States, by
+  Immigration Commission, 1911, p. 22.
+
+  [70] _Survey_, Vol. XXVI, p. 591.
+
+  [71] School Document, No. 10, 1910, Boston Public Schools, p. 133.
+
+  [72] "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, p. 242.
+
+  [73] "Child Labor at the National Capital," an address delivered in
+  Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of National Child Labor
+  Committee.
+
+  [74] "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, p. 244.
+
+  [75] Bulletin 69 of Bureau of Census, "Child Labor in the United
+  States," 1907, p. 170.
+
+  [76] Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," p. 179.
+
+  [77] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical
+  Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 10,440.
+
+  [78] J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy Life in
+  Our Cities," edited by E. J. Urwick (England), 1904, p. 121.
+
+  [79] E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities" (England),
+  1904, p. 305.
+
+  [80] "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 15.
+
+  [81] Victor S. Clark, "Women and Child Wage Earners in Great Britain,"
+  Bulletin 80, United States Bureau of Labor, p. 28.
+
+  [82] "Newsboy Life--What Superintendents of Reformatories and Others
+  think about its Effects," Leaflet No. 32 of National Child Labor
+  Committee, 1910.
+
+  [83] "Buffalo Child Labor Problems," folder issued by New York Child
+  Labor Committee, 1911, p. 3.
+
+  [84] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [85] Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia," _Charities
+  and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [86] John Spargo, "Bitter Cry of the Children," 1906, p. 184.
+
+  [87] James L. Fieser, "Causes of Truancy," Indiana Bulletin of
+  Charities and Correction, June, 1910, p. 227.
+
+  [88] James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile Court,"
+  Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee, 1909.
+
+  [89] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 12.
+
+  [90] Mrs. Louise B. More, "Wage-Earners' Budgets," 1907, p. 148.
+
+  [91] J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy Life in
+  Our Cities (England)," edited by E. J. Urwick, 1904, p. 131.
+
+  [92] _Idem_, p. 135.
+
+  [93] E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities," 1904, p. 307.
+
+  [94] _Idem_, p. 309.
+
+  [95] Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, pp. 179-180.
+
+  [96] Constance Smith, Report on the Employment of Children in the
+  United Kingdom, 1909, p. 11.
+
+  [97] Margaret Alden, M.D., "Child Life and Labour," 1908, p. 118.
+
+  [98] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical
+  Deterioration, 1904, Vol. I, paragraph 68.
+
+  [99] _Idem_, Vol. II, Q. 2453.
+
+  [100] _Idem_, Vol. II, Q. 2479.
+
+  [101] Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence taken before Departmental
+  Committee on Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, Q. 9503 _et seq._
+
+  [102] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 39, p. 418.
+
+  [103] Copied from Charts in Child Labor Exhibit at National Conference
+  of Charities and Correction, St. Louis, May, 1910.
+
+  [104] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 11.
+
+  [105] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, 1910, p. 12.
+
+  [106] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [107] "Child Labor on the Street," leaflet of New York Child Labor
+  Committee, _The Newsboy_, 1907.
+
+  [108] "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys Engaged in
+  Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac and Russell, 1901.
+
+  [109] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of Children
+  during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Q. 3862.
+
+  [110] Report of the Board of Education of the Toledo City School
+  District, 1910-1911, p. 141.
+
+  [111] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session.
+
+  [112] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 39.
+
+  [113] _Idem_, p. 42.
+
+  [114] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 44.
+
+  [115] _Idem_, p. 59.
+
+  [116] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 62.
+
+  [117] _Idem_, p. 69.
+
+  [118] _Idem_, p. 71.
+
+  [119] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 73.
+
+  [120] _Idem_, p. 84.
+
+  [121] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 86.
+
+  [122] _Idem_, p. 87.
+
+  [123] _Idem_, p. 90.
+
+  [124] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 91.
+
+  [125] _Idem_, p. 92.
+
+  [126] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 105.
+
+  [127] Includes 17 in bowling alleys and pool rooms and 23 in theaters
+  and other places of amusement.
+
+  [128] Includes 2 in boarding houses, 26 home workers (precise
+  character of work not specified), 10 in restaurants, and 12 in private
+  families.
+
+  [129] Includes 26 bootblacks and 320 newsboys.
+
+  [130] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 106.
+
+  [131] _Idem_, pp. 106-107.
+
+  [132] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 108.
+
+  [133] _Idem_, pp. 116-117.
+
+  [134] _Idem_, p. 134.
+
+  [135] Davis Wasgatt Clark, "American Child and Moloch of To-day,"
+  1907, p. 40.
+
+  [136] George B. Mangold, "Child Problems," 1910, p. 232.
+
+  [137] James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile Court,"
+  Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee, 1909.
+
+  [138] Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners
+  in the United States, 1911, p. 22.
+
+  [139] E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England),"
+  1904, p. 304.
+
+  [140] Bulletin 81, United States Bureau of Labor, p. 416.
+
+  [141] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on the
+  Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 9.
+
+  [142] "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
+  Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+  representing local organizations, 1911.
+
+  [143] Report on Bylaws made by London County Council under Employment
+  of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones, 1906, pp. 24-27.
+
+  [144] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 33, p. 403.
+
+  [145] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment of
+  Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
+
+  [146] "Street Trades," in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting of
+  National Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 108.
+
+  [147] School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools, pp. 34-35.
+
+  [148] Committee on Work and Wages, Handbook of New York Child Welfare
+  Exhibit, 1911, p. 33.
+
+  [149] School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools, p. 36.
+
+  [150] Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House of
+  Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, p. 14.
+
+  [151] Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House of
+  Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, pp. 26-27.
+
+  [152] _Idem_, p. 16.
+
+  [153] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, pp. 20-21.
+
+  [154] _Idem_, p. 24.
+
+  [155] _Idem_, p. 9.
+
+  [156] _Idem_, Q. 1123.
+
+  [157] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, Q. 7203.
+
+  [158] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the
+  Employment of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. 6.
+
+  [159] Great Britain, Return of Local Authorities which have made
+  By-laws under the Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1907.
+
+  [160] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 7.
+
+  [161] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 11.
+
+  [162] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
+
+  [163] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical
+  Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 12757-12759.
+
+  [164] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 37, pp. 415-416.
+
+  [165] Report on the By-laws made by the London County Council under
+  the Employment of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones, 1906, p. 5.
+
+  [166] _Idem_, p. 16.
+
+  [167] _Idem_, p. 15.
+
+  [168] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 9.
+
+  [169] J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy Life in
+  our Cities," 1904, p. 131.
+
+  [170] "Citizens in the Making," Annual Report of Superintendent of
+  Neglected Children for Province of Manitoba, Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.
+
+  [171] C. W. A. Veditz, "Child Labor Legislation in Europe," in
+  Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 242.
+
+  [172] Henry Ferrette, "Manuel de législation industrielle," 1909, p.
+  149.
+
+  [173] Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 14th Year, No. 106, p. 566.
+
+
+
+                              BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+                                 BOOKS
+
+  ADAMS, MYRON E., _Children in American Street Trades_, in Proceedings
+     of First Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1905,
+     pp. 25-46.
+
+  ---- _Municipal Regulations of Street Trades_, in Proceedings of
+     National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1904, Vol. XXXI,
+     pp. 294-300.
+
+  ALDEN, MARGARET, _Child Life and Labour_.
+
+  BRITTON, JAMES A., _Child Labor and the Juvenile Court_, in
+     Proceedings of Fifth Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
+     Committee, 1909, p. 111.
+
+  BROWN, EMMA E., _Child Toilers of Boston Streets_.
+
+  _Buffalo Child Labor Problems_, folder issued by New York Child Labor
+     Committee, 1911.
+
+  CAMPAGNAC AND RUSSELL, _Education, Earnings and Social Condition of
+     Boys Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester_, Board of Education
+     Special Reports on Educational Subjects, 1902, Vol. VIII, pp.
+     653-670.
+
+  _Child Labor in Germany Outside of Factories_, in Report of United
+     States Commissioner of Education, 1900-1901, Vol. I, pp. 54-80.
+
+  _Child Labor on the Street--The Newsboy_, leaflet of New York Child
+     Labor Committee, 1907.
+
+  _Child Labor in the United States_, Bulletin 69 of Bureau of Census,
+     1907.
+
+  CLARK, DAVIS W., _American Child and Moloch of To-day_, 1907, p. 40.
+
+  CLARK, VICTOR S., _Woman and Child Wage Earners in Great Britain_, in
+     Bulletin 80 of United States Bureau of Labor, January, 1909.
+
+  CLOETE, J. G., _The Boy and his Work_, in _Studies of Boy Life in Our
+     Cities_, edited by E. J. Urwick, 1904, pp. 129-133.
+
+  CLOPPER, EDWARD N., _Children on the Streets of Cincinnati_, in
+     Proceedings of Fourth Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
+     Committee, 1908, pp. 113-123.
+
+  ---- _Child Labor in Street Trades_, in Proceedings of Sixth Annual
+     Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1910, pp. 137-144.
+
+  CONANT, RICHARD K., _Street Trades and Reformatories_, in Proceedings
+     of Seventh Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1911,
+     pp. 105-107.
+
+  _Employment of Children Act_, 1903, Great Britain, in J. N. Larned's
+     _History for Ready Reference_, 1910, Vol. VII, p. 87.
+
+  DAVIS, PHILIP, _Child Life on the Street_, National Conference of
+     Charities and Correction, 1909.
+
+  FIESER, JAMES L., _Causes of Truancy_, in Indiana Bulletin of
+     Charities and Correction, June, 1910, p. 227.
+
+  FLEISHER, ALEXANDER, _The Newsboys of Milwaukee_, in Fifteenth
+     Biennial Report, Part III, of Wisconsin Bureau of Labor, 1911-1912,
+     pp. 61-96.
+
+  GIBBS, S. P., _Problem of Boy Work_.
+
+  GREAT BRITAIN, Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages),
+     Parliament Sessional Papers 1899, Vol. 75.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of School
+     Children, 1901.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of Children
+     during School Age in Ireland, 1902.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical Deterioration,
+     1904, Vol. II, Q. 2453-2479, 10,440, 12,757.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Partial Exemption from
+     School Attendance.
+
+  ---- Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of Children Act,
+     1903, 1910.
+
+  ---- Report on By-laws made by London County Council under Employment
+     of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones, 1906.
+
+  ---- Report of Education Committee of London County Council, March 21,
+     1911, pp. 690-696.
+
+  Report of President of State Children Relief Board of New South Wales
+     for year ending April 5, 1910, pp. 39-40.
+
+  Citizens in the Making, Annual Report of Superintendent of Neglected
+     Children for Province of Manitoba, Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.
+
+  _Greek Padrone System in United States_, Abstract of Immigration
+     Commission's Report on, 1911.
+
+  GUNCKEL, J. E., _Boyville_, 1905.
+
+  HALL, GEORGE A., _The Newsboy_, in Proceedings of Seventh Annual
+     Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1911, pp. 100-102.
+
+  HENDERSON, CHARLES R., _Street Trading of Children_, in his
+     _Preventive Agencies and Methods_, 1910, Vol. III, pp. 97-100.
+
+  _Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment_, Vol. VIII of
+     Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in United
+     States, Senate Document 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session.
+
+  KELLEY, FLORENCE, _Children in Street Trades_ and _Telegraph and
+     Messenger Boys_, in her _Some Ethical Gains through Legislation_,
+     1905, pp. 11-26.
+
+  ---- _Street Trades_, in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting of
+     National Child Labor Committee, 1911, pp. 108-110.
+
+  MANGOLD, GEORGE B., _Child Problems_, 1910, p. 232.
+
+  NEILL, CHARLES P., _Child Labor at the National Capital_, in
+     Proceedings of Second Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
+     Committee, 1905, pp. 17-20.
+
+  _New York Child Welfare Exhibit, Handbook of_, 1911, p. 33.
+
+  _Newsboys' Home Association of Washington, D.C., Report of_,
+     1863-1864.
+
+  _Newsboy Law_, in Handbook of Child Labor Legislation, 1908, National
+     Consumers' League, p. 63.
+
+  _Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington, D.C._, 1889.
+
+  _Newsboy Life--What Superintendents of Reformatories and Others Think
+     about its Effects_, Leaflet 32 of National Child Labor Committee,
+     1910.
+
+  North American Civic League for Immigrants, Report of New York-New
+     Jersey Committee, December, 1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.
+
+  PEACOCK, ROBERT, _Employment of Children with Special Reference to
+     Street Trading_, in Proceedings of Third International Congress for
+     Welfare and Protection of Children, 1902, pp. 191-202.
+
+  _Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City Streets_, a folder
+     issued by Chicago Board of Education and a committee representing
+     local organizations, 1911.
+
+  _Problems of Street Trading_, in Proceedings of Fifth Annual Meeting
+     of National Child Labor Committee, 1909, pp. 230-240.
+
+  _Saving the Barren Years_, in The Child in the City, Handbook of
+     Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911, pp. 25-27.
+
+  School Document No. 14, 1910, Boston Public Schools, pp. 41-44.
+
+  School Document No. 10, 1910, Boston Public Schools, pp. 132-138.
+
+  School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools, pp. 34-37.
+
+  SCOTT, LEROY, _The Voice of the Street_.
+
+  SHERARD, ROBERT H., _Child Slaves of Britain_.
+
+  SMITH, CONSTANCE, _Report on Employment of Children in United
+     Kingdom_.
+
+  _The Social Evil in Chicago_, Report of Chicago Vice Commission, 1911,
+     pp. 241-245.
+
+  SPARGO, JOHN, _Street Trades_ in his _Bitter Cry of the Children_,
+     1906, pp. 184-188, 258-259.
+
+  STELZLE, CHARLES, _The Boy of the Street_, New York, 1904, pp. 7, 41.
+
+  URWICK, E. J., editor of _Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities_
+     (England), 1904.
+
+  VEDITZ, C. W. A., _Child Labor Legislation in Europe_, Bulletin 89 of
+     United States Bureau of Labor, July, 1910.
+
+  WATSON, ELIZABETH C., _New York Newsboys and their Work_, 1911.
+
+  WHITIN, E. S., _Child Labor: Street Trades_, in his _Factory
+     Legislation in Maine_, 1908, pp. 137-138.
+
+  WILLIAMS, M., _The Street Boy: Who He is and What to do with Him_,
+     National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1903.
+
+  WILLIAMSON, E. E., _The Street Arab_, in Proceedings of National
+     Conference of Charities and Correction, 1898, Vol. XXV, pp.
+     358-361.
+
+
+                           MAGAZINE ARTICLES
+
+  Child Labor, by Florence Kelley, _Twentieth Century_, 1911, Vol. V,
+     pp. 30-34.
+
+  Child Laborers of the Street--The New York Bills, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 205-206.
+
+  Child Labor and the Night Messenger Service, by Owen R. Lovejoy, _The
+     Survey_, Vol. XXIV, pp. 311-317.
+
+  Child Street Trades in London, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X,
+     pp. 149-150.
+
+  Children as Wage Earners--Street Sellers, _Fortnightly Review_, 1903,
+     Vol. LXXIX, pp. 921-922.
+
+  Committee on Wage-earning Children--Third Annual Report, _Economic
+     Review_, 1904, Vol. XIV, pp. 208-211.
+
+  Convalescent Men for Newsboys, _The Survey_, 1910, Vol. XXV, p. 809.
+
+  Enforcing the Newsboy Law in New York and Newark, by J. K. Paulding,
+     _Charities and Commons_, 1905, Vol. XIV, pp. 836-837.
+
+  Ethics of the Newsboy, by A. Saxby, _Western_, Vol. CLVIII, pp.
+     575-578.
+
+  The Greek Bootblack, by Leola Benedict Terhune, _The Survey_, 1911,
+     Vol. XXVI, pp. 852-854.
+
+  The Greek Boy Who Shines Shoes, _The Survey_, 1911, Vol. XXVI, p. 591.
+
+  Hartford Regulates Child Street Trades, _The Survey_, 1910, Vol. XXV,
+     p. 511.
+
+  Industrial Democracy: A Newsboys' Labor Union and What It Thinks of a
+     College Education, by R. W. Bruère, _Outlook_, 1906, Vol. LXXXIV,
+     pp. 878-883.
+
+  John E. Gunckel of Toledo: the Newsboys' Evangelist, by A. E. Winship,
+     _World To-day_, 1908, Vol. XV, pp. 1169-1173.
+
+  De Kid Wot Works at Night, by William Hard, _Everybody's_, 1908, Vol.
+     XVIII, pp. 25-37.
+
+  Milwaukee Regulates Its Street Trades--Other Wisconsin Child Labor
+     Advances, _Survey_, 1909, Vol. XXII, p. 589.
+
+  New Jersey Children in Street Trades by E. B. Butler, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1907, Vol. XVII, pp. 1062-1064.
+
+  New Rules for Street Trades in Boston, with a Comparison of
+     Regulations in Liverpool, _Charities and Commons_, 1909, Vol. XXI,
+     pp. 953-954.
+
+  New York's Newsboy Lodging House, _Charities and Commons_, 1908, Vol.
+     XXI, pp. 147-148.
+
+  New York's Newsboys Licensed, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. XI,
+     pp. 188-189.
+
+  The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia, by Scott Nearing, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1907, Vol. XVII, pp. 778-784.
+
+  The Newsboy Breadwinner Story, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. XI,
+     pp. 482, 568.
+
+  Newsboy Wanderers are Tramps in the Making, by Ernest Poole,
+     _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 160-162.
+
+  Newsboys Elect Their Own Judge, _Survey_, 1910, Vol. XXV, p. 312.
+
+  Night Messenger Service, by Owen R. Lovejoy, _Survey_, Vol. XXV, p.
+     504.
+
+  The Press and its Newsboys, by John Ihlder, _World To-day_, 1907, Vol.
+     XIII, pp. 737-739.
+
+  Sale of Goods on Sidewalks (in France), Daily Consular and Trade
+     Reports, 14th Year, No. 106, p. 566.
+
+  School Children as Wage Earners, by E. F. Hogg, _Nineteenth Century_,
+     1897, Vol. XLII, pp. 235-244.
+
+  School Children as Wage Earners--Street Trading in Liverpool, by J. E.
+     Gorst, _Nineteenth Century_, 1899, Vol. XLVI, p. 16.
+
+  Street Children, by Benjamin Waugh, _Contemporary Review_, 1888, Vol.
+     LIII, pp. 825-835.
+
+  Street Labor and Juvenile Delinquency, by Josephine C. Goldmark,
+     _Political Science Quarterly_, 1904, Vol. XIX, pp. 417-438.
+
+  Street Trades and Delinquency, _Survey_, 1911, Vol. XXVI, p. 285.
+
+  The Street-trading Children of Liverpool, by Thomas Burke,
+     _Contemporary Review_, 1900, Vol. LXXVIII, pp. 720-726.
+
+  Street Trading by Children (Bradford, England), Daily Consular and
+     Trade Reports, 14th Year, No. 89, p. 246.
+
+  Two O'clock Sunday Morning, by Scott Nearing, _The Independent_, 1912,
+     Vol. LXXII, No. 3297, pp. 288-289.
+
+  A Western Newspaper and its Newsboys, by W. B. Forbush, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1907, Vol. XIX, pp. 798-802.
+
+  Waifs of the Street, by Ernest Poole, _McClure's_, Vol. XXI, pp.
+     40-48.
+
+  What Boston Has Done in Regulating the Street Trades for Children, by
+     Pauline Goldmark, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp.
+     159-160.
+
+  What of the Newsboy of the Second Cities? Investigations carried on in
+     Buffalo, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 368-371.
+
+
+
+
+                               APPENDICES
+
+
+
+
+                               APPENDIX A
+
+                                  LAWS
+
+The law of Wisconsin relative to street trading, as amended in 1911,
+is given below in its entirety, because it is the most advanced law of
+its kind in the United States.
+
+
+                              _Wisconsin_
+
+SECTION 1728 p. The term "street trade," as used in this act, shall
+mean any business or occupation in which any street, alley, court,
+square or other public place is used for the sale, display or offering
+for sale of any articles, goods or merchandise. No boy under the age
+of twelve years, and no girl under the age of eighteen years, shall in
+any city of the first class distribute, sell or expose or offer for
+sale newspapers, magazines or periodicals in any street or public
+place.
+
+SECTION 1728 q. No boy under fourteen years of age, shall, in any city
+of the first class, work at any time, or be employed or permitted to
+work at any time, as a bootblack or in any other street trade, or
+shall sell or offer any goods or merchandise for sale or distribute
+hand bills or circulars or any other articles, except newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals as hereinafter provided.
+
+SECTION 1728 r. No girl under eighteen years of age shall, in any city
+of the first class, work at any time, or be employed or permitted to
+work at any time, as a bootblack or at any other street trades or in
+the sale or distribution of hand bills or circulars or any other
+articles upon the street or from house to house.
+
+SECTION 1728 s. No boy under sixteen years of age shall, in any city
+of the first class, distribute, sell or expose or offer for sale any
+newspapers, magazines or periodicals in any street or public place or
+work as a bootblack, or in any other street or public trade or sell or
+offer for sale or distribute any hand bills or other articles, unless
+he complies with all the legal requirements concerning school
+attendance, and unless a permit and badge, as hereinafter provided,
+shall have been issued to him by the state factory inspector. No such
+permit and badge shall be issued until the officer issuing the same
+shall have received an application in writing therefor, signed by the
+parent or guardian or other person having the custody of the child,
+desiring such permit and badge, and until such officer shall have
+received, examined and placed on file the written statement of the
+principal or chief executive officer of the public, private or
+parochial school, which the said child is attending, stating that such
+child is an attendant at such school with the grade such child shall
+have attained, and provided that no such permit and badge shall be
+issued, unless such officer issuing it is satisfied that such child
+is mentally and physically able to do such work besides his regular
+school work as required by law.
+
+SECTION 1728 t. Before any such permit is issued, the state factory
+inspector shall demand and be furnished with proof of such child's age
+by the production of a verified baptismal certificate or a duly
+attested birth certificate, or, in case such certificates cannot be
+secured, by the record of age stated in the first school enrollment of
+such child. Whenever it appears that a permit was obtained by wrong or
+false statements as to any child's age, the officer who granted such
+permit shall forthwith revoke the same. After having received,
+examined and placed on file such papers, the officer shall issue to
+the child a permit and badge. The principal or chief executive officer
+of schools, in which children under fourteen years of age are pupils,
+shall keep a complete list of all children in their school to whom a
+permit and badge has been issued, as herein provided.
+
+SECTION 1728 u. Such permit shall state the place and date of birth of
+the child, the name and address of its parents, guardian, custodian or
+next friend, as the case may be, and describe the color of hair and
+eyes, the height and weight and any distinguishing facial marks of
+such child, and shall further state that the papers required by the
+preceding section have been duly examined and filed; and that the
+child named in such permit has appeared before the officer issuing
+the permit. The badge furnished by the officer issuing the permit
+shall bear on its face a number corresponding to the number of the
+permit, and the name of the child. Every such permit, and every such
+badge on its reverse side, shall be signed in the presence of the
+officer issuing the same by the child in whose name it is issued.
+Provided, that in case of carrier boys working on salary for newspaper
+publishers delivering papers, a card of identification shall be issued
+to such carriers by the factory inspector, which they shall carry on
+their person, and exhibit to any officer authorized under this act,
+who may accost them for a disclosure of their right to serve as such
+carriers.
+
+SECTION 1728 v. The badge provided for herein shall be such as the
+state factory inspector shall designate, and shall be worn
+conspicuously in sight at all times in such position as may be
+designated by the said factory inspector by such child while so
+working. No child to whom such permit and badge or identification card
+are issued shall transfer the same to any other person.
+
+SECTION 1728 w. No boy under fourteen years of age shall, in any city
+of the first class, sell, expose or offer for sale any newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals after the hour of six-thirty o'clock in the
+evening, between the first day of October and the first day of April,
+nor after seven-thirty o'clock in the evening between the first day of
+April and the first day of October, or before five o'clock in the
+morning; and no child under sixteen years of age shall distribute,
+sell, expose or offer for sale any newspapers, magazines or
+periodicals or shall work as a bootblack or in any street or public
+trades or distribute hand bills or shall be employed or permitted to
+work in the distribution or sale or exposing or offering for sale of
+any newspapers, magazines or periodicals or as a bootblack or in other
+street or public trades or in the distribution of hand bills during
+the hours when the public schools of the city where such child shall
+reside are in session. Provided, that any boy between the ages of
+fourteen and sixteen years, who is complying and shall continue to
+comply with all the legal requirements concerning school attendance,
+and who is mentally and physically able to do such delivery besides
+his regular school work, shall be authorized to deliver newspapers
+between the hours of four and six in the morning.
+
+SECTION 1728 x. The commissioner of labor or any factory inspector
+acting under his direction shall enforce the provisions of this law,
+and he is hereby vested with all powers requisite therefor.
+
+SECTION 1728 y. The permit of any child, who in any city of the first
+class distributes, sells or offers for sale any newspapers, magazines
+or periodicals in any street or public place or works as a bootblack
+or in any other street trade, or sells or offers for sale or
+distributes any hand bills or other articles in violation of the
+provisions of this act, or who becomes delinquent or fails to comply
+with all the legal requirements concerning school attendances shall
+forthwith be revoked for a period of six months and his badge taken
+from said child. The refusal of any child to surrender such permit,
+and the distribution, sale or offering for sale of newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals or any goods or merchandise, or the working
+by such child as a bootblack or in any other street or public trade,
+or in distributing hand bills or other articles, after notice, by any
+officer authorized to grant permits under this law of the revocation
+of such permit and a demand for the return of the badge, shall be
+deemed a violation of this act. The permit of said child may also be
+revoked by the officer who issued such permit, and the badge taken
+from such child, upon the complaint of any police officer or other
+attendance officer or probation officer of a juvenile court, and such
+child shall surrender his permit and badge upon the demand of any
+police officer, truancy or other attendance officer or probation
+officer of a juvenile court or other officer charged with the duty of
+enforcing this act. In case of a second violation of this act by any
+child, he shall be brought before the juvenile court, if there shall
+be any juvenile court in the city where such child resides, or, if
+not, before any court or magistrate having jurisdiction of offenses
+committed by minors and be dealt with according to law.
+
+SECTION 1728 z. Any parent or other person who employs a minor under
+the age of sixteen years in peddling without a license or who, having
+the care or custody of such minor, suffers or permits the child to
+engage in such employment, or to violate sections 1728 p to 1728 za,
+inclusive, shall be punished by a fine not to exceed one hundred
+dollars nor less than twenty-five dollars, or by commitment to the
+county jail for not more than sixty days or less than ten days.
+
+SECTION 1728 za. Providing that no badge shall be issued for a boy
+selling papers between the ages of twelve and sixteen years by the
+state factory inspector, except upon certificate of the principal of
+either public, parochial or other private school attended by said boy,
+stating and setting forth that said boy is a regular attendant upon
+said school. No boy under the age of sixteen years shall be permitted
+by any newspaper publisher or printer or persons having for sale
+newspapers or periodicals of any character, to loiter or remain around
+any salesroom, assembly room, circulation room or office for the sale
+of newspapers, between the hours of nine in the forenoon and three in
+the afternoon, on days when school is in session. Any newspaper
+publisher, printer, circulation agent or seller of newspapers shall
+upon conviction for permitting newsboys to loiter or hang around any
+assembly room, circulation room, salesroom or office where papers are
+distributed or sold, shall be punished by a fine not to exceed one
+hundred dollars nor less than twenty-five dollars, or by commitment to
+the county jail for not more than sixty days or less than ten days.
+
+
+                           _London, England_
+
+          BY-LAWS ADOPTED BY THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL AND PUT IN FORCE
+  ON JUNE 3, 1911
+
+          By-laws 1-9 concern the employment of children generally.
+
+10. No girl under the age of 16 years shall be employed in or carry on
+street trading.
+
+11. No boy under the age of 14 years shall be employed in or carry on
+street trading.
+
+12. No boy under the age of 16 years shall be employed in or carry on
+street trading before 6 in the morning or after 9 in the evening.
+
+13. No boy under the age of 16 years shall at any time be employed in
+or carry on street trading unless
+
+(1) He is exempt from school attendance, and
+
+(2) He first procures a badge from the London County Council, which he
+shall wear whilst engaged in street trading on the upper part of the
+right arm in such a manner as to be conspicuous.
+
+The badge shall be deemed to be a license to trade, and may be
+withheld or withdrawn for such period as the London County Council
+think fit in any of the following cases--
+
+(_a_) If the boy has, after the issue of the badge to him, been
+convicted of any offense.
+
+(_b_) If it is proved to the satisfaction of the London County Council
+that the boy has used his badge for the purpose of begging or
+receiving alms, or for any immoral purpose, or for the purpose of
+imposition, or for any other improper purpose.
+
+(_c_) If the boy fails to notify the London County Council within one
+week of any change in his place of residence.
+
+(_d_) If the boy commits a breach of any of the conditions under which
+such badge is issued; such conditions to be stated on such badge or
+delivered to the boy in writing.
+
+14. A boy to whom a badge has been issued by the London County Council
+shall in no way alter, lend, sell, pawn, transfer, or otherwise
+dispose of, or wilfully deface, or injure such badge, which shall
+remain the property of the London County Council, and he shall, on
+receiving notice in writing from the London County Council (which may
+be served by post) that the badge has been withdrawn, deliver up the
+same forthwith to the London County Council.
+
+15. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged in street trading,
+shall not enter any premises used for public entertainment or licensed
+for the sale of intoxicating liquor for consumption on the premises
+for the purpose of trading.
+
+16. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged in street trading,
+shall not annoy any person by importuning.
+
+17. Nothing in these by-laws contained shall restrict the employment
+of children in the occupations specified in section 3 (_a_) of the
+Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1904, further than such
+employment is already restricted by statute.
+
+
+                               APPENDIX B
+
+TWO TYPES OF NEWSBOY BADGES.
+
+[Illustration: BADGE USED IN CINCINNATI.]
+
+[Illustration: BADGE USED IN BOSTON.]
+
+
+                               APPENDIX C
+
+                        CARDS FOR INVESTIGATIONS
+
+The cards used in the inquiries into the newsboy situations of
+Philadelphia and Milwaukee are reproduced here, in the hope that they
+will be of use in furnishing suggestions to any organization or
+individual who contemplates making such an investigation elsewhere. It
+will be observed that these cards are practically confined to
+questions affecting newsboys only, and would have to be considerably
+amplified, if intended for use in a general study of street work by
+children.
+
+
+     Cards used by Boston School Committee for Issuance of Licenses
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                        APPLICATION FOR A LICENSE
+
+  To the School Committee of the City of Boston:
+
+   I hereby apply for a license for my son as NEWSBOY--PEDLER--BOOTBLACK.
+
+                                                                SIGNATURE
+                                                                OF PARENT
+
+   I promise to see that he lives up to the license rules. ________________
+
+                                                               SIGNATURE
+                                                                 OF BOY
+
+   I promise to live up to the license rules.              ________________
+
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  SCHOOL RECORD OF BOY TO BE FILLED OUT BY THE TEACHER AND PRINCIPAL
+  ---------------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
+     PLACE OF BIRTH    |   DATE OF BIRTH   |              RESIDENCE
+                       |                   |
+  -------+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
+   GRADE | SCHOLARSHIP | PHYSICAL DEFECT?  |  SIGNATURE OF TEACHER
+         |             |                   |
+  -------+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
+
+   I hereby certify that this Boy's attendance is______ His conduct is_____
+
+
+         SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL                            SCHOOL
+
+   ____________________________________       _____________________________
+
+
+    GRANTED WITH THE APPROVAL OF THE SCHOOL COMMITTEE:
+
+               __________________________ SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                    (CARD RETURNED TO SCHOOL FOR FILE)
+                             LICENSED MINORS
+                                 _________
+
+
+  ________________________________________      No.________________________
+
+  Birth date
+
+  Teacher                                       Grade
+
+  School
+
+  Badge given              Expires and must be returned
+  =========================================================================
+
+                             READ AND COPY
+
+              LICENSE RULES OF THE BOSTON SCHOOL COMMITTEE
+
+                               _________
+
+    No boy can get a license unless he is eleven years of age and able to
+  understand and COPY the following:
+
+                           A LICENSED NEWSBOY
+
+                MUST                               MUST NOT
+
+  1. Must ATTEND school regularly.  |   6. Must not sell before 6 A.M.
+  2. Must be "GOOD" in conduct.     |   7. Must not sell after 8 P.M.
+  3. Must have no UNLICENSED        |        (9 P.M. in baseball season.)
+       boy help him.                |   8. Must not sell in SCHOOL HOURS.
+  4. Must keep the badge TO         |   9. Must not sell on CARS.
+       HIMSELF.                     |  10. Must not sell without wearing
+  5. Must RETURN his badge to the   |        the badge IN PLAIN SIGHT
+       Superintendent of Schools    |        ALL THE TIME.
+       when ordered to do so.       |
+
+    Any boy who breaks any of the above rules is liable to have his license
+  revoked or go to court and pay a maximum fine of TEN dollars.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+        Form of Application for License used in Hartford, Conn.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                             ~City of Hartford~
+
+
+  TO THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS:--
+
+    I hereby make application for a Street-Sales Permit for
+  ______________________________________________________________________
+
+  Born in ______________________________________________________________
+
+  Age ______________ Sex _______________ Complexion ____________________
+
+  Eyes _____________ Hair ______________ Figure ________________________
+
+  Living at_________________________________________ Street ____________
+
+  If such license is granted I agree that it shall be for this child and
+  for no other.
+
+  ________________________________________ Parent, Guardian, Next Friend
+
+  Hartford, ____________________________
+
+
+                          =School Information=
+
+  ______________________________________________________________________
+
+  Living at _______________________________________ _Street_____________
+
+  is pupil in this School, is regular in attendance, and is a suitable
+  child to have a Street-Sales Permit.
+
+                             ________________________________ Principal.
+
+                             __________________________________ Teacher.
+
+  __________________________________ School.
+
+  The age, sex, complexion, eyes, hair, and figure, should be as
+  described above.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+  Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of a Badge in
+                     Province of Manitoba, Canada.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                            LICENSED NEWSBOY
+
+  No. __________________          Date _________________________________
+
+  Child's name _____________________________________ Age _______________
+
+  Father's name ____________________________ Address ___________________
+
+  Mother's name ________________________________________________________
+
+  Father's occupation __________________________________________________
+
+  School and Grade _____________________________________________________
+
+  Principal's name _____________________________________________________
+
+  Church __________________ Clergyman __________________________________
+
+  Address ______________________________________________________________
+
+  Is child of apparently normal development? ___________________________
+
+  What proof has been given that he is over twelve years of age? _______
+
+  ______________________________________________________________________
+
+  Why do parents want him to sell papers? ______________________________
+
+  Can child read? ______________________________________________________
+
+  Can child write? _____________________________________________________
+
+  Has badge been granted? _____________ No. of badge ___________________
+
+  If badge has not been granted, state why _____________________________
+
+             _____________________________________________
+                 _Superintendent Neglected Children,
+                                  Province of Manitoba._
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+  Sample of Card used in Investigation of Street Trades in Philadelphia
+
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+  Name_______________________________Address_______________________________
+
+  Age_______________sells__________________________at______________________
+
+  From________to________every day. Works from________to________on Saturday.
+
+  How long in street trades_____________Income________________per__________
+
+  Parents living_____lives at home_______contributes_______per_____to home.
+
+  If not living at home where does boy reside?
+
+     Lodging house___ Furnished room___
+
+  Some relative___$__per___paid for board. Does boy gamble__drink__smoke___
+
+  Habit acquired prior to engaging in street trades________________________
+
+  Does vendor save part earnings___________________________________________
+
+  Where and with whom does boy spend non-working hours_____________________
+
+  At what hour does newsboy reach home_____Has boy a route (exclusive)_____
+
+  General health of boy____________________________________________________
+
+  Schooling________________________________________________________________
+
+  Is selling boy's own choice______________________________________________
+
+  How many nights so far this summer has boy stayed out all night__where___
+
+  Investigator________________________________Date_________________________
+
+
+                    =Philadelphia Investigation Card=
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+      Sample of Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+   NAME                  ADDRESS                CITY
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| I. FAMILY                                                               |
++======================+=================+=============+==================+
+|Name of   {Guardian}  | Nationality:    | Religion:   | Occupation:      |
+|person he {Parent  }  |                 |             |                  |
+|lives with{        }  |                 |             |                  |
++--------------------+-+------+--------+-+-------+-----+------------------+
+|Number in Family:   |Mother  |Father  | Total   |Number contributing     |
+|                    |        |        |Children | to family support      |
++--------------------+--------+--------+---------+------------------------+
+|Age of Boy, yr. mo. |Number of years  |Papers handled Daily  Sunday     *|
+|                    | selling papers  |               Weekly             |
++--------------------+-----------------+----------------------------------+
+|Sells papers as Employer      Employee of               Individual      *|
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+|Sells at (street)                                                        |
++---------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
+|Sells: Morning    Afternoon    Evening    After 9 P.M.  *|Permit Number *|
+|                                                         |Has none       |
++------------------+--------------------------+-----------+---------------+
+|Does he come      |Where else does he eat?   | How often (elsewhere)     |
+|home for supper?  |                          | per week?                 |
++------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------+
+|Arrives home      |P.M. Saturday nights      |Leaves to {deliver}   A.M.*|
+|P.M. week nights  |                          |          {sell   }        |
++------------------+---------------+----------+-+-------------------------+
+|Does he stay out    How often     |Shoot       |Go into {Saloons   }     |
+|all night?          per week?     |"craps"?    |        {Tenderloin}     |
++-----------------------+-----------------------+-------------------------+
+|Does he like           |Family require         |Why is he working?       |
+|the work?              |his working?           |                         |
++=======================+=======================+=========================+
+| II. SCHOOL                                                              |
++==============================+==========================================+
+|School attended:              | Location:                                |
++-------------------------+----+----------+-------------------------------+
+|Informant:               | Grade:        | Years in school:              |
++-------------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+|Boy's standing in  Good   Fair   Poor   *| Conduct: Good   Fair   Poor  *|
+|school work:        Poor                 |                               |
++------------------+----------------------+-------------------------------+
+|Is Boy drowsy?    |Is school work injured by selling papers?  Yes  No   *|
++------------------+--------------+--------------------+------------------+
+|Attendance: Regular  Irregular  *|Number of days      |Absences excused  |
+|                                 |absent last month:  |                  |
++---------------------------------+--------------------+------------------+
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+           Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
++--------------------------------------------++---------------------------+
+|     III. INCOME (AMOUNT RECEIVED BY        ||                           |
+|          FAMILY CASHIER)                   ||IV. TO BE OBTAINED FROM BOY|
++----------------------------------+---------+|                           |
+|SOURCE  OCCUPATION  PER  NO. WEEKS| TOTAL   ||                           |
+|                   WEEK  PER YEAR |PER YEAR ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Newsboy                           |      |  ||What does boy       $      |
+|                                  |      |  ||earn per week?             |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Other Children                    |      |  ||How much given      $      |
+|                                  |      |  ||to family?                 |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Father                            |      |  ||Why is he selling papers?  |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Mother                            |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Rents                             |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Lodgers                           |      |  ||                           |
+|(outside of family)               |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Other                             |      |  ||                           |
+|Sources                           |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Total                             |      |  ||                           |
++==================================+======+==++===========================+
+|Remarks--Housing:                           ||      INSTRUCTIONS         |
+|                                            ||                           |
+|                                            || It is necessary to get    |
+|                                            ||answers to all questions,  |
+|                                            ||as there are a             |
++--------------------------------------------++comparatively small number |
+|                                            ||of cases being             |
+|                                            ||investigated.              |
+|                                            || Divisions I and III are to|
+|                                            ||be obtained from the       |
+|                                            ||family.                    |
++--------------------------------------------++ Division II from school   |
+|Cleanliness:                                ||principal or teacher.      |
+|                                            || Division IV from the boy  |
+|                                            ||himself, away from his     |
+|                                            ||family, if possible.       |
+|                                            || Only boys under 14 are to |
++--------------------------------------------++considered.                |
+|Other:                                      || If parent is dead, cross  |
+|                                            ||out line two, over.        |
+|                                            || * Use check ([X]) to mark |
+|                                            ||what answer is.            |
+|                                            || If there are several      |
+|                                            ||answers, check each.       |
++--------------------------------------------++---------------------------+
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Addams, Jane, on Illinois child labor law, 15.
+
+  Age limit (_see_ Laws and Ordinances), 194-196.
+
+  Austria, investigation of 1907, 49-51.
+
+
+  Begging, 38, 69, 96, 220.
+
+  Berlin regulations, 240.
+
+  Bootblacks, 83, 93.
+    Ages, 84.
+    Delinquency, 165.
+    Diseases, 87, 88.
+    Earnings, 84, 89, 95.
+    Environment, 86, 87.
+    Home conditions, 85.
+    Hours, 84, 85, 94, 95.
+    Padrone System, report by Immigration Commission, 86-92.
+      Report by North American Civic League for Immigrants, 83, 84.
+
+  Boston, license statistics, 33.
+    Regulations of street work, 196.
+
+  Boston Newsboys' Court, 79-81.
+
+  Boston Newsboys' Republic, 212.
+
+  Buffalo conditions, report on, 132, 133.
+
+
+  Canada, 238.
+
+  Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, 14, 29.
+
+  Chicago statistics of local studies, 28, 29.
+
+  Chicago Vice Commission's report, 30, 67, 96, 118.
+
+  Child Welfare Exhibit, 14.
+    Chicago, 29.
+    New York, 60.
+
+  Cincinnati, license statistics, 35, 71.
+    Market children, 97.
+    Newsboy conditions, 54.
+    Regulations of street work, 196.
+
+
+  Delinquency, relation to street work, report of Dr. Charles P. Neill,
+  159.
+    Chicago juvenile court records, 178.
+    Connection between occupation and offense, 171.
+    Records of Indiana Boys' School, 179-187.
+
+  Delivery Service, 68, 161-174.
+
+  Detroit, regulations of street work, 193.
+
+
+  Edinburgh, conditions in, 44, 125, 224.
+
+  Effects of street work, classified, 128.
+    In Buffalo, 132, 133.
+    In physical deterioration, 142-145.
+    Opinions of superintendents of reformatories, 131, 132.
+
+  Employment distinguished from independent work, 2, 192.
+
+  Enforcement of regulations, 132, 208, 211.
+
+  Errand running, 202.
+    Delinquency, 161-174.
+
+
+  France, regulations, 241.
+
+
+  Germany, inquiry of 1898, 45-48.
+    Regulations, 239.
+
+  Girls as newspaper sellers, 31, 65, 200.
+
+  Great Britain, Departmental Committee of 1910, 76, 138, 147, 197, 223,
+  237.
+    Employment of Children Act, 1903, 221.
+    Interdepartmental Committee of 1901, 43, 73, 145, 203, 217.
+    Interdepartmental Committee of 1902 on Ireland, 150, 294, 220.
+    Interdepartmental Committee of 1904 on Physical Deterioration, 125,
+    142.
+    Parliamentary return of 1899, 39-42, 215.
+
+
+  Hartford, regulations of street work, 196.
+
+  Housing problem's relation to street trading, 20.
+
+
+  Illinois, effort to regulate street trading, 14, 198.
+
+  Immigration Commission, report on Padrone System, 36, 86-92.
+
+  Ireland, report of Interdepartmental Committee of 1902, 150, 204, 220.
+
+
+  Kelley, Florence, on street trading, 52, 70, 127, 207.
+
+
+  Laws, table of state, 194.
+
+  Licenses for street work required, 197, 209.
+
+  License statistics, of Boston, 33.
+    Of Cincinnati, 35, 71.
+    Of New York, 16, 34.
+
+  Liverpool, conditions, 230.
+    Regulations, 232.
+
+  London County Council bylaws, 233-236, 264.
+
+  Lovejoy, Owen R., on messenger service, 123.
+
+
+  Manchester regulations, 236.
+
+  Market children, 21, 96.
+    Ages, 97.
+    Earnings, 96.
+    Home conditions, 99, 100.
+    Hours, 99.
+    Nationalities, 97, 98.
+    Orphanage, 100.
+    Retardation, 98, 99.
+
+  Merchandise, distinction between newspapers and, 189.
+
+  Messenger boys, 101.
+    Ages, 106-117.
+    Character of work, 101-104.
+    Chicago Vice Commission's report, 118-121.
+    Delinquency, 104, 165, 169.
+    Diseases, 111, 112, 113.
+    Earnings, 106, 112, 113, 114.
+    Environment, 102, 103.
+    Hours, 108, 113, 115, 119.
+    Investigation in Ohio Valley, 106-117.
+    Lack of prospects, 104, 126.
+    Poverty as excuse for work, 122.
+    Use of men instead of boys, 105, 123-125.
+
+
+  Nationality of street workers, 33, 97.
+
+  Nearing, Scott, conditions in Philadelphia, 69, 135.
+
+  Neill, Charles P., on newsboys' work, 64.
+    On messenger service, 117.
+    Report on Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, 159.
+
+  Newark, regulations of street work, 196.
+
+  New York, report of newsboy investigation, 16, 34, 148.
+    Child Welfare Exhibit, 60.
+    Regulations of street work, 195.
+
+  Newsboys, ages, 54-60.
+    Associations, 66.
+    Character of work, 56-58.
+    Classified, 52.
+    Delinquency, 165.
+    Diseases, 136.
+    Earnings compared with factory wages, 58.
+    Environment, 60, 135.
+    Home conditions, 70-72.
+    Hours, 65-70.
+    Irregularity of meals, 61.
+    Orphanage, 71, 168.
+    Retardation, 147-156.
+    Substitutes, 75-79.
+    Tricks of the trade, 63-64.
+
+  Newsboys' Court of Boston, 79-81.
+
+  Newsboys' Republic of Boston, 212.
+
+  New South Wales, license statistics, 45.
+    Regulations, 45, 238.
+
+  Newspapers, as merchandise, 189.
+    Attitude toward regulation, 28, 199.
+
+  Night work, of messengers, 101, 169.
+    Of newsboys, 65-70.
+
+
+  Ordinances, table of city, 196.
+
+
+  Padrone System, report, of Immigration Commission, 36, 86-92.
+    North American Civic League for Immigrants, 83, 84.
+
+  Peddlers, findings of Chicago Vice Commission, 96.
+    Cincinnati statistics, 97.
+    Delinquency, 165.
+    Immigration Commission's report, 36.
+
+  Philadelphia conditions, 69.
+
+  Playgrounds, 22.
+
+  Poverty as an excuse for street work, 70-73, 136-138.
+
+  Prohibition, of night work, 208.
+    Of street work by children, 224, 227.
+
+
+  Regulation, by municipality or state, 205.
+    Degree of, 193, 206.
+    In future, 207.
+    Unsatisfactory, 228.
+
+  Retardation in school of street workers, 98, 147-156.
+
+  Rochester, method of enforcement, 211.
+
+
+  St. Louis statistics, 146, 151.
+
+  School, as social center, 21.
+    Retardation of street workers, 98, 147-156.
+
+  Scotland, conditions, 44, 225.
+
+  Spargo, John, on effects of street work, 135.
+
+  Statistics, of U.S. Census, 24, 25.
+    Austria, 49-51.
+    Boston, 33.
+    Chicago, 28, 29.
+    Cincinnati, 35, 71.
+    Germany, 45-48.
+    Great Britain, 40-44, 143-145.
+    New York, 16, 34, 148.
+
+  Street as a social agent, 17.
+
+  Street employments, distinction between, 5.
+
+  Street occupations, of minor importance, 38.
+    Classified, 4.
+    Contrasted with regular work, 73, 139.
+
+  Street trading defined, 3.
+    Neglected in legislation, 7, 12, 192.
+
+  Street trading problem related to other problems, 20.
+
+
+  Toledo, retardation of street workers, 152-156.
+
+
+  Vagrants, Chicago report on, 32.
+
+  Vice Commission of Chicago, report, 30, 67, 96, 118.
+
+
+  Wisconsin, law, 257.
+
+
+
+
+  The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan
+     books on kindred subjects.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                   NOTABLE WORKS BY MISS JANE ADDAMS
+
+
+
+
+A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil
+
+                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net; by mail, $1.10_
+
+It is almost unnecessary to call attention to the importance of a new
+book by Jane Addams. As a servant of the public good Miss Addams, both
+through her work at Hull-House and through her writings, has made for
+herself a name all over the world. She does not view things from a
+standpoint of destructive criticism, but rather from that of
+constructive, her aim being always to better the conditions in the
+particular field which she is considering. In "A New Conscience and an
+Ancient Evil," she considers sanely and frankly questions which
+civilized society has always had confronting it and in all probability
+always will. Something of her attitude of mind and of her purpose in
+writing this book as well as a glimpse of the character of the volume
+may be seen from the following paragraph taken from her preface:
+
+"'A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil' was written, not from the
+point of view of the expert, but because of my own need for a
+counter-knowledge to a bewildering mass of information which came to
+me through the Juvenile Protective Association of Chicago. The reports
+which its twenty field officers daily brought to its main office
+adjoining Hull-House became to me a revelation of the dangers incident
+to city conditions and of the allurements which are designedly placed
+around many young girls in order to draw them into an evil life."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Miss Addams's volume is painful reading, but we heartily wish that it
+might be read and pondered by every man and woman who to-day, in smug
+complacency, treat with indifference and contempt the great struggle
+for social purity."--_The Nation._
+
+"As an educational weapon, incalculably valuable. A torch with which
+every thinking citizen should be armed for a crusade against the
+dark-covered evil at which it is aimed."--_The Continent._
+
+
+
+
+The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets
+
+                                _12mo, cloth, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_
+
+A protest against the practice of every large city of turning over to
+commercialism practically all the provisions for public recreation,
+leaving it possible for private greed to starve or demoralize the
+nature of youth.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Few persons in this country are better qualified to speak with
+authority on any subject connected with the betterment of the poor
+than is Jane Addams."--_New York Herald._
+
+"The book should be in the hands of every preacher and laborer for
+humanity. I wish that parents might make it a text-book."--Rev.
+MADISON C. PETER in _The New Orleans Daily News_.
+
+"It is brimming full of the mother sentiment of love and yearning, and
+also shows such sanity, such breadth and tolerance of mind, and such
+philosophic penetration into the inner meanings of outward phenomena
+as to make it a book which no one who cares seriously about its
+subject can afford to miss."--_New York Times._
+
+
+
+
+Newer Ideals of Peace
+
+                                             _12mo, cloth, leather back,
+                                              $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_
+
+"A clean and consistent setting forth of the utility of labor as
+against the waste of war, and an exposition of the alteration of
+standards that must ensue when labor and the spirit of militarism are
+relegated to their right places in the minds of men.... Back of it
+lies illimitable sympathy, immeasurable pity, a spirit as free as that
+of St. Francis, a sense of social order and fitness that Marcus
+Aurelius might have found similar to his own."--_Chicago Tribune._
+
+The editor of _Collier's_ writes: "To us it seems the most
+comprehensive talk yet given about how to help humanity in America
+to-day."
+
+"It is given to but few people to have the rare combination of power
+of insight and of interpretation possessed by Miss Addams. The present
+book shows the same fresh virile thought, and the happy expression
+which has characterized her work.... There is nothing of namby-pamby
+sentimentalism in Miss Addams's idea of the peace movement. The volume
+is most inspiring and deserves wide recognition."--_Annals of the
+American Academy._
+
+"No brief summary can do justice to Miss Addams's grasp of the facts,
+her insight into their meaning, her incisive estimate of the strength
+and weakness alike of practical politicians and spasmodic reformers,
+her sensible suggestions as to woman's place in our municipal
+housekeeping, her buoyant yet practical optimism."--_Examiner._
+
+
+
+
+Democracy and Social Ethics
+
+                                    _Half leather, ix + 281 pages, 12mo,
+                                              $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_
+
+"The result of actual experience in hand-to-hand contact with social
+problems.... No more truthful description, for example, of the 'boss'
+as he thrives to-day in our great cities has ever been written than is
+contained in Miss Addams's chapter on 'Political Reform.' ... The same
+thing may be said of the book in regard to the presentation of social
+and economic facts."--_Review of Reviews._
+
+"The book is startling, stimulating, and intelligent."--_Philadelphia
+Ledger._
+
+
+
+
+Twenty Years at Hull-House
+
+                                                 _Ill., dec. cloth, 8vo,
+                                              $2.50 net; by mail, $2.68_
+
+Jane Addams's work at Hull-House is known throughout the civilized
+world. In the present volume she tells of her endeavors and of their
+success--of the beginning of Hull-House, of its growth and its present
+influence. For every one at all interested in the improvement of our
+cities, in the moral education of those who are forced to spend much
+of their time on the streets or in cheap places of amusement--"Twenty
+Years at Hull-House" is a volume of more than ordinary interest and
+value.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"The personality of Jane Addams is one of the finest achievements of
+that idea of democracy, service, and freedom for which America means
+to stand before the world."--_N. Y. Times._
+
+"The story of the beginnings of this remarkable undertaking
+(Hull-House), the problems that were faced and conquered in the early
+days, the unsuspected resources that were developed among the crowded
+city population of foreign birth, and the efforts continuously made
+for the betterment of labor legislation in the State of Illinois, are
+all set forth with simplicity and directness. On the whole it is a
+wonderful record of accomplishment, full of suggestion to social
+reformers the world over."--_Review of Reviews._
+
+"Who reads this book lightly misses a great opportunity."--_Bellman._
+
+"The story is one of singular interest and has a strange affinity with
+the stories of other great moral and spiritual leaders of
+humanity."--_Bookman._
+
+
+
+
+On City Government
+_The American City_
+
+      By DELOS F. WILCOX, Ph.D.
+
+    "In the 'American City' Dr. Wilcox ... has written a book that every
+    thoughtful citizen should read. The problems of the street, the
+    tenement, public utilities, civic education, the three deadly vices,
+    municipal revenue and municipal debt, with all their related and
+    subsidiary problems, are clearly and fully considered."--_Pittsburgh
+    Gazette._
+
+                              _6 + 423 pages, 12mo, cloth, leather back,
+                                           $1.25 net. Citizens' Library_
+
+
+
+
+Great American Cities
+_Their Problems and Their Government_
+
+      By DELOS F. WILCOX, Chief of the Bureau of Franchises, of the
+      Public Service Commission for the first District, New York
+
+    A detailed account of present conditions in the half-dozen largest
+    cities of the country, including Chicago.
+
+                                         _Half leather, 12mo, $1.25 net_
+
+
+
+
+On Industrial Legislation
+_Some Ethical Gains through Legislation_
+
+      By MRS. FLORENCE KELLEY
+
+    The book has grown out of the author's experience as Chief Inspector
+    of Factories in Illinois from 1893 to 1897, as Secretary of the
+    National Consumers' League from 1899 till now, and chiefly as a
+    resident at Hull-House, and later at the Nurses' Settlement, New
+    York.
+
+                                  _Cloth, leather back, 341 pages, 12mo,
+                                           $1.25 net. Citizens' Library_
+
+
+
+
+On Charitable Effort
+_How to Help_
+
+      By MARY CONYNGTON, of the Department of Commerce and Labor,
+      Washington
+
+    Not only is the professional charity worker often in need of advice
+    as to the best methods of investigation, administration, etc., but
+    the non-professional worker, with his zeal unrestrained by special
+    training, is even more emphatically in need of such guidance as this
+    sound and competent book gives.
+
+                                   _New edition, cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net_
+
+
+
+
+The Development of Thrift
+
+      By MARY W. BROWN, Secretary of the Henry Watson Children's Aid
+      Society, Baltimore
+
+    "An excellent little Manual, a study of various agencies, their
+    scope and their educating influences for thrift. It abounds in
+    suggestions of value."--_Chicago Inter-Ocean._
+
+                                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net_
+
+
+
+
+Friendly Visiting among the Poor
+
+      By MARY E. RICHMOND, General Secretary of the Charity Organization
+      Society of Baltimore
+
+    "A small book full of inspiration, yet intensely
+    practical."--CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON.
+
+                                                _Cloth, 16mo, $1.00 net_
+
+
+
+
+The Care of Destitute, Neglected, and Delinquent Children
+
+      By HOMER FOLKS, Ex-Commissioner of Public Charities, New York City
+
+    CONTENTS.--Conditions prevalent at the opening of the Nineteenth
+    Century; Public Care of Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Private
+    Charities for Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Removal of Children
+    from Almshouse; The State School and Placing Out System; The County
+    Children's Home System; The System of Public Support in Private
+    Institutions; The Boarding Out and Placing Out System; Laws and
+    Societies for the Rescue of Neglected Children; Private Charities
+    for Destitute and Neglected Children, 1875-1900; Delinquent
+    Children; Present Tendencies.
+
+                                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net_
+
+
+
+
+Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy
+
+      By JOSEPH LEE, Vice-President of the Massachusetts Civic League
+
+    CONTENTS.--Essence and Limitations of the Subject; Before 1860;
+    Savings and Loans; The Home; Health and Building Laws, Model
+    Tenements; The Setting of the Home; Vacation Schools; Playgrounds
+    for Small Children; Baths and Gymnasiums; Playgrounds for Big Boys;
+    Model Playgrounds; Outings; Boys' Clubs; Industrial Training; For
+    Grown People; Conclusion.
+
+                                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                Publishers  64-66 Fifth Avenue  New York
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber's Notes:
+
+  The following changes have been made to the text:
+
+  - In the table introduced as "Street traders and street employees may be
+    classified by occupation as follows:--" Newspaper sellers was written
+    as one word once.
+
+  - In the table detailing the occupation of children in Germany,
+    introduced as "Seven divisions of these children were made
+    according to occupation ..." the word Austragedienste was wrongly
+    hyphenated.
+
+  - In the TABLE E. HOURS AND EARNINGS OF STREET WORKERS a header
+    "OCCUPATIONS" was missing (compared to TABLE D before), and was added.
+
+  - In Footnote [172] the title of Mr. Ferrette's work was misspelled as
+    "Manuel de Lègislation Industrielle", and was changed to "Manuel de
+    législation industrielle" in accordance with its original title.
+
+  - In the Index entry "Great Britain ... Interdepartmental Committee of
+    1902 on Ireland ..." the reference to page 294 was changed to page 204.
+
+  The following changes have been made to the formatting and layout:
+
+  - Tables D to G in Chapter VII, and some tables in Annex C were changed
+    in layout to enable readability in plain text.
+
+  - In "Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card": Original
+    uses check mark, rendered here as [X].
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Child Labor in City Streets, by 
+Edward Nicholas Clopper
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44396 ***
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+  </head>
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44396 ***</div>
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+
+ <h1>CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS</h1>
+
+
+ <p class="center">
+   BY <br />
+   <span class="middle">EDWARD N. CLOPPER, Ph.D.</span><br/>
+    SECRETARY OF NATIONAL CHILD LABOR COMMITTEE FOR MISSISSIPPI VALLEY
+ </p>
+
+
+ <p class="center spaced">
+   <span class="special">New York</span><br/>
+   THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br/>
+   1913<br/>
+
+   <span class="small italic">All rights reserved</span>
+ </p>
+
+ <p class="figcenter spaced">
+   <img src="images/logo.png" width="20%" alt="logo" title="logo" />
+ </p>
+
+ <p class="center spaced">
+   THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br/>
+   <span class="small">NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO</span> <br />
+   <span class="small">DALLAS · SAN FRANCISCO</span><br />
+ </p>
+
+ <p class="center spaced">
+   MACMILLAN &amp; CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br />
+   <span class="small">LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA</span><br />
+   <span class="small">MELBOURNE</span>
+ </p>
+
+ <p class="center spaced">
+   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br/>
+   <span class="small">TORONTO</span>
+ </p>
+
+
+ <p class="small center spaced">
+   <span class="smcap">Copyright, 1912,</span><br/>
+   By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+ </p>
+
+ <p class="small center">Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1912. Reprinted
+   January, 1913.</p>
+
+
+ <p class="small center spaced">
+  <span class="special">Norwood Press</span><br/>
+  J. S. Cushing Co.&mdash;Berwick &amp; Smith Co.<br/>
+  Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+ </p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>This volume is devoted to the discussion of
+a neglected form of child labor. Just why
+the newsboy, bootblack and peddler should
+have been ignored in the general movement for
+child welfare is hard to understand. Perhaps
+it is due to "the illusion of the near." Street
+workers have always been far more conspicuous
+than any other child laborers, and it seems that
+this very proximity has been their misfortune.
+If we could have focused our attention upon
+them as we did upon children in factories, they
+would have been banished from the streets
+long ago. But they were too close to us. We
+could not get a comprehensive view and saw
+only what we happened to want at the moment&mdash;their
+paltry little stock in trade. Now that
+we are getting a broader sense of social responsibility,
+we are beginning to realize how blind
+and inconsiderate we have been in our treatment
+of them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The first five chapters of the book review
+present conditions and discuss causes, the next
+two deal with effects, and the final ones are
+concerned with the remedy. The scope has
+been made as broad as possible. All forms of
+street work that engage any considerable number
+of children have been described at length, and
+opinions and findings of others have been freely
+quoted. I have attempted to show the bad
+results of the policy of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>laissez-faire</i></span> as applied
+to this problem. Simply because these little
+boys and girls have been ministering to its
+wants, the public has given them scarcely
+a passing thought. It has been so convenient
+to have a newspaper or a shoe brush thrust at
+one, it has not occurred to us that, for the sake
+of the children, such work would better be done
+by other means. Although good examples have
+been set by European cities, we have not introduced
+any innovations to clear the streets of
+working children.</p>
+
+<p>The free rein at present given to child labor
+in our city streets is productive of nothing but
+harmful results, and it is high time that a determined
+stand was taken for the rights of children
+so exposed. A few feeble efforts at regulation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>
+have been made in some parts of this country,
+but this is an evil that requires prohibition
+rather than regulation. There is no valid
+reason why just as efficient service in streets
+could not be rendered by adults. Certainly it
+would be far more suitable and humane to
+reserve such work for old men and women who
+need outdoor life and are physically unable
+to earn their living in other ways. We could
+buy our newspaper from a crippled adult at a
+stand just as easily as we get it now from an
+urchin who shivers on the street corner. It is
+only a question of habit, and we ought to be
+glad of the change for the good of all concerned.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+E. N. C.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cincinnati, 1912.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<table id="toc" summary="Content">
+ <tr>
+  <th>CHAPTER</th>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>PAGE</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+   <td class="chapnum">I.</td>
+   <td class="middle">The Problem of the Street-working Child&mdash;Public Apathy&mdash;Relation to Other Problems</td>
+   <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">II.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Extent to which Children engage in Street Activities in America and Europe</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">24</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">III.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Newspaper Sellers</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">52</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">IV.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Bootblacks, Peddlers and Market Children</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">83</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">V.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Messengers, Errand and Delivery Children</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">101</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">VI.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Effects of Street Work upon Children</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">128</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">VII.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Relation of Street Work to Delinquency</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">159</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="middle">The Struggle for Regulation in the United States</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">189</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">IX.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Development of Street Trades Regulation in Europe</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">214</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="middle">Conclusion</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CONCLUSION">243</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="middle">Bibliography</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">245</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="middle">Appendices</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#APPENDICES">255</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="middle">Index</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#INDEX">277</a></td>
+ </tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">THE PROBLEM OF THE STREET-WORKING CHILD&mdash;PUBLIC
+APATHY&mdash;RELATION TO OTHER
+PROBLEMS</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span>The efforts which have so far been made in
+the United States to solve the child labor
+problem have been directed almost exclusively
+toward improvement of conditions in mines
+and manufacturing and mercantile establishments.
+This singling out of one phase of the
+problem for correction was due to the uneducated
+state of public opinion which made
+necessary a long and determined campaign along
+one line, vividly portraying the wrongs of children
+in this one form of exploitation, before general
+interest could be aroused. Within very recent
+years this campaign has met with signal success,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+and many states have granted a goodly measure
+of protection to the children of their working
+classes as far as the factory, the store and the
+mine are concerned. The time has now come
+for attention to be directed toward the premature
+employment of children in work other than that
+connected with mining and manufacturing, for
+there are other phases of this problem which involve
+large numbers of children and which, up to
+the present, have received but little thought from
+students of labor conditions. The three most
+important of these other phases are the employment
+of children in agricultural work, in home
+industries and in street occupations. This
+volume will deal with the last-named phase&mdash;with
+the economic activities of children in the
+streets and public places of our cities, their
+effects and the remedies they demand.</p>
+
+<p>The street occupations in which children
+commonly engage are: newspaper selling, peddling,
+bootblacking, messenger service, delivery
+service, running errands and the tending of
+market stands. The first three are known as
+street "trades," owing to the popular fallacy
+that the children who follow them are little
+"merchants," and are therefore entitled to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>dignity of separate classification. Careful usage
+would confine this term to newsboys, peddlers
+and bootblacks who work independently of any
+employer. Many children are employed by
+other persons to sell newspapers, peddle goods
+and polish shoes, and such children technically
+are street traders no more than those who run
+errands, carry messages or deliver parcels.
+Consequently the term "street trades" is limited
+in its application, and by no means embraces
+all the economic activities of children in our
+streets and public places.</p>
+
+<p>Wisconsin has written into her laws a definition
+of street trading, declaring that it is "any
+business or occupation in which any street,
+alley, court, square or other public place is used
+for the sale, display or offering for sale of any
+articles, goods or merchandise."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> This covers
+neither bootblacking nor the delivery of newspapers.</p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain the expression "street
+trading" has been officially defined as including:
+"the hawking of newspapers, matches, flowers,
+and other articles; playing, singing, or performing
+for profit; plying for hire in carrying luggage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> or messages; shoe blacking, or any other like
+occupations carried on in streets or public
+places."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Street traders and street employees may be
+classified by occupation as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Classification of street traders and street employees by occupation">
+ <tr>
+  <th>Street Traders<br /> (Working for Themselves)</th>
+  <th>Street Employees <br /> (Working for Others)</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td>Newspaper sellers<br />
+      Peddlers<br />
+      Bootblacks (on street)</td>
+  <td>Newspaper sellers (on salary) <br />
+      Peddlers (on salary)<br />
+      Bootblacks (in stands)<br />
+      Market stand tenders<br />
+      Messengers<br />
+      Errand children<br />
+      Delivery children</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>This classification is based upon the well-known
+economic distinction between profits
+and wages. It is unfortunate that this distinction
+has been applied to juvenile street
+workers, for it has operated to the great disadvantage
+of the "traders." This class has been
+practically ignored in the general movement for
+child welfare, on the ground that these little
+laborers were in business for themselves, and
+therefore should not be disturbed. Recently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+the conviction has been dawning upon observant
+people that, in the case of young children at
+least, the effects of work on an independent
+basis, particularly in city streets, are just as bad
+and perhaps even worse than work under the
+direction of employers. The mute appeal of
+the street-working child for protection has at
+last reached the heart of the welfare movement,
+and the first feeble efforts in his behalf are now
+being put forth, regardless of whether he toils
+for profits or for wages.</p>
+
+<p>This alleged distinction between street trading
+and street employment should be clearly understood,
+as any movement designed to remedy
+present conditions must be sufficiently comprehensive
+to avoid the great mistake of protecting
+one class and ignoring the other. On the one
+hand there is said to be an army of little independent
+"merchants" conducting business
+affairs of their own, while on the other there is
+an array of juvenile employees performing the
+tasks set them by their masters. For purposes
+of regulation this distinction is hairsplitting,
+narrow-minded and unjust, as it has been made
+to defeat in part the beneficent aim of the great
+campaign for child welfare, but nevertheless it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+must be reckoned with. Children under fourteen
+years of age at work in factories and mines
+are often properly called "slaves," and their
+plight is regarded with pity coupled with a
+clarion cry for their emancipation. But tiny
+workers in the streets are referred to approvingly
+as "little merchants" and are freely patronized
+even by the avowed friends of children, who
+thereby contribute their moral support toward
+continuing these conditions and maintaining
+this absurd fiction of our merchant babyhood.
+As an instance of this remarkable attitude,
+there was proudly printed in the Pittsburgh
+<i>Gazette-Times</i> of April 11, 1910, the picture of
+a four-year-old child who had been a newsboy
+in an Ohio town since the age of <i>thirty months</i>,
+and this was described as a most worthy achievement!</p>
+
+<p>That the term "child labor," whose meaning
+has so long been popularly restricted to the
+employment of children in factories, mills,
+mines and stores, is properly applicable to the
+activities of children in all kinds of work for
+profit, is now virtually recognized by a few
+states which prohibit employment of children
+under fourteen years of age "in any gainful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+occupation." But unfortunately the courts
+have rigidly construed the word "employ"
+to mean the purchasing of the services of one
+person by another, hence newsboys, peddlers,
+bootblacks and others who work on their own
+account, do not enjoy the protection of such
+a statute because they are not "employed."
+Under this interpretation a fatal loophole is
+afforded through which thousands of boys and
+girls escape the spirit of the law which seeks
+to prevent their <i>labor</i> rather than their mere
+employment. It is for this reason that, in
+states having otherwise excellent provisions
+for the conservation of childhood, we see little
+children freely exploiting themselves on city
+streets. This situation has been calmly accepted
+without protest by the general public, for,
+while the people condemn child labor in factories,
+they tolerate and even approve of it on the street.
+They labor under the delusion that merely
+because a few of our successful business men
+were newsboys in the past, these little "merchants"
+of the street are receiving valuable
+training in business methods and will later
+develop into leaders in the affairs of men. A
+glaring example of this attitude was given by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+a monthly magazine<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> which fondly referred
+to newsboys as "the enterprising young merchants
+from whose ranks will be recruited the
+coming statesmen, soldiers, financiers, merchants
+and manufacturers of our land."</p>
+
+<p>It is extremely unfortunate that this narrow
+conception has prevailed, as it raises the tremendous
+obstacle of popular prejudice which
+must be broken down before these child street
+workers can receive their share of justice at
+the hands of the law. The only fair and
+logical method of approach toward a solution
+of the child labor problem in all its phases is
+to take high ground and view the subject broadly
+in the light of what is for the best interests of
+children in general.</p>
+
+<p>The state recognizes the need of an intelligent
+citizenship and accordingly provides a system of
+public schools, requiring the attendance of all
+children up to the age of fourteen years. In
+order that nothing shall interfere with the
+operation of this plan for general education,
+the state forbids the employment of children
+of school age. In respect of both these mandates,
+the state has really assumed the guardianship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+of the child; it has accepted the principle
+that the child is the ward of the state and has
+based its action on this principle. A guardian
+should be ever mindful of the welfare of his
+wards, and so, to be consistent, the state should
+carefully shield its children from all forms of
+exploitation as well as from other abuses.</p>
+
+<p>However, in the matter of the regulation of
+child labor, a curious anomaly has arisen&mdash;no
+one may employ a child under fourteen years
+in a <i>factory</i> for even one hour a day without
+being liable to prosecution for disobeying the
+law of the state, because such work might interfere
+with the child's growth and education;
+all of which is right and indorsed by public
+opinion, but&mdash;merely because a child is working
+independently of any employer, he is allowed
+to sell newspapers, peddle chewing gum and
+black boots for any number of hours, providing
+he attends school during school hours! Could
+anything be more inconsistent? To this extent
+the state, as a guardian, has neglected the welfare
+of its ward.</p>
+
+<p>This lack of consideration for street workers
+was emphasized in a British government report
+a number of years ago. Referring to the statutory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+provisions for preventing overwork by
+children in factories, workshops and mines, the
+report declared: "But the labour of children
+for wages outside these cases is totally unregulated,
+although many of them work longer
+than the factory hours allowed for children of
+the same age, and are at the same time undergoing
+compulsory educational training, which
+makes a considerable demand on their energies.
+We think this is inconsistent. In the interests
+of their health and education, it seems only
+reasonable that remedies which have proved so
+valuable in the case of factory children should
+in some form be extended to cover the whole
+field of child labour."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>To insure a good yield, a field requires cultivation
+as well as planting; to effect a cure, a
+patient requires nursing as well as prescription.
+So with the aim of the state&mdash;to insure a
+strong, intelligent citizenship, its children must
+be cared for, as well as provided with schools.
+If a patient is not nursed while the physician
+is absent, his treatment is of little avail; if
+children are not protected out of school hours,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+the purpose of the school is defeated. No
+manufacturer would allow his machinery to run,
+unwatched, outside regular work hours, for
+he knows how disastrous would be the consequences;
+yet this is precisely what the state
+is doing by ignoring the activities of children
+in our city streets&mdash;the delicate machinery of
+their minds and bodies is allowed to run wild
+out of schools hours, and the state seems to
+think nothing will happen! These thoughts
+impel us to the conclusion that the state must
+watch over the child at least until he has reached
+the age limit for school attendance, and in the
+matter of labor regulation its care must not
+be confined to the prevention of one form of
+exploitation while other forms, equally injurious,
+are permitted to flourish unchecked.</p>
+
+<p>Legislation regulating street trading by children
+in this country is now in the stage corresponding
+to that of the English factory acts in
+the early part of the nineteenth century,&mdash;the
+first meager restrictions are being tried. Several
+of the street occupations, viz. messenger service,
+delivery service and errand running, are ordinarily
+included among those prohibited to children
+under fourteen years by state child labor laws,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+because to engage in such work children have to
+be employed by other persons. These occupations
+are covered by the provision common to
+such laws which forbids employment of such
+children "in the distribution or transmission
+of merchandise or messages." The street
+"trades" of newspaper selling, peddling and
+bootblacking are, as yet, almost untouched by
+legislation in the United States, for there exist
+only a very few state laws and city ordinances
+relative to this matter, and these of the most
+primitive kind. The public does not yet realize
+the injustice of permitting young children to
+engage, uncontrolled, in the various street-trading
+activities. It was slow to appreciate the
+dangers involved in the unrestricted employment
+of children in factories, mills and mines, but
+when the awakening finally came, the demand
+for reform was insistent. This gradual development
+of a sentiment favoring regulation characterizes
+also the problem of street employment; the
+present stage is that of calm indifference, ruffled
+only by occasional misgivings. Even this is an
+encouraging sign, inasmuch as the factory agitation
+passed through the same experience, and
+emerged triumphant, crystallized in statute form.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is hard to understand how the public
+conscience can reconcile itself to the chasm
+between the age limit of fourteen years for messenger
+service and freedom from all restraint
+in newspaper selling&mdash;both essentially street
+occupations. Child labor laws are framed in
+accordance with public sentiment, hence the
+people by legislative omission practically indorse
+street trading by little children while condemning
+their employment in other kinds of work.
+Thus the state virtually assumes the untenable
+position that it is right to allow a child of
+tender years to labor in the streets as a newsboy
+without any oversight or care whatever, and
+that it is wrong for him to work in the same field
+as a messenger, or an errand boy, or a delivery
+boy, although such occupations are subject to
+some degree of supervision by older persons.
+In other words, it is held that little children are
+capable of self-control in some street occupations,
+but not able to withstand the dangers of other
+similar street work, even under the control of
+adults! After having described the conditions
+prevailing in Philadelphia among newsboys,
+Mr. Scott Nearing says: "There are many
+causes leading up to this condition. Beneath<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+all others lies the fundamental one&mdash;the lack
+of public sentiment in favor of protecting these
+children. Closely allied to this is another almost
+equally strong&mdash;the lack of public knowledge
+of the true state of affairs."<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit pointed
+out the fact that street trades are quite untouched
+by child labor legislation in the city
+and also in the state, declaring that in Illinois
+a boy or girl too young to be permitted to do
+any other work may haunt the newspaper
+offices, the five-cent shows, the theaters and
+saloons, selling chewing gum and newspapers
+at all hours of the night.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the arguments advanced in support
+of the unsuccessful effort to secure legislation
+on street trading in Illinois in 1911 was the
+following: "Each boy or girl street trader is a
+merchant in his or her own right, and therefore
+before the law is not considered a wage earner,
+although there is merely a fine-spun distinction
+between the child who secures <i>wages</i> as the result
+of his work and one who obtains his reward in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+the form of <i>profits</i>. The effect on the child
+of work performed under unsuitable conditions,
+at unsuitable hours and demanding the exercise
+of his faculties in unchildish ways, is in no
+wise determined by the form in which his earnings
+are calculated. That the results of street
+trading are wholly bad in the case of both boys
+and girls is universally recognized."<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Miss
+Jane Addams has deplored this situation in a
+public statement: "A newsboy is a merchant
+and does not come within the child labor regulations
+of Illinois. The city of Chicago is a
+little careless, if not recreant, toward the children
+who are not reached by the operation of the state
+law."<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>Even in the few localities where regulation
+of street trading has been attempted, the delusion
+that there is some essential difference between
+child labor in factories and child labor
+in streets persists in the legislation itself. The
+latter form of exploitation is assumed to merit
+a wider latitude for its activity, hence it is
+hedged about by much less stringent rules.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+Attention is invited to this inconsistency by
+the report of a recent investigation in New York
+City: "We have in New York 4148 children
+between 14 and 16 years employed in factories
+with their daily hours of labor limited from
+8 <span class="smcap lowercase lowercase">A.M.</span> to 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, while in mercantile establishments
+there are 1645 more of similar age limit,
+none of whom can work before 8 in the morning
+or after 7 in the evening. But on the streets
+of New York City we have approximately
+4500 boys licensed (to say nothing of the little
+fellows too young to be licensed) to sell newspapers.
+That means 4500 legalized to work
+at this particular trade from 6 o'clock in the
+morning until 10 o'clock in the evening (save
+during the school year, when they are supposed
+to attend school from 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>) any day
+and every day, seven days to the week if they
+so desire to do."<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Broader Aspects of the Problem</h3>
+
+<p>Let us consider the matter from another
+point of view and discuss the opportunities for
+constructive work rather than confine our atten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>tion
+to the need of the merely negative remedy
+of restrictive legislation.</p>
+
+<p>The street is painted as a black monster by
+some social workers, who can discern nothing
+but evil in it. Nevertheless the street is closely
+woven into the life of every city dweller, for his
+contact with it is daily and continuous. If it
+is all evil, it ought to be abolished; as this is
+impossible, we must study it to see what it
+really is and what needs to be done with it.
+It is the medium by which people are brought
+into closer touch with one another, where they
+meet and converse, where they pass in transit,
+where they rub elbows with all the elements
+making up their little world, where they absorb
+the principles of democracy,&mdash;for the street is
+a great leveler.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Delos F. Wilcox, in speaking to the subject
+"What is Philadelphia Doing to Protect Her
+Citizens in the Street?" recently said: "The
+street is the symbol of democracy, of equal opportunity,
+the channel of the common life, the thing
+that makes the city.... I fancy that the
+civic renaissance which must surely come, ...
+will never get very far until we have awakened
+to a realization of the dignity of the street<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>&mdash;the
+common street where the city's children
+play, through which the milk wagon drives,
+where the young men are educated, along which
+the currents of the city's life flow unceasingly."<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p>An English writer has expressed a similar
+thought: "We have spoken of the street as a
+dangerous environment from which we would
+gladly rescue the children if we could, and so
+it undoubtedly is in so far as it supplants the
+influence of the home, tends to nullify that of
+the school and lets the boys and girls run wild
+just when they most need to be tamed....
+It is, in fact, so strange a mixture of good and
+evil, so complex an influence in the growth of
+boy and girl, of youth and man, among our
+great city population, that it is necessary to
+attempt to analyze it a little more exactly.
+It is for the majority the medium in which the
+social conscience is formed, and through which
+it makes its power felt. In it the all-powerful
+agents of progress, example, imitation, the spread
+of ideas and the discussion of good and evil are
+incessantly at work."<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is only natural that such a general agency
+for communication should have been abused.
+Its popularity alone would inevitably lead to
+such a result, with no restrictions imposed upon
+street intercourse. The very popularity of the
+games of billiards, pool and cards and of dancing
+led to their abuse and consequent disrepute
+in the eyes of many persons who were blinded
+to their intrinsic worth as diversions, by the
+abuses to which they were subjected. The
+marked success attending the proper use of
+all these amusements in social settlements and
+parish houses stimulates the imagination as to
+what might be accomplished with the street if
+its abuses also were eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>It is of course absurd to pass judgment summarily
+upon the street, for the street can exert
+no influence of itself; the evil issues from its
+abuse by those who frequent it, and it is this
+abuse that should be suppressed. This immediately
+raises the question as to what constitutes
+this abuse. We must bear in mind that the real
+purpose of the street is to serve as a means of
+communication, a passageway for the transit
+of passengers and commerce. It was never
+intended for a playground, nor a field for child<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+labor, nor a resort for idlers, nor a depository
+for garbage, nor a place for beggars to mulct
+the public. These fungous growths from civic
+neglect ought to be cut away. "A place for
+everything and everything in its place" would
+be an efficacious even if old-fashioned remedy:
+playgrounds for the children, workshops for the
+idlers, reduction plants for the garbage and
+asylums for the beggars. With these reforms
+effected and carefully maintained, the street
+would soon become much more wholesome and
+attractive.</p>
+
+<p>These considerations have been advanced
+to indicate the intimate relation which exists
+between the problem of the child street worker
+and many other problems with which social
+workers are now struggling. Child labor in
+city streets must be abolished, but at the same
+time coöperation with other movements is
+necessary before a satisfactory solution of the
+problem can be assured.</p>
+
+<p>For example, it would be a short-sighted
+policy to prohibit young children from selling
+goods in home market stands without reporting
+to the housing authorities cases in which large
+families live in one or two filthy rooms, display<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>ing
+and selling their wares in the doorway and
+from the window. Our Italian citizens are not
+committing race suicide, but in spite of their
+numerous progeny they crowd together in extremely
+limited space, combining their home life
+with the customary business of selling fruit.
+Their young children assist in tending the stands
+on market days and nights or sit on the sidewalk
+selling baskets to passers-by; at closing
+time their goods are often stored in the same
+room that serves for sleeping quarters, cots
+being brought out from some dark hiding place.
+In such circumstances the mere prevention of
+child labor is not sufficient&mdash;the housing conditions
+also should be remedied so as to give
+the children a more suitable place in which to
+play, study and sleep, a better home in which
+to use their leisure.</p>
+
+<p>Again, a movement to prohibit street work
+by children should give impetus to that which
+seeks to make the public school a social center,
+and especially to that for public vacation schools.
+Many of the homes of city children very
+largely lack the element of attractiveness which
+is so essential in holding children under the
+influence of their parents, and this want must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+be filled as far as possible by making the school
+an instrument not merely for instruction, but
+also for the entertainment and socializing of
+the entire neighborhood.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the regulating of street trading should
+be undertaken jointly with the movement to
+supply adequate playground facilities. Playgrounds
+are not a municipal luxury, but a necessary.
+Children must have some suitable place
+for recreation. It is not a function of the street
+to furnish the space for play, and as children
+cannot and should not be kept at home all the
+time, it follows that ground must be set apart
+for the purpose. On these points a British
+report says: "We have no doubt that insanitary
+homes and immoral surroundings, with the want
+of any open spaces where the children could
+enjoy healthy exercise and recreation, are strong
+factors in determining towards evil courses in
+the cases of the children of the poor."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The
+need for more playgrounds in Chicago was
+partially supplied by having one block in a congested
+district closed to traffic during August,
+1911, so that children could play there without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+risking their lives, from eight in the morning
+to eight in the evening. In providing this
+emergency playground, Chicago has set an
+example that will undoubtedly be imitated by
+other cities.</p>
+
+<p>In this way the abolition of child labor in
+city streets would result in benefit not only to
+the children, but to the entire community as
+well. It would promote a general civic awakening
+that would make each town and city a better
+place to live in, a better home for our citizens
+of the future.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">EXTENT TO WHICH CHILDREN ENGAGE IN STREET
+ACTIVITIES IN AMERICA AND EUROPE</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>There are no reliable figures either official
+or unofficial showing the number of children
+engaged in street activities in any city of the
+United States or in the country at large. The
+figures given by the United States Census of
+1900 are so inadequate that they can hardly
+mislead any one endowed with ordinary powers
+of observation. It solemnly declares that in
+that year there was a grand total of 6904 newspaper
+carriers and newsboys, both adults and
+children, in the entire United States, of whom
+69 were females.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> In all probability there was a
+greater number at that time in some of our larger
+cities alone. In the group called "other persons
+in trade and transportation" only 3557 children
+ten to fifteen years of age are reported, although
+this group embraces nine specified occupations,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+of which that of the newsboy is only one.
+Besides these, many other occupations (in
+which 63 per cent of the total number of
+persons reported are engaged) are not specified.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
+Consequently the number of newsboys ten to
+fifteen years old reported by the enumerators for
+the entire country must have been ridiculously
+small.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the total number of bootblacks ten
+years of age and upwards in the country was
+reported as 8230, they being included in the
+group called "other domestic and personal service."
+Only 2953 children ten to fifteen years
+of age were reported in this group, which includes
+five specified occupations, of which that
+of the bootblacks is only one, and many others
+(in which 67 per cent of the total number of
+persons reported are engaged) which are not
+specified.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>The inadequacy of these figures to convey any
+idea whatsoever as to the extent of child labor
+in street occupations in this country is painfully
+apparent; they are quoted here merely to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+show the poverty of statistics on this subject.
+Their inaccuracy is practically conceded by the
+report itself in the following words: "The limitations
+connected with the taking of a great
+national census preclude proper care upon the
+question of child employment. There is great
+uncertainty as to the accuracy of a mass of
+information of this character taken by enumerators
+and special agents, who either do not
+appreciate the importance of the investigation
+or find it impracticable to devote the time to
+the inquiry necessary to secure good results."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is reason to hope for more reliable data
+from the 1910 census; but unfortunately the
+figures will probably not be available until 1913.
+The enumerators employed by the Federal
+government for the Census of 1910, were instructed
+to make an entry in the occupation
+column of the population schedule for every
+person enumerated, giving the exact occupation
+if employed, writing the word "none" if
+unemployed, or the words "own income" if
+living upon an independent income. It was
+stated positively that the occupation followed
+by a child of any age was just as important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+for census purposes as the occupation followed
+by a man, and that it should never be taken for
+granted without inquiry that a child had no
+occupation.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<p>However, upon inquiry by enumerators at
+the time of the census taking as to the occupation
+of children, many parents undoubtedly
+replied in the negative, even though their children
+may have been devoting several hours
+daily outside of school to street work, under the
+impression that this was not an occupation.
+Consequently it is safe to assume that the
+figures for street-working children in the United
+States according to the Census of 1910 when
+published will be under the true number.
+Nevertheless, they can hardly fail to reflect conditions
+far better than did the figures for 1900.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Chicago</h3>
+
+<p>It is only from the reports of occasional and
+very limited local investigations that material
+as to the actual state of affairs can be obtained.
+Social workers of Chicago had a bill introduced
+into the Illinois legislature at its session of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+1911, providing that boys under ten years and
+girls under sixteen years should be prohibited
+from selling anything in city streets, and some
+material was gathered to be used in support
+of this measure. In connection with what has
+already been said in <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chapter I</a>, it is interesting
+to note that although the provisions of this bill
+were very mild, and strong efforts were put
+forth by social workers to secure its passage, it
+was not allowed to become a law largely because
+of the absence of public opinion and partly
+because of the opposition by newspaper publishers
+and others who were afraid that their
+interests might suffer through the granting of
+protection to such little children.</p>
+
+<p>In one of the schools of Chicago, pupils were
+found to be trading in the streets in addition to
+attending school in the following percentages:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class="listcontainer">
+<ul class="not">
+<li>65 per cent of 5th grade children</li>
+<li>35 per cent of 4th grade children</li>
+<li>15 per cent of 2d grade children</li>
+<li>12 per cent of 1st grade children</li>
+</ul>
+(Figures for 3d grade were not given.)
+</div>
+
+<p>All of these children were attending school
+twenty-five hours a week, and many cases of
+excessive work out of school hours were found.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Some allowance should be made for possible
+exaggeration on the part of these children, but
+nevertheless it is certain that many of them
+were working to an injurious extent. The hours
+given were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="listcontainer">
+<ul class="not">
+ <li>1 boy over 50 hours</li>
+ <li>4 boys over 40 hours</li>
+ <li>5 boys over 35 hours</li>
+ <li>7 boys over 30 hours</li>
+ <li>18 boys over 20 hours</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p>Their average earnings per week were found
+to be as follows:<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Average earnings of street-trading children">
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">5th grade children</td>
+  <td class="right">$1.18</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">4th grade children</td>
+  <td class="right">.85</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">3d grade children</td>
+  <td class="right">.60</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">2d grade children</td>
+  <td class="right">.43</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">1st grade children</td>
+  <td class="right">.36</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>In referring to the weekly income of the
+children from this source, the Handbook of the
+Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit declared that
+it was "a pitiable sum to compensate for the
+physical weariness and moral risk attending
+street trades in a large city. School reports
+show that street trades, when carried on by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+young children, lead to truancy, low vitality,
+dullness and the breaking down of parental
+control. Since the children are on the streets
+at all hours, careless habits are developed which
+often lead to moral ruin to both boys and girls."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>An instance was related wherein the teacher
+of a fifth grade in a Chicago school asked those
+of her pupils who worked for money to raise
+their hands. In the class of 38 pupils, 26
+acknowledged that they were little breadwinners!
+One boy said he worked ten hours a
+day besides attending school; others had less
+striking records, spending from twenty to forty
+hours a week selling chewing gum and newspapers,
+blacking boots and pursuing the various
+other street occupations which the Illinois law
+leaves open to children of all ages.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>Referring to the economic and home conditions
+surrounding young children in Chicago
+and the many phases of danger to their moral
+well-being, the Vice Commission of that city
+reported that its agents had found small boys
+selling newspapers in segregated districts and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+that one night an investigator had counted
+twenty newsboys from eleven years upwards so
+engaged at midnight and after. Besides these
+newsboys, many little boys and girls were found
+peddling chewing gum near disorderly saloons
+where prostitutes were soliciting. Numerous
+examples of employment in vicious environment
+are cited, principally of the peddling of newspapers
+and chewing gum by young children at
+all hours of the night in the "red light" districts,
+about saloons and museums of anatomy.
+Even in the rear rooms of saloons, boys were
+seen offering their wares and heard to join in
+obscene conversation with the patrons of these
+resorts.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>A folder published in Chicago by the advocates
+of street-trade regulation calls attention
+to these conditions, and states, with regard to
+little newsgirls who sell papers in the vice
+regions: "It is not surprising if some of them,
+becoming so familiar with the practices of the
+district, take up the profession of the neighborhood.
+The Juvenile Protective Association
+reports one little girl who entered the life of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+professional prostitute at the age of fourteen,
+after having sold newspapers for years in the
+district."<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another element of this problem, seldom
+considered, is described also in this folder&mdash;the
+vagrants, who constitute a large and growing
+class deserving the attention of both city
+and citizen. "Three classes of persons, who
+add little to the general circulation, while detracting
+much from the tone of the business
+and working a real injury to themselves, are
+engaged in selling newspapers; these are the
+small boy, the semi-vagrant boy, and the young
+girl. The business of selling newspapers in
+Chicago is so systematized that the 'vagrant'
+cannot prosper, and yet the 'vagrant' is in
+our midst. He can be found on State Street
+at 11 o'clock on a Saturday night with one
+newspaper under his arm&mdash;not attempting to
+sell it, but using it as a bait to beg from the
+passers-by. He can be found in the <i>American</i>
+news alley, sometimes fifty, sometimes a hundred
+strong, sleeping on bags, under boxes, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+on the floor of the newspaper restaurant.
+With this boy, and with all those who are obviously
+too young to be permitted to engage in
+street trading, it is our duty to deal if we are
+to preserve the attitude the American city
+takes toward the dependent child."</p>
+
+<table class="lined w50" summary="Nationalities of Boston Child Street Traders">
+<caption><span class="smcap">Nationalities of Boston Child Street Traders</span></caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w5" />
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w5" />
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w20" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th colspan="4">Place of Birth</th>
+  <th>Number</th>
+  <th>Percentage</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td rowspan="3" class="bl left">America</td>
+  <td rowspan="3" style="font-size:550%; text-align:right; padding: 0em; vertical-align: top;">&#123;</td>
+  <td>Boston</td>
+  <td class="br right">1,556</td>
+  <td rowspan="3"  class="br right">1860</td>
+  <td rowspan="3" class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">70</span>.<span class="nachkomma">&nbsp;</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td>Elsewhere in Mass.</td>
+  <td class="br right">171</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td>Other states</td>
+  <td class="br right">133</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Russia</td>
+  <td class="br right">473</td>
+  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">17</span>.<span class="nachkomma">5</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Italy</td>
+  <td class="br right">161</td>
+  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">6</span>.<span class="nachkomma">&nbsp;</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Other foreign countries</td>
+  <td class="br right">162</td>
+  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">6</span>.<span class="nachkomma">&nbsp;</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Not given</td>
+  <td class="br right">8</td>
+  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">&nbsp;</span>.<span class="nachkomma">5</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="br bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="br bl bb bt right">2664</td>
+  <td class="br bl bb bt right"><span class="vorkomma">100</span>.<span class="nachkomma">0</span></td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Boston</h3>
+
+<p>In Boston, during the year 1910, there were
+issued to newsboys, peddlers and bootblacks
+from eleven to thirteen years of age inclusive,
+2664 licenses. Of these nearly all (2525) were
+issued to newsboys, while 114 were issued to
+bootblacks and 25 to peddlers. Of these license<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+holders 904 were eleven years old, 900 were
+twelve years old, and 860 were thirteen years
+old. It is interesting to note that nearly three
+fourths of these children were born in the
+United States; the table on <a href="#Page_33">page 33</a> shows their
+distribution among nationalities.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">New York City</h3>
+
+<p>The actual number of children engaged in
+street activities at any given time is less than
+the number of licenses issued during the year,
+inasmuch as not all such children persist in
+pursuing this work, many of them working only
+a few weeks, while a few never enter upon the
+tasks which they have been licensed to perform.
+This is borne out by the experience of investigators
+in New York City; the report of a study
+made there recently says: "We are told by
+the department of education issuing newsboy
+badges that 4500 boys have these badges, yet
+when we secured the addresses of some of these
+from their application cards ... we found that
+not 30 per cent of the 100 cases investigated
+lived at listed addresses. Many such were
+bogus numbers, open lots, factories, wharves,
+and in some cases the middle of East River<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+would wash over the house number given.
+When we did find a correct address, the children
+so located in six cases out of ten were not following
+the trade. In some instances they never
+sold papers, obtaining badges simply because
+other boys were applying for them, and after
+receiving a badge tucked it away in a drawer
+or maybe sold it or gave it away."<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Cincinnati</h3>
+
+<p>In Cincinnati from June to December, 1909,
+1951 boys from ten to thirteen years of age
+were licensed to sell newspapers, this number
+being about 15 per cent of the total number of
+boys of these ages in the city. Their distribution
+according to age was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Licensed newspaper sellers Cincinnati">
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">10 years</td>
+  <td class="right">424</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">11 years</td>
+  <td class="right">466</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">12 years</td>
+  <td class="right">539</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">13 years</td>
+  <td class="right">522</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">Total</td>
+  <td class="right bt">1951</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p>The Cincinnati figures do not include bootblacks,
+peddlers or market children, as no
+licenses were issued for such occupations, al<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>though
+they are specifically covered by the municipal
+ordinance regulating street trades.</p>
+
+<p>The above data were available only because
+there has been some attempt in Boston, New
+York and Cincinnati to restrict the employment
+of children in street occupations; as in the great
+majority of cities and states there is absolutely
+no regulation of this kind, there are of course
+no figures to indicate conditions.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">The Padrone System</h3>
+
+<p>In almost every city of the United States
+having a population of more than 10,000, there
+is to be found the padrone system, which is
+operated principally in the interests of the bootblacking
+business which the Greeks control.
+The peddling of flowers, fruit and vegetables
+in Chicago and New York is partly subject to
+the same methods. The labor supply furnished
+by this system for peddling and bootblacking
+consists generally of children from twelve to
+seventeen years of age.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Immigration Commission states in its
+report that there are several thousand shoe-shining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+establishments in the United States
+operated by Greeks who employ boys as bootblacks,
+and that with few exceptions they are
+under the padrone system.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> A few boys under
+sixteen years of age are employed under the
+Greek padrone system as flower vendors, and
+these are found chiefly in New York City.
+They are hired by florists to sell flowers in the
+streets and public places&mdash;largely old stock
+that cannot be handled in the shops. These
+boys usually live in good quarters, are well fed
+and receive their board and from $50 to $100
+a year in wages. When not engaged in peddling,
+they deliver flowers ordered at the shops. The
+boys employed by the padrones to peddle
+candy, fruit and vegetables usually live in
+basements or in filthy rooms; here they are
+crowded two, three and sometimes four in one
+bed, with windows shut tight so as to avoid
+catching cold. The fruit and vegetables still
+on hand are stored for the night in these bedrooms
+and in the kitchen. In each peddling
+company there are usually three or four wagons
+and from four to eight boys.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Minor Street Occupations</h3>
+
+<p>There are a few so-called street trades in
+which a relatively small number of children are
+engaged which so far have not been mentioned
+in this volume. These are the leading of blind
+persons and the accompanying of beggars in
+general, little children being found valuable
+for such work because they help to excite the
+sympathy of passers-by. A few children also
+are employed as lamplighters to go about
+towns lighting street lamps in the evening and
+extinguishing them in the early morning. A
+class of street boys who have as yet received
+no name in this country, but in England are
+called "touts," haunt the neighborhood of railroad
+depots and lie in wait for passengers with
+hand baggage, offering to carry it to the train
+for a small fee.</p>
+
+<p>Some children are used as singers or performers
+upon musical instruments, but this is
+in reality only another form of begging. The
+writer found one instance of a young boy who
+was employed by the public library of one of
+our large cities to gather up overdue books
+about the city and to collect the fines imposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+for failure to return the same. Very frequently
+in the course of his work this boy had to enter
+houses of prostitution, as the inmates are steady
+patrons of the public library, reading light literature,
+and are quite negligent in the matter
+of returning the books within the prescribed
+time. Immediately upon the librarian's learning
+of the situation, he was relieved of this duty,
+and a man was detailed to perform the task.
+Such special occupations as these do not constitute
+a real factor in the problem because of
+the small number of children involved, and
+hence they are omitted from consideration.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Great Britain</h3>
+
+<p>Turning to Europe we find much more information
+on this subject. In Great Britain
+the House of Commons in 1898 ordered an
+inquiry to be made into the extent of child
+labor among public school pupils, and the education
+department sent schedules to the 20,022
+public elementary schools in England and Wales
+for the purpose of determining the facts. A little
+more than half of the schools returned the
+schedules blank, stating that no children were
+employed; this introduced a large element of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+error into the return, as many of the schoolmasters
+misunderstood the meaning of the
+schedules, and consequently quite a number of
+children who should have been included were
+omitted from the total. The 9433 schedules
+which were filled and returned showed that
+144,026 children (about three fourths boys and
+one fourth girls) were in attendance full time
+at the public elementary schools of England and
+Wales and known to be employed for profit
+outside of school hours.</p>
+
+<p>The ages of these children reported as employed
+were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Age of working pupils in England and Wales">
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="left">Under 7 years</td>
+  <td class="right">131</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">7</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">1,120</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">8</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">4,211</td>
+</tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">9</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">11,027</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">10</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">22,131</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">11</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">36,775</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">12</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">47,471</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">13</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">18,556</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">14</td>
+  <td class="left">and over</td>
+  <td class="right">1,787</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="left">Not given</td>
+  <td class="right">817</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">Total</td>
+  <td class="right bt">144,026</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>The standards or school grades in which these
+working children were enrolled and the total
+enrollment for the year ended August 31, 1898,
+were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28" href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="School grades into which working children were enrolled">
+ <tr>
+  <th colspan="2">Working Children</th>
+  <th>Total Enrollment</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">No Standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">329</td>
+  <td class="right br">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">1st standard</td>
+  <td class="right br"> 3,890</td>
+  <td class="right br">2,875,088</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">2d standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">11,686</td>
+  <td class="right br">723,582</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">3d standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">24,624</td>
+  <td class="right br">679,096</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">4th standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">36,907</td>
+  <td class="right br">590,850</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">5th standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">37,315</td>
+  <td class="right br">421,728</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">6th standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">21,975</td>
+  <td class="right br">212,546</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">7th standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">6,382</td>
+  <td class="right br">66,442</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">Ex-7 standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">382</td>
+  <td class="right br">7,534</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">Not stated</td>
+  <td class="right br">536</td>
+  <td class="right br">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="leftindent bl bb">Total</td>
+  <td class="right br bb bt">144,026</td>
+  <td class="right br bb bt">5,576,866</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The occupations followed by these children
+were divided into three main groups, and each
+of these groups was further divided into three
+classes. These divisions and the number of
+children in each were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29" href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Occupations of working pupils">
+ <tr>
+  <th colspan="2">Piecework, chiefly Boys</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Time-work, chiefly Boys</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Domestic Employment, girls only, with One or Two Exceptions</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Selling newspapers</td>
+  <td class="br rightbottom">15,182</td>
+  <td class="leftnarrow">In shops or running errands for shopkeepers</td>
+  <td class="rightbottom">76,173</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Minding babies</td>
+  <td class="br rightbottom">11,585</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Hawking goods</td>
+  <td class="br rightbottom">2,435</td>
+  <td class="leftnarrow">Agricultural occupations</td>
+  <td class="rightbottom">6,115</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other housework, including laundry work, etc.</td>
+  <td class="br rightbottom">9,254</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Sports, taking dinners, knocking-up, etc.</td>
+  <td class="br bb rightbottom">8,627</td>
+  <td class="leftnarrow bb">Boot and knife cleaning, etc. (house boys)</td>
+  <td class="rightbottom bb">10,636</td>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Needlework and like occupations</td>
+  <td class="br bb rightbottom">4,019</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The return revealed a surprising variety of
+occupations followed by these children&mdash;about
+200 different kinds in all.</p>
+<table class="intext" summary="Working hours per week">
+ <tr>
+  <th class="harmonized">Hours per Week</th>
+  <th class="right harmonized">Number of Children</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Under 10</td>
+  <td class="right">39,355</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">10-20</td>
+  <td class="right">60,268</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">21-30</td>
+  <td class="right">27,008</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">31-40</td>
+  <td class="right">9,778</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">41-50</td>
+  <td class="right">2,390</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">51-60</td>
+  <td class="right">576</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">61-70</td>
+  <td class="right">142</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">71-80</td>
+  <td class="right">59</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Over 81</td>
+  <td class="right">16</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Not stated</td>
+  <td class="right">4,434</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Total</td>
+  <td class="right bt">144,026</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The number of hours per week devoted by
+these children to the various employments will
+be found in the above table; it should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+remembered that these hours were given to work
+in addition to the time spent at school.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30" href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was recognized that the figures given by
+this parliamentary return did not represent the
+real situation, but nevertheless its revelations
+were sufficiently startling to show the need of
+further investigation. Accordingly in 1901 there
+was appointed an interdepartmental committee
+which after careful study reported that the
+figures in the parliamentary return were well
+within the actual numbers, but that the facts
+it contained were substantially correct.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31" href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> This
+committee estimated the total number of children
+who were both in attendance at school
+and in paid employments in England and Wales
+at 300,000;<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32" href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> it declared that cases of excessive
+employment were "sufficiently numerous to
+leave no doubt that a substantial number of children
+are being worked to an injurious extent."<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33" href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<p>Referring to the amount of time devoted by
+the children to gainful employment outside of
+school, the committee reported, "On a review<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+of the evidence we consider it is proved that in
+England and Wales a substantial number of
+children, amounting probably to 50,000, are
+being worked more than twenty hours a week
+in addition to twenty-seven and one-half hours
+at school, that a considerable proportion of
+this number are being worked to thirty or forty
+and some even to fifty hours a week, and that
+the effect of this work is in many cases detrimental
+to their health, their morals and their
+education, besides being often so unremitting
+as to deprive them of all reasonable opportunity
+for recreation. For an evil so serious, existing
+on so large a scale, we think that some remedy
+ought to be found."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34" href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The committee estimated
+the total number of children selling newspapers
+and in street hawking at 25,000.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35" href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+<p>With reference to conditions in Edinburgh,
+an English writer says, "Of the 1406 children
+employed out of school hours in Edinburgh,
+307 are ten years of age or under. Four of them
+are six years old, and eleven are seven years
+of age. We hear of boys working seventeen
+hours (from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 12 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>) on Saturday.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+For children to work twelve, thirteen and fourteen
+hours on Saturday is quite common. The
+average wage seems to be three farthings an hour,
+but one hears of children who are paid one shilling
+and sixpence for thirty-eight hours of toil."<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36" href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>In New South Wales boys are permitted to
+trade on the streets at the age of ten years, and
+up to fourteen years may engage in such work
+between the hours of 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> except
+while the schools are in session; after they are
+fourteen years old they may trade between
+6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Such children are licensed,
+and during the six months ending March 31,
+1910, 714 licenses were issued, 72 per cent of
+them being to children under fourteen years of
+age; 92 per cent of these children were engaged
+in hawking newspapers, the others being scattered
+through such occupations as peddling
+flowers, fruit and vegetables, fish, fancy goods,
+matches, bottles, pies and milk.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37" href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Germany</h3>
+
+<p>In December, 1897, the German Imperial
+Chancellor, referring to the incomplete census<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+returns as to child labor, requested the governments
+to furnish him with information as to
+the total number of children under fourteen
+employed in labor other than factory labor,
+agricultural employment and domestic service,
+and the kinds of work done. In this circular
+he said: "But, above all, where the kind of
+occupation is unsuitable for children, where
+the work continues too long, where it takes
+place at unseasonable times and in unsuitable
+places, child labor gives rise to serious consideration;
+in such cases it is not only dangerous
+to the health and morality of the children, but
+school discipline is impaired and compulsory
+education becomes illusory. For children cannot
+possibly give the necessary attention to
+their lessons when they are tired out and
+when they have been working hard in unhealthful
+rooms until late at night. I need
+only instance employment in skittle alleys
+late in the evening, in the delivery of newspapers
+in the early morning and the employment
+of children in many branches of home
+industry. The most recent researches undertaken
+in different localities show that the
+employment of children in labor demands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+earnest attention in the interests of the rising
+generation."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38" href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>Inquiries extending over almost the whole
+German Empire were accordingly made by the
+different states from January to April, 1898.
+It was found that 544,283 children under fourteen
+years were employed in labor other than
+factory labor, agricultural employment and
+domestic service. This was 6.53 per cent of
+the total number of children of school age
+(8,334,919).</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the effects of such work, this
+German report says: "As the children who carry
+around small wares, sell flowers, etc., go from
+one inn to another, they are exposed to evil
+influences, and are liable to contract at an early
+age, bad habits of smoking, lying, drinking....
+The delivery of newspapers is a particularly
+great strain on the children, as it occupies them
+both before and after school hours."</p>
+
+<p>Seven divisions of these children were made
+according to occupation, four of them relating
+to street work. Under the heading <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Handel</i></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+were included children in many kinds of work,
+among them hawking fruit, milk, bread, brooms,
+flowers, newspapers, etc.; under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Austragedienste</i></span>
+were included only the delivery and
+carrying around of bread, milk, vegetables,
+beer, papers, books, advertisements, circulars,
+bills, coals, wood, boots and shoes, washing,
+clothes, etc.; under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Gewöhnliche Laufdienste</i></span>
+were included only errand boys and messengers;
+under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Sonstige gewerbliche Thätigkeit</i></span> were included,
+among other occupations, blacking
+boots, leading the blind, street singers and
+players, etc.</p>
+
+<table class="lined w80" summary="Situation in Germany">
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w50" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>Boys</th>
+  <th>Girls</th>
+  <th>Sex not stated</th>
+  <th>Total</th>
+  <th>Percentage</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Handel</span> (retail trade)</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">7,507</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">4,540</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">5,576</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">17,623</td>
+  <td class="bl br rightbottom">3.31</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Austragedienste</span> (delivery service)</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">67,188</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">36,966</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">31,676</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">135,830</td>
+  <td class="bl br rightbottom">25.52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Gewöhnliche Laufdienste</span> (general  messenger service)</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">23,321</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">2,134</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">10,454</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">35,909</td>
+  <td class="bl br rightbottom">6.75</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Sonstige  gewerbliche Thätigkeit</span> (other forms of labor)</td>
+  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">6,281</td>
+  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">2,387</td>
+  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">3,119</td>
+  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">11,787</td>
+  <td class="bl br bb rightbottom">2.21</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Austria</h3>
+
+<p>The Austrian Ministry of Commerce began an
+investigation of actual conditions in Austria<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+late in 1907 in response to the agitation for a
+new law that would regulate child labor not
+only in factories, but also in home industries,
+in commerce, and even in agriculture. In his
+Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe,
+Mr. C. W. A. Veditz refers to the findings of
+this investigation in a number of the provinces.
+In Bohemia, of 676 children in trade and transportation,
+but still attending school, 169 were
+engaged in peddling and huckstering; in delivering
+goods and going errands 1554 children were
+employed, being generally hired to deliver
+bread, milk, meats, groceries, newspapers, books,
+telegrams, circulars&mdash;in fact, all manner of
+goods.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39" href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> In the province of Upper Austria
+children are paid from two to seven crowns
+(40.6 cents to $1.42) a month for delivering
+newspapers daily, while in the duchy of Salzburg
+the pay varies from twenty to fifty hellers
+(4 to 10 cents) a day for delivering bread or
+newspapers.</p>
+
+<p>In the province of Lower Austria, "referring
+now to the other main occupations in which
+school children are employed outside of industry
+proper, the report [of the investigation] shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+that ... those working in trade and transportation
+usually help wait on customers in
+their parents' stores; a number, however, sell
+flowers, shoe laces, etc., or huckster bread,
+butter and eggs, or carry passengers' baggage
+to and from railway stations. Most of those
+put down as delivering goods are engaged in delivering
+bread, milk, newspapers and washing."<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40" href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+Children who sell flowers, bread or cigars in
+Vienna earn one to two crowns (20.3 to 40.6 cents)
+a day during the week, and on Sundays as much
+as three crowns (60.9) cents. "The children
+employed [in Lower Austria] to deliver goods
+and run errands are also usually employed by
+non-relatives and receive wages in money.
+Those who deliver milk, and who work one half
+to one hour a day, generally receive twenty
+hellers to one crown (4 to 20.3 cents) weekly;
+in exceptional cases two crowns (40.6 cents),
+and in some instances only food and old clothes.
+For delivering bread and pastry, wages are
+reported as thirty hellers (6 cents) a week and
+some meals, or fifty hellers to two crowns
+(10 to 40.6 cents) a week without meals; in
+exceptional cases, 10 per cent of the receipts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+For delivering papers, which requires one to
+two hours a day, children receive two to ten
+crowns (40.6 cents to $2.03) a month. For
+delivering of washing, thirty hellers (6 cents)
+for a two-hours' trip, or sixty hellers to two
+crowns (12 to 40.6 cents) a week. Children
+who carry dinner to mill laborers, requiring
+one half to one hour daily, get eighty hellers
+to five crowns (16 cents to $1.02) a month.
+Messengers for stores, hotels, etc., get a tip of
+two to ten hellers (.4 to 2 cents) per errand, or,
+if employed regularly, twenty hellers to one
+crown (4 to 20.3 cents) a week."<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41" href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>"The delivery of milk, pastry, newspapers,
+etc., in which many children are employed in
+Vienna and other large cities, does not cause
+frequent absences, but is responsible for tardy
+arrival at school in the morning and for the
+fatigue that reduces attention and prevents
+mental alertness."<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42" href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">NEWSPAPER SELLERS</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>By far the majority of the children in street
+occupations are engaged in the sale or delivery
+of newspapers. The newsboy predominates to
+such an extent that he is taken as a matter
+of course. As Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "For
+more than one generation, it has been almost
+invariably assumed that there must be little
+newsboys." Ever since he became an institution
+of our city life, the public has been pleased
+to regard him admiringly as an energetic salesman
+of penetrating mind and keen sense of
+humor. There seems to be a tacit indorsement
+of the newsboy as such.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinarily there are five classes of newsboys
+to be found in all large cities&mdash;(1) the corner
+boys, (2) those who sell for corner boys on
+salary, (3) others who sell for them on commission,
+(4) those who sell for themselves, and
+(5) those with delivery routes. The bulk of
+the business is handled by the first three of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+classes, which are always associated together
+and found on the busy corners of the downtown
+sections of all our cities. The choice localities
+for the sale of newspapers, namely, the corners
+in the downtown sections where thousands of
+pedestrians are daily passing, come under the
+control of individuals by virtue of long tenure
+or by purchase, and their title to these corners
+is not disputed largely on account of the support
+they receive from the circulation managers of
+the newspapers. In former years the proprietorship
+of the corner was settled by a fight, but
+now it undergoes change of ownership by the
+formal transfer of location, fixtures and goodwill
+in accordance with the most approved legal
+practice.</p>
+
+<p>In Chicago a system of routes has been
+established by the newspapers which send wagons
+out with the different editions published each
+day to supply the men who control the delivery
+and sale of newspapers in the various districts.
+These route men employ boys to deliver for
+them to regular customers and also to sell on
+street corners on a commission basis. In Boston,
+ex-newsboys known as "Canada Points" are
+employed by the publishers at a fixed salary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+to distribute the editions by wholesale among
+the twenty odd places in the city from which
+the street sellers are supplied.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Ages, Earnings and Character of the Work</h3>
+
+<p>The following individual cases will serve
+to illustrate the various forms this business
+takes. One nineteen-year-old boy paid $65
+for his corner in Cincinnati about five years
+ago; he now earns from $4 to $5 a day clear
+and would not sell the location for many times
+its cost. He works there from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to
+6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on week days, starting an hour earlier
+on Saturdays, while on Sundays he delivers the
+morning newspapers over a route to regular
+customers. Two boys of about twelve years of
+age work for him, to one of whom he pays
+25 cents a day and to the other 30 cents a day;
+their duties are to hawk the different editions
+and to dispose of as many copies as possible by
+hopping the street cars and offering the papers
+to pedestrians from 3.45 to 6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> daily on
+week days. If they do not hustle and make a
+large number of sales, they lose their job.</p>
+
+<p>A corner in another part of the city is "owned"
+by a thirteen-year-old boy who earns about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+80 cents a day clear for himself in eight hours,
+and on Saturdays in nine hours. He has two
+boys working for him on commission, to whom
+he pays one cent for every four papers sold;
+they average about 15 cents a day apiece for
+three hours' work. When questioned, these
+commission boys admitted that they could
+make more money if working for themselves,
+but in that case would have to work until all
+the copies they had bought were sold, while on
+the commission plan they did not have to shoulder
+so much responsibility.</p>
+
+<p>Regulations made by the circulation managers
+of newspapers concerning the return of unsold
+copies greatly affect the newsboys' business.
+Naturally these regulations are made with an
+eye to extending the circulation. Corner boys
+are allowed to return only one copy out of
+every ten bought, being reimbursed by the
+office for its cost. Consequently they urge their
+newsboy employees and commission workers
+to put forth every effort to dispose of the supply
+purchased. The independent sellers are never
+permitted to return any unsold copies, except
+in the case of certain energetic boys who can
+be relied upon to work hard in any event. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+are known as "hustlers," and owing to their
+having won the confidence of the circulation
+manager they are granted the special privilege
+of returning at cost all copies they have been
+unable to sell.</p>
+
+<p>In Boston, beginners are often on a commission
+basis; "in this way they secure the advice and
+protection of the more experienced while serving
+their apprenticeship. These <i>strikers</i>, as they
+are called, keep one cent for every four collected;
+few of them earn more than 25 cents a day, while
+many of them earn less than 10."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43" href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>An eleven-year-old Jewish boy who has been
+a newsboy for several years now controls a
+comparatively quiet corner in Cincinnati, where
+he nets from 40 to 50 cents a day, working about
+three hours. This boy's father and mother
+are both living.</p>
+
+<p>Submission to older persons is natural among
+children, and an interesting instance of tyranny
+over small boys by adults was found in the case
+of a newspaper employee who works inside the
+plant and employs several young boys to sell
+newspapers on the streets for him. These boys<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+together earn about $1.30 when working about
+seven hours, but only half of this amount goes
+into their pockets, the other half being paid
+to their "employer." In New York City certain
+busy sections having points of strategic
+value are under the control of men who employ
+small boys to do the real work for a mere pittance,
+usually the price of admission to a moving-picture
+show. However, under certain circumstances,
+these little fellows often display a sturdy
+spirit of independence. An amusing instance
+is innocently recorded by an old wartime report
+of a newsboys' home: "It had been decided
+to give the boys a free dinner on Sundays, on
+condition that they attend the Sunday School;
+but last Sunday they desired the Matron to say
+that they were able and willing to pay for the
+dinner."<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44" href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>Independent newsboys must not stand in
+the territory controlled by another; they must
+select some uncontrolled spot, or else run about
+hither and yon, selling where they can. Under
+the unwritten law of this business a boy who
+chances to sell in another's territory must give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+the corner boy the money and receive a newspaper
+in exchange; this results the same as if
+the corner boy himself had made the sale. The
+earnings of these independent boys range from
+15 to 65 cents daily out of school hours, while
+on Saturdays they make from $1 to $1.50
+working from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></p>
+
+<p>An eleven-year-old lad who has been a newsboy
+for three years, selling on his own account,
+disposes of most of his copies in saloons located
+in the middle of a busy square, earning from
+50 cents to $1.25 a day even when attending
+school. His mother and father are both living.
+Another example of this class is a sixteen-year-old
+boy who devotes all his time to the trade,
+his net income averaging about $7.50 per week.
+His attitude toward regular work is both interesting
+and significant; he hopes to get a better
+job, but says that although he has hunted for
+one, so little is offered for what he can do
+($2 to $3 per week) that it would hardly suffice
+for spending money. Discussing this difference
+between factory wages and street-trading profits,
+an English report says: "Working from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>
+to 7 or 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, with intervals for gambling,
+newsboys over 14 years old can make from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+10<i>s.</i> to 14<i>s.</i> a week if they have an ordinary
+share of alertness. In a factory or foundry,
+working from 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, a boy earns about
+13<i>s.</i> a week. The comparison needs no comment.
+The excitement of their career tends to make
+them more and more reluctant to work steadily....
+Many newsboys protest that they want
+more permanent work, but they rarely keep it
+when it is found for them."<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45" href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> The life of the
+streets lacks the discipline involved in steady
+work and fixed earnings.</p>
+
+<p>As an example of the route boy there is a
+fourteen-year-old lad in Cincinnati who has a
+list of fifty customers to whom he delivers
+newspapers regularly, earning in this way 25
+cents daily, delivering after school hours. He
+declares that he finds it much easier to work
+on a route than to sell on the corners or at
+random.</p>
+
+<p>The morning papers employ a man as circulation
+manager for the residence districts who
+controls all the corners in those sections. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+a corner becomes vacant, he assigns a youth to
+it. These older boys are not to sell their corners
+nor to dispose of them in any way, nor are they
+allowed to have any one working for them;
+they must "hop" all the street cars passing their
+corners and are expected to put forth every
+effort to accomplish a great number of sales.
+They get their supply of copies at the branch
+office at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, hurrying then to their corners,
+where they remain until nearly noon, averaging
+in this time from $2 to $3 per day clear. Nearly
+all of the afternoon papers sold in the residence
+districts are delivered by route boys; after
+having gone over their routes, some of these
+boys go to the busier localities and sell the
+sporting extra during the baseball season until
+about seven o'clock.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Environment</h3>
+
+<p>Strong emphasis was laid upon the evils of
+street trading by the New York Child Welfare
+Exhibit of 1911, the Committee on Work and
+Wages declaring that "The ordinary newsboy
+is surrounded by influences that are extremely
+bad, because (1) of the desultory nature of his
+work; (2) of the character of street life; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+(3) of the lack of discipline or restraint in this
+work. The occupation is characterized by
+'rush hours,' during which the boy will work
+himself into exhaustion trying to keep pace with
+his trade, and long hours in which there is
+little or nothing to do, during which the boy
+has unlimited opportunities to make such use
+of the street freedom as he sees fit. During
+these light hours newsboys congregate in the
+streets and commit many acts of vandalism.
+They learn all forms of petty theft and usually
+are accomplished in most of the vices of the
+street. In building up their routes, the boys
+often include places of the most degrading and
+detrimental character. On the economic side,
+the loss is due to failure of the occupation to
+furnish any training for industrial careers."<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46" href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>The irregularity of newsboys' meals and the
+questionable character of their food form one
+of the worst features of street work and are a
+real menace to health. Many newsboys are in
+the habit of eating hurriedly at lunch counters
+at intervals during the day and night, while
+some snatch free lunches in saloons. In New<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+York City their diet has been found to consist
+chiefly of "such hostile ingredients as frankfürters,
+mince pies, doughnuts, ham sandwiches,
+cakes and 'sinkers'."<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47" href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> The use of stimulants
+is common, and the demand for them is to be
+expected because of the nervous strain of the
+work. Liquor is not consumed to any appreciable
+extent by street-trading children, but
+coffee is a favorite beverage. In the largest
+cities, where "night gangs" are found, from
+four to six bowls of coffee are usually taken
+every evening. Tobacco is used in great
+quantities and in all its forms; many boys even
+appease their hunger for the time by smoking
+cigarettes, and the smallest "newsies" are
+addicted to the habit. Evidence that this is
+not a recent development among street workers
+is found in a report made nearly a quarter of a
+century ago, which, with reference to newsboys,
+says "many of them soon spend their gains in
+pool rooms, low places of amusement and for
+the poisonous cigarette."<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48" href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>An English report on the street traders of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+Manchester says: "Drunkenness is rare among
+these boys ... they are in many ways attractive;
+but the closer our acquaintance grows
+with them the more overwhelming does this
+propensity to gambling appear. Indeed, it
+may reasonably be said that the whole career
+of the street trader is one long game of chance....
+They tend to become more and more
+unwilling to work hard; they are the creatures
+of accident and lose the power of foresight;
+they never form habits of thrift; and their word
+can be taken only by those who have learnt how
+to interpret it."<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49" href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p>There are tricks in newspaper selling as well
+as in other trades, and children are not slow to
+learn them. A careful observer cannot fail
+to note that certain newsboys seem always to
+be without change. Their patrons are generally
+in a hurry and willingly sacrifice the change
+from a nickel, even priding themselves on their
+unselfishness in thus helping to relieve the supposed
+poverty of the newsboys. As a matter
+of fact, such an act does real harm, for it arouses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+the cupidity of boys and leads them to believe
+that honesty is not the best policy. The temptation
+for newsboys to develop into "short
+change artists" is an ever present one, for the
+bustle of the street creates a most favorable
+condition for the practice of such frauds. Yet
+in spite of the many temptations which assail
+them, numbers of newsboys are scrupulously
+exact in the matter of making change, even under
+the most trying circumstances. Another
+common form of deceit, used to play upon the
+sympathy of passers-by, is practiced after nightfall
+by boys of all ages in offering a solitary newspaper
+for sale and crying in plaintive tone,
+"Please, mister, buy my last paper?" A kind-hearted
+person readily falls a victim to this ruse,
+and as soon as he has passed by, the newsboy
+draws another copy from his hidden supply and
+repeats his importuning. Commenting on these
+features of street trading, Dr. Charles P. Neill,
+United States Commissioner of Labor, has said:
+"Unless the child is cast in the mold of heroic
+virtue, the newsboy trade is a training in either
+knavery or mendicancy. Nowhere else are the
+wits so sharpened to look for the unfair advantage,
+nowhere else is the unfortunate lesson so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+early learned that dishonesty and trickery are
+more profitable than honesty, and that sympathy
+coins more pennies than does industry."<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50" href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Hours</h3>
+
+<p>Work at unseasonable hours is most disastrous
+in its effects upon growing children, and the
+newspaper trade is one that engages the labor
+of boys in our larger cities at all hours of the
+night. This fact is not generally known. A
+prominent social worker recently said: "I
+was astounded to find the other day that my
+newspaper comes to me in Chicago every morning
+because two little boys, one twelve and the
+other thirteen, get it at half-past two at night.
+These little boys, who go to school, carry papers
+around so that we get them in the morning at
+four o'clock all the year around. They are
+working for a man with whom we contract for
+our newspapers. I was quite shocked in St.
+Louis twice this fall (1908) to find a girl five or
+six years of age selling newspapers near the
+railroad station in the worst part of town after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+dark. We hear a great deal of sentimental
+talk about newsboys' societies doing so much
+for newsboys, but they do not seem to care
+anything for work of this kind."<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51" href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> In passing
+it may be remarked that in the city of Toledo
+there is an active association organized for the
+benefit of newsboys, which openly encourages
+street work by boys of from eight to seventeen
+years. The manager insists that such work
+affords the means of alleviating the poverty in
+the families of these boys, but upon inquiry
+it was found that he had never heard of the
+provision for the financial relief of such cases
+of child labor, which is made by the Ohio law,
+and which had been, at the time, most successfully
+administered for three years by the Board
+of Education of his own city.</p>
+
+<p>The Chicago newspapers have their Sunday
+editions distributed on Saturday night, consequently
+the newsboys are up all night so as to
+assure prompt service to patrons. In the absence
+of public opinion in the matter, this abuse flourishes
+unrestricted, and the children's health is
+sacrificed to meet the demand for news. Agents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+of the Chicago Vice Commission reported having
+seen boys from ten to fifteen years of age selling
+morning papers at midnight Saturday in the
+evil districts of the city.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52" href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>The early rising of newsboys to deliver the
+morning week-day editions also contributes to
+the breaking down of their health. The old
+adage is a mockery in their case. There is
+abundant testimony relative to the evil effects
+of such untimely work. "Children who go to
+school and sell papers get up so early in the
+morning that they are so stupid during the day
+they cannot do anything. That was clearly
+demonstrated to me during my experience in
+teaching school."<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53" href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another teacher said: "I have had instances
+in school where children have gone to sleep
+over their tasks because they got up at two or
+three o'clock in the morning to put out city
+lights and to sell papers. In those instances
+we wanted the parents to take the children away
+from their work. Where they would not do it,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+we prosecuted them for contributing to the
+delinquency of their children."<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54" href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+<p>The delivery of newspapers by young boys in
+the strictly residence sections of cities appears
+to be unobjectionable, yet even this simple
+work should be under restriction as to hours,
+because otherwise the boys would continue
+to rise at unseemly hours of the night in order
+to reach the branch offices in time to get the
+newspapers fresh from the press. In fact,
+every phase of street work should be under
+control. Dr. Harold E. Jones, medical inspector
+of schools to the Essex County Council, has
+testified that among the most injurious forms
+of labor performed by boys is the early morning
+delivery of newspapers and milk.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55" href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> In his
+Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, Mr.
+C. W. A. Veditz states, "Delivering milk before
+school in the morning must be condemned, because
+it fatigues the children so that they become,
+to say the least, intellectually less receptive."<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56" href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p>In his article on "The Newsboy at Night in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+Philadelphia,"<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57" href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> Mr. Scott Nearing gives a
+graphic account of conditions in the City of
+Brotherly Love. Although this description was
+written some years ago, local social workers
+find that the same conditions still obtain, as
+there is neither law nor ordinance to bring
+about a change. In this city the closing of
+the theaters at eleven o'clock marks the beginning
+of Saturday night's work. The last
+editions of the evening newspapers are offered
+at this time, often as a cloak for begging. After
+the theater, the restaurant patrons are available
+as customers until midnight. Then the morning
+papers begin to come from the press, and the
+newsboys abandon their begging and gambling
+and rush to the offices for their supplies. A
+load of forty pounds is often carried by the
+smallest newsboys, hurrying along the streets
+in the early morning hours. The cream of the
+business is done at this time, for most of the
+purchasers are more or less intoxicated and
+therefore inclined to be generous with tips and
+indifferent as to change; sometimes a newsboy
+takes in as much money on Saturday night and
+Sunday morning as during the entire remainder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+of the week. In relating his experiences, Mr.
+Nearing says, "On one night we saw fifteen boys
+in a group just as the policeman was chasing
+them out of Chinatown at half-past three
+Sunday morning; the youngest boy was clearly
+not over ten and the oldest was barely sixteen."
+At this hour the officers of the law interfere
+and quell the revels of the district. The open
+gratings in sidewalks through which warm air
+comes from basements, are then sought, and here
+the boys pass the time dozing until dawn, when
+they go abroad again to cry the Sunday papers.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Home Conditions&mdash;Poverty</h3>
+
+<p>One of the reasons why the public is so indulgent
+toward the street worker is that it takes
+for granted that the child is making a manly
+effort to support a widowed mother and several
+starving little brothers and sisters. Mrs. Florence
+Kelley calls this "perverted reasoning"
+and scores the public which "unhesitatingly
+places the burden of the decrepit adult's maintenance
+upon the slender shoulders of the
+child."<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58" href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Poverty has been made an excuse for
+child labor from time immemorial by those
+who profit by the system. Newspapers are not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+an exception to the rule; the newsboys extend
+their circulation and incidentally give them free
+advertising in the streets&mdash;hence they see
+nothing but good in the newsboys' work and
+fight lustily to defend what they claim to be the
+mainstay of the widows. That this popular
+impression and appealing argument are false
+and without justification has been shown by
+students of the problem everywhere. The
+following table gives the family condition of
+Cincinnati newsboys:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Family condition of Cincinnati newsboys">
+ <tr>
+  <td class="leftint">Both parents dead          </td>
+  <td class="right">12</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Father dead               </td>
+  <td class="right">239</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Mother dead                </td>
+  <td class="right">69</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Both parents living      </td>
+  <td class="right">1432</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">  Total                  </td>
+  <td class="right bt">1752</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Through a special inquiry it was found that
+in only 363 cases out of this total were the
+earnings of the children really needed. These
+1752 children, ten to thirteen years of age, were
+licensed from July to December, 1909; their
+distribution as to age was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Licensed Cincinnati newsboys under 14">
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">10       </td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">303</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">11</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">348</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">12</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">564</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">13</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">537</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">Total</td>
+  <td class="right bt">1752</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>Upon investigation of the home conditions of
+several hundred newsboys in New York City it
+was declared that "in the majority of cases parents
+are not dependent on the boys' earnings.
+The poverty plea&mdash;that boys must sell papers to
+help widowed mothers or disabled fathers&mdash;is,
+for the most part, gross exaggeration."<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59" href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>Concerning a study of Chicago newsboys,
+Myron E. Adams says, "A careful investigation
+of the records of the Charity Organization
+Society shows that of the 1000 newsboys investigated,
+the names of but sixteen families are
+found, and of these ... only four received
+direct help, such as coal, clothing or food."<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60" href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Scott Nearing says: "In many cases the
+boys want to go on the streets in order to have
+the pocket money which this life affords, and
+the ignorant or indifferent parents make no
+objections, but take the street life as a matter
+of course. Sometimes, though not nearly as
+often as is generally supposed, there is real need
+for the selling."<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61" href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The British interdepartmental committee
+appointed in 1901 to inquire into the employment
+of school children, denounced the tolerance
+of street trading on the ground of necessity:
+"We think that in framing regulations with regard
+to child labour and school attendance ... the poverty
+of the child or its parents
+ought not to be made a test of the right to
+labour.... We do not think it is needed;
+we think that all children should have liberty
+to work as much and in such ways as is good
+for them and no more."<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62" href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another argument in favor of street trading
+advanced by those who are interested in maintaining
+present conditions, is that it affords a
+splendid training for a business career because
+of the competition that rages among the boys.
+This is doubtless true, as far as it goes, but the
+great difficulty is that street trading leads
+nowhere. It is a blind alley that sooner or
+later leaves its followers helpless against the
+solid wall of skilled labor's competition. An
+occupation that fits a boy for <i>nothing</i> and is
+devoid of <i>prospects</i>, is a curse rather than a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+blessing in this day of specialization. In spite
+of the division of labor so elaborately realized
+to-day, a boy or girl who enters any of the
+regular industries has at least a fighting chance
+for acquiring a trade. If the child is honest,
+capable and diligent he will be promoted to a
+better position in time if misfortune does not
+overtake him. The trapper boy in a coal mine
+is in a fair way to become a miner. The lad who
+works in a machine shop has the opportunity
+to make a machinist of himself. The girl who
+begins as a wrapper in a dry goods shop may
+become a saleswoman, and then possibly a
+buyer for her department. Yet in most states
+children may not enter upon such work until
+they have reached the age of fourteen years,
+while some states prohibit boys under sixteen
+years from being employed in mines or in connection
+with dangerous machinery either in machine
+shops or elsewhere. Bitter experience has taught
+us that these restrictions are right and just,
+and we now have no hesitancy in barring young
+children from such employment, regardless of
+the training it affords. Why, then, do we exempt
+many forms of street work from the operation
+of the law? Why do we allow little children to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+work at any age, both night and day, as newsboys,
+bootblacks and peddlers in the essentially
+dangerous environment of the street? Such
+employment offers but a gloomy future&mdash;the
+useless life of the casual worker. There is no
+better position to which it leads, no chance for the
+discovery and development of ability, no reward
+for good service. It seems incredible that we
+have been so engrossed with throwing safeguards
+about the children in regular industries that we
+have altogether neglected the street worker, for the
+arguments against child labor in factories, mills,
+mines and retail shops apply with even greater
+force to the work of children in our city streets.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Better Substitutes</h3>
+
+<p>There is no reason why newsboys should not
+be replaced as the medium for the sale and
+delivery of newspapers by old men, cripples,
+the tuberculous and those otherwise incapacitated
+for regular work. In London, the <i>Westminster
+Gazette</i>, the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>, the <i>Evening
+Standard</i> and the <i>Globe</i> (all penny papers)
+are sold in the streets by old men; the <i>Westminster
+Gazette</i> pays them a wage of 1<i>s.</i> for selling
+eighteen copies and after having disposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+of this number they are given a commission of
+8<i>d.</i> a quire of twenty-six copies, a few men
+selling from six to eight quires a day. This
+newspaper has followed this method for many
+years, and its general manager declares that it
+is the most satisfactory system that they have
+been able to evolve. Boys have no sense of
+responsibility, while old men cling to their
+posts very faithfully. He admitted that the
+<i>Westminster Gazette</i> employed some boys as
+carriers and that the whole subject lay somewhat
+heavily on his conscience because, "practically
+speaking, these boys have no future ... a
+few of them may become cyclists carrying the
+newspapers ... in a few years their usefulness
+as cyclists has gone ... then they
+simply drift away, we don't know where, but
+we do know that they drift to places like Salvation
+Army Shelters, etc. How they earn their
+living is always one of the mysteries of London....
+But they have learned nothing from us,
+nothing that gives them any usefulness for any
+other occupation.... The great majority
+become casual labourers dependent entirely
+on casual work.... It is a life in which very
+little is gained, although one would suppose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+that the open air would be of great benefit.
+But one must remember the insufficient food
+that these street traders have, and the bad
+conditions of living and the irregular hours.
+Many of these boys, of course, are up all hours
+of the night.... It is quite as bad for a boy
+in the long run to be engaged as a carrier distributor
+as for him to sell newspapers in the
+street. There is no possible argument for the
+system except that one's competitors do it, and
+that so long as they do it we must do the same....
+We get practically all our men from
+Salvation Army and Church Army Shelters.
+There is an abundant supply.... The ordinary
+man whom we employ is over fifty years of
+age and runs up to about seventy years....
+I think if the police would give us every facility
+for introducing kiosks it would be a great improvement
+upon the present system. If boys were
+prohibited from selling newspapers altogether
+on the streets, it would automatically send the
+public to the kiosk; ... the public get into the
+habit of getting the newspapers from the boys."<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63" href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It should be remembered in connection with
+the above statements that the <i>Westminster
+Gazette</i> is a penny paper, and its manager was
+of opinion that the half-penny papers could not
+afford to employ men because they depended
+largely for their circulation upon the persistence
+of newsboys in thrusting copies upon the attention
+of people in the streets; he believed that the
+use of old men would curtail their circulation
+because men are not so active as boys. On the
+other hand, news agents protested against the
+competition of street traders and maintained
+that they alone were fully able to meet the
+demands of the public. The departmental
+committee of 1910 reported: "There can, we
+think, be little doubt that an active child is an
+effective agent in promoting the circulation of
+half-penny papers, and that if the employment
+of children were forbidden, newspapers would
+have to rely upon facilities of a more staid and
+less mobile character. But we see no reason
+to think that purchasers of newspapers need be
+put to any inconvenience, since the news agents
+would be in a position considerably to extend
+their business, and it might reasonably be
+expected that the system of employing old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+men as salesmen would also be developed. It
+appears to us economically unjustifiable to use
+children to their own detriment for work which
+can be done by other means."<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64" href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p>Referring to the great possibilities for good
+involved in confining the sale and delivery of
+newspapers to adults who need outdoor work
+and are unable to provide for themselves in
+other ways, the Secretary of the New York
+Child Labor Committee says: "Where such
+cities as Paris and Berlin do entirely without
+newsboys&mdash;corner stands taking their places&mdash;it
+would seem that the least that can be done
+in American cities is to adopt some adequate
+system of regulation. In this connection, the
+opportunity presented in newspaper selling to
+give work to the aged and handicapped&mdash;who
+otherwise would have to be supported by private
+charity&mdash;should not be overlooked."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65" href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">The Newsboys' Court</h3>
+
+<p>In an effort to control to some extent the tendency
+of newsboys to become delinquent and to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+imbue them with a sense of personal responsibility,
+an interesting experiment in juvenile suffrage and
+jurisprudence has been undertaken in Boston.</p>
+
+<p>During the year 1909, about three hundred
+newsboys were taken before the juvenile court
+of that city charged with violation of the local
+license rules. As the docket of this court was
+crowded, these newsboy cases were necessarily
+delayed, and as a result of this situation the boys
+conceived the idea of establishing a newsboys'
+court which should have jurisdiction in all cases
+of failure to observe the rules governing their
+trade. The following year a petition was presented
+to the Boston School Committee which
+was favorably acted upon by that body, and
+accordingly on the regular election day of that
+year the newsboys cast their ballots to select
+three juvenile judges of the court. These
+three boys, together with two adults appointed
+by the School Committee, compose
+the court. Election of these boy judges is
+held annually, and all licensed newsboys who
+attend the public schools are qualified electors.
+The court is empowered to investigate and
+report its findings with recommendations to
+the School Committee in all cases of infraction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+of the newsboy rules. Under the Massachusetts
+law the School Committee is authorized
+to regulate street trading by children under
+fourteen years of age, hence the newsboys are
+subject to purely local supervision. The supervisor
+of licensed minors, also an appointee of
+the School Committee, can, in his discretion,
+take complaints in his department before the
+newsboys' court instead of the juvenile court.
+The newsboy judges are paid fifty cents for
+their attendance at each official session of the
+court. The charges made before the Trial
+Board, as the Boston newsboys' court is called,
+range from selling without a badge or after
+eight o'clock in the evening or on street cars,
+to bad conduct, irregular school attendance,
+gambling or smoking. The disposition of these
+cases varies from reprimands and warnings to
+probation or suspension of license for a definite
+period, or complete revocation of license.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66" href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Summary</h3>
+
+<p>Although the work of selling newspapers has
+been, to some extent, subdivided and systema<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>tized
+by circulation managers, it has so many
+features highly objectionable for children that
+a radical departure from present methods of
+handling this business should be taken. We
+know that the work of the newsboy lacks the
+oversight and discipline of adults, that it
+exposes the children to the varied physical
+dangers lurking in the streets, that the early
+and late hours cause fatigue, that the opportunities
+for bad companionship are frequent, that
+irregularity of meals and use of stimulants tend
+to weaken their constitutions, that it offers no
+chance for promotion and leads nowhere. We
+know further that the presence of the newsboy
+in our streets cannot be justified on the ground
+of poverty. It has been demonstrated in other
+countries that children are not essential to the
+sale and delivery of newspapers; in fact, it has
+been shown that selling at stands and the use
+of men instead of children in the streets are
+both feasible and satisfactory. Why cannot
+such practices be introduced into the United
+States? There can be but little doubt as to
+the advisability of this step, but the innovation
+will certainly not be made voluntarily by the
+newspapers. The law must force the issue by
+prohibiting street work by children.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">BOOTBLACKS, PEDDLERS AND MARKET CHILDREN</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Bootblacks</h3>
+
+<p>The itinerant bootblack is gradually disappearing
+from our cities, but he is still found
+in Boston, Buffalo, New York City and a few
+other places. He is being supplanted by the
+worker at stands, which are conducted almost
+invariably by Greeks. As a result of this
+change the bootblacking business will soon cease
+to be a street occupation; it is discussed here
+because of the abuses it involves and because
+it is unregulated in many states, owing to its
+omission from the list of employments covered
+by child labor laws.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">The Padrone System</h3>
+
+<p>The New York-New Jersey Committee of
+the North American Civic League for Immigrants
+reports that: "The condition of Greek boys
+and young men in such occupations as pushcart
+peddling, shoe-shining parlors and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+flower trade is one of servitude and peonage.
+It has been found that many boys apparently
+from fourteen to eighteen years of age arrive
+here alone, stating that they are eighteen years
+old, but in reality less than this, and that they
+are going to relatives. They have been found
+working in the shoe-shining parlors seven days
+a week from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and living with the
+'boss' in groups varying from five to twenty-five
+under unsanitary conditions, overcrowding
+and irregularity of meals wholly undesirable
+for young boys. They are isolated from learning
+English or from American contact, and receive
+for their work from $7 to $15 a month and
+board and lodging. The majority of the flower
+peddlers have been unable to obtain permits,
+with the result that the boys who work for
+them are arrested for violating the law. Boys
+who have been in the country from three
+months to a year state they have been arrested
+several times&mdash;their first experience in this
+country&mdash;and are already hardened so that they
+think nothing of paying fines."<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67" href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The bootblack business is the chief industry
+to which the Greek padrone system is applied.
+The United States Immigration Commission
+found<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68" href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> that boys employed as bootblacks live
+in extremely unwholesome quarters. Wherever
+the room is large enough, several beds are
+gathered together with three and sometimes four
+boys sleeping in each bed. In some places the
+boys merely roll themselves up in blankets and
+sleep on the floor. The bootblacking stands are
+opened for business about 6 o'clock in the morning,
+consequently the boys are obliged to rise about an
+hour earlier, and wherever their sleeping quarters
+are located at considerable distance from the
+stands, they have to get up as early as 4.30.
+Arrived at the stands, they remain working until
+9.30 or 10 at night in cities, and on Saturday and
+Sunday nights the closing hour is usually later.
+The boys eat their lunch in the rear of the establishment,
+this meal consisting generally of bread
+and olives or cheese. Supper is eaten after
+the boys reach "home," and after having eaten
+it they retire without removing their clothes.
+Even after their excessively long work day, two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+of the boys are required to wash the dirty rags
+used for polishing the shoes daily so they can
+be used the next day.</p>
+
+<p>These boys are compelled to work every day
+in the year without vacation. The Immigration
+Commission found that they are under constant
+espionage, as at every stand the padrone places
+relatives who both work for him and act as
+spies on the other boys. Their employer
+instructs them to make false statements to
+questions asked by outsiders relative to their
+ages or conditions of work; many padrones also
+censor the letters written by the boys to their
+parents or others and examine all incoming
+mail, so as to forestall any efforts made by
+outsiders to induce the boys to leave for other
+places.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of them cannot read or write
+their own language, and are unable to secure
+any education in this country because of their
+long work hours. According to the Immigration
+Commission their mental development is perceptibly
+arrested by the physical fatigue they
+suffer as a result of their long-sustained work
+without recreation. They receive no good
+advice, nor do they hear anything that would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+tend to elevate them morally. The Commission
+does not hesitate to brand these conditions
+as deplorable; it declares that the ravages on
+the constitutions of these boys laboring in
+shoe-shining establishments under this system
+are appalling. It attributes these effects to
+the following causes: long hours, close confinement
+to their work in poorly ventilated places,
+unsanitary living conditions, unhealthful manner
+of sleeping, excessive stooping required by their
+work, inadequate nourishment due to the
+"economy" of the padrones who furnish the
+food, the microbe-laden dust from shoes, the
+inhaling of injurious chemicals from the polish
+they use, the filthy condition of their bodies
+resulting from their failure to bathe and the
+lack of proper clothing for the winter season.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek Consul General at Chicago, himself
+a physician, in a letter to the Immigration
+Inspector of that city under date of November 16,
+1910, declared that as a result of his experience
+in examining and treating boy bootblacks he
+was convinced that all boys under eighteen years
+of age who labor for a few years in shoe-shining
+establishments, develop serious chronic stomachic
+and hepatic troubles which predispose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+them to pulmonary disease; he further declared
+that because of the conditions under which they
+work the majority of them ultimately contract
+tuberculosis, and that in his opinion it would
+be more humane and infinitely better for young
+Greeks to be denied admission into the United
+States than to be permitted to land if they are
+intended for such employment. Similar statements
+are made by other Greek physicians of
+Chicago.</p>
+
+<p>The importation of Greek boys for use as
+bootblacks in the United States started about
+1895, when the Greeks began to secure their
+monopoly of the industry by taking it away
+from the Italians and the Negroes, confining it,
+however, to stands or booths. Most of the
+early padrones have become financially independent.
+Their success attracted other Greeks
+to this industry, and in a short time almost every
+American city with a population of more than
+10,000 had bootblack stands operated by them.
+Thus the traffic in Greek boys began to flourish.</p>
+
+<p>The Bureau of Immigration helped to have
+a number of padrones indicted and convicted
+for offenses against the conspiracy statute and
+the Immigration Act, and these prosecutions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+made the importers very careful as to their
+manner of procedure. They now bring the
+boys here through the instrumentality of relatives
+in Greece in such a way that the padrones
+are almost beyond the reach of our criminal
+statutes.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases it has been found that on leaving
+Greece for this country the boys are told to
+report to a saloon keeper in Chicago or in some
+other western city, hence they do not know their
+final destination. The saloon keeper has his
+instructions from the padrones and acts as their
+distributing agent. Padrones who operate in
+places distant from ports of entry easily avoid
+detection in this way.</p>
+
+<p>In most cases these padrones derive an income
+from each boy of from $100 to as high as $500
+a year. The Commission explains this as follows:
+The wages paid by the padrones now to
+Greek boys in shoe-shining establishments range
+from $80 to $250 per year, the average wages
+being from $120 to $180 per year. The boys
+are bound by agreement to turn their tips over
+to their padrones: in most cases as soon as the
+tipping patron has departed the boy deposits
+his tip in the register, while in other places tips<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+are put into a separate box to which the padrone
+holds the key. In smaller cities and even in the
+poorest locations each boy's tips may exceed
+the sum of 50 cents per day, while in large
+cities they average higher. The Greek padrone,
+therefore, receives in return from tips alone
+nearly double the amount of wages paid. By
+deducting the wages and the annual boarding
+expenses for each boy&mdash;an expenditure seldom
+exceeding the sum of $40 per year&mdash;there is
+still a sum left to the padrone to pay him for
+the privilege of allowing the boy to work in
+his place. In other words, from the total
+amount of tips&mdash;money that belongs to the
+boy by right&mdash;the padrone is enabled to pay the
+boy's annual wages and still have a respectable
+sum left, all this independently of the legitimate
+profits of his business.</p>
+
+<p>Relatives of the padrones in Greece often pay
+the steamship passage of boys with the understanding
+that they are to go to the United States
+and serve the padrone for one year to reimburse
+him for the passage money advanced. A mortgage
+is placed on the property of the boys'
+father as security, purporting that the father
+is to receive in cash an amount equal to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+wages commonly paid to Greek bootblacks for
+one year in the United States, but as a matter of
+fact a steamship ticket and $12 or $15 in money
+are all that is given. The cash is to serve as
+"show money" to help secure admission to
+this country past the immigration officers at
+the ports of entry. Advertising is systematically
+carried on throughout all the provinces of Greece
+with a view to exciting the interest of the parents
+so that they will send their boys to the United
+States, and no efforts are spared in letting it
+become known that there is a great demand here
+for boy labor at the bootblack stands. The
+padrones themselves even go to Greece every
+two or three years, and while there manage to
+become godfathers to the children of many
+families; this relationship gives them great
+influence, and through it they are able to secure
+many boys for their service.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the prevention of these abuses,
+the report says: "In the investigations conducted
+by the Bureau of Immigration many
+conferences were held with United States
+attorneys in various jurisdictions with the view
+of instituting proceedings against padrones,
+if possible, under the peonage statutes. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+attorneys generally agreed that under the evidence
+submitted to them those laboring in shoe-shining
+establishments are peons, but as the
+elements of indebtedness and physical compulsion
+to work out the indebtedness are missing,
+peonage laws cannot apply.</p>
+
+<p>"Our immigration laws as now on the statute
+books provide specifically for the exclusion of
+boys under sixteen years of age only when not
+accompanied by one or both of their parents.
+This provision cannot apply to those boys that
+come in company with their parents, nor to
+those who have their parents in the United
+States, nor to such as successfully deceive
+immigration officers by posing as the sons of
+immigrants in whose charge they come. If
+held for special inspection at the ports of entry,
+these aliens can only be excluded if it appears
+that they are destined to an occupation unsuited
+to their tender years. In the absence of any
+such evidence, the boards of inquiry generally
+admit. Once landed, it becomes a hard
+matter to trace them and almost impossible
+to secure evidence in the majority of cases, for
+the boys understand that they will be punished
+by deportation. This knowledge makes them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+persistent in withholding any information as
+to the manner of their entry into the United
+States."<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69" href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>Quite recently a young Greek bootblack who
+was working at a stand in an Indianapolis
+office building confessed to a truant officer that
+he was twelve years old, whereupon the chief
+truant officer of the city went to the place, but
+on his arrival the boy had changed his mind
+and declared that he was fourteen years old, and
+every one connected with the stand supported
+the statement. Nevertheless the chief truant
+officer proceeded with the case and found that
+the boy had been in this country only about
+six months, his parents being still in Greece.
+An older brother had a position as a railroad
+porter but did not stay with the little fellow
+even on the few occasions he was in the city.
+The boy lived at the home of the proprietor
+of the stand, whose relationship to him was a
+combination of employer and guardian. This
+man operated four stands in the city, and his
+dozen or more other employees all lived at the
+same place. The chief truant officer charged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+the man with having worked the boy from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>
+to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> seven days in the week, which was
+admitted before the Juvenile Court by the
+defendant, who also volunteered the information
+that the boy worked until 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on holidays
+and on Saturdays. Of course the boy was
+being kept out of school.</p>
+
+<p>In its issue of August 12, 1911, the <i>Survey</i>
+published a letter from a correspondent concerning
+a case of peonage among bootblacks in the
+city of Rochester, N.Y. This particular case
+was of a pale, thin, under-sized Greek lad who
+worked at a large stand in a local office building.
+He explained that he worked every day in the
+week from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, including Sundays,
+and that on Saturdays the hours were lengthened
+to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, adding that he had not
+been absent from his stand one day in four years
+except at one time when he was sick in the
+hospital.</p>
+
+<p>A letter which was written by a Greek in
+Syracuse, N.Y., on May 4, 1911, to the editor
+of the Syracuse <i>Post-Standard</i> was printed in
+the same magazine.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70" href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> This letter recites the
+wrongs of the bootblacks and is reproduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+below because of its value as one of the rare
+protests which come from the victims of the
+system:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Before I came to this country from Greece,
+I heard that this country is free, but I don't
+think so. It is free for the Americans, not for
+the shoe shiners. In this city are too many
+shoe shiners' stands, and the boys which work
+there&mdash;they work fifteen hours a day, and
+Sunday, and almost eighteen on Saturdays.
+They make only from $12 to $18 a month and
+board, but we don't have any good board neither,
+but our patrons give us bread, tea and a piece
+of cheese for dinner, supper, but no breakfast.
+We don't have any time to go to the church,
+not in school, and without them we won't be
+good citizens. They won't let us read newspapers,
+because they are afraid if we learn
+something we will quit, but we can't quit
+because we can't speak English, and we can't
+find another job. Now I don't mean the boys
+working in the barber shops. They make
+$10 to $18 a week, and they don't work as hard
+as we do. We wish to work as they do. We
+want the public and Mr. Mayor to cut the
+hours from fifteen to ten, not Sundays, because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+we want time for school, and weekly work, not
+monthly. I think I wrote enough."</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Peddlers and Market Children</h3>
+
+<p>The licensed peddlers of Boston are under
+orders not to engage little children to sell for
+them with or without compensation. "These
+peddlers have hitherto crowded the markets of
+this city by inviting children to help them in
+the business, frequently for no other compensation
+than the offal of their pushcarts or stands."<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71" href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<p>The peddling of chewing gum is a common
+form of street occupation for children. In
+reality it is merely begging in disguise. The
+Chicago Vice Commission reports that its
+agents found boys under fourteen years of age
+selling gum late at night in the segregated
+districts of the city. At intervals of from two
+to three hours their investigators returned to
+the same neighborhood and found these little
+children still engaged in this very questionable
+form of work. One agent reported having
+seen two little girls of about eleven years in the
+company of a small boy of about eight years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+selling chewing gum in front of a saloon in the
+vice district between nine and ten o'clock at
+night.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72" href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
+
+<p>The following table gives the sex, age, nationality,
+standing in school, orphanage and occupation
+of seventeen children found by one
+person in a single trip through the markets of
+Cincinnati:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Seventeen market children in Cincinnati">
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Boys</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Girls</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Age</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Grade</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Nationality</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Father Living</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Mother Living</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Selling</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Yes</th>
+  <th>No</th>
+  <th>Yes</th>
+  <th>No</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">9</td>
+  <td class="bl">2d</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1 </td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">10</td>
+  <td class="bl">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">10</td>
+  <td class="bl">3d</td>
+  <td class="bl">German</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">10</td>
+  <td class="bl">2d</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">10</td>
+  <td class="bl">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">10</td>
+  <td class="bl">3d</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">11</td>
+  <td class="bl">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">11</td>
+  <td class="bl">3d</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">11</td>
+  <td class="bl">6th</td>
+  <td class="bl">German</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">12</td>
+  <td class="bl">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">12</td>
+  <td class="bl">3d</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">12</td>
+  <td class="bl">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">sassafras</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">12</td>
+  <td class="bl">6th</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">13</td>
+  <td class="bl">5th</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">14</td>
+  <td class="bl">3d</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">sassafras</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">14</td>
+  <td class="bl">8th</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">14</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br bb">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+
+
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>Of these seventeen children nine were Italians,
+six were Americans, two were Germans. Five
+of the children, all of whom except one were
+Italian, were engaged in selling baskets to the
+passers-by in markets. Six of the children,
+all of whom except one were Italian, were
+selling fruit. Six of the children were selling
+vegetables and herbs, all of them being Americans
+and Germans. The occupational characteristics
+of these different peoples are shown
+by their children, the Italians predominating
+in the sale of fruit, the Germans in the sale
+of the products of their market gardens, the
+Americans, all of whom were boys, in the sale
+of the herbs they had gathered or the vegetables
+cultivated on their home farms.</p>
+
+<p>Of these seventeen children nine were in their
+normal grades at school, while eight were backward
+and none ahead of their proper grades.
+This large percentage of retardation is due principally
+to the lack of time for preparation of
+school lessons on the part of these children, as
+much of their afternoons and evenings is taken
+up either with the work of selling in the markets
+or with the work of assisting with the garden
+duties at home. Of the eight backward chil<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>dren,
+four were Italians and four were Americans.
+One of the backward Italian girls was fourteen
+years of age and had left school three weeks
+prior to the inquiry; she was the oldest of six
+children; her father was dead, and she was working
+for her mother in their fruit store selling
+the fruit from early morning until midnight
+every day in the week except Sunday. As she
+was the oldest child in the family, it is of course
+easily seen that her retardation in school was
+largely due to her having been kept at work in
+the shop during the afternoons and evenings
+while she was still attending school. An American
+boy, who, although twelve years of age, was
+only in the third grade at school, was employed
+by his parents to sell baskets in the market, in
+spite of the fact that his father had a store and
+was fully able to support the child properly.
+This boy was found, as were many other such
+children, selling baskets in the market at eleven
+o'clock at night after having been there since
+early in the morning. A thirteen-year-old
+Italian boy was only in the fifth grade; he was
+selling baskets in one market in the morning
+and in another market during the afternoon and
+evening; both of his parents were living, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+his father had a "city job." There were six
+children in the family, two of whom were older
+and employed. The entire family of eight persons
+occupied two rooms.</p>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that the fathers of twelve
+of the children were living, only five being dead;
+while the mothers of fifteen were living, only two
+being dead. Not a single child was a full orphan.
+In the great majority of cases it was not necessary
+for these children to work so prematurely.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">MESSENGERS, ERRAND AND DELIVERY CHILDREN</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Accustomed to seeing messenger boys engaged
+during the day in the unobjectionable task of
+delivering telegrams to residences and business
+offices, one is likely to regard this service as an
+occupation quite suitable for children and to
+give it no further thought. However, the
+character of the work done by the messenger
+boy changes radically after nine or ten o'clock
+at night. At that hour most legitimate business
+has ceased, and the evil phases of city life begin
+to manifest themselves. From that time on
+until nearly dawn the messenger's work is largely
+in connection with the vicious features of city
+life. The ignorance of the general public as to
+the evil influences surrounding the night messenger
+service is strikingly illustrated by what
+one Indiana boy told an investigator; he declared
+that if his father knew what kind of
+work he was doing, a strap would be laid across
+his back and he would be compelled to abandon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+it. But the father did not know; he thought
+his boy was simply delivering telegrams.</p>
+
+<p>The delivery of telegrams forms but a small
+part of the boy's work at night, because few
+messages are dispatched after business hours.
+Instead, calls are sent to the office for messengers
+to go on errands. The boys wait upon the
+characters of the underworld and perform a
+surprising variety of simple tasks; they carry
+notes to and from the inmates of houses of prostitution
+and their patrons, take lunches, chop
+suey and chile con carne to bawdyhouse women,
+procure liquor after the closing hour, purchase
+opium, cocaine and other drugs, go to drug
+stores for prostitutes to get medicines and articles
+used in their trade, and perform other tasks
+that oblige them to cultivate their acquaintance
+with the worst side of human nature. One
+instance was found in which the boy was required
+to clean up the room of a prostitute and
+to make her bed. The uniform or cap of the
+messenger boy is a badge of secrecy and enables
+him to get liquor at illegal hours or to procure
+opium and other drugs where plain citizens would
+be refused; hence these boys are thrown into
+associations of the lowest kind, night after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+night, and come to regard these evil conditions
+as normal phases of life. Usually the brightest
+boys on the night force become the favorites
+of the prostitutes; the women take a fancy to
+particular boys because of their personal attractiveness
+and show them many favors, so that
+the most promising boys in this work are the
+ones most liable to suffer complete moral
+degradation.</p>
+
+<p>Messenger service not only gives boys the
+opportunity to learn what life is at night in
+"tenderloin" districts, but the character of the
+work actually <i>forces</i> them into contact with the
+vilest conditions and subjects them to the fearful
+influences always exerted by such associations.
+Some believe that this evil could be
+prevented by forbidding the office to allow
+messenger boys to go on such errands, but this
+is not practicable for two reasons: first, because
+an essential feature of the messenger service is
+secrecy&mdash;the office does not inquire into the
+nature of the errand to be performed, and even
+if it did so, a false statement could easily be
+made by the patron over the telephone; and
+second, it would be necessary to send a detective
+along with the boy on each trip to see that he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+observed the rules. Boys are eager to run
+errands for prostitutes for various reasons, one
+being the extra income assured, as these women
+give tips with liberal hand.</p>
+
+<p>Like other street occupations, the messenger
+service is a blind alley; it leads nowhere. A
+very few boys are promoted to the position of
+check boy in the telegraph office, and fewer
+still have an opportunity to learn telegraphy.
+Some of the boys become cab drivers because
+they have familiarized themselves with the city
+streets; others become saloon keepers because
+they have become well acquainted with this
+method of making a livelihood; some are
+attracted by the life of "ease" which opens
+before them and enter into agreement with
+prostitutes, upon whose earnings they subsist;
+others have the courage to get away from these
+influences and secure work as office boys or in
+some other line entirely different from the messenger
+service.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable number of the inmates of state
+reform schools were formerly messenger boys,
+indicating that this service is one of the roads
+to delinquency. As the immoral influences
+surrounding this work are especially active<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+among youths, the age limit for such employment
+at night should be made high enough to prevent
+their being so exposed. New York State was
+first to declare that if this work is to be done at
+night it must be done by men, and has fixed
+the age limit at twenty-one years. The late
+Judge Stubbs, of the Indianapolis Juvenile
+Court, speaking before the Conference of
+Juvenile Court Officers held in that city in November,
+1910, said that messenger boys, and
+newsboys who sell papers in the downtown
+streets, were the boys most frequently charged
+with delinquency before his court, and declared
+that twenty-one years was low enough as an
+age limit for night messenger service.</p>
+
+<p>Other temptations assail the messenger boy
+in his work, and are frequently yielded to. The
+old practice of raising the amount of charges
+on the envelope of a telegram is notorious and
+is still an ever present problem to the companies.
+When a boy has been detected in this petty
+crime and is questioned about it, he too often
+adds to the one misdeed the other equally grievous
+one of lying, whereupon his dismissal
+usually follows.</p>
+
+<p>Under the direction of the writer an investi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>gation
+of the night messenger service was made
+in 1910 in Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana, the
+following cases being typical of the conditions
+found in all cities. In one of the larger towns
+of Indiana, a fourteen-year-old messenger boy
+was interviewed one night by an agent of the
+National Child Labor Committee who had
+called up the telegraph office by telephone
+requesting that a messenger be sent to him.
+Early in the course of conversation, of his own
+volition, the boy referred to houses of prostitution.
+Upon being asked what he knew about
+such places, he replied: "Too much&mdash;I am
+there half the night. You see they call for
+messengers to run errands for them. Sometimes
+I get them drinks, opium, medicines from drug
+stores or anything they want. No matter
+what they ask us to do&mdash;it's our business
+to go ahead and do it." The boy led the agent
+to a disreputable negro district and described
+his activities in this region. "No night passes
+without my making a dollar down here," said
+he. "The niggers are great smokers of opium,
+and I get it for them; they give me a little jar,
+and I have it filled up for them. It costs them
+$1.50, and I usually get the change from $2."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+The agent feigned doubt so as to elicit more
+information, whereupon the boy offered to get
+some opium if he were given a tip. The agent
+gave the boy one dollar and told him he might
+keep the change; in ten minutes he returned
+with a card of opium which was subsequently
+analyzed in a laboratory and found to be the
+kind ordinarily prepared for smoking purposes.
+This experience was repeated again and again
+by agents of the National Child Labor Committee
+in different cities and proved beyond the
+shadow of a doubt that these young boys are
+forced into familiarity with the most degrading
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in
+the same town told the agent that there were
+but few business calls at night, and that nearly
+all of their work was in connection with houses
+of prostitution. This boy spoke of the money
+he received in tips from inmates and patrons
+of these houses, of his receiving liquor and
+cigarettes from them, and remarked, "I do
+not have to do this work, but I like it; this job
+is too good to give up; I'm learning a lot of
+things." This little fellow described some extremely
+revolting scenes of which he had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+witness in these houses, and upon being asked
+whether his manager was aware of the kind of
+places he was called to, he replied, "Sure he
+does, for he gets the message over the telephone,
+then he calls one of the boys and sends him to
+the house."</p>
+
+<p>Another messenger in the same city, who was
+seventeen years old and had been in this service
+for four years, working daily until half past
+two in the morning, said, in talking about the
+use of drugs by prostitutes, "When they are
+so full of dope that they don't know what to
+do, they call up for a messenger, and sometimes
+I have had them send me out to a drug store
+for paris green; they want to kill themselves,
+they are crazy with opium; of course I take
+their money and never show up again." This
+boy also bought a small package of opium for
+the agent. He declared that he knew every
+house of prostitution in the city and was well
+acquainted with their proprietresses. To prove
+this, he wrote out a list of fourteen such places,
+putting down the streets and numbers at once
+from memory. These were subsequently referred
+to persons familiar with the city and
+verified.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is very distressing to read the testimony
+of a fourteen-year-old messenger boy of another
+city who had been thrown by his work so much
+in contact with evil conditions that he had
+come to regard these as normal. Although
+only fourteen years of age, he had lost all faith
+in womankind. In walking through the segregated
+district with the agent, this boy called
+out in advance the number of each house of
+prostitution, thus showing his familiarity with
+the whole region. In his childish, schoolboy
+hand, he wrote on a slip of paper a list of the
+bawdyhouses, putting down very promptly
+from memory the names of the proprietresses,
+the names of the streets and numbers of the
+houses.</p>
+
+<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in
+this city related many disgusting details of his
+experiences in the service at night&mdash;of prostitutes
+smoking, cursing and sprawling on the
+floor dead drunk. He stated that he had never
+smoked before he became a messenger, but that
+when he saw the women using tobacco in all
+the houses, he thought there could be no harm in
+it. "If ladies do it, why shouldn't I? So I
+began, and now I smoke a pack of cigarettes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+a day. I get twenty for a nickel and smoke
+all night. If I didn't, I suppose I'd fall asleep.
+I once lit a cigarette from an opium pipe in
+one of the houses&mdash;but no more opium for
+me." When asked whether his manager knew
+that he was sent to these houses, he replied:
+"Sure he does, he's the one that sends us;
+if we don't go, we get fired. He knows all the
+women, too, because he jokes with them over the
+telephone when they call up for a boy."</p>
+
+<p>A fifteen-year-old night messenger, when
+asked what he did with the money he received
+as tips, replied: "Last week I lost a dollar in a
+crap game, and I go to moving-picture shows
+during the day and buy different things; I
+suppose if my people knew the kind of work I
+was doing, I would get a thick leather strap over
+my back. They have an idea that the messenger
+business is just taking telegrams to reputable
+people. There are very few business calls at
+night at our office; almost all of them come from
+houses of prostitution. This is going to be a
+very busy week with us because a convention
+starts to-morrow, and the delegates will want
+us to take them to the houses."</p>
+
+<p>Another Hoosier messenger was only sixteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+years of age, although he had been in the service
+of one company for four years and had previously
+been discharged from another company
+for having defrauded a patron. This lad was a
+typical boy of the street; his features were
+drawn, black lines were below his eyes, and his
+walk could be described best as a drag. "I
+know every single house of prostitution in this
+city," said he. "I have been in every one.
+I get drinks in most of them, and many a time
+I was drunk for a whole day in some woman's
+room." This boy, having been in the service
+several years, spoke of the ravages dissipation
+had wrought on the women of the underworld.
+He had known many of them when they were
+just starting in their life of shame, and remarked
+their rapid decline. Voluntarily he spoke of
+the venereal diseases from which he had suffered.
+He said that he had been discharged from his
+first job as a messenger for having defrauded
+patrons. To illustrate how the scheme worked,
+he said: "A woman wanted me to carry a
+package to some place and asked me what it
+would cost; I said one dollar, and she said she
+wouldn't pay it because it was too much. I
+told her to speak to the manager and gave her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+the telephone number where my pal was waiting
+for the call. She asked him whether he was
+the manager, and he said, 'Yes'; then she
+asked how much the charge was, and he answered
+one dollar. Then I went on the errand, and we
+split the difference. Somehow the manager got
+wise, and out we went." This boy's conversation
+was a continuous flow of vulgarity. When
+the agent mentioned gambling, the boy drew
+from his pocket two sets of dice and said they
+were "ready at any time to do business. When
+the first of the month comes around, I am
+generally short or ahead $5. I lost $8 once.
+When I have no ready cash, I play on account
+of my salary."</p>
+
+<p>An eighteen-year-old messenger said: "I have
+been in this business here for five years, and a
+night never passes that I don't go to a house of
+prostitution; that's our main business at night.
+They could not afford to have a messenger
+service in this town at night if it were not for
+the red light district. We have to do all their
+work, because they trust us." This boy spoke
+of the venereal diseases other boys in the service
+had, and admitted that he had contracted
+them twice himself.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Another eighteen-year-old messenger boy,
+who has been in the service four years and is
+afflicted with an exceptionally bad venereal
+infection, said among other things, "There are
+lots of messengers who are kept by women.
+The boys work only for appearances. I knew
+two messengers who worked with me who were
+kept by two prostitutes for a year, then they
+gave up the job at the same time and took the
+prostitutes to Chicago, where the women worked
+for them. One of these boys is only about
+nineteen years old now. You don't learn
+anything in the messenger business except to
+knock down (overcharge a patron) and to go
+around with prostitutes and gamblers. It kills
+a fellow. I know, because I went down the line,
+and I'm coming out the wrong end." When
+asked why he didn't quit the job, he replied:
+"You don't suppose I want to work for $3 or
+$4 a week? I'm used to making pretty good
+money and having a good time." He said that
+he made from $40 to $75 a month according to
+the tips he received, and spent it as fast as he
+got it. Most of it went in gambling.</p>
+
+<p>A fourteen-year-old messenger boy in another
+city who works from 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> to 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, in speaking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+of the use of whisky in houses of prostitution,
+said: "We get it for them; the saloons know the
+messengers, and we stand in with them; the
+more a house sends for whisky the better they
+stand in with the saloon keeper. If the proprietress
+gets locked up, she will always be bailed
+out by the saloon keeper, but if she don't buy
+enough stuff from him, he will refuse to do it.
+When a proprietress is put in jail, the cops ring
+up for a messenger from the station house, and
+they send me to the cell where the woman is,
+and she always gives me a note to take to the
+saloon keeper and he goes down and gets her
+out." This boy said his manager knew the kind
+of places he visited, but was not in the office all
+night. During the late hours of the night the
+telegraph operator and the clerk were left in
+charge, and the boy remarked that they had
+told him to try to get a woman into the office
+if he found one on the street, and related instances
+in which this had been done. He was
+paid a salary of $22 a month.</p>
+
+<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger in this
+town is paid $17 a month salary and makes
+$10 or $12 a month in tips.</p>
+
+<p>A thirteen-year-old messenger in another city,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+after having related some of his experiences in
+the segregated district, said: "I tell you, it's
+mighty dirty work for a boy to be in, but I
+suppose a fellow has to learn these things somehow,
+and I may as well learn them in the messenger
+service as in any other way. I smoke
+perique so I can sleep in the daytime."</p>
+
+<p>A fourteen-year-old messenger in the same
+city, employed from noon to midnight, had
+been in the service only one week when interviewed
+by the agent; among other things he
+said: "All the last week I have been doing nothing
+but go to the red light district. I didn't know
+what this messenger business was until I got
+into it, and I am going to quit just as soon as I
+see a little more of that kind of thing."</p>
+
+<p>In a certain Indiana city there was found a
+"kid line" messenger service, so called because
+the proprietor was a mere boy who was formerly
+in the service of another messenger company.
+He had two day boys, but at night answered the
+calls himself. He was fourteen years old and
+told the agent that he had lived in the "red
+light" district more than at his home on account
+of the number of calls he had to answer there,
+but of course this was exaggeration intended to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+convey the fact that most of his business was
+with that region. When he entered into business
+for himself, he went to all the prostitutes
+in the "red light" district and told them that
+he was commencing on his own account and
+that he wanted them to be his customers. "I
+get a good deal of their business. I get it because
+I know how to treat them. I can get them beer
+on Sunday and can sneak it into their houses.
+I know all the women and can introduce you
+to any of them, and can get you any amount
+of beer or whisky that you want. When I
+was working for the&mdash;&mdash; messenger company
+there was another boy on the force who tried
+to take all the good calls; he divided his tips
+with the manager, so he was sent to all the
+houses where good tips were given. There was
+one prostitute who liked me pretty well and
+gave me ten or fifteen cents for myself every time I
+went to her house. I started to answer a call there
+one night, and the other boy ran after me. We
+got to the place at the same time and had a
+fight in the hall; the men and women in the
+place gathered around us and offered to give us
+two dollars each if we would scrap for them,
+so we started right in, and before I was through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+with him he had two black eyes and his face
+was bleeding, then he pulled out a knife, but
+they took it away from him, and the next day
+I was fired. There is a young girl in one of the
+houses who is a chambermaid and wants me
+to live with her, and maybe I will but I'm
+afraid my mother will get wise."</p>
+
+<p>The fifteen-year-old messenger of another
+office showed the agent the list of about one
+hundred calls sent in the previous night, nearly
+every one of which came from the "red light"
+district.</p>
+
+<p>After weighing such evidence we can readily
+comprehend the justice of the opinion rendered
+by Dr. Charles P. Neill in the following words:
+"The newsboys' service is demoralizing, but
+the messenger service is debauching.... And,
+saddest of all, this service appeals strongly to
+the children. The prurient curiosity of the developing
+boy would itself incline him to like these
+calls to houses of prostitution, but they quickly
+learn also that women who live in these sections
+are more generous with their earnings in the
+way of tips than are the people in the more
+respectable sections of the city.... It can
+be said that all the boys who go into the messen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>ger
+service do not go to the bad, but it can be
+said with equal truth that it ruins children by
+the dozens, and that if any boy comes out of
+this service without having suffered moral shipwreck
+he can thank the mercy of God for it,
+and not the protecting arm of the community
+that stands idly by and makes no attempt to
+save him from temptation."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73" href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1908 Congress passed a child labor law
+for the District of Columbia which provided,
+among other restrictions, that no messenger
+boy under sixteen years should be employed
+between 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>,&mdash;<i>sixteen years</i>, the
+beginning of the period of adolescence, when
+boys have the greatest need of protection from
+the vices running riot in cities!</p>
+
+<p>The Chicago Vice Commission devotes several
+pages of its report to a recital of the experiences
+of messenger boys in connection with their
+work in the segregated districts. One of the
+telegraph companies maintains a branch office
+close to one of these districts, where eight boys
+from fifteen to eighteen years of age are employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+as messengers. These boys are called upon to
+work at all hours of the day and night, their
+tasks being the same as those of the messengers
+in other cities. A number of specific instances
+of the wretched environment into which these
+boys are thrown, are given. One of them who
+works from midnight until 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> was sent by a
+prostitute to a drug store for a package of cocaine
+hydrochloride, for which he paid $5.78, receiving
+$1 from the prostitute as a tip for the service.
+Another messenger was sent out on a similar
+errand by another prostitute two weeks later
+and purchased for her a hypodermic needle
+for a syringe; he was charged $2 for this needle,
+the cost to the druggist being 19 cents. A
+few days later a boy was called by another prostitute
+who confided to him that she had discontinued
+the use of messenger boys for purchasing
+"dope" because she found that they talked
+too much and could not be trusted, adding that
+she now had a newsboy, who sold papers at a
+near-by corner, buy the cocaine for her. A
+woman who lives in an apartment house and is
+the owner and proprietor of houses of prostitution
+in the restricted district, is in the habit
+of sending in an order for cocaine to a druggist,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+who calls a messenger boy to deliver it to her
+residence. This messenger opened one of the
+packages and, suspecting that it was cocaine,
+sniffed a little of it himself. He confessed that
+he had done this quite often since, and it appeared
+that he had derived a good deal of pleasure
+from it. The same messenger is sent about
+three times monthly by a certain man to a Chinaman,
+from whom he buys a package of opium
+for $4. On returning from one of these trips
+he watched the man open the package, take a
+quantity of the stuff, roll it and heat it, but at
+this point the messenger was told to leave the
+room. Another messenger boy has been employed
+at this particular branch office for more
+than three years, although he is now only
+seventeen years old; his earnings average
+about $10 per week, including tips. He is
+of small stature, not mentally bright and at
+present is afflicted with syphilis of three
+months' duration. Another messenger is a
+boy of foreign parentage, only fifteen years of
+age, who said he had recently been called quite
+often to a certain house of prostitution where an
+inmate gave him a box with a note to a druggist;
+the contents cost $1.75, but upon returning to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+the woman he would declare that he had paid
+$2.50, thus obtaining 75 cents on false pretenses,
+and in addition a tip of half a dollar. On one
+of his trips for this prostitute he had opened
+the note and found that it was a requisition for
+cocaine; on returning he placed some of the
+contents upon his tongue, but did not like the
+sensation and never repeated it. He is in the
+habit of picking up discarded cigarettes and
+smoking them. In spite of his age, he knows
+the name of nearly every prostitute in this district
+and can recognize these women at sight;
+he stated that whenever he entered a house of
+prostitution they would nearly always kiss him,
+and at different times he had had sores on his
+lips.</p>
+
+<p>Another boy who was attending high school
+was employed as a messenger in the downtown
+district during Christmas week of 1910. He
+was sent to deliver a message in a house of
+prostitution, and the girl who received it offered
+to cohabit with him free of charge as a Christmas
+present, stating that it was customary to do this
+for messenger boys on Christmas Day.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74" href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A number of other messengers told of similar
+experiences, stating that they were often called
+to houses of prostitution to perform small
+personal services for the inmates. As to regulation
+of the service, a police order was issued
+in Chicago in April, 1910, to the effect that no
+messenger or delivery boy under eighteen years
+was to be allowed in the segregated districts at
+any time.</p>
+
+<p>In arguing against the further restriction
+of the night messenger service, the telegraph
+companies and other interested organizations
+insist that the majority of these boys are working
+to support their widowed mothers or incapacitated
+fathers; a recent government report says,
+in referring to the table of families in which
+there are messengers and errand and office
+boys ten to fourteen years of age, classified by
+percentage of older breadwinners, for Boston,
+Chicago, New York and Washington, "These
+statistics point to the conclusion that the greater
+part of the families now furnishing children
+from ten to thirteen years of age and fourteen
+years for the occupation of messengers and errand
+and office boys are by no means either entirely
+or largely dependent upon the earnings of such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+children for the family support."<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75" href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> The restriction
+advocated does not contemplate the prohibition
+of this work to boys of fourteen years
+and upwards in the <i>daytime</i>; its object is to
+shield the youths from the vile associations
+necessarily connected with this work at <i>night</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Night Service by Men&mdash;Not by Boys</h3>
+
+<p>Mr. Owen R. Lovejoy of the National Child
+Labor Committee, in speaking of the study of
+the night messenger service undertaken by this
+organization, says: "The evidence collected
+justified the committee in cooperating with its
+affiliated organizations to secure legislation, and,
+counting on the <i>moral interest of the public</i>
+to promote the effort, we made the question
+one for practical and immediate decision.
+Results apparently justify the policy chosen.
+A bill was unanimously passed by the legislature
+of New York State [in 1910], excluding any
+person under twenty-one years of age from this
+occupation between ten o'clock at night and
+five o'clock in the morning."</p>
+
+<p>Massachusetts in 1911 forbade the employment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+of messengers under twenty-one years of age
+between the hours of 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, except
+by newspaper offices. Utah fixed the same age
+limit for this work in cities of first and second
+classes between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> New Jersey
+did likewise as to cities of the first class, fixing
+the age limit at eighteen years for smaller
+places, the prohibited hours being from 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
+to 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span></p>
+
+<p>Wisconsin also passed a law in 1911, prohibiting
+the employment of any one under twenty-one
+years of age as a messenger between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
+and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> in cities of the first, second and third
+classes. Ohio, in 1910, fixed the age limit for
+messenger service between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> at
+eighteen years.</p>
+
+<p>Michigan now prohibits the employment of
+messengers under eighteen years between 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
+and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, as do also New Hampshire, Oregon,
+Tennessee and California.</p>
+
+<p>Other states having the advanced type of
+child labor law prohibit the employment of
+children under fourteen years in the messenger
+service during the day and under sixteen years
+at night. The states of Alabama, Arkansas,
+Florida, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina,
+Texas, Virginia and Wyoming do not yet provide
+any age limit for this work.</p>
+
+<p>The evil effects of the messenger service have
+also been noted in Great Britain. A schoolmaster
+of Edinburgh says, "Insolence, coarse
+intonation, swearing, lying, pilfering and lewdness
+are the chief products of message going
+by boys."<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76" href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p>A London health officer has testified as follows:
+"There is a very large employment of boy
+labour now, boys employed as messengers and
+errand boys, which teaches them nothing useful
+for their future life; and when they have outgrown
+the age at which they can be employed
+in this way, the risk of drifting into the ranks
+of the unskilled labourer is a very large one."<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77" href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p>
+
+<p>"The government post office telegraph messengers
+are not employed unless they have
+passed the seventh standard at school and each
+candidate has to provide a satisfactory certificate
+of health from his own medical attendant.
+A boy of fourteen must also be over four feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+eight inches in height. The minimum starting
+wage in London is seven shillings a week, rising
+by a shilling a week annually to eleven shillings.
+On reaching the age of sixteen the boy has to
+pass a further examination in order to qualify
+for retention. The various <i>private</i> telegraph
+companies offer much the same terms, though in
+some cases they are able to get boys slightly
+cheaper, as the qualifying standard is not such
+a high one. It is only during the rare periods
+when the supply of boy labour is more plentiful
+than usual that the private telegraph companies
+will refuse a boy on account of his size. The
+varied nature of the work they are called upon
+to perform is an undoubted attraction in the
+eyes of many.... That it is bad for them morally
+is less open to doubt. Even when they are
+more actively employed the most that they can
+hope to learn is a very small amount of discipline.
+A more serious point is the future of the boys
+when they cease to be messengers."<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78" href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
+
+<p>"It is well to point out that the commonest
+of these occupations, that of errand boy or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+messenger boy, is seldom a desirable one, quite
+apart from the fact that it generally leads nowhere.
+It lacks almost necessarily what the
+boy most needs&mdash;the compulsory training of
+the habit of disciplined effort."<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79" href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
+
+<p>As Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "The test of
+the work, however, should be not whether boys
+can do it, but what it does to boys."<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80" href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">EFFECTS OF STREET WORK UPON CHILDREN</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>All the evil effects of street work upon children
+observed by students of the problem have
+been here divided into three groups, under the
+headings of physical, moral, and material deterioration.
+It must be understood that this is
+a summary of such effects and that while the
+influences of the street are unquestionably bad,
+any one child exposed to them is not likely to
+suffer to the full extent suggested below. However,
+deterioration in one form or another is
+invariably noted in children who have been
+engaged in street work for any length of time,
+and this is sufficient proof of the undesirability
+of such employment for our boys and girls.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Effects of Street Work on Children">
+<caption><span class="smcap">Effects of Street Work on Children</span></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bb vmiddle" rowspan="3">Material Deterioration</td>
+  <td rowspan="3" class="bb bracket">&#123;</td>
+  <td> Form distaste for regular employment.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Small chance of acquiring a trade.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bb" > Drift into large class of casual workers.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bb vmiddle"  rowspan="6">Physical Deterioration</td>
+  <td  rowspan="6" class="bb bracket" style="font-size:600%;">&#123;</td>
+  <td> Night work.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Excessive fatigue.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Exposure to bad weather.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Irregularity of sleep and meals.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Use of stimulants&mdash;cigarettes, coffee, liquor.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bb" > Disease through contact with vices.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="vmiddle bb"  rowspan="6">Moral Deterioration</td>
+  <td rowspan="6" class="bb bracket" style="font-size:600%;">&#123;</td>
+  <td> Encouragement to truancy.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Independence and defiance of parental control.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Weakness cultivated by formation of bad habits.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Form liking for petty excitements of street.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Opportunities to become delinquent.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bb"> Large percentage of recruits to criminal population.</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>These are the insidious influences permeating
+street work and rampant in all our cities. They
+are minimized and even denied by certain ignorant
+or interested parties who base their assertions
+upon the fact that prominent men of to-day
+were once newsboys or bootblacks, and therefore
+jump to the conclusion that their success is
+due to the training received in this way when
+young. The truth is more likely to be that such
+individuals have succeeded, not because of this
+early training, but in spite of it. Boys of
+exceptionally strong character will force them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>selves
+out of such an environment unscathed,
+but the great majority of children have not
+sufficient mental and moral stamina to withstand
+these influences. The minority will take
+care of itself under any circumstances,&mdash;it is
+with the weaker majority that we must deal.
+The problem is an urgent one, but generally
+ignored, for, as Myron E. Adams says, the public
+sees the street worker at his best and neglects
+him at his worst.</p>
+
+<p>The charge that in street work a child has
+small chance of acquiring a suitable trade is
+one of the worst counts in the indictment.
+Street work leads to nothing else; the various
+occupations are so many industrial pitfalls, and
+the children who get into them must sooner or
+later struggle out and begin over again at some
+other line of work, if they would succeed.</p>
+
+<p>"These children (street traders) furnish a
+very large proportion of recruits to the criminal
+population. Those who do not graduate into
+crime form a liking for the petty excitements of
+the street and a distaste for regular employment.
+They lack skill and perseverance, shun the
+monotony of a permanent job, and as they
+grow older either follow itinerant and question<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>able
+trades or become ill-paid and inefficient
+casual laborers. Therefore these young people
+are a source of waste to society rather than of
+profit."<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81" href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p>
+
+<p>The large percentage of former newsboys
+among the inmates of boys' reformatories
+recently induced an active social worker to send
+an inquiry to the superintendents of such
+institutions and to juvenile court judges in
+different parts of the country relative to the
+effect of newspaper selling on schoolboys.
+The statements received in reply are set forth
+in a leaflet which was published in 1910.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82" href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+<p>These officials are practically unanimous in
+condemning street trading by boys, declaring
+that newsboys are generally stupid and almost
+always morally defiled; that the pittance they
+earn is bought at great sacrifice; that the
+spending of their earnings without supervision
+is the worst thing that can befall them; that the
+life leads to gambling, dishonesty and spendthrift<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+habits; that it is a dead-end occupation
+leading to nothing; that it abounds in evil
+temptations; that the boys are comparatively
+idle and see and hear the worst that is to be seen
+and heard on the street; that the work subjects
+boys to bad influences before they are strong
+enough to resist them; that delinquency results
+from their enforced association with all classes
+of boys; and concluding that every possible
+protection should be thrown about the young
+boy. Some of these officers gave due consideration
+to the advantages of street trading, and one
+made the naïve statement that newspaper selling
+was not a bad business for a boy who could
+withstand its temptations.</p>
+
+<p>Although the law of New York State provides
+a modicum of regulation for street trading,
+nevertheless it has not been effective because
+of extremely indifferent enforcement. Like
+almost all other street-trading laws in the United
+States, it places the age limit at the ridiculous
+age of ten years. A movement was started
+recently in Buffalo to remedy the situation, and
+the following statement was published:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"During the past year we have sought to
+discover, not by theorizing, but by uncovering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+the facts, what is the effect of street work on the
+boy. School records of 230 Buffalo newsboys
+were secured. Eighteen per cent were reported
+as truants; 23 per cent stood poor or very poor
+in attendance and deportment. Twenty-eight
+per cent stood poor or very poor in scholarship,
+while only 15 per cent of the other children in
+the same schools failed in their work. An
+investigation at the truant school showed that
+46.6 per cent of the boys there had been engaged
+in the street trades. On the basis of these facts
+and studies made in connection with the schools,
+juvenile courts and reformatories elsewhere,
+we hope to secure legislation raising the age
+below which boys may not engage in the street
+trades to twelve years, and making it illegal
+for boys under fourteen to sell after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
+We are also striving to secure better enforcement
+of this law in Buffalo and other
+cities."<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83" href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p>
+
+<p>This folder also states that circular letters
+were sent to all Buffalo school principals asking
+about the effect on scholarship of the early
+morning delivery of newspapers by their pupils,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+and also to physicians inquiring about the effect
+of such work on physical development. The
+hours for such newspaper delivery were from
+4.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> Eight principals and six
+physicians denounced such work to every one
+who favored it. Referring to the occupational
+history of reformatory inmates, a recent report
+for New York City says: "The parental school
+(school for truants) statistics show that 80 out
+of its 230 inmates were newsboys, while 60 per
+cent of the entire number have been street
+traders. The Catholic Protectorate, full of
+Italians (noted as street traders), gives us a
+record of 469 or 80 per cent out of their 590
+boys interviewed, who have followed the street
+profession, and 295 or 50 per cent had been
+newsboys selling over three months. The New
+York Juvenile Asylum gives us 31 per cent of
+its inmates as newsboys and 60 per cent as
+street traders. The House of Refuge repeats
+the same story: 63 per cent of those committed
+to that institution had been street traders, of
+whom 32 per cent were newsboys. If 63 per cent
+of the House of Refuge inmates have been street
+traders, and if the majority of such have begun
+their so-called criminal careers, which end<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+invariably in the state penitentiary, why do we
+permit children to trade on our streets?"<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84" href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another American writer says: "Whatever
+the cause, the effect on the newsboy is always the
+same. He lives on the streets at night in an
+atmosphere of crime and criminals, and he takes
+in vice and evil with the air he breathes. If he
+grows into manhood and escapes the tuberculosis
+which seizes so many of these boys of
+the street, the things that he has learned as a
+professional newsboy lead in one direction,&mdash;toward
+crime and things criminal. The professional
+newsboy is the embryo criminal."<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85" href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>
+
+<p>The dangers to the morals of children are
+particularly emphasized by those who have given
+this subject any attention. Mr. John Spargo
+says: "Nor is it only in factories that these
+grosser forms of immorality flourish. They are
+even more prevalent among the children of the
+street trades,&mdash;newsboys, bootblacks, messengers
+and the like. The proportion of newsboys who
+suffer from venereal diseases is alarmingly great.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+The superintendent of the John Worthy School
+of Chicago, Mr. Sloan, asserts that 'one third
+of all the newsboys who come to the John
+Worthy School have venereal diseases and that
+10 per cent of the remaining newsboys at present
+in the Bridewell are, according to the physician's
+diagnosis, suffering from similar diseases.' The
+newsboys who come to the school are, according
+to Mr. Sloan, on an average of one third below
+the ordinary standard of physical development,
+a condition which will be readily understood by
+those who know the ways of the newsboys of
+our great cities&mdash;their irregular habits, scant
+feeding, sexual excesses, secret vices, sleeping
+in hallways, basements, stables and quiet
+corners. With such a low physical standard
+the ravages of venereal diseases are tremendously
+increased."<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86" href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p>
+
+<p>The economic aspect of this work is magnified
+by most people beyond its true proportion;
+the earnings of street-working children are not
+needed by their families in most cases, and even
+in those instances where their poverty demands
+such relief it is wrong to purchase it at the price
+paid in evil training and bad effects of every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+kind. Commenting on this point the chief
+truant officer for Indianapolis says: "A large
+number of truants are recruited from that large
+unrestricted class whose members are to be
+found competing with one another on our street
+corners from early until late. The pennies
+which many of them earn are a material aid
+in replenishing the depleted resources of some
+of our homes. Yet, it is a question whether
+such child laborers will not in the future bequeath
+to society an abundant reward of human
+wreckage which may be traced to such traffic
+and its many temptations."<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87" href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
+
+<p>As to the bad judgment of parents in seeking
+the premature earnings of their children, a
+Chicago physician says: "The average newsboy,
+if he works 365 days a year, does not earn over
+a hundred dollars; if he becomes delinquent
+it costs the state at least two hundred dollars
+a year to care for him. When we remember
+that twelve out of every one hundred boys
+between ten and sixteen become delinquent,
+and that over 60 per cent of these boys come
+from street trades, it does not take long for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+business man to figure out that it is rather poor
+economy to let a ten-year-old boy go into at
+least this field of labor.... From an economic
+standpoint the family that sends out
+a ten-year-old boy to sell papers loses a great
+deal more in actual money from the boy's lack
+of future earning capacity than the boy can
+possibly earn by his youthful efforts. In other
+words, this sort of labor from an economic
+standpoint is an absurdity."<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88" href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p>
+
+<p>In its splendid report on street trading, the
+British departmental committee of 1910 stated:
+"We learnt that much of this money, so readily
+made, is spent with equal dispatch. The
+children spend it on sweets and cigarettes, and
+in attending music halls, and in very many cases
+only a portion, if any, of the daily earnings is
+taken home.... In many towns the traders are
+drawn from the poorest of homes, but numerous
+witnesses have emphatically stated that their
+experience leads them to think that cases where
+real benefits accrue to the home are rare."<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89" href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The lack of proper training during childhood
+almost invariably brings about a tragedy in
+the lives of working people. The premature
+employment of children at any kind of labor
+which interferes with their education and their
+training in work for which they are fitted is
+most disastrous in its effects and far outweighs
+in future misery the little income thus secured
+in childhood. A careful student of the working
+class declares: "Many bright and capable men
+and women in this neighborhood [Greenwich
+Village, New York City] would undoubtedly
+have been able to occupy high positions in the
+industrial world if they had not been <i>forced
+into unskilled work when young</i>."<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90" href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p>
+
+<p>With reference to the effects of street trading
+an English writer says: "It is difficult to
+imagine a life which could be worse for a young
+boy. Apart from the moral dangers, it is a
+means of earning a livelihood which perhaps
+more than any other is subject to the most
+violent fluctuations. But the uncertainty of
+the income is a trifling evil by comparison with
+the certainty of the bad moral effects of street<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+trading on boys and youths. The life of the
+street trader is a continual gamble, unredeemed
+by any steady work; it is undisciplined and
+casual, and exposed to all the temptations of
+the street at its worst. The great majority of
+the boys who sell papers drift away into crime
+or idleness or some form of living by their wits."<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91" href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>
+The same writer also declares: "Few things
+could have a worse effect than this street trading
+on those engaged in it. It initiates them into
+the mysteries of the beggar's whine and breeds
+in them the craving for an irregular, undisciplined
+method of life."<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92" href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> And the editor of
+these English studies adds: "It is part of the
+street-bred child's precocity that he acquires
+a too early acquaintance with matters which as
+a child he ought not to know at all. His language
+and conversation often reveal a familiarity
+with vice which would be terrible were it not
+so superficial."<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93" href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p>
+
+<p>Speaking of immorality in the narrow sense<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+of the word, the same writer says: "We do not
+believe that immorality of this kind is universal
+among the boys and girls of the labouring classes,
+nor do we believe that the town youth is any
+worse than his brother and sister of the country.
+Coarseness and impurity are not the distinguishing
+mark of any one class or any one place. We
+question whether comparison of sins and self-indulgence
+would work out at all to the disadvantage
+of the town labouring class as a whole.
+It must be remembered that one commonplace
+factor, the glaring publicity of the street, is all
+on the side of the town youth's virtue. The
+street has its safeguards as well as its dangers."<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94" href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+<p>With reference to the blind alley character
+of street work, another English writer avers:
+"As in London, the labours of the school children
+[in Manchester] are in no wise apprenticeship
+or preparation for their future lives. The
+grocer's little errand boy will be discharged
+when he grows bigger and needs higher wages;
+the chemist's runner is not in training to become
+a chemist. The three farthings an hour on the
+one hand, and the physical, moral and intellectual
+degeneration on the other, are all that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+the little ones here, as elsewhere, get out of toil
+from which many a grown man would shrink."<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95" href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another English student of labor conditions
+declares: "Teachers&mdash;together with magistrates,
+police authorities, ministers of religion
+and social workers&mdash;are practically unanimous
+in condemning street trading as an employment
+of children of school age. In this occupation
+children deteriorate rapidly from the physical,
+mental and moral point of view."<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96" href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>
+
+<p>Still another writer says: "One great evil
+which results from this life of street trading in
+childhood is the fact that it is fatal to industrial
+efficiency in after life."<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97" href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
+
+<p>The testimony of Sir Lauder Brunton, M.D.,
+given in 1904, on the occasion of the inquiry
+into physical deterioration in Great Britain, is to
+the point, in spite of the fact that the committee
+directing the inquiry stated that "The impressions
+gathered from the great majority of the
+witnesses examined do not support the belief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+that there is any general progressive deterioration."<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98" href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>
+Sir Lauder Brunton's testimony was
+as follows: "The causes of deficient physique
+are very numerous ... it is very likely that
+in order to eke out the scanty earnings of the
+father and mother the child is sent, out of school
+hours, to earn a penny or two, and so it comes
+to school wearied out in body by having had to
+work early in the morning, exhausted by not
+having had food, and then is sent to learn.
+Well, it cannot learn."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99" href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> Later the same witness
+testified, "One of the very worst causes [of
+physical deterioration] is that children in actual
+attendance at school, work before and after
+schooltime."<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100" href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<p>In a special inquiry into the physical effects
+of work upon 600 boys of school age made in
+1905 by Dr. Charles J. Thomas, assistant health
+officer to the London County Council's education
+department, it was found that many of the
+children suffered from nervous strain, heart
+disease and deformities as a result of prolonged
+labor. Of the 600 boys, 134 were shop boys,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+63 were milk boys, 87 were newsboys and the
+others were scattered among various employments.
+It was found that work during the
+dinner hour and also the long work-day on
+Saturday were particularly harmful. As to
+fatigue among the newsboys, of those working
+20 hours or less, 60 per cent were affected;
+of those working between 20 and 30 hours,
+70 per cent; while of those working more than
+30 hours per week, 91 per cent showed fatigue.
+As to anæmia, among the newsboys, of those
+working 20 hours or less it appeared among
+only 19 per cent; but of those working 20 to
+30 hours, 30 per cent showed it; while of those
+working over 30 hours per week, 73 per cent were
+afflicted in this way. As to nerve strain, of
+those working 20 hours or less 16 per cent were
+suffering from it; of those working 20 to 30
+hours, 35 per cent; while of those working over
+30 hours, 37 per cent showed nerve strain. As
+to deformities, none were noted among boys
+working less than 20 hours a week, but 10 per
+cent of those working 20 to 30 hours or more
+were found to be afflicted. All elementary
+schoolboys showed deformities to the extent of
+8 per cent, but of those engaged in different kinds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+of work from 20 to 30 hours a week, 21 per cent
+showed deformities. Flatfoot was found to be
+the chief deformity produced by newspaper
+selling, this being caused by the boys' having
+to be on their feet too much.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101" href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p>
+
+<p>One of the most decisive blows delivered
+against street work by children in Great Britain
+was the statement of Thomas Burke of the
+Liverpool City Council, a son of working
+people, who had lived in a crowded city street
+for twenty years, had attended a public elementary
+school until fourteen years of age, where the
+number of child street traders was very large,
+and had become convinced that "work after
+school hours was decidedly injurious to health and
+character." Referring to the material condition
+of his street-trading acquaintances, he said:
+"Almost all the boys sent out to work after school
+hours from the school referred to have failed in
+the battle of life. Not one is a member of any
+of the regular trades, while all who were sent to
+trade in the streets have gone down to the depths
+of social misery if not degradation ... a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+proportion of those who did not work after school
+hours, or frequent the streets as newspaper sellers,
+occupy respectable positions in the city."<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102" href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>Miss Ina Tyler of the St. Louis School of
+Social Economy in a study of St. Louis newsboys
+made in 1910, found that of 50 newsboys
+under 11 years of age, 43 gambled, 42 went to
+cheap shows and 23 used tobacco; while of
+100 newsboys 11 to 16 years of age, 86 gambled,
+92 went to cheap shows and 76 used tobacco.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103" href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the conclusions of the British interdepartmental
+committee of 1901 is the following:
+"Street hawking is not injurious to the health if
+the hours are not long, and the work is not done
+late at night; but its moral effects are far worse
+than the physical, and this employment in the
+center of many large towns makes the streets
+hotbeds for the corruption of children who learn
+to drink, to gamble and to use vile language,
+while girls are exposed to even worse things."<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104" href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p>
+
+<p>The British departmental committee of 1910<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+declared: "In the case of both boys and girls
+the effect of this occupation on future prospects
+cannot be anything but thoroughly bad, except,
+possibly, in casual and exceptional cases. We
+learn that many boys who sell while at school
+manage to obtain other work upon becoming
+fourteen, but for those who remain in the street
+the tendency is to develop into loafers and
+'corner boys.' The period between fourteen
+and sixteen is a critical time in a boy's life.
+Street trading provides him with no training;
+he gets no discipline, he is not occupied the
+whole of his time; for a few years he makes more
+money and makes it more easily than in an
+office or a workshop, and he is exposed to a
+variety of actively evil influences."<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105" href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<p>An important division of the study of street-working
+children concerns their standing in
+the schools. In New York City a few figures
+are available through a study recently made
+there. The distribution of 200 newsboys under
+fourteen years of age among the school grades
+is shown in the following table:<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106" href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Distribution of newsboys among school grades NYC">
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Ages</th>
+  <th colspan="8">Grades</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Special</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Totals</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th> 1</th>
+  <th> 2</th>
+  <th> 3</th>
+  <th> 4</th>
+  <th> 5</th>
+  <th> 6</th>
+  <th> 7</th>
+  <th> 8</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 12</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right">10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 36</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">19</td>
+  <td class="bl right">21</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 62</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">15</td>
+  <td class="bl right">10</td>
+  <td class="bl right">23</td>
+  <td class="bl right">17</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 75</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb center">Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right">10</td>
+  <td class="ball right">22</td>
+  <td class="ball right">48</td>
+  <td class="ball right">41</td>
+  <td class="ball right">36</td>
+  <td class="ball right">25</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 200</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Applying the rule that in order to be normal
+a child must enter the first grade at the age of
+either six or seven years and progress with
+enough regularity to enable him to attend the
+eighth grade at the age of either thirteen or
+fourteen, it is found that of the 177 newsboys
+ten to thirteen years of age inclusive, 118 are
+backward, 57 are normal and 2 are beyond their
+grades. This is shown in the following table:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Retardation of newsboys">
+ <tr>
+  <th> Ages</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Backward</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Normal</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Ahead</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Total</th>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl center"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 6</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 6</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 0</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 12</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl center"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 22</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 11</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 1</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 34</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl center"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 42</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 16</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 1</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 59</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl center"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 48</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 24</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 0</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 72</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl vmiddle center">Totals</td>
+  <td class="bl bt dcright"> 118</td>
+  <td class="bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bt dcright"> 57</td>
+  <td class="bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bt dcright"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bt dcright">177&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="br bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl bb vmiddle center">Percentages</td>
+  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 67</td>
+  <td class="bb dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 32</td>
+  <td class="bb dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bb dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb dcright">100</td>
+  <td class="bb br dcleft">%</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>This table shows that of the 177 newsboys ten
+to thirteen years of age, 67 per cent are backward
+and 32 per cent are normal, while only 1 per
+cent are ahead of their grades. Boys of these
+ages are subject to the restrictions prescribed
+by the state law as to hours, and it is probable
+that the percentage of retardation would have
+been even greater if work at night had not
+been to some extent prevented.</p>
+
+<p>A report of New York City conditions
+made in 1907, before the newsboy law was
+enforced, says: "The shrewd, bright-eyed,
+sharp-witted lad is stupid and sleepy in the
+schoolroom; 295 newsboys compared with
+non-working boys in the same class were found
+to fall below the average in proficiency. They
+were also usually older than their classmates,
+that is, backward in their grades."<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107" href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p>
+
+<p>Referring to Manchester newsboys above
+the age of fourteen years, an English report<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108" href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a>
+says: "They are not stupid, or even markedly
+backward, judged by school standards.... As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+they grow older they sink to a lower level,
+both morally and economically&mdash;in fact,
+little better than loafers, without aspiration,
+and content with the squalor of the common
+lodging-houses in which they live, if only
+they have enough money for their drink
+and their gambling." Concerning the younger
+newsboys the same report continues: "Those
+who are the children of extremely poor, and
+often worthless parents, are often upon the
+streets selling their papers during school
+hours, and their attendance at the schools,
+in spite of prosecution of their parents, is
+so irregular that they make very little progress.
+These boys take to the streets permanently
+for their livelihood; a few of them
+continue, after the age of fourteen, to earn
+their living by selling newspapers, but most
+of them sink into less satisfactory kinds of
+occupation." In connection with these statements
+it should be remembered that they portray
+conditions existing prior to the adoption
+in 1902 of local rules on street trading.
+With reference to the alleged cleverness of
+street Arabs, a British observer draws this
+distinction: "Street-trading children are more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+cunning than other children, but not more intelligent."<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109" href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p>In St. Louis there was no regulation until the
+Missouri law of 1911 was passed; and in 1910
+Miss Ina Tyler, in a study of 106 newsboys of
+that city, found the following conditions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Conditions of newsboys in St. Louis">
+ <tr>
+  <th class="harmonized">Years </th>
+  <th colspan="4"  class="harmonized">Number below Normal School Grade</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">10</td>
+  <td class="right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="right"> out of</td>
+  <td class="right">16</td>
+  <td class="right">62%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">11</td>
+  <td class="right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="right"> out of</td>
+  <td class="right">16</td>
+  <td class="right">75%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">12</td>
+  <td class="right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="right"> out of</td>
+  <td class="right">28</td>
+  <td class="right">57%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">13</td>
+  <td class="right"> 25</td>
+  <td class="right"> out of</td>
+  <td class="right">33</td>
+  <td class="right">75%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">14</td>
+  <td class="right"> <span class="u">11</span></td>
+  <td class="right"> out of</td>
+  <td class="right"><span class="u">&nbsp;13</span></td>
+  <td class="right"><span class="u">84%</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center"></td>
+  <td class="right"> 74</td>
+  <td class="right"> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="right">106</td>
+  <td class="right">70%</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These figures were copied by the writer from
+charts displayed at the child labor exhibit of
+the National Conference of Charities and Correction
+in St. Louis in 1910, but efforts to ascertain
+the method of determining these percentages
+were unavailing. Therefore they cannot be
+compared with the figures in the preceding
+tables, because it is by no means certain that
+the standard ages for normal school standing
+were adopted in the compilation of this table.</p>
+
+<p>In Toledo, Ohio, there is no regulation govern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>ing
+street work by children, although a local
+association makes an effort to look after the
+welfare of newsboys. In October, 1911, the
+writer visited the four public common school
+buildings nearest the business district of this
+city and found 287 children in attendance who
+were regularly engaged in some form of street
+work out of school hours. The great majority
+of them were newsboys. The distribution of
+these children according to age and grade is
+given below:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Working pupils in Toledo">
+ <tr>
+  <th class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
+  <th class="noline" colspan="12">Ages</th>
+  <th  class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc">Grade</th>
+  <th> 5</th>
+  <th> 6</th>
+  <th> 7</th>
+  <th> 8</th>
+  <th> 9</th>
+  <th> 10</th>
+  <th> 11</th>
+  <th> 12</th>
+  <th> 13</th>
+  <th> 14</th>
+  <th> 15</th>
+  <th> 16</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Totals</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 23</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right">12</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 34</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 22</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 51</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 58</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 44</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 37</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 25</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 15</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball center">Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 13</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 24</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 50</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 34</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 40</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 45</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 287</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Adopting the same method for determining
+retardation as in the case of the New York<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+figures, we find that of these 287 street-working
+school children of Toledo, 55 per cent are
+backward, 43 per cent are normal and 2 per cent
+are ahead of their grades. Or, selecting the
+children ten to thirteen years of age, as was
+done with the New York figures, we have the
+following results:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Retardation of Toledo school children">
+<tr>
+  <th> Ages</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Backward</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Normal</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Ahead</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Total</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">25</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 25</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 50</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">16</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 17</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">1</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 34</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">28</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 12</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 40</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">34</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 11</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 45</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Totals</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">103</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 65</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">1</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 169</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftnarrow">Percentages</td>
+  <td class="bl bb bt dcright">61</td>
+  <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb bt dcright"> 38</td>
+  <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb bt dcright">1</td>
+  <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb bt dcright"> 100</td>
+  <td class="bb bt br dcleft">%</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>These percentages show that conditions in
+Toledo are only slightly better than in New
+York City. This is surprising because of the
+great difference in the working conditions of
+the two cities, the metropolitan street children
+being subjected to far greater nervous strain
+because of the more congested population and
+heavier street traffic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Retarded Children in Elementary Schools (Toledo), 1910-1911">
+<caption><span class="smcap">Retarded Children in Elementary Schools (Toledo)</span>, 1910-1911</caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w875" span="8" />
+  <col class="w5" span="2" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
+  <th class="noline nosc" colspan="8"><i>Grades</i></th>
+  <th  class="noline" colspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>First</th>
+  <th> Second</th>
+  <th> Third</th>
+  <th> Fourth</th>
+  <th> Fifth</th>
+  <th> Sixth</th>
+  <th> Seventh</th>
+  <th> Eighth</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Total</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Percent Of all Retardations</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 8-9</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 10-11</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 11-12</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 12-13</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 13-14</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 1 year</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 325</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 449</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 500</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 483</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 528</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 507</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 366</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 209</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3,367</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 53.5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 2 years</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 91</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 170</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 215</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 346</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 384</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 324</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 194</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 72</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1,796</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 28.5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 3 years</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 33</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 53</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 101</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 152</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 219</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 119</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 33</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 727</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 11.5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 4 or more years</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 42</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 74</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 131</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 105</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 395</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 6.2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Total retarded</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 465</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 714</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 890</td>
+  <td class="bl right">1112</td>
+  <td class="bl right">1236</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 969</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 596</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 303</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6,285</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Enrollment each grade</td>
+  <td class="bl right">3114</td>
+  <td class="bl right">2680</td>
+  <td class="bl right">2548</td>
+  <td class="bl right">2400</td>
+  <td class="bl right">2209</td>
+  <td class="bl right">1856</td>
+  <td class="bl right">1284</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 901</td>
+  <td class="bl right">16,992</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Per cent each grade</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">14.9</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">26.6</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">34.8</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">46.3</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">55.9</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">52.2</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">46.4</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">33.6</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 36.9</td>
+  <td class="bl br bb right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Retarded Street Workers in four Toledo Common Schools, October, 1911">
+<caption><span class="smcap">Retarded Street Workers in four Toledo Common Schools, October</span>, 1911<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w875" span="8" />
+  <col class="w5" span="2" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
+  <th class="noline nosc" colspan="8"><i>Grades</i></th>
+  <th  class="noline" colspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>First</th>
+  <th> Second</th>
+  <th> Third</th>
+  <th> Fourth</th>
+  <th> Fifth</th>
+  <th> Sixth</th>
+  <th> Seventh</th>
+  <th> Eighth</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Total</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Percent Of all Retardations</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 8-9</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 10-11</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 11-12</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 12-13</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 13-14</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 1 year</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 22</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 81</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 51.6</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 2 years</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 34</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 21.7</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 3 years</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 17.2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 4 or more</td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 9.5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Total retarded</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 37</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 31</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 26</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 23</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 157</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Enrollment street workers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 23</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 34</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 51</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 58</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 44</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 37</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 25</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 287</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Per cent</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">39.1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">44.1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">72.5</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">53.4</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 59</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">62.1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 52</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 20</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 54.7</td>
+  <td class="bl bb br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>A comparison between the table given in the
+report of the Toledo Board of Education for
+1911 showing the total number of retarded children
+in the elementary schools, and a similar
+table compiled from the figures for the street-trading
+children in four Toledo schools given
+on pages <a href="#Page_154">154</a> and <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, is most significant. The
+retardation among the total number of pupils
+enrolled is to be found on page <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110" href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p>
+
+<p>The corresponding figures for the 287 street-trading
+children in the four schools are to be
+found on page <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>It is especially noteworthy that the percentage
+of retardation among the street workers is
+very much greater than among the total number
+of pupils, in every grade except the eighth,
+while for all the grades it is 17.8 per cent greater.
+This becomes all the more significant when it is
+remembered that the figures for the total enrollment
+include the street workers; hence the
+excess of retardation among the latter makes
+the showing of the former worse than if they
+were excluded, and consequently the comparison
+on page <a href="#Page_155">155</a> does not appear to be as unfavorable
+to the street workers as it is in reality.</p>
+
+<p>On consideration of the figures in the tables<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+on pages <a href="#Page_154">154</a> and <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, the conclusion is inevitable
+that street work greatly promotes the
+retardation of school children. There are, of
+course, other factors which contribute to bring
+about this condition of backwardness, such as
+poverty, malnutrition and mental deficiency, but
+there can be no doubt that the evil effects of
+street work are in large measure responsible for
+the poor showing made in the schools by the
+children who follow such occupations.</p>
+
+<p>The many quotations in this chapter from
+authoritative sources with reference to the harmful
+effects of street work upon children constitute
+a most severe indictment. Students of labor
+conditions, specialists and official committees
+bitterly denounce the practice of permitting
+children to trade in city streets, and cite the
+consequences of such neglect. Material, physical
+and moral deterioration are strikingly apparent
+in most children who have followed street careers
+and been exposed to their bad environment for
+any length of time. We have provided splendid
+facilities for the correction of our delinquent
+children through the medium of juvenile courts,
+state reformatories and the probation system,
+but surely it would be wise to provide at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+same time an ounce of prevention in addition
+to this pound of cure. Social workers have
+returned a true bill against street work by
+children. What will the verdict of the people
+be?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">RELATION OF STREET WORK TO DELINQUENCY</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The most convincing proof so far adduced to
+show that delinquency is a common result of
+street work is set forth in the volume on "Juvenile
+Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111" href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a>
+being part of the Report on the Condition of
+Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+States, prepared under the direction of Dr.
+Charles P. Neill, United States Commissioner
+of Labor, in response to an act of Congress in
+1907 authorizing the study. The object of
+this official inquiry into the subject of juvenile
+delinquency was to discover what connection
+exists between delinquency and occupation or
+non-occupation, giving due consideration to
+other factors such as the character of the child's
+family, its home and environment. This study
+is based upon the records of the juvenile courts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+of Indianapolis, Baltimore, New York, Boston,
+Newark, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, showing
+cases of delinquency of children sixteen years of
+age or younger coming before these courts during
+the year 1907-1908. The total number
+of delinquents included in the study is 4839, of
+whom 2767 had at some time been employed
+and 2072 had never been employed. The entire
+number of offenses recorded for all the delinquents
+was 8797, the working children being
+responsible for 5471 offenses, or 62.2 per cent,
+while the non-working children were responsible
+for 3326 offenses, of 37.8 per cent.
+This shows that most juvenile offenses are committed
+by working children. The ages of the
+children committing the offenses recorded,
+ranged from six to sixteen years, and the report
+adds, "When it is remembered that a majority,
+and presumably a large majority, of all the children
+between these ages are not working, this
+preponderance of offenses among the workers
+assumes impressive proportions."<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112" href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With reference to the character of the offenses
+it was found that the working children inclined
+to the more serious kinds. Recidivists were
+found to be far more numerous among the
+workers than among the non-workers. Summing
+up the results of the discussion to this
+point the report says: "It is found that the
+working children contribute to the ranks of
+delinquency a slightly larger number and a
+much larger proportion than do the non-workers,
+that this excess appears in offenses of every
+kind, whether trivial or serious, and among
+recidivists even more markedly than among
+first offenders."<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113" href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+<p>With reference to the connection between
+recidivism and street work the report says:
+"The proportion of recidivism is also large among
+those who are working while attending school,
+and the numbers here are very much larger
+than one would wish to see. Some part of the
+recidivism here is undoubtedly due to the kind
+of occupations which a child can carry on while
+attending school. Selling newspapers and blacking
+shoes, acting as errand or delivery boy,
+peddling and working about amusement resorts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+account for over two-thirds of these boys (478
+of the 664 are in one or another of these pursuits).
+These are all occupations in which the
+chances of going wrong are numerous, involving
+as they usually do night work, irregular hours,
+dubious or actively harmful associations and
+frequent temptations to dishonesty. In addition,
+something may perhaps be attributed to
+the overstrain due to the attempt to combine
+school and work. When a child of 13, a bootblack,
+is 'often on the street to 12 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>,' or when
+a boy one year older works six hours daily
+outside of school time, 'often at night,' as a
+telegraph messenger, it is evident that his school
+work is not the only thing which is likely to suffer
+from the excessive strain upon the immature
+strength, and from the character of his occupation."<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114" href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p>
+
+<p>While reflecting on the excess of working
+children among the delinquents, one may be
+inclined to attribute this to bad home influences;
+but the report shows that only one-fifth of the
+workers as opposed to nearly one-third of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+non-workers come from distinctly bad homes,
+while from fair and good homes the proportion
+is approximately 76 per cent to 65 per cent.
+Consequently, the working child goes wrong more
+frequently than the non-working child in spite
+of his more favorable home surroundings.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115" href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of the total number of delinquent boys, both
+working and non-working, under twelve years
+of age, 22.4 per cent were workers, while of
+those twelve to thirteen years old, 42.4 per cent
+were workers, and of those fourteen to sixteen
+years old, 80.8 per cent were workers. As
+comparatively few children under twelve years
+are at work, the fact that more than one-fifth
+of the delinquent boys in this age group are
+working children "becomes exceedingly significant."
+Of all children twelve to thirteen
+years of age, the great majority are not employed
+because of the fourteen-year age limit prevailing
+in all the states studied except Maryland;
+hence the larger proportion of working offenders
+cannot be explained by the influences of age.
+The increase of working delinquents above
+fourteen years is to be expected, because so many
+children go to work on reaching that age.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Remembering that the proportionate excess
+of workers varies from two to nine times the
+ratio of non-workers, it is evident that this
+excess cannot be explained by a corresponding
+excess of orphanage, foreign parentage, bad
+home conditions or unfavorable age. As the
+report says, "It seems rather difficult to escape
+the conclusion that being at work has something
+to do with their going wrong."<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116" href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>
+
+<p>The strongest argument against street work
+by children is to be found in the following table<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117" href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a>
+of occupations pursued by the largest number
+of delinquents and giving the percentage of
+total delinquents engaged in each.</p>
+
+<p>As the report says, the following classification
+shows that the largest number of delinquent
+boys were found in those occupations in which
+the nature of the employment does not permit
+of supervision&mdash;namely, newspaper selling,
+errand running, delivery service and messenger
+service. Boys engaged in these occupations,
+together with bootblacks and peddlers, all work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+under conditions "which bring them into
+continual temptations to dishonesty and to
+other offenses."<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118" href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p>
+
+
+<table class="lined w70" summary="Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment">
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w40" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w40" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Boys <br /> Industry or Occupation</th>
+  <th> Per Cent of Total Delinquent Boys</th>
+  <th> Girls <br /> Industry or Occupation</th>
+  <th> Per Cent of Total Delinquent Girls</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 21.83</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Domestic service:</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> &nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Errand boys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 17.80</td>
+  <td class="bl leftindent"> Servant in private house</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 32.18</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Drivers and helpers, wagon</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7.30</td>
+  <td class="bl  leftindent"> In hotel, restaurant or boarding house</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 5.44</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Stores and markets</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4.23</td>
+  <td class="bl  leftindent"> Home workers</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 16.33</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Messengers, telegraph</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2.59</td>
+  <td class="bl left" style="padding-left: 2.5em;"> Total in domestic service</td>
+  <td class="bl bt  br right"> 53.95</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Iron and steel</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.84</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> &nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Textiles, hosiery and knit goods</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.84</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Textiles, hosiery and knit goods</td>
+  <td class="bl  br right"> 12.36</td>
+ </tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.77</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Stores and markets</td>
+  <td class="bl  br right"> 5.44</td>
+ </tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.71</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Clothing makers</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 4.95</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Building trades</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.64</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Candy and confectionery</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 4.45</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Theater</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.57</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Laundry</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1.98</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Office boys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.43</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> &nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Glass</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 1.30</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br bb right"> &nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The offenses with which the boys were charged
+are divided in the report into sixteen classes.
+The messenger service furnishes the largest
+proportionate number of offenders charged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+with "assault and battery" and "immoral
+conduct"; the delivery service those charged
+with "burglary"; bootblacking those charged
+with "craps and gambling," "incorrigibility
+and truancy"; peddling those with "larceny
+and runaway," and "vagrancy or runaway."
+The report calls attention to the greater tendency
+of messengers to immorality, and remarks that
+it is easy to see a connection between bootblacking
+and the offenses in which bootblacks
+lead. The report continues: "It is worthy
+to note that neither the newsboys nor errand
+boys, both following pursuits looked upon with
+disfavor, are found as contributing a <i>leading</i>
+proportion of any one offense. They seem to
+maintain what might be called a high general
+level of delinquency rather than to lead in any
+particular direction, errand boys being found
+in fourteen and newsboys in fifteen of the sixteen
+separate offense groups."<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119" href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of clearly defining the connection
+between occupation and delinquency, and
+determining whether the delinquency inheres<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+in the occupation or in the conditions under
+which it is carried on, there were selected six
+kinds of employments which are generally
+looked upon by social workers as morally unsafe
+for children, and a comparison was made of
+conditions as to the parentage, home surroundings,
+etc., prevailing among the workers in
+these occupations, the working delinquents
+generally, and the whole body of delinquents,
+both working and non-working. Of the delinquent
+boys under twelve years engaged in these
+six groups of employments (delivery and errand
+boys, newsboys and bootblacks, office boys,
+street vendors, telegraph messengers and in
+amusement resorts), nearly three-fourths were
+found to be newsboys and bootblacks. As
+four-fifths of the working delinquents under
+twelve years of age in all occupations are found
+in these six groups, it is evident that this class
+is largely responsible for the employment of
+young boys, and "comparing these figures with
+those for the working delinquents in all occupations
+we find that 58.6 per cent, or nearly three-fifths
+of all the working delinquents up to twelve,
+come from among the newsboys."<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120" href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was found that 54.6 per cent of all the
+working delinquents had both parents living,
+while newsboys and bootblacks, street vendors
+and telegraph messengers were found to be
+more fortunate in this respect than the great
+mass of working delinquents, even surpassing
+the whole body of delinquents, working and
+non-working. As the report says, "One so
+frequently hears of the newsboy who has no
+one but himself to look to that it is rather a
+surprise to find that the orphaned or deserted
+child appears among them only about half as
+often relatively as among the whole group of
+workers."<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121" href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of the delinquent delivery and errand boys,
+78.9 per cent were found to have fair or good
+homes, of the newsboys and bootblacks 75.8
+per cent, of the street vendors 65 per cent, and
+of the telegraph messengers 78.9 per cent, and
+in this connection the report declares, "Certainly
+the predominance of these selected occupations
+among the employments of delinquents cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+be explained by the home conditions of the
+children entering them."<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122" href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>
+
+<p>The findings with respect to the messenger
+service fully corroborate the charges brought
+against it by the National Child Labor Committee.
+The report says: "Turning to the
+messengers, it is seen that they are in every respect
+above the average of favorable conditions.
+Moreover, it is well known that boys taking
+up this work must be bright and quick; there
+is no room in it for the dull and mentally weak.
+Plainly, then, in this case the occupation, not
+the kind of children who enter it, must be
+held responsible for its position among the
+pursuits from which delinquents come ...
+the chief charges brought against it are that
+the irregular work and night employment tend
+to break down health, that the opportunities
+for overcharge and for appropriating packages
+or parts of their contents lead to dishonesty,
+and that the places to which the boy is sent
+familiarize him with all forms of vice and tend
+to lead him into immorality."<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123" href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> Referring again
+to the messenger service, the report says:
+"The unfortunate effects of the inherent condi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>tions
+of the work are, however, manifest. Its
+irregularity, the lack of any supervision during
+a considerable part of the time, the associations
+of the street and of the places to which messengers
+are sent, and the frequency of night work
+with all its demoralizing features, afford an
+explanation of the impatience of restraint, the
+reckless yielding to impulse shown in the
+large percentage of incorrigibility and disorderly
+conduct. A glance at the main table shows
+that the two offenses next in order are assault
+and battery and malicious mischief, both of
+which indicate the same traits. On the whole,
+there seems abundant reason for considering
+that the messenger service deserves its bad
+name."<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124" href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p>
+
+<p>With reference to errand and delivery boys,
+the report finds that as the level of favorable
+conditions keeps so near to the average, it seems
+necessary to attribute the number of delinquents
+furnished by this class more to the conditions
+of the work than to the kind of children
+taking it up.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The occupational influences of amusement
+resorts, street vending and newspaper selling
+"are notoriously bad, but a partial explanation
+of the number of delinquents they furnish is
+unquestionably in the kind of children who enter
+them. It is a case of action and reaction.
+These occupations are easily taken up by immature
+children, with little or no education and
+no preliminary training. Such children are
+least likely to resist evil influences, most likely
+to yield to all that is bad in their environment."<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125" href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p>
+
+<p>Having shown that a connection can be traced
+between certain occupations and the number
+and kind of offenses committed by the children
+working in them, the report next determines
+to what extent a direct connection can be traced
+between occupation and offense. If a working
+child commits an offense, first, during working
+hours, second, in some place to which his work
+calls him, and third, against some person with
+whom his work brings him in contact, a connection
+may be said to exist between the misdemeanor
+and the employment. The report
+insists that either all three of the connection
+elements must be present, or else the offense<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+must be very clearly the outcome of conditions
+related to the work, before a connection can be
+asserted; and it reminds the reader that the
+number of connection cases shown represents
+an understatement, probably to a considerable
+degree, of the real situation. The number of
+boy delinquents in occupations which show more
+than five cases of delinquency chargeable to
+occupation was found to be 308; of these, 100
+were errand or delivery boys, 129 were newsboys,
+16 were drivers or helpers, 13 were street vendors
+and 10 were messengers.</p>
+
+<p>The number of boy delinquents working
+at time of last offense and the number whose
+offenses show a connection with the occupation
+are compared, by occupation, in the following
+table,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126" href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> p. 173.</p>
+
+
+<table class="lined w60"  summary="Juvenile Delinquency and its Relationship to Employment">
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w40" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w20" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Occupation or Industry</th>
+  <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> Boy Delinquents working at Time of Last Offense</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Boy Delinquents whose Offenses show a Connection with Occupation</th></tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Number</th>
+  <th>Per Cent of <br />Boy Delinquents in <br />Occupation Working</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">In amusement resorts</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 40</td>
+  <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127" href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 17.5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Domestic service</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 50</td>
+  <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128" href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 28.0</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Driver or helper</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 107</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 14.9</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Errand or delivery boys</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 261</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 100</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 38.3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Iron and steel workers</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 27</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 25.9</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 38</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 26.3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys and bootblacks</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 346</td>
+  <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129" href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 129</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 37.2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Street vendors</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 25</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 52.0</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Stores and markets</td>
+  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 62</td>
+  <td class="bb dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl bb br right"> 19.3</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>"Among the errand and delivery boys the
+percentage (of connection cases) is large and the
+connection close. Larceny accounts for over
+nine-tenths of these cases, the larceny usually
+being from the employer when the boy was sent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+out with goods, though in some cases it was
+from the house to which the boy was sent. It
+will be remembered that in respect to parental
+and home condition, age, etc., the delinquent
+errand boys came very close to the average, and
+their antecedents gave no reason to expect they
+would go wrong so numerously. That fact,
+together with the large proportion of connection
+cases, seems to indicate that the occupation is
+distinctly a dangerous one morally."<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130" href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>As the various forms of immorality are practiced
+in secret, the report truly says that the
+evils which are most associated with a messenger's
+life could hardly appear in these studies.
+"A trace of them is found in the case of one boy
+sentenced for larceny. After his arrest it was
+found that he was a confirmed user of cocaine,
+having acquired the habit in the disreputable
+houses to which his work took him. Perhaps
+something of the same kind is indicated by the
+fact that one of the few cases of drunkenness
+occurring among working delinquents came, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+a connection case, from this small group of
+messengers. For the most part, however, the
+connection offenses (by messengers) were some
+form of dishonesty, usually appropriating parcels
+sent out for delivery, though in some cases
+collecting charges on prepaid packages was
+added to this."<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131" href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
+
+<p>The newsboys almost equal the errand boys
+in their percentage of connection cases, though
+their offenses have a much wider range; in fact,
+the connection cases for newsboys include a
+greater variety of offenses than any other
+occupation studied. Beggary appears for the
+first time, there being two cases, in both of
+which the selling of papers was a mere pretext,
+enabling the boys to approach passers-by.
+Street vendors were found to show the highest
+percentage of connection cases, larceny being
+the leading offense.</p>
+
+<p>The report concludes: "It is a striking fact
+that in spite of the incompleteness of the data,
+a direct connection between the occupation and
+the offense has been found to exist in the cases
+of practically one-fourth of the boys employed
+at the time of their latest offense. It is also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+a striking fact that while the delinquent boys
+working at the time of their latest offense
+were scattered through more than fifty occupations,
+over six-sevenths of the connection
+cases are found among those working in street
+occupations, and that more than three-fifths
+come from two groups of workers&mdash;the errand
+or delivery boys, and the newsboys and bootblacks.
+It is also significant that the connection
+cases form so large a percentage of the total
+cases among the street traders, the messengers,
+and the errand or delivery boys, their proportion
+ranging from over one-fourth to over
+one-half, according to the occupation."<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132" href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p>
+
+<p>In considering the effect of night work upon
+the morals of children, the report says, "The
+messengers and newsboys show both large numbers
+and large percentages of night work, thus
+giving additional ground for the general opinion
+as to the undesirable character of their work";
+and again, "In the following occupations the
+cases of night work are more numerous than they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+should be in proportion to the number ever
+employed in these pursuits: bootblacks, bowling
+alley and pool room, glass, hotel, messengers,
+newsboys and theaters and other amusement
+resorts."<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133" href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p>
+
+<p>More than one-fourth of the working boy
+delinquents were found to be attending day
+school. More than half of these pupils were
+newsboys and bootblacks. It was found that
+the more youthful the worker, the stronger is
+his tendency toward irregular attendance at
+school.</p>
+
+<p>Eighty-three boy delinquents were devoting
+eleven or more hours per day to work, and of
+these, 31 were errand or delivery boys, 7 were
+hucksters or peddlers, 6 were messengers and
+2 were newsboys or bootblacks.</p>
+
+<p>"For both sexes, the workers show a greater
+tendency than the non-workers to go wrong,
+even where home and neighborhood surroundings
+appear favorable, but this tendency is not so
+marked among the girls as among the boys."<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134" href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p>
+
+<p>This report of the government investigation
+furnishes most conclusive evidence as to the
+evil character of street trading in general. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+bears out the description so aptly made by a
+recent writer: "The streets are the proverbial
+schools of vice and crime. If the factory is the
+Scylla, the street is the Charybdis."<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135" href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another American writer has lately declared:
+"A prolific cause of juvenile delinquency is the
+influence of the street trades on the working
+boy. No other form of work has such demoralizing
+consequences.... These boys are
+brought into the juvenile court, and their misdemeanors
+are often so great that reformatory
+treatment is necessary for them. Accordingly
+they represent a large proportion of the boys in
+the different institutions. The demoralization
+produced by the street trades affects others
+than those engaged in such trades, but the latter
+are the chief sufferers; therefore the importance
+of legislation which will shut off this source of
+infection."<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136" href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p>
+
+<p>A Chicago physician took occasion to look
+into the records of the juvenile court of that
+city in 1909, and found that the first 100 boys
+and 25 girls examined that year were representa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>tive
+of the 2500 delinquents brought into the
+court during the preceding year. Not less
+than 57 of these boys had been engaged in street
+work&mdash;43 as newsboys, 12 as errand boys and
+messengers and 2 as peddlers. Only 13 out
+of the entire number had never been employed.
+Sixty of them were physically subnormal; the
+general physical condition of the girls was
+found to be much better than that of the boys
+of the same age, although 40 per cent of the
+girls were suffering from acquired venereal
+disease.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137" href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1910 there were 647 boys
+confined in the Indiana state reformatory,
+which is known as the Indiana Boys' School,
+at Plainfield. Of this number 219, or 33.8 per
+cent, had formerly been engaged in street work.
+To determine the relative delinquency of street
+workers and boys who have never pursued such
+occupations, it would be necessary to compare
+these 219 delinquents with the total number of
+street workers in Indiana and also to compare
+the total number of inmates who had never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+followed street occupations with the total
+number of boys within the same age limits in
+Indiana. A comparison of the two percentages
+would be illuminating, but is impossible because
+it is not known how many street workers there
+are in the state. However, it is safe to assume
+that the number of street-working boys in
+Indiana is much less than one third of the total
+number of boys. If we accept this as true, then
+the figures indicate that street work promotes
+delinquency, because one third of all the delinquents
+in the state reformatory had been so
+engaged. The frequent assertion that, merely
+because a large percentage of the inmates of
+correctional institutions were at some time
+engaged in street work, such employment is
+therefore responsible for their delinquency, cannot
+be accepted alone as proof of the injurious
+character of this class of occupations, as it is
+not known how long each offender was engaged
+in such work, nor are the other causes contributing
+to the delinquency of each boy properly
+considered or even known. This defect is
+avoided in the government's Report on Juvenile
+Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,
+which, with reference to the common practice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+of jumping at conclusions in this way, says,
+"This appears to show that selling newspapers
+is a morally dangerous occupation, but the
+danger cannot be measured, since it is not known
+what proportion of the working children are
+newsboys, or what proportion of the newsboys
+never come to grief."<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138" href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> The following tables
+are of interest as showing in detail the facts as
+to Indiana's delinquent boy street workers, who
+are confined in the state reformatory:&mdash;</p>
+
+<h3 class="smcap">Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</h3>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table A. Distribution among Street Occupations">
+<caption><i><a name="tablea" id="tablea">Table A. </a>Distribution among Street Occupations</i></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Committed for</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Messengers</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Newsboys</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Bootblacks</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Peddlers</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Delivery Boys</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Cab Driver</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Total</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc"> Day</th>
+  <th class="nosc">Night</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 22</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 88</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 125</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 30</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 40</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 32</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Forgery</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Manslaughter</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 36</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 156</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 219</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table B. Ages when at Work at these Occupations">
+<caption><i><a name="tableb" id="tableb">Table B.</a> Ages when at Work at these Occupations</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w2125" />
+  <col class="w875" span="9" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>Under 10</th>
+  <th> 10</th>
+  <th> 11</th>
+  <th> 12</th>
+  <th> 13</th>
+  <th> 14</th>
+  <th> 15</th>
+  <th> 16</th>
+  <th> Totals</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 36</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 29</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 29</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 28</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 36</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 156</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 12</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab drivers</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 34</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 37</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 31</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 45</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 38</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 28</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 219</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table C. Ages at Time of Commitment">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_C" id="Table_C">Table C.</a> Ages at Time of Commitment</i></caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w45" />
+  <col class="w5" span="11" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th> Committed for</th>
+  <th> Under 9</th>
+  <th> 9</th>
+  <th> 10</th>
+  <th> 11</th>
+  <th> 12</th>
+  <th> 13</th>
+  <th> 14</th>
+  <th> 15</th>
+  <th> 16</th>
+  <th> 17</th>
+  <th> Total</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 24</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 28</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 125</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 40</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 32</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Forgery</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Manslaughter</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 26</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 26</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 40</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 52</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 33</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 219</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table D. Nationality and Orphanage of Street Workers">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_D" id="Table_D">Table D.</a> Nationality and Orphanage of Street Workers</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Occupations</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> American</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Negro</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> German</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Irish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Polish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> French</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Scotch</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Italian</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Jewish</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Father Living</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Mother Living</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc"> Yes</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Yes</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 25</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 30</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 30</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 6</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 69</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 59</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 107</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 49</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 119</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 37</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab driver</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 110</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 70</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 157</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 62</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 174</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 45</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table E. Hours and Earnings of Street Workers">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_E" id="Table_E">Table E.</a> Hours and Earnings of Street Workers</i> <br /> (In only 91 cases were the hours given, and earnings in only 116 cases.)</caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w5" span="7" />
+  <col class="w10" span="4" />
+  <col class="w5" />
+ </colgroup>
+
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="3"> Occupations</th>
+  <th colspan="7"> Hours</th>
+  <th colspan="5" rowspan="2" class="blstrong"> Daily Earnings</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc" colspan="3"> Day</th>
+  <th class="nosc blstrong" colspan="4"> Night</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc"> All</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Morning</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Afternoon</th>
+  <th class="nosc blstrong"> All</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Before midnight</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> After midnight</th>
+  <th class="nosc blstrong"> Totals</th>
+  <th class="nosc blstrong"> Under 50 cents</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> 50-75 cents</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> 75 cents-$1.00</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> $1.25-$1.50</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Totals</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 13</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 29</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 56</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 47</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 23</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 78</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 12</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab driver</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 53</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 91</td>
+  <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 55</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 41</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 116</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table F. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_F" id="Table_F">Table F.</a> Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</i></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Committed for</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> American</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Negro</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> German</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Irish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Polish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> English</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Jewish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Swedish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> French</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Mexican</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Italian</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Hungarian</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Totals</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Father Living</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Mother Living</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc">Yes</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Yes</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
+  <td class="bl right">156</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 40</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">234</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 168</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 66</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 182</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 52</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 66</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 86</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 62</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 24</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 62</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 24</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility </td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 53</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 75</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 44</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 31</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 50</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 25</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right">293</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 65</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 23</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right">428</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 298</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 130</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 323</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 105</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table G. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_G" id="Table_G">Table G.</a> Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</i></caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w40" />
+  <col class="w5" span="12" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Committed for</th>
+  <th colspan="11"> Ages at Commitment</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Totals</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th> Under 9</th>
+  <th> 9</th>
+  <th> 10</th>
+  <th> 11</th>
+  <th> 12</th>
+  <th> 13</th>
+  <th> 14</th>
+  <th> 15</th>
+  <th> 16</th>
+  <th> 17</th>
+  <th> Over 17</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 20</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 25</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 33</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 46</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 47</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 28</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 234</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 86</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 75</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 6</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 19</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 44</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 51</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 61</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 73</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 66</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 44</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 14</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 428</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table H. Behavior in Institution">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_H" id="Table_H">Table H.</a> Behavior in Institution</i></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th colspan="3"> Street Workers</th>
+  <th colspan="3"> Non-Street Workers</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">Good</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 39</td>
+  <td class="dcright">or</td>
+  <td class="right"> 18%</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 95 </td>
+  <td class="dcright">or</td>
+  <td class="br right"> 22%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">Average</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 175  </td>
+  <td class="dcright">or</td>
+  <td class="right">80%</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 321 </td>
+  <td class="dcright">or </td>
+  <td class="br right">75%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">Bad</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="dcright"> or</td>
+  <td class="right"> 2%</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="dcright"> or</td>
+  <td class="br right"> 3%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball left"> Totals</td>
+  <td class="bl bt bb right"> 219</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="bt bb right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bt bb right"> 428</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="bt bb br right">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>By far the largest number of street-working
+delinquents had been newsboys, these being
+followed by messengers, peddlers, bootblacks
+and delivery boys in the order given. From
+a hasty glance at these tables one might conclude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+that street workers are not so liable to become
+delinquent as those who never follow street
+occupations, because of the smaller number of
+the former; but it should be remembered that
+the ratio of street-working inmates to the entire
+number of street-working boys in Indiana is
+much greater than the ratio of the other inmates
+to the whole body of non-street-working children
+in the state.</p>
+
+<p>In comparing Tables <a href="#Table_C">C</a> and <a href="#Table_G">G</a> it is seen that
+the street workers and the non-street workers
+were committed for practically the same offenses,
+and that their distribution according to offense
+does not vary widely. It is significant that a
+much smaller proportion of the street workers
+were committed to the institution under the
+age of ten years, than of the non-street workers,
+indicating that street occupations (which are
+not usually entered upon before the age of ten
+years), if followed for a year or two, contribute
+largely to the promotion of delinquency.</p>
+
+<p>From a comparison of Tables <a href="#Table_D">D</a> and <a href="#Table_F">F</a> it will
+be observed that the prevalence of delinquency
+among the street workers cannot be explained
+on the ground of orphanage, as only 28 per cent
+were fatherless and 21 per cent motherless,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+while of the non-street workers 30 per cent
+were fatherless and 25 per cent were motherless.
+This indicates (1) that street work in the great
+majority of cases is not made necessary by orphanage,
+and (2) that street work causes delinquency
+in spite of good home conditions so far as the
+presence of both parents contributes to the
+making of a good home. Furthermore, it will
+be noted in Table <a href="#Table_E">E</a> that nearly half of the children
+for whom figures on income could be obtained
+earned less than fifty cents per day&mdash;a
+small return on the heavy investment in the
+risk of health and character.</p>
+
+<p>The difference in behavior at the institution
+between the street workers and the others is
+shown in Table <a href="#Table_H">H</a> to be almost negligible, the
+latter making a slightly better showing.</p>
+
+<p>An English writer says: "There is no difficulty
+in understanding how street trading and newspaper
+selling lead to gambling. We are told
+by those who are best able to judge, that of
+the young thieves and prostitutes in the city
+of Manchester, 47 per cent had begun as street
+hawkers. For the younger boys and girls
+such an occupation, especially at night, turns
+the streets into nurseries of crime. The news<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>paper
+sellers are not exposed to quite the same
+dangers, but they are nearly all gamblers.
+They gamble on anything and everything, from
+the horse races reported hour by hour in the
+papers they sell, to the numbers on the passing
+cabs, and they end by gambling with their
+lives."<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139" href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">THE STRUGGLE FOR REGULATION IN THE UNITED
+STATES
+</span></h2>
+
+<p>The economic activities of children in city
+streets, commonly called street trades, are not
+specifically covered by the provisions of child
+labor laws except in the District of Columbia
+and the states of Massachusetts, Missouri,
+New York, Oklahoma, Colorado, Utah, Nevada,
+New Hampshire and Wisconsin. The laws of
+many other states as well as of those mentioned,
+however, prohibit children under fourteen years
+of age from being employed or permitted to
+work in the distribution or transmission of
+merchandise or messages. If newspapers are
+merchandise, then children under fourteen years
+would not be allowed to deliver newspapers under
+the provision just stated. This raises a nice
+question as to what is included in the term
+"merchandise." That there is any distinction
+between newspapers and merchandise is prac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>tically
+denied by the street-trades laws of Utah
+and New Hampshire which provide that children
+under certain ages shall not sell "newspapers,
+magazines, periodicals or <i>other</i> merchandise
+in any street or public place"; the question of
+delivery, however, is left open by these laws.
+The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia,
+in the case of District of Columbia
+<i>vs.</i> Reider, sustained the juvenile court of the
+District in its decision that newspapers are not
+merchandise and consequently that children
+under fourteen years of age engaged in delivering
+newspapers are not affected by the law.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140" href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a>
+The judge of the trial court stated in his opinion,
+"No one will seriously contend that the nature
+of the employment in the case at bar is at all
+harmful to the child." The case at bar was
+the prosecution of a route agent for a morning
+newspaper on account of having employed a
+minor under fourteen years of age to deliver
+newspapers. This opinion is typical of the
+misplaced sympathy so commonly bestowed
+upon these young "merchants" of the street.
+In the case cited, the court permitted itself to
+be drawn aside into an interpretation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+letter of the law instead of viewing the matter
+in the light of its spirit. The purpose of such
+a law is to <i>prevent the labor</i> of children, not to
+distinguish between closely related forms of
+labor. Its object is to afford protection, not
+to provoke discussion of purely technical points.
+The <i>labor</i> of delivering merchandise does not
+differ in any respect from the <i>labor</i> of delivering
+newspapers (the possibly greater weight of
+merchandise does not alter the case, inasmuch as
+it is usually carried about in wagons); and as
+the child labor law of the District of Columbia
+forbids the delivery of merchandise by children
+under fourteen years at any time, it follows that
+the delivery of newspapers by such children
+should not be allowed, because the intent of
+the law is to protect them from the probable
+consequences of such work. Moreover, the
+District of Columbia law prohibits children
+under sixteen years from delivering merchandise
+before six o'clock in the morning; yet, under
+the interpretation given by the juvenile court,
+it is perfectly proper for a child even under the
+age of <i>fourteen</i> years to perform the <i>labor</i> of
+delivery before that hour, provided he handles
+newspapers instead of packages. The incon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>sistency
+of this is only too apparent. The spirit
+of the law is lost sight of in the close interpretation
+of its wording. This is one of the obstacles
+always encountered in the movement for child
+labor reform after prohibitory legislation has
+been enacted.</p>
+
+<p>American legislation on street trading still
+clings persistently and pathetically to the theory
+that uncontrolled labor is much better for
+children than labor under the supervision of
+adults, and consequently authorizes very young
+children to do certain kinds of work in the
+streets on their own responsibility, while forbidding
+them to work at other street occupations
+even under the control of older and more
+experienced persons. This official incongruity
+must ultimately be rescinded and replaced by
+more rational and comprehensive legislation.
+The fallacy of permitting such a distinction on
+the ground that the child is an independent
+"merchant" in the one case and an employee
+in the other, must also be abandoned in favor
+of a more enlightened policy.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Present Laws and Ordinances</h3>
+
+<p>The following table shows all the laws and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+ordinances governing street trading by children
+in existence in the United States in 1911.</p>
+
+<p>The city council of Detroit passed an ordinance
+in 1877 which forbids newsboys and
+bootblacks to ply their trades in the streets
+without a permit from the mayor. No age
+limit is fixed, no distinction is made between
+the sexes and no hours are specified. Applicants
+for the permit are customarily referred
+to the chief truant officer for approval, and as
+a rule permits are not issued to boys under ten
+years of age or to girls. An annual license fee
+of ten cents is charged, and the license holder
+is supplied with a numbered badge which must
+be worn conspicuously. Owing to its manifest
+weakness, this ordinance is of little avail.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed from the following table
+that the common age limit for boys in street
+trading is ten years. When we pause to reflect
+on the import of this, it is hard to realize that
+intelligent American communities actually tolerate
+such an absurdly meager restriction; yet
+the movement for reform has progressed even
+this far in only a very small part of the country&mdash;in
+most places there is no restriction whatever!
+Some day, and that not in the very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+remote future, we shall look back upon the
+authorized exploitation of the present period
+with the same degree of incredulity with which
+we now regard the horrors of child labor in
+England during the early part of the nineteenth
+century.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="State Laws">
+<caption><span class="smcap">State Laws</span></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th>States</th>
+  <th> Age Limit</th>
+  <th> Licenses</th>
+  <th> Hours</th>
+  <th> Enforcement</th>
+  <th> Penalties</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Colorado, 1911</td>
+  <td class="ball">Girls, 10; any work in streets</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
+  <td class="ball">$5-$100 fine for first offense, $100-$200 fine or imprisonment 90 days for 2d offense for employers. $5-$25 fine for parents</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">District of Columbia, 1908</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; Girls, 16; bootblacking, selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-15</td>
+  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br />10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
+  <td class="ball">Left to discretion of juvenile court</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Missouri, 1911</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
+  <td class="ball">Max. fine $100 or max. imprisonment one year, for child</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Nevada, 1911</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 10; selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">Child dealt with as delinquent</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">New Hampshire, 1911</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; publications or other mdse. Boys, 10; girls, 10; bootblacking</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors; truant officers</td>
+  <td class="ball">$5-$200 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days, for employers and parents</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">New York, 1903</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; publications</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13</td>
+  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br />10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td class="ball">Police and truant officers</td>
+  <td class="ball">Dealt with according to law</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Oklahoma, 1909</td>
+  <td class="ball">Girls, 16; publications</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">Commissioner of Labor</td>
+  <td class="ball">$10-$50 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days for child</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td rowspan="2" class="ball">Utah, 1911, 1st &amp; 2d class cities</td>
+  <td class="bl br bt">Boys, 12; girls 16; publications or other mdse. </td>
+  <td class="bl br bt">Boys, 12-15 </td>
+  <td  rowspan="2" class="ball">Not after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td  rowspan="2" class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td  rowspan="2" class="ball">$25-$200 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days, for employers and parents</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td  class="bl br bb">Boys, 12; girls, 12; bootblacking</td>
+  <td  class="bl br bb">Boys, 12-15 <br /> Girls 12-15</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Wisconsin, 1909, as amended 1911, 1st class cities</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 12; girls, 18; publications. Boys, 14; girls, 18, all others</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 12-15</td>
+  <td class="ball">5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>  <br />6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, winter  <br />7.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, summer; publications</td>
+  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
+  <td class="ball">$25-$100 fine or imprisonment 10-60 days for parents permitting, and others employing, child under 16 to peddle without permit. Same for newspapers allowing boys under 16 about office between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on school days</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Massachusetts, 1902 as amended, 1910</td>
+  <td colspan="4" class="ball">Mayor and aldermen or selectmen may make regulations of bootblacking and sale of newspapers, merchandise, etc; may prohibit such sale or trades; or may require license to be obtained from them. School committees in cities have these powers as to children under 14 years.</td>
+  <td class="ball">Max. fine $10 for child; max. fine $200 or max. imprisonment 6 months for parent allowing, person employing, or any one furnishing articles to, a child to sell</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="City Ordinances">
+<caption><span class="smcap">City Ordinances</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Cities</th>
+  <th>Age Limit</th>
+  <th>Licenses</th>
+  <th>Hours</th>
+  <th>Enforcement</th>
+  <th>Penalties</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Boston, 1902, by school committee</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 11; girls, 14; bootblacking, selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 11-13</td>
+  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br /> 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, winter <br />9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, summer</td>
+  <td class="ball">Supervisor of licensed minors, police and truant officers</td>
+  <td class="ball">Revocation of license and fine as stated for Massachusetts</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Cincinnati, 1909</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; bootblacking, selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13</td>
+  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br /> 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td class="ball">Police, truant and probation officers</td>
+  <td class="ball">Fine $1-$5 for child</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Hartford, 1910</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 10; selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13 Girls, 10-13</td>
+  <td class="ball">Not during school hours or after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp; 	</td>
+  <td class="ball">Revocation of license by school superintendent</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Newark, 1904</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; newspapers 	</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13 	</td>
+  <td class="ball">Not between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> nor after 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td class="ball">Police and truant officers</td>
+  <td class="ball">Child placed on probation or committed to Newark City Home at expense of parent</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>In an attempt to minimize the bad effects of
+street trading most of the communities which
+have enacted laws or ordinances on the subject
+provide for the issuance of licenses to boys, and
+in some cases also to girls, in the belief that in
+this way the work of the children can best be
+brought under some degree of control. However,
+this is merely temporizing, although it
+affords an opportunity to gather facts and
+undoubtedly marks a step toward a better
+solution of the problem. This is brought out
+clearly by a recent British report on street
+trading: "Our general impression, gathered in
+towns in which by-laws had been made, was
+that, though in exceptional cases much good
+had resulted from their adoption, on the whole
+this method of dealing with what we have
+come to consider an unquestionable evil, has
+not proved adequate or satisfactory. In many
+instances it has been pointed out to us that a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+system of licensing and badging is but a method
+of legalizing what is indisputably an evil, and
+that a set of by-laws, however rigorously enforced,
+can at best only modify the difficulties
+of the position."<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141" href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p>
+
+<p>The social workers of Chicago, keenly alive
+to the menace of the situation, bewail the lack
+of protection for street workers in the following
+words: "The child labor law and the compulsory
+school law and the juvenile court law form
+the body of protective legislation which has
+been developing in behalf of the children of
+Illinois during the past twenty years. By none
+of the three, however, except in so far as street
+trading by a child under ten is counted an element
+in dependency, is the street-trading child
+safeguarded against parental neglect or greed,
+the vicious sights and sounds of the city street
+and the demoralizing habit of irregular employment."<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142" href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Opposition to Regulation</h3>
+
+<p>The opposition to bringing the street trades
+under some degree of restriction has come, as
+might be expected, from very interested sources.
+In Illinois the newspaper publishers figured
+prominently in the movement to prevent the
+passage of the street-trades measure introduced
+in the legislature of that state at its session of
+1911. This has not always been the case, however,
+as the circulation managers of the five
+leading daily newspapers of St. Louis wrote
+letters to the legislature of Missouri favoring
+the passage of that section of the child labor
+bill of 1911, which provided that boys under
+ten years and girls under sixteen years should
+not sell anything in any street or public place
+within the state. This provision was enacted
+into law, but it is safe to say that if the rational
+age limit of sixteen years for boys had been
+advocated instead of ten years, the newspapers
+would have been most active in opposing this
+section. In Cincinnati the circulation managers
+of the newspapers most affected by the street-trades
+ordinance passed by the City Council
+in 1909 agreed to its provisions before the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+measure was submitted to the Council, and
+consequently it passed without opposition.</p>
+
+<p>In New Haven and Hartford repeated
+attempts have been made to secure regulation
+of street trading by means of city ordinances,
+and at two sessions of the state legislature bills
+have been introduced which provided for such
+restriction, but all these efforts have been persistently
+fought by a leading newspaper of
+Hartford in which city it has always been customary
+to have girls as well as boys selling
+newspapers on the street. In 1910, a city
+ordinance was passed in Hartford providing
+that boys and girls under ten years should be
+prohibited from trading in the streets and that
+between the ages of ten and fourteen years
+they should be licensed and not allowed to sell
+after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> The newsgirls were not banished
+from the street because it was held that they
+were "a pretty good sort of girl after all," and
+that so long as it could not be proved that they
+were <i>demoralized</i> by the work, they should be
+permitted to go on with it. In other words,
+the city clings to the fine old American policy
+of delaying action until some calamity makes
+it necessary.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The objections offered by interested parties
+to the by-laws drafted by the London County
+Council at a hearing held in 1906, show that the
+law of self preservation operates in England as
+in other quarters of the Earth. News agents,
+employing little boys to deliver newspapers,
+declared that conditions were not bad; that the
+work was healthful; that the wages were a great
+help to poor parents; that they could not
+afford to employ older boys; that the lads
+should be allowed to begin at 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and work
+not more than ten hours a day outside of school
+with a maximum weekly limit of twenty-five
+hours; that to prohibit the delivery of newspapers
+before 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and after 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> would be
+a great injustice to the trade; that boys wouldn't
+stay in bed even if 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> were fixed as the hour
+for beginning work; that such work does not
+interfere with schooling; that the boys are well
+looked after; in short, that the by-laws would
+ruin them and bring starvation to the children.
+One news agent in declaiming against the hours
+fixed for the delivery of newspapers, insisted
+that the restriction would throw boys out of
+employment and send them to trade in the streets
+with their undesirable associations, apparently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+unmindful of the fact that delivery boys themselves
+worked in that environment. The dairymen
+were horrified at the limit placed on hours,
+urging that the little boys in their employ
+should begin to deliver milk at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, as early
+work was beneficial and the wages useful to
+poor parents. Shopkeepers denounced the by-laws
+as too drastic, because they would prevent
+such light work as errand running at noon and
+casual employment in the evening after 7,
+resulting in hardship to both parents and children;
+one acknowledged that if he were prevented
+from employing cheap labor his business
+would suffer; another said that he employed
+a boy at noon and also from 5.30 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>,
+the work being light and the parents satisfied,
+and that the training was good for boys. A
+fruiterer actually declared that the limit of
+eight hours on Saturday would make a boy
+valueless to him; another said he employed a
+boy for one hour in the morning, from 6 to 9
+in the evening, and also on Saturday morning
+and evening, in running errands, and that the
+work was not heavy; another employed boys
+after school from 6 to 9.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, insisting that
+the work was good for them, as it kept them from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+the street and gave them an insight into business
+habits.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143" href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> It should be remembered that all
+this work was performed by the children in
+addition to attending school both morning and
+afternoon.</p>
+
+<p>The testimony given before the British Interdepartmental
+Committee of 1901 by the secretary
+of an association representing many thousand
+retail shopkeepers, would be amusing if
+it were not so sinister. He presented the subject
+of child labor in a most favorable aspect,
+declaring that the wages were needed on account
+of poverty in the families; that the work was
+light and had a <i>very beneficial</i> effect on health
+because it was done in the open air; that
+good meals were given in addition to cash wages
+and were <i>very beneficial</i>; that the effect on the
+boys' character was <i>very beneficial</i>, as the work
+cultivated businesslike habits and kept the
+boys from running the streets, frequently
+affording promotion to the higher grades of
+shopkeeping.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144" href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Another British Committee, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>vestigating
+conditions in Ireland, reported,
+"We found but one witness (a newspaper
+manager of Belfast) to testify that the present
+conditions of selling papers in the street were
+satisfactory and cannot be improved; and that
+instead of tending to demoralize, they have the
+opposite effect."<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145" href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Ways and Means of Regulating Street Work</h3>
+
+<p>As to the control of street trading by children
+there are two methods by which the desired
+end may be approached. First, a mutual agreement
+as to self-imposed restrictions among the
+managers of all the business interests in connection
+with which children work on the streets.
+This method, however, can be dismissed from
+consideration at once on account of its impracticability.
+Street work embraces many different
+kinds of commercial activity, and as one manager
+is the competitor of all others in the same line
+of business and is free to adopt such lawful
+means of placing his wares on the market as
+he sees fit, it would be clearly impossible to
+force any one into such an agreement against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+his will. Moreover, new competitors may enter
+the field at any time who would not be bound
+by the agreement of the others, and consequently
+this would soon be broken by the force of competition
+following the intrusion of these new
+parties.</p>
+
+<p>Second, regulation by constituted legislative
+authority. This is the more feasible method,
+and such regulation may be obtained from either
+of two sources&mdash;the municipality or the state.
+There is a question as to which of the two is
+the better for the purpose. Regulation by the
+state has the advantage of making the provisions
+apply uniformly to all cities within its
+borders and is obtained by no more effort than
+is required to get an ordinance through the
+Council of a single municipality. On the other
+hand, the municipal ordinance has the advantage
+of being secured by residents of the community
+who are intelligently concerned in the local
+problem and who will therefore take an active
+interest in having its provisions enforced.
+However, the good features of both these
+methods are united in the English plan, a modification
+of which has been adopted by Massachusetts.
+According to this plan the state<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+fixes a minimum amount of restriction and
+authorizes local authorities, including boards of
+education, to increase the scope of restriction,
+and provides penalties for violation of the same.</p>
+
+<p>As to the degree of regulation, an ultra-conservative
+measure would prohibit boys under
+ten and girls under sixteen years from selling
+anything at any time in the streets or public
+places of cities, while the age limit for boys is
+raised to fourteen years for night work. The
+issuance of licenses to boys ten to fourteen
+years of age who wish to engage in street trading
+is the usual accompaniment of such restriction,
+and while ordinarily of little avail, it could be
+made of some assistance to truant and probation
+officers in their efforts to enforce the compulsory
+education and delinquency laws. The
+age limit for boys has been advanced to eleven
+years by the School Committee of Boston, and
+to twelve years for newsboys and fourteen years
+for other street workers by the state of Wisconsin.
+But all efforts to secure such regulation should
+be based upon the principle that street trading
+is an undesirable form of labor for children, and
+consequently should be subject to at least the
+same restrictions as other forms of child labor.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Probable Course of Regulation in Future</h3>
+
+<p>American child labor laws usually contain
+a provision to the effect that no child under
+sixteen years shall engage in any employment
+that may be considered dangerous to its life
+or limb or where its health may be injured or
+morals depraved. This is sonorous, but ineffective,&mdash;the
+particular kinds of improper
+work should be specified. In this list of undesirable
+forms of labor, street work should be
+included. Great Britain has had far more
+experience in the matter of regulating the
+work of children than any state of this country,
+and, in the light of all this experience, her departmental
+committee of 1910 has emphatically
+declared that street trading by boys under
+seventeen and girls under eighteen years should
+be absolutely prohibited. This should be our
+ideal in America. Commenting on the banishment
+of young girls from the streets of New
+York City, Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "If the
+law against street selling and peddling by girls
+to the age of sixteen years can be thus effectively
+enforced in a city in which the depths of poverty
+among the immigrants are so frightful as they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+are in New York, there is no reason for assuming
+that it is impossible to prohibit efficiently street
+selling by boys."<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146" href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> Girls under eighteen years
+should never be allowed to go out in the streets
+for commercial purposes, no matter how innocent
+these purposes may be in themselves. One of
+the most important features of the movement
+in America should be the absolute prohibition
+of such work by minors under eighteen years
+at night; this is urged because it is in harmony
+with the provisions of our most advanced child
+labor laws and is fully justified because of the
+evil character of the influences rampant in
+cities after dark, and because such night work
+affords children a constant opportunity to cultivate
+their acquaintance with, if not to know
+for the first time, conditions from which every
+effort should be made to isolate them. For
+night messenger service the age limit should
+be twenty-one years.</p>
+
+<p>The enforcement of such regulation as is
+now provided by the few states and cities which
+have given this subject any attention, is variously
+intrusted to factory inspectors, police, truant
+and probation officers, but in Boston the school<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+committee has delivered this task into the hands
+of one man who is known as the supervisor of
+licensed minors. The Boston plan for enforcement
+seems to have given better results than
+the common system of intrusting the enforcement
+to officers already overburdened with
+other duties, but it is clearly impossible for one
+officer to handle the situation unaided in a large
+city&mdash;the plan would be considerably improved
+by the appointment of several assistants.</p>
+
+<p>"The licensing by the Boston School Committee
+of minors of school age to trade in the
+streets of Boston came about through an act
+of legislature in 1902. The need of supervision
+of minors licensed under this act became very
+apparent, as their numbers increased and their
+street influences reacting on their school life
+became better understood. To meet this need
+a supervisor of licensed minors was appointed
+whose duties are to secure the strict enforcement
+of the law, regulations governing the various
+forms of street work of children of school age,
+also to have general supervision of the details
+of the licensing department."<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147" href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Human nature in children is not in the least
+unlike human nature in adults. Just as we
+need an interstate commerce commission backed
+by the federal government to supervise the
+large business affairs of men, so do we need a
+supervisor of children's commercial activities
+in city streets, clothed with authority by the
+municipal government.</p>
+
+<p>The Boston plan is now being advocated for
+New York City: "In the street trades the Committee
+recommends that the principle of supervision
+of licensed minors, as practised for a
+number of years in Boston, be adopted, and that
+an office be created in the Department of Education
+that shall have supervisory control of all
+minors engaged in street trades. It recommends
+furthermore that the minimum age limit for
+licensing boys be raised from ten to fourteen
+years, and that the legal limit for selling at
+night be reduced from 10 to 8, to correspond
+more nearly with the provisions of labor legislation
+dealing with children in factories."<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148" href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p>
+
+<p>The first attempt to control the situation in
+New York City was intrusted to the police,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+but the results were not satisfactory, as they
+looked upon the matter with indifference.
+Subsequently the truant officers also were
+charged with this duty, and in 1908 four men
+were assigned to give their entire attention to
+this work between 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and at
+present eight men are so engaged, but no very
+marked improvement is noticeable. In Rochester
+the enforcement of the state law was
+brought about through the efforts of the women
+of that city; both business women and shoppers
+were asked to consider themselves members
+of a vigilance committee and to notify the
+board of education and the police department
+by telephone whenever any violations of the
+law were observed upon the streets. Within
+five days so many complaints had been received
+that both the superintendent of schools and the
+president of the board of education arranged
+a meeting at which their attention was invited
+to the widespread disregard of the law. As
+a result, steps were taken at once to insure
+enforcement, and finally the board of education
+appointed one truant officer, and the commissioner
+of police detailed a policeman especially
+for the work of reporting violations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to providing an improved method
+of enforcement, efforts have been made in
+Boston to deal more effectively with the difficult
+problem of keeping street traders out of saloons,
+the licensing board having issued an order to
+all holders of liquor licenses to prohibit minors
+from loitering upon the licensed premises, more
+especially newsboys and messenger boys.</p>
+
+<p>The efforts of the school committee to regulate
+street trading in Boston have been further
+supplemented by organizing a Newsboys'
+Republic, which is described as follows: "Perhaps
+the most important result of supervision
+so far has been the gradual introduction of a
+plan for self government among the licensed
+newsboys through the so-called Boston School
+Newsboys' Association. This association is
+pledged to the enforcement of the license rules
+and the suppression of smoking, gambling and
+other street vices, more or less common among
+the street boys of certain neighborhoods. The
+association is run by the boys themselves,
+through officers of their own choosing, consisting
+of one newsboy captain and two lieutenants
+for each school district; also a chief captain
+and general secretary and an executive board<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+of seven elected from the ranks of the captains.
+The general duties of the captains and lieutenants
+are, first, to see that all licensed newsboys
+of their respective school districts live up
+to their license rules, and the principles of the
+association. Secondly, to see that all boys not
+licensed shall not interfere with or in any way
+hurt the business of the licensed newsboys.
+These duties are performed through weekly
+inspections on the street, supplemented by
+monthly inspection at schools, at which time
+branch meetings of all the boys in each district
+are frequently held."<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149" href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">DEVELOPMENT OF STREET TRADES REGULATION
+IN EUROPE</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Great Britain</h3>
+
+<p>Attention was called to the problem of
+street trading by children in England for the
+first time, in a comprehensive way, in 1897.
+A few close observers of social conditions noticed
+that the situation was so grave as to demand
+an immediate remedy, and accordingly, upon
+their initiative, an organization was effected
+for the purpose of studying the subject. This
+organization took the form of a private association
+known as the Committee on Wage-Earning
+Children. The committee conferred with the
+officers of the board of education and succeeded
+in arousing their interest to the extent of securing
+a promise for the collection of a return from
+the elementary schools of England and Wales
+concerning the labor of public school pupils,
+their ages, and other relevant information.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+In 1898, the House of Commons ordered this
+inquiry to be made, and in June of that year
+copies of a schedule were sent by the educational
+department to all the public elementary schools
+in England and Wales. Many schoolmasters
+misunderstood the meaning of this schedule
+and failed to report the children of their schools
+who were actually engaged in various forms
+of work outside of school hours. Only about
+half of the schedules were filled and returned,
+but these showed that 144,026 children were
+following some kind of gainful occupation in
+addition to attending school. Many schoolmasters
+reported pitiable cases of child exploitation,
+as, for example, the following: "Boys
+helping milkmen are up at 5 o'clock in the
+morning, whilst those selling papers are about
+the streets to a very late hour at night. During
+lessons many fall off to sleep, and if not asleep
+the effort to keep awake is truly painful both
+to boy and teacher. The educational time, as
+a consequence, is materially wasted."<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150" href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> "These
+are sad cases, viz. one boy (aged eleven, in
+Standard III) works daily, as a grocer's errand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+boy, for 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a week, from 8 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from
+12 to 1.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and from 4.30 to 7.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
+On Saturday from 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Another
+boy, aged ten in Standard III, works also as a
+grocer's errand boy for 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per week, from
+8.30 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 1.30 and from 5 to
+8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and on Saturday from 8.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>"
+And all this in addition to twenty-seven and
+one half hours of school every week! A boy
+who works for 56-3/4 hours a week, selling papers,
+is employed as follows: "Monday to Friday,
+from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 8.45 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 1 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and
+from 4 to 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and on Saturday from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, to
+10 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 2 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and from 3 to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>"
+"This is a very bad case: called at 2 and
+3 o'clock <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, the boy (aged eight) is so tired
+that he is obliged to go to bed again, and is
+often absent from school, and made to work
+in the evening as well."<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151" href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> Many schoolmasters
+also testified to the need of a remedy; one of
+these wrote on the schedule: "May I be allowed
+to express my gratitude to the education department
+for making this inquiry, and express the
+hope that the department will be able to frame<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+some regulation to meet and relieve the onerous
+conditions under which many of the young
+have to gain education. Without exaggeration
+I can truthfully assert that there are to-day
+in our national and board schools thousands of
+little white slaves."<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152" href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p>
+
+<p>Nothing more came of the movement until
+January, 1901, when the Secretary of State for
+the Home Department appointed an interdepartmental
+committee "to inquire into the
+question of the employment of children during
+school age, and to report what alterations are
+desirable in the laws relating to child labour and
+school attendance and in the administration of
+these laws." After making careful investigation
+this committee declared: "In the case of
+street-trading children very strong powers of
+regulation are required. These children are
+exposed to the worst influences; they enter
+public houses to ply their trade, they are kept
+up late at night and exposed to inclement
+weather, and the precarious nature of their
+trade disinclines them to steady work, and
+encourages them to dissipate their earnings in
+gambling ... there should be power to pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>hibit
+street trading by children; to make regulations
+as to the age and sex of street traders,
+and the days and hours on which they may ply
+their trade; to grant licenses to those permitted
+to trade and to require the wearing of
+badges or uniforms; to forbid street traders to
+enter public houses or to importune or obstruct
+passengers; and generally to control their
+conduct and to cope with the evil in every
+reasonable way."<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153" href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> The committee further reported:
+"Our main recommendation is that the
+overworking of children in those occupations
+which are still unregulated by law should be
+prevented by giving to the county and borough
+councils a power to make labour by-laws; ...
+further we suggest that the gaps that may be
+left by local by-laws should be filled up by a
+general prohibition of night labour by children
+and of labour manifestly injurious to health."<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154" href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a>
+This committee reported that the number of
+children in England and Wales attending school
+and also in paid employment was far greater
+than as reported by the parliamentary return,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+estimating that the total number was no less
+than 300,000 in 1898.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155" href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p>
+
+<p>One of the witnesses before this committee
+was a London truant officer of eighteen years'
+experience, who testified that every month he
+met with hundreds of cases of milk boys who
+"go to work at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and knock off at 8.30 and
+get to school at 9.45. At twelve they return to
+work, and after school at 4.30 they go again
+and wash up. The latest hour they work is
+about 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> I have frequently seen these
+children fast asleep in school. It is a common
+thing to see children of tender age outside the
+different theatres trying to sell newspapers at
+11 o'clock at night. The percentage of cases
+in which this work is necessary is very small;
+it simply means that a little more money is
+spent in the public houses."<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156" href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> The report of
+this committee contains a great mass of testimony
+from persons in many walks of life, nearly
+all of whom declared that street trading by
+children is bad and should be regulated. They
+differentiated between the hawking of articles
+in the streets and their delivery for employers,
+and one of the witnesses from Liverpool testi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>fied
+that the local regulation of street trading
+by children in that city did not apply to bootblacks
+nor to boys who carried parcels because
+they were not selling anything.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157" href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1902, an interdepartmental committee was
+appointed to study the subject in Ireland, and in
+its report stated: "The principal dangers to
+which they [street traders] are exposed are those
+arising from late hours in the streets, truancy,
+insufficient clothing, entering licensed premises
+to find sale for their goods, obstructing, annoying
+or importuning passengers, begging, fighting
+with other children, playing football or other
+games in the streets, using bad language, playing
+pitch and toss (a gambling game), smoking&mdash;all
+of which are matters of common observation,
+and have been testified to by many
+of the witnesses. In our opinion these evils
+can be lessened, if not entirely removed, by the
+simple system of regulation, licenses and badges."<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158" href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p>
+
+<p>The direct result of the reports of these
+committees was the passage by Parliament of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+the Employment of Children Act, 1903. Section
+3 of this act provides, first, that no child under
+eleven years shall engage in street trading;
+second, no child under fourteen years shall be
+employed between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>; third,
+no factory or workshop half-timer shall be
+employed in any other occupation; fourth,
+no child under fourteen years shall handle heavy
+weights likely to result in injury; fifth, no
+child under fourteen years shall engage in any
+injurious employment. Sections 1 and 2 of
+this act give to local authorities power to make
+by-laws regulating the employment of children.
+The provisions of Section 2 concerning street
+trading are in substance as follows: any local
+authority may make by-laws with respect to
+street trading by persons under the age of sixteen
+years and may prohibit such street trading
+subject to age, sex or the holding of a license;
+may regulate the conditions on which such
+licenses may be granted and revoked; may
+determine the days and hours during which
+and the places at which such street trading
+may be carried on; may require such street
+traders to wear badges and may regulate generally
+the conduct of such street traders; pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>vided
+that the right to trade shall not be made
+subject to any conditions having reference to the
+poverty or general bad character of the person
+applying for this right, and provided also that
+the local authority shall have special regard to
+the desirability of preventing the employment
+of girls under sixteen years in streets and public
+places.</p>
+
+<p>Section 2 b of the Prevention of Cruelty to
+Children Act, 1904, imposes a penalty upon
+<i>adults</i> who cause, procure or allow boys under
+fourteen or girls under sixteen to trade in the
+streets between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span></p>
+
+<p>An official report made in 1907 gives the
+names of all counties, boroughs and urban
+districts in Great Britain which had up to that
+time made by-laws to regulate street trading
+by children. In England and Wales, 2 counties,
+60 cities and boroughs and 4 urban districts
+had done so; in Scotland, 3 burghs and the
+school board districts of 11 burghs and 12
+parishes; and in Ireland, 4 cities and boroughs
+and 1 urban district had made such by-laws.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159" href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By 1910, out of 74 county boroughs in England
+and Wales, not less than 50 had made street-trading
+by-laws, and these included most of the
+larger places; but out of 191 smaller boroughs
+and smaller urban districts only 41 had done so;
+while among 62 administrative counties only 3
+had made by-laws. In addition to these, 4
+county boroughs and 2 of the smaller boroughs
+had made street-trading by-laws under local
+acts.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland, of the 33 county councils empowered
+to make by-laws, not one had done so
+by 1910; while of 56 burghs only 3 had passed
+by-laws; of 979 school boards only 27 had made
+such regulations. Edinburgh passed by-laws
+under a private act.</p>
+
+<p>In Ireland, out of 33 county councils not one
+had made by-laws; of the 43 councils of urban
+districts with a population of over 5000, only 5
+had passed regulations.</p>
+
+<p>In 1909 the Secretary of State for the Home
+Department appointed a departmental committee
+to inquire into the operation of the
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, and to
+consider whether any and what further legislative
+regulation or restriction was required in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+respect of street trading and other employments
+dealt with in that act. This committee confined
+its report, which was submitted in 1910,
+to the subject of street trading; and its great
+contribution to the cause of child welfare is
+its recommendation that street trading should
+be <i>prohibited</i> rather than regulated. The statute
+of 1903 prohibits all work by children under
+the age of eleven years, and its restrictions
+on street employment by children above that
+limit, out of school hours, are prohibitions of
+<i>night</i> work after nine o'clock, consequently a
+child above the age of eleven years who engages
+in street trading is restrained, during the day,
+only by such by-laws as may have been adopted
+by the local authority. The committee found
+that even in communities where by-laws had
+been adopted they were not always observed,
+and also that where no by-laws had been passed
+the minimum statutory restrictions were frequently
+ignored. The report declared that:
+"A considerable amount of street trading is
+still done by children under eleven. Special
+censuses taken in Edinburgh revealed the fact
+that children as young as seven were trading in
+the streets. The great bulk of the evidence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+received in and from Scotland points to the
+conclusion that the Act [of 1903] has been almost
+a dead-letter in that country.... Infringements
+of the Act in Ireland are no less common.
+In Waterford newspapers are sold by children
+of nine years old up to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and later."<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160" href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>
+The issuance of licenses and badges was denounced
+as giving the stamp of official approval
+to what is recognized as an evil, the adoption
+of by-laws resulting merely in a partial improvement
+of conditions even when rigorously enforced.</p>
+
+<p>After having devoted several months to the
+inquiry, during which evidence was gathered
+in London, Manchester, Edinburgh, Glasgow,
+Dublin, Belfast, Birmingham and Liverpool
+in addition to receiving the testimony of witnesses
+from Sheffield, Nottingham, Bolton
+and other centers, the committee made this
+very noteworthy and significant declaration:
+"We have come to the conclusion ... that
+the effect of street trading upon the character
+of those who engage in it is only too frequently
+disastrous. The youthful street trader is ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>posed
+to many of the worst of moral risks;
+he associates with, and acquires the habits of,
+the frequenters of the kerbstone and the gutter.
+If a match seller, he is likely to become a beggar&mdash;if
+a newspaper seller, a gambler; the evidence
+before us was extraordinarily strong as to the
+extent to which begging prevails among the boy
+vendors of evening papers. There was an
+almost equally strong body of testimony to
+the effect that, at any rate in crowded centres
+of population, street trading tends to produce
+a dislike or disability for more regular employment;
+the child finds that for a few years money
+is easily earned without discipline or special
+skill; and the occupation is one which sharpens
+the wits without developing the intelligence.
+It leads to nothing practically, and in no way
+helps him to a future career. There can be no
+doubt that large numbers of those who were
+once street traders drift into vagrancy and crime....
+Much evidence was given to the effect
+that the practice of street trading, even though
+only carried on in the intervals of school attendance,
+tends to produce a restless disposition,
+and a dislike of restraint which makes children
+unwilling to settle down to any regular employ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>ment.
+So far as girls are concerned, there
+must be added to the above evils an unquestionable
+danger to morals in the narrower sense.
+The evidence presented to us on this point
+was unanimous and most emphatic. Again and
+again persons specially qualified to speak, assured
+us that, when a girl took up street trading, she
+almost invariably was taking a first step toward
+a life of immorality. The statement that the
+temptations are great, and the children practically
+defenseless, needs no amplification. An
+occupation entailing such perils is indisputably
+unfit for girls."<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161" href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a></p>
+
+<p>The need for <i>prohibition</i> of street trading was
+realized by this committee, the change being
+urged in the following epoch-making statement:
+"After carefully considering the operation of
+the by-laws adopted since 1903, and comparing
+the present state of affairs with that existing
+before the passing of the act, we have come
+to the conclusion that the difficulties of the
+situation cannot be said to have been met, or
+any substantial contribution to a solution of
+the problem made, by the existing law and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+machinery set up for its enforcement. Regulation,
+however well organized and complete,
+will not turn a wasteful and uneconomic use
+of the energies of children into a system which
+is beneficial to the community. Consequently
+we feel that we have no choice but to recommend
+the complete statutory prohibition of street trading
+either by boys or by girls up to a specific
+age. In the case of boys we feel that it would
+be wise to name an age which would render it
+likely that they would have had full opportunities
+of taking to regular work before they
+could legally trade in the streets. We think
+the most suitable age would be seventeen, which
+gives an interval of three or four years after
+the ordinary time of leaving an elementary
+school.... So far as girls are concerned, we
+feel that the arguments in favor of prohibiting
+trading increase rather than diminish in force
+as the age of the traders advances. The entire
+body of testimony laid before us has forced upon
+us the conclusion that street trading by girls is
+entirely indefensible, and that no system of
+regulation is sufficient to rid the employment
+of its risks and objections. On the other hand,
+we have not been able to discover any trace of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+hardship having resulted in any of those towns
+in which by-laws have prohibited trading by
+girls, or have restricted the ages during which
+trading is permitted. We think that the age of
+prohibition should be higher for girls than for
+boys, and, while we feel that it should, in any
+event, not be less than eighteen, we should be
+willing to see it fixed as high as twenty-one."<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162" href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p>
+
+<p>As to the administration of the law, the committee
+declared that this should be delivered
+into the hands of the education authorities
+who could charge the regular truant officers with
+the work of enforcement or employ special
+officers for the purpose. The placing of responsibility
+upon the parents of child offenders was
+indorsed, but the committee criticised administrators
+because of the small penalties imposed
+as fines, the amounts being easily covered by
+the earnings of the traders, and hence an increase
+of the maximum fine was recommended.</p>
+
+<p>A minority report was submitted by four
+members of this committee who declined to
+support the recommendation of the majority
+that street trading should be immediately and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+universally prohibited in the case of boys up
+to the age of seventeen. These members held
+that the cause of street trading should first
+be removed by organizing employment bureaus
+for children, by giving the children the benefit
+of vocational direction, and by promoting
+industrial education for boys both while attending
+the elementary schools and after.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Liverpool</h3>
+
+<p>As to local efforts to regulate the street-trading
+evil, the first steps were taken in Liverpool.
+In this city the condition of child street
+traders was particularly bad; half of them were
+girls, and the stock in trade was usually newspapers
+and matches&mdash;the children were dirty,
+ragged and running the streets at all hours of
+the night, the apparent trade in newspapers
+and other articles being frequently used to
+cover up much worse things; in fact, many of
+the girls were practically prostitutes. Quite
+a number of these children were nothing more
+or less than beggars, and deliberately appeared
+in ragged clothing for the purpose of exciting
+sympathy. A local association undertook to
+supply them with clothing, but many refused<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+this aid "because it would interfere with their
+trade." Commenting on similar practices
+among the street traders of Dublin, Sir Lambert
+H. Ormsby, M.D., said in 1904: "They sell
+other things besides ... matches principally.
+Of course the selling of matches is merely a
+means of evading being taken up by the police
+for begging. The matches are only humbug;
+they do not want to sell them ... they do it
+for begging purposes."<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163" href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> In 1897 the Liverpool
+Watch Committee appointed a subcommittee
+to consider the question of children trading in
+streets, and this subcommittee reported that:
+"The practice is attended, first, with injury
+to the health of the children; second, with
+interference with the education of such as are
+of school age; third, with danger to the moral
+welfare of the children inasmuch as the practice
+frequently leads to street gambling, begging,
+sleeping out and other undesirable practices,
+and in some cases to crime." They were of
+opinion&mdash;in which the inspector of reformatories
+concurred&mdash;that much of the money earned
+by the children went to indulge the vicious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+and intemperate propensities of parents and
+guardians.</p>
+
+<p>By the Liverpool Corporation Act, 1898,
+Parliament gave the city power to regulate
+street trading by children, and accordingly
+the following provisions were made by the city
+council: (1) no licenses to any child under eleven;
+(2) boys eleven to thirteen and girls eleven
+to fifteen inclusive, to be licensed if not mentally
+or physically deficient, with consent of
+parent or guardian; (3) licenses good one year;
+(4) badges also to be issued; (5) no charge for
+license or badge; (6) licenses may be revoked
+by Watch Committee for cause; (7) no licensed
+child to trade after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, nor unless decently
+clothed, nor without badge, nor in streets
+during school hours unless exempted from school
+attendance, and no licensed child may alter
+or dispose of badge, or enter public houses to
+trade, or importune passengers. These regulations
+took effect May 31, 1899, and marked the
+formal beginning of the movement against
+street trading by children.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901 the Liverpool subcommittee reported
+that it was "of opinion that the application of
+the powers conferred by the Act has had the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+effect of greatly reducing the number of children
+trading in the streets, especially during school
+hours and late in the evenings, and of improving
+the condition, appearance, and behaviour of
+those children who still engage in street trading."
+This subcommittee recommended raising the
+boys' age limit for licenses from fourteen to
+sixteen years, and was inclined to advise the total
+prohibition of street trading by girls.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164" href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">London</h3>
+
+<p>Under the powers conferred on local authorities
+by the Employment of Children Act
+1903, the London County Council framed in
+February, 1905, a set of by-laws, the provisions
+of which seemed quite innocuous. Nevertheless
+a considerable outcry was raised by persons
+whom they would affect, and thereupon the
+Secretary of State withheld his confirmation
+and authorized Mr. Chester Jones to hold an
+inquiry at which complaints could be heard as
+well as arguments in favor of the by-laws. This
+inquiry was held in June and July of 1905,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+and schoolmasters, attendance officers, police
+inspectors, news agents and others testified.
+Mr. Jones held that it was his duty "to endeavour
+to discover where the line should be drawn, and
+that it was not open to argument either that
+child labour should entirely be prohibited or
+that it should be unregulated."<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165" href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a></p>
+
+<p>In his report Mr. Jones took up each by-law
+separately and discussed it, recommending that
+it be either confirmed or rejected in accordance
+with his findings. He also drafted a set of
+by-laws and submitted them with the recommendation
+that they be adopted instead of the
+ones originally passed by the London County
+Council. Referring to these, he says: "An
+important respect in which my suggested by-laws
+differ from the County Council by-laws is in
+differentiating between employment in connection
+with street stalls and other forms of street
+trading. It seemed to be the general opinion
+[of witnesses] that the former employment,
+being under the supervision of some adult
+person, probably the parent, is not so harmful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+in its effects on the morals of the child as the
+latter, and it must be remembered that the
+main objection to street trading was on the
+ground rather of its affecting the morality than
+the health and education of the children."<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166" href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a>
+The regulations drafted by Mr. Jones were not
+even so drastic as those proposed by the London
+County Council, and in recommending milder
+restrictions Mr. Jones says: "A set of by-laws
+should not err upon the side of overstringency,
+nor should they be in advance of public opinion;
+the first, because taking a step more or less in
+the dark might cause hardships impossible to
+avoid, and the second, because any by-laws of
+this sort, being most difficult of enforcement,
+will certainly be evaded unless backed up by
+the weight of public opinion."<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167" href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p>
+
+<p>The County Council, however, did not follow
+Mr. Jones's recommendations in their entirety,
+but adopted a more stringent set of by-laws
+which were put in force in October, 1906.
+In December, 1909, the County Council again
+amended the by-laws, and an inquiry relative to
+these changes was held by Mr. Stanley Owen
+Buckmaster in October, 1910. Mr. Buckmaster<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+recommended a number of changes of minor
+importance which were adopted by the Council,
+and accordingly the new by-laws were adopted
+and took effect on June 3, 1911. This set of
+by-laws will be found in the Appendix, page <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.
+The most significant feature which they present
+is the raising of the age limit for boys to fourteen
+years and for girls to sixteen years without
+exemption. The old by-laws prohibited street
+trading by children under sixteen years between
+the hours of 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, and this provision
+was retained in the new by-laws, applying, however,
+only to boys, inasmuch as girls under that
+age are prohibited from trading in the streets
+at any time. These London by-laws on street
+trading are identical with the provisions of the
+most advanced American child labor laws on
+factory employment, and consequently they
+blaze the way for the application of these provisions
+in the United States to street trading as
+well as to employment in factories, mills and
+mines.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Manchester</h3>
+
+<p>Although the British departmental committee
+of 1910 was not favorably impressed by the
+results of regulation as a cure for the evils of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+street trading, nevertheless it gave due credit
+to the city of Manchester for what had been
+accomplished there under the license system.
+Referring to this city, the report says: "In
+Manchester such good results as can be arrived
+at by the method of regulation were, perhaps,
+more apparent than anywhere else. In that
+city the entire evidence testified to the fact that
+the regulation of street trading is very highly
+organized; a special staff of selected, plain-clothes
+officers, giving their whole time to the
+work, knowing the traders personally, visiting
+the homes, advising the parents, clothing the
+children and apparently exerting a most beneficial
+influence. All that can be done through
+the instrument of regulation seems to be done
+there, the various authorities working together
+to that end."<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168" href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p>
+
+<p>An English writer says that regulation in
+Manchester "has greatly improved the conditions
+of the newspaper boys and others who earned
+their living by hawking goods in the streets.
+It is something to the good at any rate that a
+boy should be compelled to be decently dressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+and so avoid the obvious temptation of appealing
+to the sympathies of the public by the
+picturesque raggedness of his clothing. At the
+same time one cannot help feeling that halfway
+legislation of this sort is only playing with the
+problem and that the only really satisfactory
+law would be one which prohibited street trading
+by children altogether."<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169" href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">New South Wales</h3>
+
+<p>The British Colony of New South Wales has
+adopted some mild restrictions under the Employment
+of Children Act, 1903, and the president
+of the State Children Relief Board for New
+South Wales states in his report for the year
+ending April 5, 1910, that "the Board is not
+favorably impressed with the principle of street
+trading by juveniles, realizing that even under
+the most careful administration children, when
+once licensed to engage in street trading, are
+exposed to great temptations."</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Canada</h3>
+
+<p>The province of Manitoba, Canada, forbids
+children under twelve years from trading in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+streets at any time; licenses are issued to boys
+twelve to sixteen years old, who are not allowed
+to sell after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Some boys have been denied
+licenses because of their poor school record,
+others because of lack of proof as to age, others
+on account of not being physically qualified,
+and still others because there was no need
+for their earning money in this way. The
+licensed boys are kept under supervision; their
+attendance at school is watched; and if they
+persist in selling after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> or disobey instructions,
+their licenses are revoked.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170" href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Germany</h3>
+
+<p>The Industrial Code of Germany prohibits
+children under fourteen years from offering
+goods for sale on public roads, streets or places,
+and peddling them from house to house. In
+localities in which such sale or peddling is
+customary, the local police authorities may
+permit it for certain periods of time not exceeding
+a total of four weeks in any calendar year.
+"Under this provision there was considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+street trading, especially in the larger cities.
+In Berlin, for instance, during the weeks preceding
+Christmas, numerous children under fourteen
+were thus employed. Protests against the
+practice were made by the Consumers' League
+and similar organizations, and resulted in the
+passage of a police regulation, for its restriction;
+and in 1909 a further step was taken by providing
+that no exceptions of this sort be thereafter
+permitted, so that now the employment of
+children under fourteen years of age in street
+trading is absolutely forbidden in Berlin."<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171" href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Industrial Code forbids children under
+twelve years to deliver goods or perform other
+errands except for their own parents. Children
+over twelve years may so engage for not more
+than three hours daily between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>,
+but not before morning school nor during the
+noon recess nor until one hour after school has
+closed in the afternoon; on Sundays and holidays
+such children may do this work only for
+two hours between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 1 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, but not
+during the principal church service or the
+half hour preceding it. Such children must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+first obtain the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Arbeitskarte</i></span> from the local police
+authority, which is issued upon request of the
+child's legal representative. Employers must
+notify the police authority in advance of the
+employment of such children.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">France</h3>
+
+<p>The labor of children in France is regulated
+by the law of November 2, 1892, as amended
+by the act of March 30, 1900. This law
+applies to factories, workshops, mines and
+quarries, exempting home industries, agricultural
+work and purely mercantile establishments.<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172" href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a>
+The work of children in city streets is not
+even mentioned. New legislation has recently
+been proposed to regulate the employment of
+minors under 18 years of age and of women in
+the sale of merchandise from stands and tables
+on sidewalks outside of bazaars and large stores.
+According to its provisions, the work of such
+persons would be prohibited for more than two
+hours at a time and for more than six hours a
+day, while seats and heating facilities would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+have to be supplied the same as for employees
+inside the large establishments.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173" href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Paris, newspapers are sold almost exclusively
+at kiosks on street corners, presided over
+by middle-aged women.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CONCLUSION" id="CONCLUSION"></a>CONCLUSION</h2>
+
+
+<p>Many years ago Macaulay declared, "Intense
+labor, beginning too early in life, continued too
+long every day, stunting the growth of the mind,
+leaving no time for healthful exercise, no time
+for intellectual culture, must impair all those
+high qualities that have made our country great.
+Your overworked boys will become a feeble and
+ignoble race of men, the parents of a more feeble
+progeny; nor will it be long before the deterioration
+of the laborer will injuriously affect those
+very interests to which his physical and moral
+interests have been sacrificed. If ever we are
+forced to yield the foremost place among commercial
+nations, we shall yield it to some people
+preëminently vigorous in body and in mind."
+To-day these words seem to us a veritable prophecy&mdash;but
+we must not forget that they apply
+to America no less than to England. If our
+civilization is to continue and to improve with
+time, every child must have a proper opportunity
+to grow under conditions as nearly normal as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+possible; we must secure to the children their
+birthright&mdash;the right to play and to dream, the
+right to healthful sleep, the right to education
+and training, the right to grow into manhood
+and into womanhood with cleanness and
+strength both of body and of mind, the right of
+a chance to become useful citizens of the future.
+Eternal vigilance is the price of protection for
+childhood, and while "Women and children first"
+is a rigid law of the sea, "Children first" is
+the fundamental law both of Nature and civilization.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</a></h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Wisconsin Statutes, Section 1728 p., Laws of 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment
+of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Minutes
+of Evidence, Q. 71. Cf. also Great Britain&mdash;Employment
+of Children Act, 1903, Section 13.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>The Newsboy</i>, Pittsburgh, April, 1909.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Great Britain&mdash;Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, pp. 18, 19.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia,"
+<i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> "The Child in the City," Handbook of Chicago Child
+Welfare Exhibit, 1911, p. 25.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> "A Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City
+Streets," a folder issued by Chicago Board of Education and
+a committee representing local organizations, 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee, p. 8.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
+Work," 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>The Survey</i>, April 22, 1911, p. 138.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England)," edited by
+E. J. Urwick, 1904, p. 296.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment
+of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, Vol. II, Population,
+Part II, p. 506.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, Special Reports,
+Occupations, 1904, pp. xxiv, cxxxiii.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. xxiii, cxxxiii.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, 1900, Vol. VII, p. cxxv.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Instructions to Enumerators, Thirteenth Census of
+the United States, pp. 32-34.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> These tables were copied from charts displayed at the
+Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, May, 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> "The Child in the City," Handbook of the Child Welfare
+Exhibit, Chicago, May 11-25, 1911, p. 25.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 25.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission
+of Chicago, 1911, pp. 241-242.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
+Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+representing local organizations, 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
+Work," 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the
+Greek Padrone System in the United States, 1911, p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> A more detailed presentation of this matter will be found
+in <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapter IV</a>.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Immigration Commission's Report, p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House
+of Commons Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 17.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28" href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 21.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29" href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 17.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30" href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House
+of Commons Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 25.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31" href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 8.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32" href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33" href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 10.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34" href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 18.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35" href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36" href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, p. 178.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37" href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Report of President of State Children Relief Board of
+New South Wales for year ending April 5, 1910, pp. 39-40.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38" href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Vierteljahrshefte des Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amts</span>,
+1900, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Heft</span> III, p. 97. See also Great Britain, Report of
+Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of School
+Children, 1901, App. 3, p. 294.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39" href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 84.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40" href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 56.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41" href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 63.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42" href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 65.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43" href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>The Hustler</i>, organ of Boston Newsboys' Club, February,
+1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44" href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Report of the Newsboys' Home Association of Washington,
+D.C., 1863-1864, p. 7.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45" href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys
+Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by E. T. Campagnac
+and C. E. B. Russell; Great Britain, Report of
+Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of School
+Children, 1901, App. 45, pp. 456-457.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46" href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Handbook of New York Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911,
+p. 33.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47" href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," <i>The Newsboy</i>, leaflet of New
+York Child Labor Committee, 1907.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48" href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Report of Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington,
+D.C., 1889, p. 10.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49" href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys
+Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac
+and Russell, 1901.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50" href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Child Labor at the National Capital, an address delivered
+in Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of National
+Child Labor Committee.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51" href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Mary E. McDowell, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor
+Committee, pp. 6-7.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52" href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago" by the Vice Commission of
+Chicago, 1911, p. 242.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53" href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Miss Todd, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee,
+p. 12.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54" href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> National Child Labor Committee, Pamphlet 114, p. 12.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55" href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken Before
+Departmental Committee on Employment of Children Act,
+1903, 1910, Q. 9724.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56" href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 46.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57" href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58" href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 12.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59" href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," <i>The Newsboy</i>, leaflet of
+New York Child Labor Committee, 1907.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60" href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> "Children in American Street Trades," 1905, Pamphlet 14
+of National Child Labor Committee.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61" href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> <i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62" href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 23.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63" href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken before Departmental
+Committee on Employment of Children Act,
+1903, 1910, Q. 1837 <i>et seq.</i>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64" href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65" href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> George A. Hall, "The Newsboy," in Proceedings of
+Seventh Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
+1911, p. 102.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66" href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> School Document, No. 14, 1910, Boston Public Schools,
+pp. 42-44.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67" href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Report of New York-New Jersey Committee of the
+North American Civic League for Immigrants, December,
+1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68" href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the
+Greek Padrone System in United States, 1911, p. 10.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69" href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Abstract of Report on Greek Padrone System in United
+States, by Immigration Commission, 1911, p. 22.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70" href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> <i>Survey</i>, Vol. XXVI, p. 591.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71" href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> School Document, No. 10, 1910, Boston Public Schools,
+p. 133.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72" href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of
+Chicago, 1911, p. 242.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73" href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> "Child Labor at the National Capital," an address delivered
+in Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of
+National Child Labor Committee.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74" href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission
+of Chicago, 1911, p. 244.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75" href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Bulletin 69 of Bureau of Census, "Child Labor in the
+United States," 1907, p. 170.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76" href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," p. 179.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77" href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 10,440.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78" href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy
+Life in Our Cities," edited by E. J. Urwick (England), 1904,
+p. 121.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79" href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities" (England),
+1904, p. 305.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80" href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 15.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81" href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Victor S. Clark, "Women and Child Wage Earners in
+Great Britain," Bulletin 80, United States Bureau of Labor,
+p. 28.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82" href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> "Newsboy Life&mdash;What Superintendents of Reformatories
+and Others think about its Effects," Leaflet No. 32 of National
+Child Labor Committee, 1910.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83" href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> "Buffalo Child Labor Problems," folder issued by New
+York Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 3.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84" href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
+Work," 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85" href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia,"
+<i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86" href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> John Spargo, "Bitter Cry of the Children," 1906, p. 184.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87" href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> James L. Fieser, "Causes of Truancy," Indiana Bulletin
+of Charities and Correction, June, 1910, p. 227.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88" href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile
+Court," Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee, 1909.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89" href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910,
+p. 12.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90" href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Mrs. Louise B. More, "Wage-Earners' Budgets," 1907,
+p. 148.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91" href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy
+Life in Our Cities (England)," edited by E. J. Urwick, 1904,
+p. 131.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92" href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 135.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93" href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities," 1904,
+p. 307.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94" href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 309.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95" href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, pp.
+179-180.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96" href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Constance Smith, Report on the Employment of Children
+in the United Kingdom, 1909, p. 11.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97" href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Margaret Alden, M.D., "Child Life and Labour," 1908,
+p. 118.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98" href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. I, paragraph 68.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99" href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Vol. II, Q. 2453.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100" href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Vol. II, Q. 2479.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101" href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence taken before Departmental
+Committee on Employment of Children Act,
+1903, 1910, Q. 9503 <i>et seq.</i>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102" href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 39, p. 418.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103" href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Copied from Charts in Child Labor Exhibit at National
+Conference of Charities and Correction, St. Louis, May, 1910.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104" href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 11.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105" href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, p. 12.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106" href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
+Work," 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107" href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," leaflet of New York Child
+Labor Committee, <i>The Newsboy</i>, 1907.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108" href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys
+Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac
+and Russell, 1901.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109" href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment
+of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Q. 3862.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110" href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Report of the Board of Education of the Toledo City
+School District, 1910-1911, p. 141.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111" href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112" href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 39.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113" href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 42.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114" href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 44.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115" href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 59.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116" href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 62.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117" href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 69.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118" href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 71.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119" href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 73.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120" href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 84.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121" href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 86.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122" href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 87.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123" href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 90.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124" href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 91.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125" href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 92.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126" href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 105.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127" href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> Includes 17 in bowling alleys and pool rooms and 23 in
+theaters and other places of amusement.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128" href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Includes 2 in boarding houses, 26 home workers (precise
+character of work not specified), 10 in restaurants, and 12 in
+private families.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129" href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Includes 26 bootblacks and 320 newsboys.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130" href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 106.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131" href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. 106-107.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132" href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 108.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133" href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. 116-117.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134" href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 134.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135" href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> Davis Wasgatt Clark, "American Child and Moloch of
+To-day," 1907, p. 40.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136" href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> George B. Mangold, "Child Problems," 1910, p. 232.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137" href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile
+Court," Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee,
+1909.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138" href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child
+Wage Earners in the United States, 1911, p. 22.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139" href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England),"
+1904, p. 304.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140" href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Bulletin 81, United States Bureau of Labor, p. 416.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141" href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+the Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910,
+p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142" href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
+Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+representing local organizations, 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143" href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Report on Bylaws made by London County Council
+under Employment of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones,
+1906, pp. 24-27.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144" href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 33, p. 403.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145" href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment
+of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146" href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> "Street Trades," in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting
+of National Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 108.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147" href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools,
+pp. 34-35.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148" href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Committee on Work and Wages, Handbook of New
+York Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911, p. 33.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149" href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools,
+p. 36.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150" href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House
+of Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, p. 14.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151" href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House
+of Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, pp. 26-27.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152" href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153" href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, pp. 20-21.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154" href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 24.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155" href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156" href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Q. 1123.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157" href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, Q. 7203.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158" href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on the Employment of Children during School Age in Ireland,
+1902, p. 6.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159" href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> Great Britain, Return of Local Authorities which have
+made By-laws under the Employment of Children Act,
+1903, 1907.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160" href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 7.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161" href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 11.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162" href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163" href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 12757-12759.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164" href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 37, pp. 415-416.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165" href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Report on the By-laws made by the London County
+Council under the Employment of Children Act, 1903, by
+Chester Jones, 1906, p. 5.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166" href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167" href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 15.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168" href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169" href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of
+Boy Life in our Cities," 1904, p. 131.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170" href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> "Citizens in the Making," Annual Report of Superintendent
+of Neglected Children for Province of Manitoba,
+Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171" href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> C. W. A. Veditz, "Child Labor Legislation in Europe," in
+Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 242.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172" href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Henry Ferrette, "<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Manuel de législation industrielle</span>,"
+1909, p. 149.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173" href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 14th Year, No.
+106, p. 566.
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></h2>
+
+
+<h3>BOOKS</h3>
+
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+<span class="smcap">Adams, Myron E.</span>, <i>Children in American Street
+Trades</i>, in Proceedings of First Annual Meeting
+of National Child Labor Committee, 1905, pp.
+25-46.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; <i>Municipal Regulations of Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings
+of National Conference of Charities and
+Correction, 1904, Vol. XXXI, pp. 294-300.
+</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Alden, Margaret</span>, <i>Child Life and Labour</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Britton, James A.</span>, <i>Child Labor and the Juvenile
+Court</i>, in Proceedings of Fifth Annual Meeting of
+National Child Labor Committee, 1909, p. 111.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Brown, Emma E.</span>, <i>Child Toilers of Boston Streets</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Buffalo Child Labor Problems</i>, folder issued by
+New York Child Labor Committee, 1911.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Campagnac and Russell</span>, <i>Education, Earnings and
+Social Condition of Boys Engaged in Street
+Trading in Manchester</i>, Board of Education
+Special Reports on Educational Subjects, 1902,
+Vol. VIII, pp. 653-670.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor in Germany Outside of Factories</i>, in
+Report of United States Commissioner of Education,
+1900-1901, Vol. I, pp. 54-80.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor on the Street&mdash;The Newsboy</i>, leaflet
+of New York Child Labor Committee, 1907.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor in the United States</i>, Bulletin 69 of
+Bureau of Census, 1907.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clark, Davis W.</span>, <i>American Child and Moloch of
+To-day</i>, 1907, p. 40.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clark, Victor S.</span>, <i>Woman and Child Wage Earners
+in Great Britain</i>, in Bulletin 80 of United States
+Bureau of Labor, January, 1909.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Cloete, J. G.</span>, <i>The Boy and his Work</i>, in <i>Studies of
+Boy Life in Our Cities</i>, edited by E. J. Urwick,
+1904, pp. 129-133.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clopper, Edward N.</span>, <i>Children on the Streets of
+Cincinnati</i>, in Proceedings of Fourth Annual
+Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
+1908, pp. 113-123.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; <i>Child Labor in Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings of
+Sixth Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
+Committee, 1910, pp. 137-144.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Conant, Richard K.</span>, <i>Street Trades and Reformatories</i>,
+in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting
+of National Child Labor Committee, 1911,
+pp. 105-107.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Employment of Children Act</i>, 1903, Great Britain,
+in J. N. Larned's <i>History for Ready Reference</i>,
+1910, Vol. VII, p. 87.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Davis, Philip</span>, <i>Child Life on the Street</i>, National
+Conference of Charities and Correction, 1909.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Fieser, James L.</span>, <i>Causes of Truancy</i>, in Indiana
+Bulletin of Charities and Correction, June,
+1910, p. 227.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Fleisher, Alexander</span>, <i>The Newsboys of Milwaukee</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>in Fifteenth Biennial Report, Part III, of Wisconsin
+Bureau of Labor, 1911-1912, pp. 61-96.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Gibbs, S. P.</span>, <i>Problem of Boy Work</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Great Britain</span>, Elementary Schools (Children Working
+for Wages), Parliament Sessional Papers
+1899, Vol. 75.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+Employment of School Children, 1901.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+Employment of Children during School Age in
+Ireland, 1902.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 2453-2479,
+10,440, 12,757.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Partial
+Exemption from School Attendance.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Departmental Committee on Employment
+of Children Act, 1903, 1910.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report on By-laws made by London County
+Council under Employment of Children Act,
+1903, by Chester Jones, 1906.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Education Committee of London
+County Council, March 21, 1911, pp. 690-696.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Report of President of State Children Relief Board
+of New South Wales for year ending April 5,
+1910, pp. 39-40.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Citizens in the Making, Annual Report of Superintendent
+of Neglected Children for Province
+of Manitoba, Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Greek Padrone System in United States</i>, Abstract
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>of Immigration Commission's Report on,
+1911.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Gunckel, J. E.</span>, <i>Boyville</i>, 1905.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Hall, George A.</span>, <i>The Newsboy</i>, in Proceedings of
+Seventh Annual Meeting of National Child
+Labor Committee, 1911, pp. 100-102.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Henderson, Charles R.</span>, <i>Street Trading of Children</i>,
+in his <i>Preventive Agencies and Methods</i>, 1910,
+Vol. III, pp. 97-100.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment</i>,
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of
+Woman and Child Wage Earners in United
+States, Senate Document 645, 61st Congress, 2d
+Session.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Kelley, Florence</span>, <i>Children in Street Trades</i> and
+<i>Telegraph and Messenger Boys</i>, in her <i>Some
+Ethical Gains through Legislation</i>, 1905, pp.
+11-26.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; <i>Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings of Seventh Annual
+Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
+1911, pp. 108-110.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Mangold, George B.</span>, <i>Child Problems</i>, 1910, p. 232.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Neill, Charles P.</span>, <i>Child Labor at the National
+Capital</i>, in Proceedings of Second Annual Meeting
+of National Child Labor Committee, 1905,
+pp. 17-20.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>New York Child Welfare Exhibit, Handbook of</i>,
+1911, p. 33.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboys' Home Association of Washington, D.C.,
+Report of</i>, 1863-1864.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboy Law</i>, in Handbook of Child Labor Legislation,
+1908, National Consumers' League,
+p. 63.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington,
+D.C.</i>, 1889.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboy Life&mdash;What Superintendents of Reformatories
+and Others Think about its Effects</i>, Leaflet
+32 of National Child Labor Committee, 1910.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">North American Civic League for Immigrants,
+Report of New York-New Jersey Committee,
+December, 1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Peacock, Robert</span>, <i>Employment of Children with
+Special Reference to Street Trading</i>, in Proceedings
+of Third International Congress for Welfare
+and Protection of Children, 1902, pp. 191-202.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City
+Streets</i>, a folder issued by Chicago Board of
+Education and a committee representing local
+organizations, 1911.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Problems of Street Trading</i>, in Proceedings of Fifth
+Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
+1909, pp. 230-240.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Saving the Barren Years</i>, in The Child in the
+City, Handbook of Chicago Child Welfare
+Exhibit, 1911, pp. 25-27.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 14, 1910, Boston Public
+Schools, pp. 41-44.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 10, 1910, Boston Public
+Schools, pp. 132-138.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public
+Schools, pp. 34-37.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Scott, Leroy</span>, <i>The Voice of the Street</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Sherard, Robert H.</span>, <i>Child Slaves of Britain</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Smith, Constance</span>, <i>Report on Employment of Children
+in United Kingdom</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>The Social Evil in Chicago</i>, Report of Chicago Vice
+Commission, 1911, pp. 241-245.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Spargo, John</span>, <i>Street Trades</i> in his <i>Bitter Cry of the
+Children</i>, 1906, pp. 184-188, 258-259.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Stelzle, Charles</span>, <i>The Boy of the Street</i>, New York,
+1904, pp. 7, 41.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Urwick, E. J.</span>, editor of <i>Studies of Boy Life in Our
+Cities</i> (England), 1904.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Veditz, C. W. A.</span>, <i>Child Labor Legislation in Europe</i>,
+Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor,
+July, 1910.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Watson, Elizabeth C.</span>, <i>New York Newsboys and
+their Work</i>, 1911.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Whitin, E. S.</span>, <i>Child Labor: Street Trades</i>, in his
+<i>Factory Legislation in Maine</i>, 1908, pp. 137-138.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Williams, M.</span>, <i>The Street Boy: Who He is and
+What to do with Him</i>, National Conference of
+Charities and Correction, 1903.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Williamson, E. E.</span>, <i>The Street Arab</i>, in Proceedings
+of National Conference of Charities and Correction,
+1898, Vol. XXV, pp. 358-361.</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h3>MAGAZINE ARTICLES</h3>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Child Labor, by Florence Kelley, <i>Twentieth Century</i>,
+1911, Vol. V, pp. 30-34.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Child Laborers of the Street&mdash;The New York
+Bills, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp.
+205-206.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Child Labor and the Night Messenger Service, by
+Owen R. Lovejoy, <i>The Survey</i>, Vol. XXIV, pp.
+311-317.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Child Street Trades in London, <i>Charities and Commons</i>,
+1903, Vol. X, pp. 149-150.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Children as Wage Earners&mdash;Street Sellers, <i>Fortnightly
+Review</i>, 1903, Vol. LXXIX, pp. 921-922.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Committee on Wage-earning Children&mdash;Third
+Annual Report, <i>Economic Review</i>, 1904, Vol.
+XIV, pp. 208-211.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Convalescent Men for Newsboys, <i>The Survey</i>, 1910,
+Vol. XXV, p. 809.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Enforcing the Newsboy Law in New York and
+Newark, by J. K. Paulding, <i>Charities and Commons</i>,
+1905, Vol. XIV, pp. 836-837.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Ethics of the Newsboy, by A. Saxby, <i>Western</i>,
+Vol. CLVIII, pp. 575-578.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Greek Bootblack, by Leola Benedict Terhune,
+<i>The Survey</i>, 1911, Vol. XXVI, pp. 852-854.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Greek Boy Who Shines Shoes, <i>The Survey</i>, 1911,
+Vol. XXVI, p. 591.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Hartford Regulates Child Street Trades, <i>The Survey</i>,
+1910, Vol. XXV, p. 511.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Industrial Democracy: A Newsboys' Labor Union
+and What It Thinks of a College Education,
+by R. W. Bruère, <i>Outlook</i>, 1906, Vol. LXXXIV,
+pp. 878-883.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">John E. Gunckel of Toledo: the Newsboys' Evangelist,
+by A. E. Winship, <i>World To-day</i>, 1908,
+Vol. XV, pp. 1169-1173.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">De Kid Wot Works at Night, by William Hard,
+<i>Everybody's</i>, 1908, Vol. XVIII, pp. 25-37.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Milwaukee Regulates Its Street Trades&mdash;Other
+Wisconsin Child Labor Advances, <i>Survey</i>, 1909,
+Vol. XXII, p. 589.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">New Jersey Children in Street Trades by E. B.
+Butler, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol. XVII,
+pp. 1062-1064.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">New Rules for Street Trades in Boston, with a
+Comparison of Regulations in Liverpool, <i>Charities
+and Commons</i>, 1909, Vol. XXI, pp. 953-954.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">New York's Newsboy Lodging House, <i>Charities and
+Commons</i>, 1908, Vol. XXI, pp. 147-148.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">New York's Newsboys Licensed, <i>Charities and Commons</i>,
+1903, Vol. XI, pp. 188-189.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia, by Scott
+Nearing, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol.
+XVII, pp. 778-784.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Newsboy Breadwinner Story, <i>Charities and
+Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. XI, pp. 482, 568.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Newsboy Wanderers are Tramps in the Making, by
+Ernest Poole, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903,
+Vol. X, pp. 160-162.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Newsboys Elect Their Own Judge, <i>Survey</i>, 1910, Vol.
+XXV, p. 312.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Night Messenger Service, by Owen R. Lovejoy,
+<i>Survey</i>, Vol. XXV, p. 504.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Press and its Newsboys, by John Ihlder,
+<i>World To-day</i>, 1907, Vol. XIII, pp. 737-739.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Sale of Goods on Sidewalks (in France), Daily Consular
+and Trade Reports, 14th Year, No. 106, p. 566.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">School Children as Wage Earners, by E. F. Hogg,
+<i>Nineteenth Century</i>, 1897, Vol. XLII, pp. 235-244.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">School Children as Wage Earners&mdash;Street Trading
+in Liverpool, by J. E. Gorst, <i>Nineteenth Century</i>,
+1899, Vol. XLVI, p. 16.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Street Children, by Benjamin Waugh, <i>Contemporary
+Review</i>, 1888, Vol. LIII, pp. 825-835.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Street Labor and Juvenile Delinquency, by Josephine
+C. Goldmark, <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, 1904,
+Vol. XIX, pp. 417-438.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Street Trades and Delinquency, <i>Survey</i>, 1911, Vol.
+XXVI, p. 285.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Street-trading Children of Liverpool, by
+Thomas Burke, <i>Contemporary Review</i>, 1900, Vol.
+LXXVIII, pp. 720-726.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Street Trading by Children (Bradford, England),
+Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 14th Year,
+No. 89, p. 246.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Two O'clock Sunday Morning, by Scott Nearing,
+<i>The Independent</i>, 1912, Vol. LXXII, No. 3297,
+pp. 288-289.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">A Western Newspaper and its Newsboys, by W. B.
+Forbush, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol.
+XIX, pp. 798-802.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Waifs of the Street, by Ernest Poole, <i>McClure's</i>,
+Vol. XXI, pp. 40-48.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">What Boston Has Done in Regulating the Street
+Trades for Children, by Pauline Goldmark,
+<i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 159-160.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">What of the Newsboy of the Second Cities? Investigations
+carried on in Buffalo, <i>Charities and
+Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 368-371.</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES">APPENDICES</a></h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p>
+<h3>APPENDIX A <br />
+
+LAWS</h3>
+
+<p>The law of Wisconsin relative to street trading,
+as amended in 1911, is given below in its entirety,
+because it is the most advanced law of its kind in
+the United States.</p>
+
+
+<h4 class="italic">Wisconsin</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 p. The term "street trade," as
+used in this act, shall mean any business or occupation
+in which any street, alley, court, square or
+other public place is used for the sale, display or
+offering for sale of any articles, goods or merchandise.
+No boy under the age of twelve years, and
+no girl under the age of eighteen years, shall in any
+city of the first class distribute, sell or expose or
+offer for sale newspapers, magazines or periodicals
+in any street or public place.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 q. No boy under fourteen years of
+age, shall, in any city of the first class, work at any
+time, or be employed or permitted to work at any
+time, as a bootblack or in any other street trade,
+or shall sell or offer any goods or merchandise for
+sale or distribute hand bills or circulars or any
+other articles, except newspapers, magazines or
+periodicals as hereinafter provided.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 r. No girl under eighteen years of
+age shall, in any city of the first class, work at any
+time, or be employed or permitted to work at any
+time, as a bootblack or at any other street trades or in
+the sale or distribution of hand bills or circulars or
+any other articles upon the street or from house to
+house.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 s. No boy under sixteen years of
+age shall, in any city of the first class, distribute,
+sell or expose or offer for sale any newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals in any street or public
+place or work as a bootblack, or in any other street
+or public trade or sell or offer for sale or distribute
+any hand bills or other articles, unless he complies
+with all the legal requirements concerning school
+attendance, and unless a permit and badge, as
+hereinafter provided, shall have been issued to him
+by the state factory inspector. No such permit
+and badge shall be issued until the officer issuing
+the same shall have received an application in
+writing therefor, signed by the parent or guardian
+or other person having the custody of the child,
+desiring such permit and badge, and until such
+officer shall have received, examined and placed on
+file the written statement of the principal or chief
+executive officer of the public, private or parochial
+school, which the said child is attending, stating
+that such child is an attendant at such school with
+the grade such child shall have attained, and provided
+that no such permit and badge shall be issued,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+unless such officer issuing it is satisfied that such
+child is mentally and physically able to do such
+work besides his regular school work as required
+by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 t. Before any such permit is issued,
+the state factory inspector shall demand and be
+furnished with proof of such child's age by the production
+of a verified baptismal certificate or a duly
+attested birth certificate, or, in case such certificates
+cannot be secured, by the record of age stated in
+the first school enrollment of such child. Whenever
+it appears that a permit was obtained by wrong
+or false statements as to any child's age, the officer
+who granted such permit shall forthwith revoke the
+same. After having received, examined and placed
+on file such papers, the officer shall issue to the
+child a permit and badge. The principal or chief
+executive officer of schools, in which children under
+fourteen years of age are pupils, shall keep a complete
+list of all children in their school to whom a
+permit and badge has been issued, as herein provided.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 u. Such permit shall state the place
+and date of birth of the child, the name and address
+of its parents, guardian, custodian or next friend,
+as the case may be, and describe the color of hair
+and eyes, the height and weight and any distinguishing
+facial marks of such child, and shall further
+state that the papers required by the preceding
+section have been duly examined and filed; and
+that the child named in such permit has appeared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+before the officer issuing the permit. The badge
+furnished by the officer issuing the permit shall
+bear on its face a number corresponding to the
+number of the permit, and the name of the child.
+Every such permit, and every such badge on its
+reverse side, shall be signed in the presence of the
+officer issuing the same by the child in whose name
+it is issued. Provided, that in case of carrier boys
+working on salary for newspaper publishers delivering
+papers, a card of identification shall be issued
+to such carriers by the factory inspector, which
+they shall carry on their person, and exhibit to any
+officer authorized under this act, who may accost
+them for a disclosure of their right to serve as such
+carriers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 v. The badge provided for herein
+shall be such as the state factory inspector shall
+designate, and shall be worn conspicuously in sight
+at all times in such position as may be designated
+by the said factory inspector by such child while
+so working. No child to whom such permit and
+badge or identification card are issued shall transfer
+the same to any other person.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 w. No boy under fourteen years of
+age shall, in any city of the first class, sell, expose
+or offer for sale any newspapers, magazines or
+periodicals after the hour of six-thirty o'clock in the
+evening, between the first day of October and the
+first day of April, nor after seven-thirty o'clock in
+the evening between the first day of April and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+first day of October, or before five o'clock in the
+morning; and no child under sixteen years of age
+shall distribute, sell, expose or offer for sale any
+newspapers, magazines or periodicals or shall work
+as a bootblack or in any street or public trades or
+distribute hand bills or shall be employed or permitted
+to work in the distribution or sale or exposing
+or offering for sale of any newspapers, magazines
+or periodicals or as a bootblack or in other street
+or public trades or in the distribution of hand bills
+during the hours when the public schools of the
+city where such child shall reside are in session.
+Provided, that any boy between the ages of fourteen
+and sixteen years, who is complying and shall
+continue to comply with all the legal requirements
+concerning school attendance, and who is mentally
+and physically able to do such delivery besides his
+regular school work, shall be authorized to deliver
+newspapers between the hours of four and six in the
+morning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 x. The commissioner of labor or
+any factory inspector acting under his direction
+shall enforce the provisions of this law, and he is
+hereby vested with all powers requisite therefor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 y. The permit of any child, who
+in any city of the first class distributes, sells or
+offers for sale any newspapers, magazines or periodicals
+in any street or public place or works as a
+bootblack or in any other street trade, or sells or
+offers for sale or distributes any hand bills or other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+articles in violation of the provisions of this act, or
+who becomes delinquent or fails to comply with all
+the legal requirements concerning school attendances
+shall forthwith be revoked for a period of six
+months and his badge taken from said child. The
+refusal of any child to surrender such permit, and
+the distribution, sale or offering for sale of newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals or any goods or
+merchandise, or the working by such child as a
+bootblack or in any other street or public trade, or
+in distributing hand bills or other articles, after
+notice, by any officer authorized to grant permits
+under this law of the revocation of such permit and
+a demand for the return of the badge, shall be
+deemed a violation of this act. The permit of said
+child may also be revoked by the officer who issued
+such permit, and the badge taken from such child,
+upon the complaint of any police officer or other
+attendance officer or probation officer of a juvenile
+court, and such child shall surrender his permit
+and badge upon the demand of any police officer,
+truancy or other attendance officer or probation
+officer of a juvenile court or other officer charged
+with the duty of enforcing this act. In case of a
+second violation of this act by any child, he shall be
+brought before the juvenile court, if there shall be
+any juvenile court in the city where such child
+resides, or, if not, before any court or magistrate
+having jurisdiction of offenses committed by minors
+and be dealt with according to law.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 z. Any parent or other person who
+employs a minor under the age of sixteen years in
+peddling without a license or who, having the care
+or custody of such minor, suffers or permits the
+child to engage in such employment, or to violate
+sections 1728 p to 1728 za, inclusive, shall be punished
+by a fine not to exceed one hundred dollars nor less
+than twenty-five dollars, or by commitment to the
+county jail for not more than sixty days or less
+than ten days.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 za. Providing that no badge shall
+be issued for a boy selling papers between the ages
+of twelve and sixteen years by the state factory
+inspector, except upon certificate of the principal of
+either public, parochial or other private school
+attended by said boy, stating and setting forth that
+said boy is a regular attendant upon said school.
+No boy under the age of sixteen years shall be permitted
+by any newspaper publisher or printer or
+persons having for sale newspapers or periodicals of
+any character, to loiter or remain around any salesroom,
+assembly room, circulation room or office for
+the sale of newspapers, between the hours of nine
+in the forenoon and three in the afternoon, on days
+when school is in session. Any newspaper publisher,
+printer, circulation agent or seller of newspapers
+shall upon conviction for permitting newsboys to
+loiter or hang around any assembly room, circulation
+room, salesroom or office where papers are
+distributed or sold, shall be punished by a fine not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+to exceed one hundred dollars nor less than twenty-five
+dollars, or by commitment to the county jail
+for not more than sixty days or less than ten days.</p>
+
+
+<h4 class="italic">London, England</h4>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By-laws adopted by the London County Council
+and put in Force on June 3, 1911</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">By-laws 1-9 concern the employment of children
+generally.</p>
+
+<p>10. No girl under the age of 16 years shall be
+employed in or carry on street trading.</p>
+
+<p>11. No boy under the age of 14 years shall be
+employed in or carry on street trading.</p>
+
+<p>12. No boy under the age of 16 years shall be
+employed in or carry on street trading before 6 in
+the morning or after 9 in the evening.</p>
+
+<p>13. No boy under the age of 16 years shall at any
+time be employed in or carry on street trading unless</p>
+
+<p>(1) He is exempt from school attendance, and</p>
+
+<p>(2) He first procures a badge from the London
+County Council, which he shall wear whilst engaged
+in street trading on the upper part of the right arm
+in such a manner as to be conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>The badge shall be deemed to be a license to
+trade, and may be withheld or withdrawn for such
+period as the London County Council think fit in
+any of the following cases&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) If the boy has, after the issue of the badge to
+him, been convicted of any offense.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) If it is proved to the satisfaction of the London
+County Council that the boy has used his
+badge for the purpose of begging or receiving alms,
+or for any immoral purpose, or for the purpose of
+imposition, or for any other improper purpose.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) If the boy fails to notify the London County
+Council within one week of any change in his place
+of residence.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) If the boy commits a breach of any of the
+conditions under which such badge is issued; such
+conditions to be stated on such badge or delivered to
+the boy in writing.</p>
+
+<p>14. A boy to whom a badge has been issued by
+the London County Council shall in no way alter,
+lend, sell, pawn, transfer, or otherwise dispose of,
+or wilfully deface, or injure such badge, which shall
+remain the property of the London County Council,
+and he shall, on receiving notice in writing from the
+London County Council (which may be served by
+post) that the badge has been withdrawn, deliver
+up the same forthwith to the London County
+Council.</p>
+
+<p>15. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged
+in street trading, shall not enter any premises
+used for public entertainment or licensed for the
+sale of intoxicating liquor for consumption on the
+premises for the purpose of trading.</p>
+
+<p>16. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged
+in street trading, shall not annoy any person
+by importuning.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>17. Nothing in these by-laws contained shall restrict
+the employment of children in the occupations
+specified in section 3 (<i>a</i>) of the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Children Act, 1904, further than such
+employment is already restricted by statute.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>APPENDIX B<br />
+
+TWO TYPES OF NEWSBOY BADGES.</h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/fz267_1.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn267_1.jpg" alt="Badge used in Cincinnati." title="Badge used in Cincinnati." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/fz267_2.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn267_2.jpg" alt="Badge used in Boston." title="Badge used in Boston." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>APPENDIX C<br />
+
+CARDS FOR INVESTIGATIONS</h3>
+
+<p>The cards used in the inquiries into the newsboy
+situations of Philadelphia and Milwaukee are reproduced
+here, in the hope that they will be of use
+in furnishing suggestions to any organization or
+individual who contemplates making such an investigation
+elsewhere. It will be observed that
+these cards are practically confined to questions
+affecting newsboys only, and would have to be considerably
+amplified, if intended for use in a general
+study of street work by children.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Cards used by Boston School Committee for Issuance of Licenses</h4>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/fz269.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn269.jpg" alt="Application for a License" title="Application for a License" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a href="images/fz270.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn270.jpg" alt="Card with personal data of license holder and License Rules, to be returned to school for file" title="Card with personal data of license holder and License Rules, to be returned to school for file" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>Form of Application for License used in Hartford, Conn.</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a href="images/fz271.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn271.jpg" alt="Application for a Street-Sales Permit" title="Application for a Street-Sales Permit" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of
+a Badge in Province of Manitoba, Canada.</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a href="images/fz272.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn272.jpg" alt="Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of a Newsboy Badge in Manitoba, Canada" title="Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of a Newsboy Badge in Manitoba, Canada" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Sample of Card used in Investigation of Street Trades in Philadelphia</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/fz273.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn273.jpg" alt="Philadelphia Investigation Card" title="Philadelphia Investigation Card" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Sample of Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee</h4>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a href="images/fz274.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn274.jpg" alt="Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee" title="Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a href="images/fz275.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn275.jpg" alt="Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card" title="Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2>
+
+<ul class="not">
+<li>Addams, Jane, on Illinois child labor law, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Age limit (<i>see</i> Laws and Ordinances), <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Austria, investigation of 1907, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Begging, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berlin regulations, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bootblacks, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+  <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+  <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_194">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+  <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+  <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+  <li>Padrone System, report by Immigration Commission, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.
+     <ul class="not mless">
+     <li>Report by North American Civic League for Immigrants, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+     </ul>
+  </li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+<li>Boston, license statistics, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Boston Newsboys' Court, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boston Newsboys' Republic, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Buffalo conditions, report on, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Canada, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chicago statistics of local studies, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chicago Vice Commission's report, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Chicago, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+ <li>New York, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Cincinnati, license statistics, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Market children, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+ <li>Newsboy conditions, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+ <li class="break">Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+
+<li>Delinquency, relation to street work, report of Dr. Charles P. Neill, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Chicago juvenile court records, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+ <li>Connection between occupation and offense, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+ <li>Records of Indiana Boys' School, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+<li>Delivery Service, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Detroit, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Edinburgh, conditions in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Effects of street work, classified, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>In Buffalo, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+ <li>In physical deterioration, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+ <li>Opinions of superintendents of reformatories, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+<li>Employment distinguished from independent work, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Enforcement of regulations, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Errand running, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li class="break">Delinquency, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li class="break">France, regulations, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Germany, inquiry of 1898, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Girls as newspaper sellers, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Great Britain, Departmental Committee of 1910, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Employment of Children Act, 1903, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+ <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1901, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+ <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1902 on Ireland, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+ <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1904 on Physical Deterioration, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+ <li class="break">Parliamentary return of 1899, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+
+<li>Hartford, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Housing problem's relation to street trading, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Illinois, effort to regulate street trading, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Immigration Commission, report on Padrone System, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Ireland, report of Interdepartmental Committee of 1902, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="break">Kelley, Florence, on street trading, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Laws, table of state, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Licenses for street work required, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li>License statistics, of Boston, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Of Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+ <li>Of New York, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Liverpool, conditions, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>London County Council bylaws, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Lovejoy, Owen R., on messenger service, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Manchester regulations, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Market children, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+ <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+ <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+ <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+ <li>Nationalities, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+ <li>Orphanage, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+ <li>Retardation, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Merchandise, distinction between newspapers and, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Messenger boys, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+ <li>Character of work, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+ <li>Chicago Vice Commission's report, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+ <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+ <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+ <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+ <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+ <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+ <li>Investigation in Ohio Valley, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+ <li>Lack of prospects, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+ <li>Poverty as excuse for work, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+ <li class="break">Use of men instead of boys, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-<a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Nationality of street workers, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>Nearing, Scott, conditions in Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Neill, Charles P., on newsboys' work, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>On messenger service, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+ <li>Report on Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Newark, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li>New York, report of newsboy investigation, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+ <li>Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+<li>Newsboys, ages, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Associations, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+ <li>Character of work, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+ <li>Classified, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+ <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+ <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+ <li>Earnings compared with factory wages, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+ <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+ <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+ <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+ <li>Irregularity of meals, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+ <li>Orphanage, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+ <li>Retardation, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+ <li>Substitutes, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+ <li>Tricks of the trade, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Newsboys' Court of Boston, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newsboys' Republic of Boston, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>New South Wales, license statistics, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Newspapers, as merchandise, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Attitude toward regulation, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Night work, of messengers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li class="break">Of newsboys, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li class="break">Ordinances, table of city, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Padrone System, report, of Immigration Commission, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>North American Civic League for Immigrants, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Peddlers, findings of Chicago Vice Commission, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Cincinnati statistics, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+ <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+ <li>Immigration Commission's report, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Philadelphia conditions, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Playgrounds, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Poverty as an excuse for street work, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prohibition, of night work, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li class="break">Of street work by children, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+
+<li>Regulation, by municipality or state, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Degree of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+ <li>In future, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+ <li>Unsatisfactory, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Retardation in school of street workers, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Rochester, method of enforcement, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>St. Louis statistics, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+<li>School, as social center, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Retardation of street workers, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Scotland, conditions, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spargo, John, on effects of street work, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Statistics, of U.S. Census, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Austria, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+ <li>Boston, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+ <li>Chicago, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+ <li>Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+ <li>Germany, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+ <li>Great Britain, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+ <li>New York, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Street as a social agent, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Street employments, distinction between, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Street occupations, of minor importance, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Classified, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+ <li>Contrasted with regular work, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Street trading defined, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Neglected in legislation, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li class="break">Street trading problem related to other problems, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="break">Toledo, retardation of street workers, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Vagrants, Chicago report on, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Vice Commission of Chicago, report, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Wisconsin, law, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<p class="center">The following pages contain advertisements of a
+few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="bookadintro1">NOTABLE WORKS BY MISS JANE ADDAMS</p>
+
+
+<p class="bookadhead">A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net; by mail, $1.10</i></p>
+
+<p>It is almost unnecessary to call attention to the importance of a new
+book by Jane Addams. As a servant of the public good Miss Addams,
+both through her work at Hull-House and through her writings, has made
+for herself a name all over the world. She does not view things from a
+standpoint of destructive criticism, but rather from that of constructive, her
+aim being always to better the conditions in the particular field which she is
+considering. In "A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil," she considers
+sanely and frankly questions which civilized society has always had confronting
+it and in all probability always will. Something of her attitude of
+mind and of her purpose in writing this book as well as a glimpse of the
+character of the volume may be seen from the following paragraph taken
+from her preface:</p>
+
+<p>"'A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil' was written, not from the
+point of view of the expert, but because of my own need for a counter-knowledge
+to a bewildering mass of information which came to me through
+the Juvenile Protective Association of Chicago. The reports which its
+twenty field officers daily brought to its main office adjoining Hull-House
+became to me a revelation of the dangers incident to city conditions and of
+the allurements which are designedly placed around many young girls in
+order to draw them into an evil life."</p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"Miss Addams's volume is painful reading, but we heartily wish that it
+might be read and pondered by every man and woman who to-day, in smug
+complacency, treat with indifference and contempt the great struggle for
+social purity."&mdash;<i>The Nation.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"As an educational weapon, incalculably valuable. A torch with which
+every thinking citizen should be armed for a crusade against the dark-covered
+evil at which it is aimed."&mdash;<i>The Continent.</i></p>
+
+
+<p  class="bookadhead">The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>12mo, cloth, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p>
+
+<p>A protest against the practice of every large city of
+turning over to commercialism practically all the provisions
+for public recreation, leaving it possible for private greed
+to starve or demoralize the nature of youth.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"Few persons in this country are better qualified to
+speak with authority on any subject connected with the
+betterment of the poor than is Jane Addams."&mdash;<i>New York Herald.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The book should be in the hands of every preacher
+and laborer for humanity. I wish that parents might make
+it a text-book."&mdash;Rev. <span class="smcap">Madison C. Peter</span> in <i>The New
+Orleans Daily News</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"It is brimming full of the mother sentiment of love and
+yearning, and also shows such sanity, such breadth and
+tolerance of mind, and such philosophic penetration into
+the inner meanings of outward phenomena as to make it a
+book which no one who cares seriously about its subject
+can afford to miss."&mdash;<i>New York Times.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="bookadhead">Newer Ideals of Peace</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"A clean and consistent setting forth of the utility of labor as against the
+waste of war, and an exposition of the alteration of standards that must ensue
+when labor and the spirit of militarism are relegated to their right places in
+the minds of men.... Back of it lies illimitable sympathy, immeasurable
+pity, a spirit as free as that of St. Francis, a sense of social order and fitness
+that Marcus Aurelius might have found similar to his own."&mdash;<i>Chicago Tribune.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">The editor of <i>Collier's</i> writes: "To us it seems the most comprehensive
+talk yet given about how to help humanity in America to-day."</p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"It is given to but few people to have the rare combination of power of
+insight and of interpretation possessed by Miss Addams. The present book
+shows the same fresh virile thought, and the happy expression which has
+characterized her work.... There is nothing of namby-pamby sentimentalism
+in Miss Addams's idea of the peace movement. The volume
+is most inspiring and deserves wide recognition."&mdash;<i>Annals of the American Academy.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"No brief summary can do justice to Miss Addams's grasp of the facts,
+her insight into their meaning, her incisive estimate of the strength and
+weakness alike of practical politicians and spasmodic reformers, her sensible
+suggestions as to woman's place in our municipal housekeeping, her buoyant
+yet practical optimism."&mdash;<i>Examiner.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="bookadhead">Democracy and Social Ethics</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Half leather, ix + 281 pages, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The result of actual experience in hand-to-hand contact with social
+problems.... No more truthful description, for example, of the 'boss'
+as he thrives to-day in our great cities has ever been written than is contained
+in Miss Addams's chapter on 'Political Reform.' ... The same
+thing may be said of the book in regard to the presentation of social and
+economic facts."&mdash;<i>Review of Reviews.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The book is startling, stimulating, and intelligent."&mdash;<i>Philadelphia Ledger.</i></p>
+
+
+<p  class="bookadhead">Twenty Years at Hull-House</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Ill., dec. cloth, 8vo, $2.50 net; by mail, $2.68</i></p>
+
+<p>Jane Addams's work at Hull-House is known throughout
+the civilized world. In the present volume she tells
+of her endeavors and of their success&mdash;of the beginning of
+Hull-House, of its growth and its present influence. For
+every one at all interested in the improvement of our cities,
+in the moral education of those who are forced to spend
+much of their time on the streets or in cheap places of
+amusement&mdash;"Twenty Years at Hull-House" is a volume
+of more than ordinary interest and value.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The personality of Jane Addams is one of the finest achievements
+of that idea of democracy, service, and freedom for which
+America means to stand before the world."&mdash;<i>N. Y. Times.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The story of the beginnings of this remarkable undertaking
+(Hull-House), the problems that were faced and conquered in
+the early days, the unsuspected resources that were developed
+among the crowded city population of foreign birth, and the
+efforts continuously made for the betterment of labor legislation
+in the State of Illinois, are all set forth with simplicity and
+directness. On the whole it is a wonderful record of accomplishment,
+full of suggestion to social reformers the world over."&mdash;<i>Review of Reviews.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"Who reads this book lightly misses a great opportunity."&mdash;<i>Bellman.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The story is one of singular interest and has a strange affinity
+with the stories of other great moral and spiritual leaders of
+humanity."&mdash;<i>Bookman.</i></p>
+
+
+<div>
+<div class="bookadhead">On City Government<br /></div>
+<div class="bookadsubt">The American City</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By DELOS F. WILCOX, Ph.D.</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">"In the 'American City' Dr. Wilcox ... has written a book that every
+thoughtful citizen should read. The problems of the street, the tenement,
+public utilities, civic education, the three deadly vices, municipal revenue
+and municipal debt, with all their related and subsidiary problems, are
+clearly and fully considered."&mdash;<i>Pittsburgh Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>6 + 423 pages, 12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net. Citizens' Library</i></p>
+
+
+<div>
+<div class="bookadhead">Great American Cities<br /></div>
+<div class="bookadsubt">Their Problems and Their Government</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By DELOS F. WILCOX, Chief of the Bureau of Franchises, of
+the Public Service Commission for the first District, New York</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">A detailed account of present conditions in the half-dozen largest cities
+of the country, including Chicago.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Half leather, 12mo, $1.25 net</i></p>
+
+
+
+<div>
+<div class="bookadhead">On Industrial Legislation<br /></div>
+<div class="bookadsubt">Some Ethical Gains through Legislation</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By <span class="smcap">Mrs.</span> FLORENCE KELLEY</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">The book has grown out of the author's experience as Chief Inspector of
+Factories in Illinois from 1893 to 1897, as Secretary of the National
+Consumers' League from 1899 till now, and chiefly as a resident at
+Hull-House, and later at the Nurses' Settlement, New York.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, leather back, 341 pages, 12mo, $1.25 net. Citizens' Library</i></p>
+
+<div>
+<div class="bookadhead">On Charitable Effort<br /></div>
+<div class="bookadsubt">How to Help</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY CONYNGTON, of the Department of Commerce and
+Labor, Washington</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">Not only is the professional charity worker often in need of advice as to
+the best methods of investigation, administration, etc., but the non-professional
+worker, with his zeal unrestrained by special training, is even
+more emphatically in need of such guidance as this sound and competent
+book gives.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>New edition, cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="bookadhead">The Development of Thrift</p>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY W. BROWN, Secretary of the Henry Watson Children's
+Aid Society, Baltimore</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">"An excellent little Manual, a study of various agencies, their scope and
+their educating influences for thrift. It abounds in suggestions of
+value."&mdash;<i>Chicago Inter-Ocean.</i></p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p>
+
+
+<p  class="bookadhead">Friendly Visiting among the Poor</p>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY E. RICHMOND, General Secretary of the Charity
+Organization Society of Baltimore</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">"A small book full of inspiration, yet intensely practical."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Charles Richmond Henderson.</span></p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 16mo, $1.00 net</i></p>
+
+<p  class="bookadhead">
+The Care of Destitute, Neglected, and
+Delinquent Children</p>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By HOMER FOLKS, Ex-Commissioner of Public Charities, New
+York City</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2"><span class="smcap">Contents.</span>&mdash;Conditions prevalent at the opening of the Nineteenth
+Century; Public Care of Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Private Charities
+for Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Removal of Children from Almshouse;
+The State School and Placing Out System; The County Children's Home
+System; The System of Public Support in Private Institutions; The
+Boarding Out and Placing Out System; Laws and Societies for the
+Rescue of Neglected Children; Private Charities for Destitute and Neglected
+Children, 1875-1900; Delinquent Children; Present Tendencies.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p>
+
+
+<p  class="bookadhead">Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy</p>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By JOSEPH LEE, Vice-President of the Massachusetts Civic
+League</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2"><span class="smcap">Contents.</span>&mdash;Essence and Limitations of the Subject; Before 1860;
+Savings and Loans; The Home; Health and Building Laws, Model
+Tenements; The Setting of the Home; Vacation Schools; Playgrounds
+for Small Children; Baths and Gymnasiums; Playgrounds for Big Boys;
+Model Playgrounds; Outings; Boys' Clubs; Industrial Training; For
+Grown People; Conclusion.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<div>
+<p class="bookadintro1">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</p>
+<p class="center"> <span class="bad1">Publishers</span>  <span class="bad2">64-66 Fifth Avenue</span>  <span class="bad2">New York</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="tn spaced">
+<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Notes - Part II</b></p>
+
+<p>  The following changes have been made to the text:</p>
+
+<ul>
+ <li>In the table introduced as "Street traders and street employees may be    classified by occupation as follows:&mdash;" Newspaper sellers was written     as one word once.</li>
+
+ <li>In the table detailing the occupation of children in Germany,     introduced as "Seven divisions of these children were made     according to occupation ..." the word Austragedienste was wrongly     hyphenated.</li>
+
+ <li>In the TABLE E. HOURS AND EARNINGS OF STREET WORKERS a header     "OCCUPATIONS" was missing (compared to TABLE D before), and was added.</li>
+
+ <li>In Footnote [172] the title of Mr. Ferrette's work was misspelled as     "Manuel de Lègislation Industrielle", and was changed to "Manuel de     législation industrielle" in accordance with its original title.</li>
+
+ <li>In the Index entry "Great Britain ... Interdepartmental Committee of 1902 on Ireland ..." the reference to page 294 was changed to page 204. </li>
+</ul>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44396 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #44396 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44396)
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+Project Gutenberg's Child Labor in City Streets, by Edward Nicholas Clopper
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Child Labor in City Streets
+
+Author: Edward Nicholas Clopper
+
+Release Date: December 9, 2013 [EBook #44396]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Heike Leichsenring and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                      CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS
+
+
+
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                      NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO
+                         DALLAS · SAN FRANCISCO
+
+                        MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
+                       LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
+                               MELBOURNE
+
+                   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+                                TORONTO
+
+
+
+
+                              CHILD LABOR
+                            IN CITY STREETS
+
+                                   BY
+
+                        EDWARD N. CLOPPER, PH.D.
+
+              SECRETARY OF NATIONAL CHILD LABOR COMMITTEE
+                         FOR MISSISSIPPI VALLEY
+
+
+
+
+                                New York
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                                  1913
+
+                         _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT, 1912,
+                       BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1912. Reprinted
+January, 1913.
+
+
+                             NORWOOD PRESS
+                 J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+                         Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Text originally marked up as bold is surrounded by =, text in italics by
+_, text in different font with ~. All footnotes can be found after the
+chapter "Conclusion", before the Bibliography. Obvious printer's errors
+have been remedied, a list of all other changes can be found at the end
+of the document.
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+This volume is devoted to the discussion of a neglected form of child
+labor. Just why the newsboy, bootblack and peddler should have been
+ignored in the general movement for child welfare is hard to
+understand. Perhaps it is due to "the illusion of the near." Street
+workers have always been far more conspicuous than any other child
+laborers, and it seems that this very proximity has been their
+misfortune. If we could have focused our attention upon them as we did
+upon children in factories, they would have been banished from the
+streets long ago. But they were too close to us. We could not get a
+comprehensive view and saw only what we happened to want at the
+moment--their paltry little stock in trade. Now that we are getting a
+broader sense of social responsibility, we are beginning to realize
+how blind and inconsiderate we have been in our treatment of them.
+
+The first five chapters of the book review present conditions and
+discuss causes, the next two deal with effects, and the final ones are
+concerned with the remedy. The scope has been made as broad as
+possible. All forms of street work that engage any considerable number
+of children have been described at length, and opinions and findings
+of others have been freely quoted. I have attempted to show the bad
+results of the policy of _laissez-faire_ as applied to this problem.
+Simply because these little boys and girls have been ministering to
+its wants, the public has given them scarcely a passing thought. It
+has been so convenient to have a newspaper or a shoe brush thrust at
+one, it has not occurred to us that, for the sake of the children,
+such work would better be done by other means. Although good examples
+have been set by European cities, we have not introduced any
+innovations to clear the streets of working children.
+
+The free rein at present given to child labor in our city streets is
+productive of nothing but harmful results, and it is high time that a
+determined stand was taken for the rights of children so exposed. A
+few feeble efforts at regulation have been made in some parts of this
+country, but this is an evil that requires prohibition rather than
+regulation. There is no valid reason why just as efficient service in
+streets could not be rendered by adults. Certainly it would be far
+more suitable and humane to reserve such work for old men and women
+who need outdoor life and are physically unable to earn their living
+in other ways. We could buy our newspaper from a crippled adult at a
+stand just as easily as we get it now from an urchin who shivers on
+the street corner. It is only a question of habit, and we ought to be
+glad of the change for the good of all concerned.
+
+                                                             E. N. C.
+
+    Cincinnati, 1912.
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                           PAGE
+
+     I. THE PROBLEM OF THE STREET-WORKING CHILD--PUBLIC
+         APATHY--RELATION TO OTHER PROBLEMS                            1
+
+    II. EXTENT TO WHICH CHILDREN ENGAGE IN STREET ACTIVITIES IN
+         AMERICA AND EUROPE                                           24
+
+   III. NEWSPAPER SELLERS                                             52
+
+    IV. BOOTBLACKS, PEDDLERS AND MARKET CHILDREN                      83
+
+     V. MESSENGERS, ERRAND AND DELIVERY CHILDREN                     101
+
+    VI. EFFECTS OF STREET WORK UPON CHILDREN                         128
+
+   VII. RELATION OF STREET WORK TO DELINQUENCY                       159
+
+  VIII. THE STRUGGLE FOR REGULATION IN THE UNITED STATES             189
+
+    IX. DEVELOPMENT OF STREET TRADES REGULATION IN EUROPE            214
+
+  CONCLUSION                                                         243
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                       245
+
+  APPENDICES                                                         255
+
+  INDEX                                                              277
+
+
+
+
+                      CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+THE PROBLEM OF THE STREET-WORKING CHILD--PUBLIC APATHY--RELATION TO
+OTHER PROBLEMS
+
+
+The efforts which have so far been made in the United States to solve
+the child labor problem have been directed almost exclusively toward
+improvement of conditions in mines and manufacturing and mercantile
+establishments. This singling out of one phase of the problem for
+correction was due to the uneducated state of public opinion which
+made necessary a long and determined campaign along one line, vividly
+portraying the wrongs of children in this one form of exploitation,
+before general interest could be aroused. Within very recent years
+this campaign has met with signal success, and many states have
+granted a goodly measure of protection to the children of their
+working classes as far as the factory, the store and the mine are
+concerned. The time has now come for attention to be directed toward
+the premature employment of children in work other than that connected
+with mining and manufacturing, for there are other phases of this
+problem which involve large numbers of children and which, up to the
+present, have received but little thought from students of labor
+conditions. The three most important of these other phases are the
+employment of children in agricultural work, in home industries and in
+street occupations. This volume will deal with the last-named
+phase--with the economic activities of children in the streets and
+public places of our cities, their effects and the remedies they
+demand.
+
+The street occupations in which children commonly engage are:
+newspaper selling, peddling, bootblacking, messenger service, delivery
+service, running errands and the tending of market stands. The first
+three are known as street "trades," owing to the popular fallacy that
+the children who follow them are little "merchants," and are therefore
+entitled to the dignity of separate classification. Careful usage
+would confine this term to newsboys, peddlers and bootblacks who work
+independently of any employer. Many children are employed by other
+persons to sell newspapers, peddle goods and polish shoes, and such
+children technically are street traders no more than those who run
+errands, carry messages or deliver parcels. Consequently the term
+"street trades" is limited in its application, and by no means
+embraces all the economic activities of children in our streets and
+public places.
+
+Wisconsin has written into her laws a definition of street trading,
+declaring that it is "any business or occupation in which any street,
+alley, court, square or other public place is used for the sale,
+display or offering for sale of any articles, goods or merchandise."[1]
+This covers neither bootblacking nor the delivery of newspapers.
+
+In Great Britain the expression "street trading" has been officially
+defined as including: "the hawking of newspapers, matches, flowers,
+and other articles; playing, singing, or performing for profit; plying
+for hire in carrying luggage or messages; shoe blacking, or any other
+like occupations carried on in streets or public places."[2]
+
+Street traders and street employees may be classified by occupation as
+follows:--
+
+  STREET TRADERS              STREET EMPLOYEES
+  (WORKING FOR THEMSELVES)    (WORKING FOR OTHERS)
+
+  Newspaper sellers           Newspaper sellers (on salary)
+                              Peddlers (on salary)
+  Peddlers                    Bootblacks (in stands)
+                              Market stand tenders
+  Bootblacks (on street)      Messengers
+                              Errand children
+                              Delivery children
+
+This classification is based upon the well-known economic distinction
+between profits and wages. It is unfortunate that this distinction has
+been applied to juvenile street workers, for it has operated to the
+great disadvantage of the "traders." This class has been practically
+ignored in the general movement for child welfare, on the ground that
+these little laborers were in business for themselves, and therefore
+should not be disturbed. Recently the conviction has been dawning
+upon observant people that, in the case of young children at least,
+the effects of work on an independent basis, particularly in city
+streets, are just as bad and perhaps even worse than work under the
+direction of employers. The mute appeal of the street-working child
+for protection has at last reached the heart of the welfare movement,
+and the first feeble efforts in his behalf are now being put forth,
+regardless of whether he toils for profits or for wages.
+
+This alleged distinction between street trading and street employment
+should be clearly understood, as any movement designed to remedy
+present conditions must be sufficiently comprehensive to avoid the
+great mistake of protecting one class and ignoring the other. On the
+one hand there is said to be an army of little independent "merchants"
+conducting business affairs of their own, while on the other there is
+an array of juvenile employees performing the tasks set them by their
+masters. For purposes of regulation this distinction is hairsplitting,
+narrow-minded and unjust, as it has been made to defeat in part the
+beneficent aim of the great campaign for child welfare, but
+nevertheless it must be reckoned with. Children under fourteen years
+of age at work in factories and mines are often properly called
+"slaves," and their plight is regarded with pity coupled with a
+clarion cry for their emancipation. But tiny workers in the streets
+are referred to approvingly as "little merchants" and are freely
+patronized even by the avowed friends of children, who thereby
+contribute their moral support toward continuing these conditions and
+maintaining this absurd fiction of our merchant babyhood. As an
+instance of this remarkable attitude, there was proudly printed in the
+Pittsburgh _Gazette-Times_ of April 11, 1910, the picture of a
+four-year-old child who had been a newsboy in an Ohio town since the
+age of _thirty months_, and this was described as a most worthy
+achievement!
+
+That the term "child labor," whose meaning has so long been popularly
+restricted to the employment of children in factories, mills, mines
+and stores, is properly applicable to the activities of children in
+all kinds of work for profit, is now virtually recognized by a few
+states which prohibit employment of children under fourteen years of
+age "in any gainful occupation." But unfortunately the courts have
+rigidly construed the word "employ" to mean the purchasing of the
+services of one person by another, hence newsboys, peddlers,
+bootblacks and others who work on their own account, do not enjoy the
+protection of such a statute because they are not "employed." Under
+this interpretation a fatal loophole is afforded through which
+thousands of boys and girls escape the spirit of the law which seeks
+to prevent their _labor_ rather than their mere employment. It is for
+this reason that, in states having otherwise excellent provisions for
+the conservation of childhood, we see little children freely
+exploiting themselves on city streets. This situation has been calmly
+accepted without protest by the general public, for, while the people
+condemn child labor in factories, they tolerate and even approve of it
+on the street. They labor under the delusion that merely because a few
+of our successful business men were newsboys in the past, these little
+"merchants" of the street are receiving valuable training in business
+methods and will later develop into leaders in the affairs of men. A
+glaring example of this attitude was given by a monthly magazine[3]
+which fondly referred to newsboys as "the enterprising young merchants
+from whose ranks will be recruited the coming statesmen, soldiers,
+financiers, merchants and manufacturers of our land."
+
+It is extremely unfortunate that this narrow conception has prevailed,
+as it raises the tremendous obstacle of popular prejudice which must
+be broken down before these child street workers can receive their
+share of justice at the hands of the law. The only fair and logical
+method of approach toward a solution of the child labor problem in all
+its phases is to take high ground and view the subject broadly in the
+light of what is for the best interests of children in general.
+
+The state recognizes the need of an intelligent citizenship and
+accordingly provides a system of public schools, requiring the
+attendance of all children up to the age of fourteen years. In order
+that nothing shall interfere with the operation of this plan for
+general education, the state forbids the employment of children of
+school age. In respect of both these mandates, the state has really
+assumed the guardianship of the child; it has accepted the principle
+that the child is the ward of the state and has based its action on
+this principle. A guardian should be ever mindful of the welfare of
+his wards, and so, to be consistent, the state should carefully shield
+its children from all forms of exploitation as well as from other
+abuses.
+
+However, in the matter of the regulation of child labor, a curious
+anomaly has arisen--no one may employ a child under fourteen years in
+a _factory_ for even one hour a day without being liable to
+prosecution for disobeying the law of the state, because such work
+might interfere with the child's growth and education; all of which is
+right and indorsed by public opinion, but--merely because a child is
+working independently of any employer, he is allowed to sell
+newspapers, peddle chewing gum and black boots for any number of
+hours, providing he attends school during school hours! Could anything
+be more inconsistent? To this extent the state, as a guardian, has
+neglected the welfare of its ward.
+
+This lack of consideration for street workers was emphasized in a
+British government report a number of years ago. Referring to the
+statutory provisions for preventing overwork by children in
+factories, workshops and mines, the report declared: "But the labour
+of children for wages outside these cases is totally unregulated,
+although many of them work longer than the factory hours allowed for
+children of the same age, and are at the same time undergoing
+compulsory educational training, which makes a considerable demand on
+their energies. We think this is inconsistent. In the interests of
+their health and education, it seems only reasonable that remedies
+which have proved so valuable in the case of factory children should
+in some form be extended to cover the whole field of child labour."[4]
+
+To insure a good yield, a field requires cultivation as well as
+planting; to effect a cure, a patient requires nursing as well as
+prescription. So with the aim of the state--to insure a strong,
+intelligent citizenship, its children must be cared for, as well as
+provided with schools. If a patient is not nursed while the physician
+is absent, his treatment is of little avail; if children are not
+protected out of school hours, the purpose of the school is
+defeated. No manufacturer would allow his machinery to run, unwatched,
+outside regular work hours, for he knows how disastrous would be the
+consequences; yet this is precisely what the state is doing by
+ignoring the activities of children in our city streets--the delicate
+machinery of their minds and bodies is allowed to run wild out of
+schools hours, and the state seems to think nothing will happen! These
+thoughts impel us to the conclusion that the state must watch over the
+child at least until he has reached the age limit for school
+attendance, and in the matter of labor regulation its care must not be
+confined to the prevention of one form of exploitation while other
+forms, equally injurious, are permitted to flourish unchecked.
+
+Legislation regulating street trading by children in this country is
+now in the stage corresponding to that of the English factory acts in
+the early part of the nineteenth century,--the first meager
+restrictions are being tried. Several of the street occupations, viz.
+messenger service, delivery service and errand running, are ordinarily
+included among those prohibited to children under fourteen years by
+state child labor laws, because to engage in such work children have
+to be employed by other persons. These occupations are covered by the
+provision common to such laws which forbids employment of such
+children "in the distribution or transmission of merchandise or
+messages." The street "trades" of newspaper selling, peddling and
+bootblacking are, as yet, almost untouched by legislation in the
+United States, for there exist only a very few state laws and city
+ordinances relative to this matter, and these of the most primitive
+kind. The public does not yet realize the injustice of permitting
+young children to engage, uncontrolled, in the various street-trading
+activities. It was slow to appreciate the dangers involved in the
+unrestricted employment of children in factories, mills and mines, but
+when the awakening finally came, the demand for reform was insistent.
+This gradual development of a sentiment favoring regulation
+characterizes also the problem of street employment; the present stage
+is that of calm indifference, ruffled only by occasional misgivings.
+Even this is an encouraging sign, inasmuch as the factory agitation
+passed through the same experience, and emerged triumphant,
+crystallized in statute form.
+
+It is hard to understand how the public conscience can reconcile
+itself to the chasm between the age limit of fourteen years for
+messenger service and freedom from all restraint in newspaper
+selling--both essentially street occupations. Child labor laws are
+framed in accordance with public sentiment, hence the people by
+legislative omission practically indorse street trading by little
+children while condemning their employment in other kinds of work.
+Thus the state virtually assumes the untenable position that it is
+right to allow a child of tender years to labor in the streets as a
+newsboy without any oversight or care whatever, and that it is wrong
+for him to work in the same field as a messenger, or an errand boy, or
+a delivery boy, although such occupations are subject to some degree
+of supervision by older persons. In other words, it is held that
+little children are capable of self-control in some street
+occupations, but not able to withstand the dangers of other similar
+street work, even under the control of adults! After having described
+the conditions prevailing in Philadelphia among newsboys, Mr. Scott
+Nearing says: "There are many causes leading up to this condition.
+Beneath all others lies the fundamental one--the lack of public
+sentiment in favor of protecting these children. Closely allied to
+this is another almost equally strong--the lack of public knowledge of
+the true state of affairs."[5]
+
+The Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit pointed out the fact that street
+trades are quite untouched by child labor legislation in the city and
+also in the state, declaring that in Illinois a boy or girl too young
+to be permitted to do any other work may haunt the newspaper offices,
+the five-cent shows, the theaters and saloons, selling chewing gum and
+newspapers at all hours of the night.[6]
+
+Among the arguments advanced in support of the unsuccessful effort to
+secure legislation on street trading in Illinois in 1911 was the
+following: "Each boy or girl street trader is a merchant in his or her
+own right, and therefore before the law is not considered a wage
+earner, although there is merely a fine-spun distinction between the
+child who secures _wages_ as the result of his work and one who
+obtains his reward in the form of _profits_. The effect on the child
+of work performed under unsuitable conditions, at unsuitable hours and
+demanding the exercise of his faculties in unchildish ways, is in no
+wise determined by the form in which his earnings are calculated. That
+the results of street trading are wholly bad in the case of both boys
+and girls is universally recognized."[7] Miss Jane Addams has deplored
+this situation in a public statement: "A newsboy is a merchant and
+does not come within the child labor regulations of Illinois. The city
+of Chicago is a little careless, if not recreant, toward the children
+who are not reached by the operation of the state law."[8]
+
+Even in the few localities where regulation of street trading has been
+attempted, the delusion that there is some essential difference
+between child labor in factories and child labor in streets persists
+in the legislation itself. The latter form of exploitation is assumed
+to merit a wider latitude for its activity, hence it is hedged about
+by much less stringent rules. Attention is invited to this
+inconsistency by the report of a recent investigation in New York
+City: "We have in New York 4148 children between 14 and 16 years
+employed in factories with their daily hours of labor limited from 8
+A.M. to 5 P.M., while in mercantile establishments there are 1645 more
+of similar age limit, none of whom can work before 8 in the morning or
+after 7 in the evening. But on the streets of New York City we have
+approximately 4500 boys licensed (to say nothing of the little fellows
+too young to be licensed) to sell newspapers. That means 4500
+legalized to work at this particular trade from 6 o'clock in the
+morning until 10 o'clock in the evening (save during the school year,
+when they are supposed to attend school from 9 A.M. to 3 P.M.) any day
+and every day, seven days to the week if they so desire to do."[9]
+
+
+                    _Broader Aspects of the Problem_
+
+Let us consider the matter from another point of view and discuss the
+opportunities for constructive work rather than confine our attention
+to the need of the merely negative remedy of restrictive legislation.
+
+The street is painted as a black monster by some social workers, who
+can discern nothing but evil in it. Nevertheless the street is closely
+woven into the life of every city dweller, for his contact with it is
+daily and continuous. If it is all evil, it ought to be abolished; as
+this is impossible, we must study it to see what it really is and what
+needs to be done with it. It is the medium by which people are brought
+into closer touch with one another, where they meet and converse,
+where they pass in transit, where they rub elbows with all the
+elements making up their little world, where they absorb the
+principles of democracy,--for the street is a great leveler.
+
+Dr. Delos F. Wilcox, in speaking to the subject "What is Philadelphia
+Doing to Protect Her Citizens in the Street?" recently said: "The
+street is the symbol of democracy, of equal opportunity, the channel
+of the common life, the thing that makes the city.... I fancy that the
+civic renaissance which must surely come, ... will never get very far
+until we have awakened to a realization of the dignity of the
+street--the common street where the city's children play, through
+which the milk wagon drives, where the young men are educated, along
+which the currents of the city's life flow unceasingly."[10]
+
+An English writer has expressed a similar thought: "We have spoken of
+the street as a dangerous environment from which we would gladly
+rescue the children if we could, and so it undoubtedly is in so far as
+it supplants the influence of the home, tends to nullify that of the
+school and lets the boys and girls run wild just when they most need
+to be tamed.... It is, in fact, so strange a mixture of good and evil,
+so complex an influence in the growth of boy and girl, of youth and
+man, among our great city population, that it is necessary to attempt
+to analyze it a little more exactly. It is for the majority the medium
+in which the social conscience is formed, and through which it makes
+its power felt. In it the all-powerful agents of progress, example,
+imitation, the spread of ideas and the discussion of good and evil are
+incessantly at work."[11]
+
+It is only natural that such a general agency for communication should
+have been abused. Its popularity alone would inevitably lead to such a
+result, with no restrictions imposed upon street intercourse. The very
+popularity of the games of billiards, pool and cards and of dancing
+led to their abuse and consequent disrepute in the eyes of many
+persons who were blinded to their intrinsic worth as diversions, by
+the abuses to which they were subjected. The marked success attending
+the proper use of all these amusements in social settlements and
+parish houses stimulates the imagination as to what might be
+accomplished with the street if its abuses also were eliminated.
+
+It is of course absurd to pass judgment summarily upon the street, for
+the street can exert no influence of itself; the evil issues from its
+abuse by those who frequent it, and it is this abuse that should be
+suppressed. This immediately raises the question as to what
+constitutes this abuse. We must bear in mind that the real purpose of
+the street is to serve as a means of communication, a passageway for
+the transit of passengers and commerce. It was never intended for a
+playground, nor a field for child labor, nor a resort for idlers, nor
+a depository for garbage, nor a place for beggars to mulct the public.
+These fungous growths from civic neglect ought to be cut away. "A
+place for everything and everything in its place" would be an
+efficacious even if old-fashioned remedy: playgrounds for the
+children, workshops for the idlers, reduction plants for the garbage
+and asylums for the beggars. With these reforms effected and carefully
+maintained, the street would soon become much more wholesome and
+attractive.
+
+These considerations have been advanced to indicate the intimate
+relation which exists between the problem of the child street worker
+and many other problems with which social workers are now struggling.
+Child labor in city streets must be abolished, but at the same time
+coöperation with other movements is necessary before a satisfactory
+solution of the problem can be assured.
+
+For example, it would be a short-sighted policy to prohibit young
+children from selling goods in home market stands without reporting to
+the housing authorities cases in which large families live in one or
+two filthy rooms, displaying and selling their wares in the doorway
+and from the window. Our Italian citizens are not committing race
+suicide, but in spite of their numerous progeny they crowd together in
+extremely limited space, combining their home life with the customary
+business of selling fruit. Their young children assist in tending the
+stands on market days and nights or sit on the sidewalk selling
+baskets to passers-by; at closing time their goods are often stored in
+the same room that serves for sleeping quarters, cots being brought
+out from some dark hiding place. In such circumstances the mere
+prevention of child labor is not sufficient--the housing conditions
+also should be remedied so as to give the children a more suitable
+place in which to play, study and sleep, a better home in which to use
+their leisure.
+
+Again, a movement to prohibit street work by children should give
+impetus to that which seeks to make the public school a social center,
+and especially to that for public vacation schools. Many of the homes
+of city children very largely lack the element of attractiveness which
+is so essential in holding children under the influence of their
+parents, and this want must be filled as far as possible by making
+the school an instrument not merely for instruction, but also for the
+entertainment and socializing of the entire neighborhood.
+
+Again, the regulating of street trading should be undertaken jointly
+with the movement to supply adequate playground facilities.
+Playgrounds are not a municipal luxury, but a necessary. Children must
+have some suitable place for recreation. It is not a function of the
+street to furnish the space for play, and as children cannot and
+should not be kept at home all the time, it follows that ground must
+be set apart for the purpose. On these points a British report says:
+"We have no doubt that insanitary homes and immoral surroundings, with
+the want of any open spaces where the children could enjoy healthy
+exercise and recreation, are strong factors in determining towards
+evil courses in the cases of the children of the poor."[12] The need
+for more playgrounds in Chicago was partially supplied by having one
+block in a congested district closed to traffic during August, 1911,
+so that children could play there without risking their lives, from
+eight in the morning to eight in the evening. In providing this
+emergency playground, Chicago has set an example that will undoubtedly
+be imitated by other cities.
+
+In this way the abolition of child labor in city streets would result
+in benefit not only to the children, but to the entire community as
+well. It would promote a general civic awakening that would make each
+town and city a better place to live in, a better home for our
+citizens of the future.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER II
+
+EXTENT TO WHICH CHILDREN ENGAGE IN STREET ACTIVITIES IN AMERICA AND
+EUROPE
+
+
+There are no reliable figures either official or unofficial showing
+the number of children engaged in street activities in any city of the
+United States or in the country at large. The figures given by the
+United States Census of 1900 are so inadequate that they can hardly
+mislead any one endowed with ordinary powers of observation. It
+solemnly declares that in that year there was a grand total of 6904
+newspaper carriers and newsboys, both adults and children, in the
+entire United States, of whom 69 were females.[13] In all probability
+there was a greater number at that time in some of our larger cities
+alone. In the group called "other persons in trade and transportation"
+only 3557 children ten to fifteen years of age are reported, although
+this group embraces nine specified occupations, of which that of the
+newsboy is only one. Besides these, many other occupations (in which
+63 per cent of the total number of persons reported are engaged) are
+not specified.[14] Consequently the number of newsboys ten to fifteen
+years old reported by the enumerators for the entire country must have
+been ridiculously small.
+
+Again, the total number of bootblacks ten years of age and upwards in
+the country was reported as 8230, they being included in the group
+called "other domestic and personal service." Only 2953 children ten
+to fifteen years of age were reported in this group, which includes
+five specified occupations, of which that of the bootblacks is only
+one, and many others (in which 67 per cent of the total number of
+persons reported are engaged) which are not specified.[15]
+
+The inadequacy of these figures to convey any idea whatsoever as to
+the extent of child labor in street occupations in this country is
+painfully apparent; they are quoted here merely to show the poverty
+of statistics on this subject. Their inaccuracy is practically
+conceded by the report itself in the following words: "The limitations
+connected with the taking of a great national census preclude proper
+care upon the question of child employment. There is great uncertainty
+as to the accuracy of a mass of information of this character taken by
+enumerators and special agents, who either do not appreciate the
+importance of the investigation or find it impracticable to devote the
+time to the inquiry necessary to secure good results."[16]
+
+There is reason to hope for more reliable data from the 1910 census;
+but unfortunately the figures will probably not be available until
+1913. The enumerators employed by the Federal government for the
+Census of 1910, were instructed to make an entry in the occupation
+column of the population schedule for every person enumerated, giving
+the exact occupation if employed, writing the word "none" if
+unemployed, or the words "own income" if living upon an independent
+income. It was stated positively that the occupation followed by a
+child of any age was just as important for census purposes as the
+occupation followed by a man, and that it should never be taken for
+granted without inquiry that a child had no occupation.[17]
+
+However, upon inquiry by enumerators at the time of the census taking
+as to the occupation of children, many parents undoubtedly replied in
+the negative, even though their children may have been devoting
+several hours daily outside of school to street work, under the
+impression that this was not an occupation. Consequently it is safe to
+assume that the figures for street-working children in the United
+States according to the Census of 1910 when published will be under
+the true number. Nevertheless, they can hardly fail to reflect
+conditions far better than did the figures for 1900.
+
+
+                               _Chicago_
+
+It is only from the reports of occasional and very limited local
+investigations that material as to the actual state of affairs can be
+obtained. Social workers of Chicago had a bill introduced into the
+Illinois legislature at its session of 1911, providing that boys
+under ten years and girls under sixteen years should be prohibited
+from selling anything in city streets, and some material was gathered
+to be used in support of this measure. In connection with what has
+already been said in Chapter I, it is interesting to note that
+although the provisions of this bill were very mild, and strong
+efforts were put forth by social workers to secure its passage, it was
+not allowed to become a law largely because of the absence of public
+opinion and partly because of the opposition by newspaper publishers
+and others who were afraid that their interests might suffer through
+the granting of protection to such little children.
+
+In one of the schools of Chicago, pupils were found to be trading in
+the streets in addition to attending school in the following
+percentages:--
+
+  65 per cent of 5th grade children
+  35 per cent of 4th grade children
+  15 per cent of 2d grade children
+  12 per cent of 1st grade children
+  (Figures for 3d grade were not given.)
+
+All of these children were attending school twenty-five hours a week,
+and many cases of excessive work out of school hours were found. Some
+allowance should be made for possible exaggeration on the part of
+these children, but nevertheless it is certain that many of them were
+working to an injurious extent. The hours given were as follows:--
+
+  1 boy over 50 hours
+  4 boys over 40 hours
+  5 boys over 35 hours
+  7 boys over 30 hours
+  18 boys over 20 hours
+
+Their average earnings per week were found to be as follows:[18]--
+
+  5th grade children      $1.18
+  4th grade children        .85
+  3d grade children         .60
+  2d grade children         .43
+  1st grade children        .36
+
+In referring to the weekly income of the children from this source,
+the Handbook of the Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit declared that it was
+"a pitiable sum to compensate for the physical weariness and moral
+risk attending street trades in a large city. School reports show that
+street trades, when carried on by young children, lead to truancy,
+low vitality, dullness and the breaking down of parental control.
+Since the children are on the streets at all hours, careless habits
+are developed which often lead to moral ruin to both boys and
+girls."[19]
+
+An instance was related wherein the teacher of a fifth grade in a
+Chicago school asked those of her pupils who worked for money to raise
+their hands. In the class of 38 pupils, 26 acknowledged that they were
+little breadwinners! One boy said he worked ten hours a day besides
+attending school; others had less striking records, spending from
+twenty to forty hours a week selling chewing gum and newspapers,
+blacking boots and pursuing the various other street occupations which
+the Illinois law leaves open to children of all ages.[20]
+
+Referring to the economic and home conditions surrounding young
+children in Chicago and the many phases of danger to their moral
+well-being, the Vice Commission of that city reported that its agents
+had found small boys selling newspapers in segregated districts and
+that one night an investigator had counted twenty newsboys from eleven
+years upwards so engaged at midnight and after. Besides these
+newsboys, many little boys and girls were found peddling chewing gum
+near disorderly saloons where prostitutes were soliciting. Numerous
+examples of employment in vicious environment are cited, principally
+of the peddling of newspapers and chewing gum by young children at all
+hours of the night in the "red light" districts, about saloons and
+museums of anatomy. Even in the rear rooms of saloons, boys were seen
+offering their wares and heard to join in obscene conversation with
+the patrons of these resorts.[21]
+
+A folder published in Chicago by the advocates of street-trade
+regulation calls attention to these conditions, and states, with
+regard to little newsgirls who sell papers in the vice regions: "It is
+not surprising if some of them, becoming so familiar with the
+practices of the district, take up the profession of the neighborhood.
+The Juvenile Protective Association reports one little girl who
+entered the life of a professional prostitute at the age of fourteen,
+after having sold newspapers for years in the district."[22]
+
+Another element of this problem, seldom considered, is described also
+in this folder--the vagrants, who constitute a large and growing class
+deserving the attention of both city and citizen. "Three classes of
+persons, who add little to the general circulation, while detracting
+much from the tone of the business and working a real injury to
+themselves, are engaged in selling newspapers; these are the small
+boy, the semi-vagrant boy, and the young girl. The business of selling
+newspapers in Chicago is so systematized that the 'vagrant' cannot
+prosper, and yet the 'vagrant' is in our midst. He can be found on
+State Street at 11 o'clock on a Saturday night with one newspaper
+under his arm--not attempting to sell it, but using it as a bait to
+beg from the passers-by. He can be found in the _American_ news alley,
+sometimes fifty, sometimes a hundred strong, sleeping on bags, under
+boxes, or on the floor of the newspaper restaurant. With this boy,
+and with all those who are obviously too young to be permitted to
+engage in street trading, it is our duty to deal if we are to preserve
+the attitude the American city takes toward the dependent child."
+
+
+              NATIONALITIES OF BOSTON CHILD STREET TRADERS
+
+  ====================================+======+==========
+           PLACE OF BIRTH             |NUMBER|PERCENTAGE
+  ------------------------------------+------+----------
+          { Boston             1,556  |      |
+  America { Elsewhere in Mass.   171  | 1860 |   70.
+          { Other states         133  |      |
+  Russia                              |  473 |   17.5
+  Italy                               |  161 |    6.
+  Other foreign countries             |  162 |    6.
+  Not given                           |    8 |     .5
+                                      |----- | ------
+                                      | 2664 |  100.0
+  ====================================+======+==========
+
+
+                                _Boston_
+
+In Boston, during the year 1910, there were issued to newsboys,
+peddlers and bootblacks from eleven to thirteen years of age
+inclusive, 2664 licenses. Of these nearly all (2525) were issued to
+newsboys, while 114 were issued to bootblacks and 25 to peddlers. Of
+these license holders 904 were eleven years old, 900 were twelve
+years old, and 860 were thirteen years old. It is interesting to note
+that nearly three fourths of these children were born in the United
+States; the table on page 33 shows their distribution among
+nationalities.
+
+
+                            _New York City_
+
+The actual number of children engaged in street activities at any
+given time is less than the number of licenses issued during the year,
+inasmuch as not all such children persist in pursuing this work, many
+of them working only a few weeks, while a few never enter upon the
+tasks which they have been licensed to perform. This is borne out by
+the experience of investigators in New York City; the report of a
+study made there recently says: "We are told by the department of
+education issuing newsboy badges that 4500 boys have these badges, yet
+when we secured the addresses of some of these from their application
+cards ... we found that not 30 per cent of the 100 cases investigated
+lived at listed addresses. Many such were bogus numbers, open lots,
+factories, wharves, and in some cases the middle of East River would
+wash over the house number given. When we did find a correct address,
+the children so located in six cases out of ten were not following the
+trade. In some instances they never sold papers, obtaining badges
+simply because other boys were applying for them, and after receiving
+a badge tucked it away in a drawer or maybe sold it or gave it
+away."[23]
+
+
+                              _Cincinnati_
+
+In Cincinnati from June to December, 1909, 1951 boys from ten to
+thirteen years of age were licensed to sell newspapers, this number
+being about 15 per cent of the total number of boys of these ages in
+the city. Their distribution according to age was as follows:--
+
+  10 years         424
+  11 years         466
+  12 years         539
+  13 years         522
+                  ----
+      Total       1951
+
+The Cincinnati figures do not include bootblacks, peddlers or market
+children, as no licenses were issued for such occupations, although
+they are specifically covered by the municipal ordinance regulating
+street trades.
+
+The above data were available only because there has been some attempt
+in Boston, New York and Cincinnati to restrict the employment of
+children in street occupations; as in the great majority of cities and
+states there is absolutely no regulation of this kind, there are of
+course no figures to indicate conditions.
+
+
+                          _The Padrone System_
+
+In almost every city of the United States having a population of more
+than 10,000, there is to be found the padrone system, which is
+operated principally in the interests of the bootblacking business
+which the Greeks control. The peddling of flowers, fruit and
+vegetables in Chicago and New York is partly subject to the same
+methods. The labor supply furnished by this system for peddling and
+bootblacking consists generally of children from twelve to seventeen
+years of age.[24]
+
+The Immigration Commission states in its report that there are several
+thousand shoe-shining establishments in the United States operated by
+Greeks who employ boys as bootblacks, and that with few exceptions
+they are under the padrone system.[25] A few boys under sixteen years
+of age are employed under the Greek padrone system as flower vendors,
+and these are found chiefly in New York City. They are hired by
+florists to sell flowers in the streets and public places--largely old
+stock that cannot be handled in the shops. These boys usually live in
+good quarters, are well fed and receive their board and from $50 to
+$100 a year in wages. When not engaged in peddling, they deliver
+flowers ordered at the shops. The boys employed by the padrones to
+peddle candy, fruit and vegetables usually live in basements or in
+filthy rooms; here they are crowded two, three and sometimes four in
+one bed, with windows shut tight so as to avoid catching cold. The
+fruit and vegetables still on hand are stored for the night in these
+bedrooms and in the kitchen. In each peddling company there are
+usually three or four wagons and from four to eight boys.[26]
+
+
+                       _Minor Street Occupations_
+
+There are a few so-called street trades in which a relatively small
+number of children are engaged which so far have not been mentioned in
+this volume. These are the leading of blind persons and the
+accompanying of beggars in general, little children being found
+valuable for such work because they help to excite the sympathy of
+passers-by. A few children also are employed as lamplighters to go
+about towns lighting street lamps in the evening and extinguishing
+them in the early morning. A class of street boys who have as yet
+received no name in this country, but in England are called "touts,"
+haunt the neighborhood of railroad depots and lie in wait for
+passengers with hand baggage, offering to carry it to the train for a
+small fee.
+
+Some children are used as singers or performers upon musical
+instruments, but this is in reality only another form of begging. The
+writer found one instance of a young boy who was employed by the
+public library of one of our large cities to gather up overdue books
+about the city and to collect the fines imposed for failure to return
+the same. Very frequently in the course of his work this boy had to
+enter houses of prostitution, as the inmates are steady patrons of the
+public library, reading light literature, and are quite negligent in
+the matter of returning the books within the prescribed time.
+Immediately upon the librarian's learning of the situation, he was
+relieved of this duty, and a man was detailed to perform the task.
+Such special occupations as these do not constitute a real factor in
+the problem because of the small number of children involved, and
+hence they are omitted from consideration.
+
+
+                     _Conditions in Great Britain_
+
+Turning to Europe we find much more information on this subject. In
+Great Britain the House of Commons in 1898 ordered an inquiry to be
+made into the extent of child labor among public school pupils, and
+the education department sent schedules to the 20,022 public
+elementary schools in England and Wales for the purpose of determining
+the facts. A little more than half of the schools returned the
+schedules blank, stating that no children were employed; this
+introduced a large element of error into the return, as many of the
+schoolmasters misunderstood the meaning of the schedules, and
+consequently quite a number of children who should have been included
+were omitted from the total. The 9433 schedules which were filled and
+returned showed that 144,026 children (about three fourths boys and
+one fourth girls) were in attendance full time at the public
+elementary schools of England and Wales and known to be employed for
+profit outside of school hours.
+
+The ages of these children reported as employed were as follows:[27]--
+
+  Under 7 years       131
+   7 years          1,120
+   8 years          4,211
+   9 years         11,027
+  10 years         22,131
+  11 years         36,775
+  12 years         47,471
+  13 years         18,556
+  14 and over       1,787
+  Not given           817
+                  -------
+    Total         144,026
+
+The standards or school grades in which these working children were
+enrolled and the total enrollment for the year ended August 31, 1898,
+were as follows:[28]--
+
+  ==========================+============
+                            |  TOTAL
+      WORKING CHILDREN      | ENROLLMENT
+  --------------------------+-----------
+  No Standard           329 |
+  1st standard        3,890 | 2,875,088
+  2d standard        11,686 |   723,582
+  3d standard        24,624 |   679,096
+  4th standard       36,907 |   590,850
+  5th standard       37,315 |   421,728
+  6th standard       21,975 |   212,546
+  7th standard        6,382 |    66,442
+  Ex-7 standard         382 |     7,534
+  Not stated            536 |
+                    ------- | ---------
+      Total         144,026 | 5,576,866
+  ==========================+============
+
+The occupations followed by these children were divided into three
+main groups, and each of these groups was further divided into three
+classes. These divisions and the number of children in each were as
+follows:[29]--
+
+  =======================+=======================+=========================
+                         |                       |  DOMESTIC EMPLOYMENT,
+    PIECEWORK, CHIEFLY   |  TIME-WORK, CHIEFLY   |  GIRLS ONLY, WITH ONE
+           BOYS          |         BOYS          |    OR TWO EXCEPTIONS
+  -----------------------+-----------------------+-------------------------
+  Selling                | In shops or           | Minding babies   11,585
+  newspapers      15,182 | running               |
+                         | errands for           | Other housework,
+  Hawking goods    2,435 | shopkeepers    76,173 | including
+                         |                       | laundry work,
+  Sports, taking         | Agricultural          | etc.              9,254
+  dinners,               | occupations     6,115 |
+  knocking-up,           |                       | Needlework and
+  etc.             8,627 | Boot and knife        | like occupations  4,019
+                         | cleaning, etc.        |
+                         | (house boys)   10,636 |
+  =======================+=======================+=========================
+
+The return revealed a surprising variety of occupations followed by
+these children--about 200 different kinds in all.
+
+  HOURS PER WEEK     NUMBER OF CHILDREN
+      Under 10             39,355
+      10-20                60,268
+      21-30                27,008
+      31-40                 9,778
+      41-50                 2,390
+      51-60                   576
+      61-70                   142
+      71-80                    59
+      Over 81                  16
+      Not stated            4,434
+                          -------
+          Total           144,026
+
+The number of hours per week devoted by these children to the various
+employments will be found in the above table; it should be remembered
+that these hours were given to work in addition to the time spent at
+school.[30]
+
+It was recognized that the figures given by this parliamentary return
+did not represent the real situation, but nevertheless its revelations
+were sufficiently startling to show the need of further investigation.
+Accordingly in 1901 there was appointed an interdepartmental committee
+which after careful study reported that the figures in the
+parliamentary return were well within the actual numbers, but that the
+facts it contained were substantially correct.[31] This committee
+estimated the total number of children who were both in attendance at
+school and in paid employments in England and Wales at 300,000;[32] it
+declared that cases of excessive employment were "sufficiently
+numerous to leave no doubt that a substantial number of children are
+being worked to an injurious extent."[33]
+
+Referring to the amount of time devoted by the children to gainful
+employment outside of school, the committee reported, "On a review of
+the evidence we consider it is proved that in England and Wales a
+substantial number of children, amounting probably to 50,000, are
+being worked more than twenty hours a week in addition to twenty-seven
+and one-half hours at school, that a considerable proportion of this
+number are being worked to thirty or forty and some even to fifty
+hours a week, and that the effect of this work is in many cases
+detrimental to their health, their morals and their education, besides
+being often so unremitting as to deprive them of all reasonable
+opportunity for recreation. For an evil so serious, existing on so
+large a scale, we think that some remedy ought to be found."[34] The
+committee estimated the total number of children selling newspapers
+and in street hawking at 25,000.[35]
+
+With reference to conditions in Edinburgh, an English writer says, "Of
+the 1406 children employed out of school hours in Edinburgh, 307 are
+ten years of age or under. Four of them are six years old, and eleven
+are seven years of age. We hear of boys working seventeen hours (from
+7 A.M. to 12 P.M.) on Saturday. For children to work twelve, thirteen
+and fourteen hours on Saturday is quite common. The average wage seems
+to be three farthings an hour, but one hears of children who are paid
+one shilling and sixpence for thirty-eight hours of toil."[36]
+
+In New South Wales boys are permitted to trade on the streets at the
+age of ten years, and up to fourteen years may engage in such work
+between the hours of 7 A.M. and 7 P.M. except while the schools are in
+session; after they are fourteen years old they may trade between 6
+A.M. and 10 P.M. Such children are licensed, and during the six months
+ending March 31, 1910, 714 licenses were issued, 72 per cent of them
+being to children under fourteen years of age; 92 per cent of these
+children were engaged in hawking newspapers, the others being
+scattered through such occupations as peddling flowers, fruit and
+vegetables, fish, fancy goods, matches, bottles, pies and milk.[37]
+
+
+                        _Conditions in Germany_
+
+In December, 1897, the German Imperial Chancellor, referring to the
+incomplete census returns as to child labor, requested the
+governments to furnish him with information as to the total number of
+children under fourteen employed in labor other than factory labor,
+agricultural employment and domestic service, and the kinds of work
+done. In this circular he said: "But, above all, where the kind of
+occupation is unsuitable for children, where the work continues too
+long, where it takes place at unseasonable times and in unsuitable
+places, child labor gives rise to serious consideration; in such cases
+it is not only dangerous to the health and morality of the children,
+but school discipline is impaired and compulsory education becomes
+illusory. For children cannot possibly give the necessary attention to
+their lessons when they are tired out and when they have been working
+hard in unhealthful rooms until late at night. I need only instance
+employment in skittle alleys late in the evening, in the delivery of
+newspapers in the early morning and the employment of children in many
+branches of home industry. The most recent researches undertaken in
+different localities show that the employment of children in labor
+demands earnest attention in the interests of the rising
+generation."[38]
+
+Inquiries extending over almost the whole German Empire were
+accordingly made by the different states from January to April, 1898.
+It was found that 544,283 children under fourteen years were employed
+in labor other than factory labor, agricultural employment and
+domestic service. This was 6.53 per cent of the total number of
+children of school age (8,334,919).
+
+With regard to the effects of such work, this German report says: "As
+the children who carry around small wares, sell flowers, etc., go from
+one inn to another, they are exposed to evil influences, and are
+liable to contract at an early age, bad habits of smoking, lying,
+drinking.... The delivery of newspapers is a particularly great strain
+on the children, as it occupies them both before and after school
+hours."
+
+Seven divisions of these children were made according to occupation,
+four of them relating to street work. Under the heading _Handel_ were
+included children in many kinds of work, among them hawking fruit,
+milk, bread, brooms, flowers, newspapers, etc.; under _Austragedienste_
+were included only the delivery and carrying around of bread, milk,
+vegetables, beer, papers, books, advertisements, circulars, bills,
+coals, wood, boots and shoes, washing, clothes, etc.; under
+_Gewöhnliche Laufdienste_ were included only errand boys and
+messengers; under _Sonstige gewerbliche Thätigkeit_ were included,
+among other occupations, blacking boots, leading the blind, street
+singers and players, etc.
+
+========================+========+========+=========+=========+============
+                        |        |        | SEX NOT |         |
+                        |  BOYS  | GIRLS  | STATED  |  TOTAL  | PERCENTAGE
+------------------------+--------+--------+---------+---------+------------
+Handel (retail trade)   |  7,507 |  4,540 |   5,576 |  17,623 |    3.31
+                        |        |        |         |         |
+Austragedienste         |        |        |         |         |
+(delivery service)      | 67,188 | 36,966 |  31,676 | 135,830 |   25.52
+                        |        |        |         |         |
+Gewöhnliche Laufdienste |        |        |         |         |
+(general  messenger     |        |        |         |         |
+service)                | 23,321 |  2,134 |  10,454 |  35,909 |    6.75
+                        |        |        |         |         |
+Sonstige  gewerbliche   |        |        |         |         |
+Thätigkeit (other forms |        |        |         |         |
+of labor)               |  6,281 |  2,387 |   3,119 |  11,787 |    2.21
+========================+========+========+=========+=========+============
+
+
+                        _Conditions in Austria_
+
+The Austrian Ministry of Commerce began an investigation of actual
+conditions in Austria late in 1907 in response to the agitation for a
+new law that would regulate child labor not only in factories, but
+also in home industries, in commerce, and even in agriculture. In his
+Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, Mr. C. W. A. Veditz
+refers to the findings of this investigation in a number of the
+provinces. In Bohemia, of 676 children in trade and transportation,
+but still attending school, 169 were engaged in peddling and
+huckstering; in delivering goods and going errands 1554 children were
+employed, being generally hired to deliver bread, milk, meats,
+groceries, newspapers, books, telegrams, circulars--in fact, all
+manner of goods.[39] In the province of Upper Austria children are
+paid from two to seven crowns (40.6 cents to $1.42) a month for
+delivering newspapers daily, while in the duchy of Salzburg the pay
+varies from twenty to fifty hellers (4 to 10 cents) a day for
+delivering bread or newspapers.
+
+In the province of Lower Austria, "referring now to the other main
+occupations in which school children are employed outside of industry
+proper, the report [of the investigation] shows that ... those
+working in trade and transportation usually help wait on customers in
+their parents' stores; a number, however, sell flowers, shoe laces,
+etc., or huckster bread, butter and eggs, or carry passengers' baggage
+to and from railway stations. Most of those put down as delivering
+goods are engaged in delivering bread, milk, newspapers and
+washing."[40] Children who sell flowers, bread or cigars in Vienna
+earn one to two crowns (20.3 to 40.6 cents) a day during the week, and
+on Sundays as much as three crowns (60.9) cents. "The children
+employed [in Lower Austria] to deliver goods and run errands are also
+usually employed by non-relatives and receive wages in money. Those
+who deliver milk, and who work one half to one hour a day, generally
+receive twenty hellers to one crown (4 to 20.3 cents) weekly; in
+exceptional cases two crowns (40.6 cents), and in some instances only
+food and old clothes. For delivering bread and pastry, wages are
+reported as thirty hellers (6 cents) a week and some meals, or fifty
+hellers to two crowns (10 to 40.6 cents) a week without meals; in
+exceptional cases, 10 per cent of the receipts. For delivering
+papers, which requires one to two hours a day, children receive two to
+ten crowns (40.6 cents to $2.03) a month. For delivering of washing,
+thirty hellers (6 cents) for a two-hours' trip, or sixty hellers to
+two crowns (12 to 40.6 cents) a week. Children who carry dinner to
+mill laborers, requiring one half to one hour daily, get eighty
+hellers to five crowns (16 cents to $1.02) a month. Messengers for
+stores, hotels, etc., get a tip of two to ten hellers (.4 to 2 cents)
+per errand, or, if employed regularly, twenty hellers to one crown (4
+to 20.3 cents) a week."[41]
+
+"The delivery of milk, pastry, newspapers, etc., in which many
+children are employed in Vienna and other large cities, does not cause
+frequent absences, but is responsible for tardy arrival at school in
+the morning and for the fatigue that reduces attention and prevents
+mental alertness."[42]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+NEWSPAPER SELLERS
+
+
+By far the majority of the children in street occupations are engaged
+in the sale or delivery of newspapers. The newsboy predominates to
+such an extent that he is taken as a matter of course. As Mrs.
+Florence Kelley says, "For more than one generation, it has been
+almost invariably assumed that there must be little newsboys." Ever
+since he became an institution of our city life, the public has been
+pleased to regard him admiringly as an energetic salesman of
+penetrating mind and keen sense of humor. There seems to be a tacit
+indorsement of the newsboy as such.
+
+Ordinarily there are five classes of newsboys to be found in all large
+cities--(1) the corner boys, (2) those who sell for corner boys on
+salary, (3) others who sell for them on commission, (4) those who sell
+for themselves, and (5) those with delivery routes. The bulk of the
+business is handled by the first three of these classes, which are
+always associated together and found on the busy corners of the
+downtown sections of all our cities. The choice localities for the
+sale of newspapers, namely, the corners in the downtown sections where
+thousands of pedestrians are daily passing, come under the control of
+individuals by virtue of long tenure or by purchase, and their title
+to these corners is not disputed largely on account of the support
+they receive from the circulation managers of the newspapers. In
+former years the proprietorship of the corner was settled by a fight,
+but now it undergoes change of ownership by the formal transfer of
+location, fixtures and goodwill in accordance with the most approved
+legal practice.
+
+In Chicago a system of routes has been established by the newspapers
+which send wagons out with the different editions published each day
+to supply the men who control the delivery and sale of newspapers in
+the various districts. These route men employ boys to deliver for them
+to regular customers and also to sell on street corners on a
+commission basis. In Boston, ex-newsboys known as "Canada Points" are
+employed by the publishers at a fixed salary to distribute the
+editions by wholesale among the twenty odd places in the city from
+which the street sellers are supplied.
+
+
+               _Ages, Earnings and Character of the Work_
+
+The following individual cases will serve to illustrate the various
+forms this business takes. One nineteen-year-old boy paid $65 for his
+corner in Cincinnati about five years ago; he now earns from $4 to $5
+a day clear and would not sell the location for many times its cost.
+He works there from 11 A.M. to 6.30 P.M. on week days, starting an
+hour earlier on Saturdays, while on Sundays he delivers the morning
+newspapers over a route to regular customers. Two boys of about twelve
+years of age work for him, to one of whom he pays 25 cents a day and
+to the other 30 cents a day; their duties are to hawk the different
+editions and to dispose of as many copies as possible by hopping the
+street cars and offering the papers to pedestrians from 3.45 to 6.30
+P.M. daily on week days. If they do not hustle and make a large number
+of sales, they lose their job.
+
+A corner in another part of the city is "owned" by a thirteen-year-old
+boy who earns about 80 cents a day clear for himself in eight hours,
+and on Saturdays in nine hours. He has two boys working for him on
+commission, to whom he pays one cent for every four papers sold; they
+average about 15 cents a day apiece for three hours' work. When
+questioned, these commission boys admitted that they could make more
+money if working for themselves, but in that case would have to work
+until all the copies they had bought were sold, while on the
+commission plan they did not have to shoulder so much responsibility.
+
+Regulations made by the circulation managers of newspapers concerning
+the return of unsold copies greatly affect the newsboys' business.
+Naturally these regulations are made with an eye to extending the
+circulation. Corner boys are allowed to return only one copy out of
+every ten bought, being reimbursed by the office for its cost.
+Consequently they urge their newsboy employees and commission workers
+to put forth every effort to dispose of the supply purchased. The
+independent sellers are never permitted to return any unsold copies,
+except in the case of certain energetic boys who can be relied upon to
+work hard in any event. These are known as "hustlers," and owing to
+their having won the confidence of the circulation manager they are
+granted the special privilege of returning at cost all copies they
+have been unable to sell.
+
+In Boston, beginners are often on a commission basis; "in this way
+they secure the advice and protection of the more experienced while
+serving their apprenticeship. These _strikers_, as they are called,
+keep one cent for every four collected; few of them earn more than 25
+cents a day, while many of them earn less than 10."[43]
+
+An eleven-year-old Jewish boy who has been a newsboy for several years
+now controls a comparatively quiet corner in Cincinnati, where he nets
+from 40 to 50 cents a day, working about three hours. This boy's
+father and mother are both living.
+
+Submission to older persons is natural among children, and an
+interesting instance of tyranny over small boys by adults was found in
+the case of a newspaper employee who works inside the plant and
+employs several young boys to sell newspapers on the streets for him.
+These boys together earn about $1.30 when working about seven hours,
+but only half of this amount goes into their pockets, the other half
+being paid to their "employer." In New York City certain busy sections
+having points of strategic value are under the control of men who
+employ small boys to do the real work for a mere pittance, usually the
+price of admission to a moving-picture show. However, under certain
+circumstances, these little fellows often display a sturdy spirit of
+independence. An amusing instance is innocently recorded by an old
+wartime report of a newsboys' home: "It had been decided to give the
+boys a free dinner on Sundays, on condition that they attend the
+Sunday School; but last Sunday they desired the Matron to say that
+they were able and willing to pay for the dinner."[44]
+
+Independent newsboys must not stand in the territory controlled by
+another; they must select some uncontrolled spot, or else run about
+hither and yon, selling where they can. Under the unwritten law of
+this business a boy who chances to sell in another's territory must
+give the corner boy the money and receive a newspaper in exchange;
+this results the same as if the corner boy himself had made the sale.
+The earnings of these independent boys range from 15 to 65 cents daily
+out of school hours, while on Saturdays they make from $1 to $1.50
+working from 11 A.M. to 6.30 P.M.
+
+An eleven-year-old lad who has been a newsboy for three years, selling
+on his own account, disposes of most of his copies in saloons located
+in the middle of a busy square, earning from 50 cents to $1.25 a day
+even when attending school. His mother and father are both living.
+Another example of this class is a sixteen-year-old boy who devotes
+all his time to the trade, his net income averaging about $7.50 per
+week. His attitude toward regular work is both interesting and
+significant; he hopes to get a better job, but says that although he
+has hunted for one, so little is offered for what he can do ($2 to $3
+per week) that it would hardly suffice for spending money. Discussing
+this difference between factory wages and street-trading profits, an
+English report says: "Working from 11 A.M. to 7 or 8 P.M., with
+intervals for gambling, newsboys over 14 years old can make from
+10_s._ to 14_s._ a week if they have an ordinary share of alertness.
+In a factory or foundry, working from 6 A.M. to 6 P.M., a boy earns
+about 13_s._ a week. The comparison needs no comment. The excitement
+of their career tends to make them more and more reluctant to work
+steadily.... Many newsboys protest that they want more permanent work,
+but they rarely keep it when it is found for them."[45] The life of
+the streets lacks the discipline involved in steady work and fixed
+earnings.
+
+As an example of the route boy there is a fourteen-year-old lad in
+Cincinnati who has a list of fifty customers to whom he delivers
+newspapers regularly, earning in this way 25 cents daily, delivering
+after school hours. He declares that he finds it much easier to work
+on a route than to sell on the corners or at random.
+
+The morning papers employ a man as circulation manager for the
+residence districts who controls all the corners in those sections.
+When a corner becomes vacant, he assigns a youth to it. These older
+boys are not to sell their corners nor to dispose of them in any way,
+nor are they allowed to have any one working for them; they must "hop"
+all the street cars passing their corners and are expected to put
+forth every effort to accomplish a great number of sales. They get
+their supply of copies at the branch office at 5 A.M., hurrying then
+to their corners, where they remain until nearly noon, averaging in
+this time from $2 to $3 per day clear. Nearly all of the afternoon
+papers sold in the residence districts are delivered by route boys;
+after having gone over their routes, some of these boys go to the
+busier localities and sell the sporting extra during the baseball
+season until about seven o'clock.
+
+
+                             _Environment_
+
+Strong emphasis was laid upon the evils of street trading by the New
+York Child Welfare Exhibit of 1911, the Committee on Work and Wages
+declaring that "The ordinary newsboy is surrounded by influences that
+are extremely bad, because (1) of the desultory nature of his work;
+(2) of the character of street life; and (3) of the lack of
+discipline or restraint in this work. The occupation is characterized
+by 'rush hours,' during which the boy will work himself into
+exhaustion trying to keep pace with his trade, and long hours in which
+there is little or nothing to do, during which the boy has unlimited
+opportunities to make such use of the street freedom as he sees fit.
+During these light hours newsboys congregate in the streets and commit
+many acts of vandalism. They learn all forms of petty theft and
+usually are accomplished in most of the vices of the street. In
+building up their routes, the boys often include places of the most
+degrading and detrimental character. On the economic side, the loss is
+due to failure of the occupation to furnish any training for
+industrial careers."[46]
+
+The irregularity of newsboys' meals and the questionable character of
+their food form one of the worst features of street work and are a
+real menace to health. Many newsboys are in the habit of eating
+hurriedly at lunch counters at intervals during the day and night,
+while some snatch free lunches in saloons. In New York City their
+diet has been found to consist chiefly of "such hostile ingredients as
+frankfürters, mince pies, doughnuts, ham sandwiches, cakes and
+'sinkers'."[47] The use of stimulants is common, and the demand for
+them is to be expected because of the nervous strain of the work.
+Liquor is not consumed to any appreciable extent by street-trading
+children, but coffee is a favorite beverage. In the largest cities,
+where "night gangs" are found, from four to six bowls of coffee are
+usually taken every evening. Tobacco is used in great quantities and
+in all its forms; many boys even appease their hunger for the time by
+smoking cigarettes, and the smallest "newsies" are addicted to the
+habit. Evidence that this is not a recent development among street
+workers is found in a report made nearly a quarter of a century ago,
+which, with reference to newsboys, says "many of them soon spend their
+gains in pool rooms, low places of amusement and for the poisonous
+cigarette."[48]
+
+An English report on the street traders of Manchester says:
+"Drunkenness is rare among these boys ... they are in many ways
+attractive; but the closer our acquaintance grows with them the more
+overwhelming does this propensity to gambling appear. Indeed, it may
+reasonably be said that the whole career of the street trader is one
+long game of chance.... They tend to become more and more unwilling to
+work hard; they are the creatures of accident and lose the power of
+foresight; they never form habits of thrift; and their word can be
+taken only by those who have learnt how to interpret it."[49]
+
+There are tricks in newspaper selling as well as in other trades, and
+children are not slow to learn them. A careful observer cannot fail to
+note that certain newsboys seem always to be without change. Their
+patrons are generally in a hurry and willingly sacrifice the change
+from a nickel, even priding themselves on their unselfishness in thus
+helping to relieve the supposed poverty of the newsboys. As a matter
+of fact, such an act does real harm, for it arouses the cupidity of
+boys and leads them to believe that honesty is not the best policy.
+The temptation for newsboys to develop into "short change artists" is
+an ever present one, for the bustle of the street creates a most
+favorable condition for the practice of such frauds. Yet in spite of
+the many temptations which assail them, numbers of newsboys are
+scrupulously exact in the matter of making change, even under the most
+trying circumstances. Another common form of deceit, used to play upon
+the sympathy of passers-by, is practiced after nightfall by boys of
+all ages in offering a solitary newspaper for sale and crying in
+plaintive tone, "Please, mister, buy my last paper?" A kind-hearted
+person readily falls a victim to this ruse, and as soon as he has
+passed by, the newsboy draws another copy from his hidden supply and
+repeats his importuning. Commenting on these features of street
+trading, Dr. Charles P. Neill, United States Commissioner of Labor,
+has said: "Unless the child is cast in the mold of heroic virtue, the
+newsboy trade is a training in either knavery or mendicancy. Nowhere
+else are the wits so sharpened to look for the unfair advantage,
+nowhere else is the unfortunate lesson so early learned that
+dishonesty and trickery are more profitable than honesty, and that
+sympathy coins more pennies than does industry."[50]
+
+
+                                _Hours_
+
+Work at unseasonable hours is most disastrous in its effects upon
+growing children, and the newspaper trade is one that engages the
+labor of boys in our larger cities at all hours of the night. This
+fact is not generally known. A prominent social worker recently said:
+"I was astounded to find the other day that my newspaper comes to me
+in Chicago every morning because two little boys, one twelve and the
+other thirteen, get it at half-past two at night. These little boys,
+who go to school, carry papers around so that we get them in the
+morning at four o'clock all the year around. They are working for a
+man with whom we contract for our newspapers. I was quite shocked in
+St. Louis twice this fall (1908) to find a girl five or six years of
+age selling newspapers near the railroad station in the worst part of
+town after dark. We hear a great deal of sentimental talk about
+newsboys' societies doing so much for newsboys, but they do not seem
+to care anything for work of this kind."[51] In passing it may be
+remarked that in the city of Toledo there is an active association
+organized for the benefit of newsboys, which openly encourages street
+work by boys of from eight to seventeen years. The manager insists
+that such work affords the means of alleviating the poverty in the
+families of these boys, but upon inquiry it was found that he had
+never heard of the provision for the financial relief of such cases of
+child labor, which is made by the Ohio law, and which had been, at the
+time, most successfully administered for three years by the Board of
+Education of his own city.
+
+The Chicago newspapers have their Sunday editions distributed on
+Saturday night, consequently the newsboys are up all night so as to
+assure prompt service to patrons. In the absence of public opinion in
+the matter, this abuse flourishes unrestricted, and the children's
+health is sacrificed to meet the demand for news. Agents of the
+Chicago Vice Commission reported having seen boys from ten to fifteen
+years of age selling morning papers at midnight Saturday in the evil
+districts of the city.[52]
+
+The early rising of newsboys to deliver the morning week-day editions
+also contributes to the breaking down of their health. The old adage
+is a mockery in their case. There is abundant testimony relative to
+the evil effects of such untimely work. "Children who go to school and
+sell papers get up so early in the morning that they are so stupid
+during the day they cannot do anything. That was clearly demonstrated
+to me during my experience in teaching school."[53]
+
+Another teacher said: "I have had instances in school where children
+have gone to sleep over their tasks because they got up at two or
+three o'clock in the morning to put out city lights and to sell
+papers. In those instances we wanted the parents to take the children
+away from their work. Where they would not do it, we prosecuted them
+for contributing to the delinquency of their children."[54]
+
+The delivery of newspapers by young boys in the strictly residence
+sections of cities appears to be unobjectionable, yet even this simple
+work should be under restriction as to hours, because otherwise the
+boys would continue to rise at unseemly hours of the night in order to
+reach the branch offices in time to get the newspapers fresh from the
+press. In fact, every phase of street work should be under control.
+Dr. Harold E. Jones, medical inspector of schools to the Essex County
+Council, has testified that among the most injurious forms of labor
+performed by boys is the early morning delivery of newspapers and
+milk.[55] In his Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, Mr. C.
+W. A. Veditz states, "Delivering milk before school in the morning
+must be condemned, because it fatigues the children so that they
+become, to say the least, intellectually less receptive."[56]
+
+In his article on "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia,"[57] Mr.
+Scott Nearing gives a graphic account of conditions in the City of
+Brotherly Love. Although this description was written some years ago,
+local social workers find that the same conditions still obtain, as
+there is neither law nor ordinance to bring about a change. In this
+city the closing of the theaters at eleven o'clock marks the beginning
+of Saturday night's work. The last editions of the evening newspapers
+are offered at this time, often as a cloak for begging. After the
+theater, the restaurant patrons are available as customers until
+midnight. Then the morning papers begin to come from the press, and
+the newsboys abandon their begging and gambling and rush to the
+offices for their supplies. A load of forty pounds is often carried by
+the smallest newsboys, hurrying along the streets in the early morning
+hours. The cream of the business is done at this time, for most of the
+purchasers are more or less intoxicated and therefore inclined to be
+generous with tips and indifferent as to change; sometimes a newsboy
+takes in as much money on Saturday night and Sunday morning as during
+the entire remainder of the week. In relating his experiences, Mr.
+Nearing says, "On one night we saw fifteen boys in a group just as the
+policeman was chasing them out of Chinatown at half-past three Sunday
+morning; the youngest boy was clearly not over ten and the oldest was
+barely sixteen." At this hour the officers of the law interfere and
+quell the revels of the district. The open gratings in sidewalks
+through which warm air comes from basements, are then sought, and here
+the boys pass the time dozing until dawn, when they go abroad again to
+cry the Sunday papers.
+
+
+                       _Home Conditions--Poverty_
+
+One of the reasons why the public is so indulgent toward the street
+worker is that it takes for granted that the child is making a manly
+effort to support a widowed mother and several starving little
+brothers and sisters. Mrs. Florence Kelley calls this "perverted
+reasoning" and scores the public which "unhesitatingly places the
+burden of the decrepit adult's maintenance upon the slender shoulders
+of the child."[58] Poverty has been made an excuse for child labor
+from time immemorial by those who profit by the system. Newspapers are
+not an exception to the rule; the newsboys extend their circulation
+and incidentally give them free advertising in the streets--hence they
+see nothing but good in the newsboys' work and fight lustily to defend
+what they claim to be the mainstay of the widows. That this popular
+impression and appealing argument are false and without justification
+has been shown by students of the problem everywhere. The following
+table gives the family condition of Cincinnati newsboys:--
+
+  Both parents dead          12
+  Father dead               239
+  Mother dead                69
+  Both parents living      1432
+                           ----
+    Total                  1752
+
+Through a special inquiry it was found that in only 363 cases out of
+this total were the earnings of the children really needed. These 1752
+children, ten to thirteen years of age, were licensed from July to
+December, 1909; their distribution as to age was as follows:--
+
+  10 years      303
+  11 years      348
+  12 years      564
+  13 years      537
+               ----
+    Total      1752
+
+Upon investigation of the home conditions of several hundred newsboys
+in New York City it was declared that "in the majority of cases
+parents are not dependent on the boys' earnings. The poverty
+plea--that boys must sell papers to help widowed mothers or disabled
+fathers--is, for the most part, gross exaggeration."[59]
+
+Concerning a study of Chicago newsboys, Myron E. Adams says, "A
+careful investigation of the records of the Charity Organization
+Society shows that of the 1000 newsboys investigated, the names of but
+sixteen families are found, and of these ... only four received direct
+help, such as coal, clothing or food."[60]
+
+Mr. Scott Nearing says: "In many cases the boys want to go on the
+streets in order to have the pocket money which this life affords, and
+the ignorant or indifferent parents make no objections, but take the
+street life as a matter of course. Sometimes, though not nearly as
+often as is generally supposed, there is real need for the
+selling."[61]
+
+The British interdepartmental committee appointed in 1901 to inquire
+into the employment of school children, denounced the tolerance of
+street trading on the ground of necessity: "We think that in framing
+regulations with regard to child labour and school attendance ... the
+poverty of the child or its parents ought not to be made a test of the
+right to labour.... We do not think it is needed; we think that all
+children should have liberty to work as much and in such ways as is
+good for them and no more."[62]
+
+Another argument in favor of street trading advanced by those who are
+interested in maintaining present conditions, is that it affords a
+splendid training for a business career because of the competition
+that rages among the boys. This is doubtless true, as far as it goes,
+but the great difficulty is that street trading leads nowhere. It is a
+blind alley that sooner or later leaves its followers helpless against
+the solid wall of skilled labor's competition. An occupation that fits
+a boy for _nothing_ and is devoid of _prospects_, is a curse rather
+than a blessing in this day of specialization. In spite of the
+division of labor so elaborately realized to-day, a boy or girl who
+enters any of the regular industries has at least a fighting chance
+for acquiring a trade. If the child is honest, capable and diligent he
+will be promoted to a better position in time if misfortune does not
+overtake him. The trapper boy in a coal mine is in a fair way to
+become a miner. The lad who works in a machine shop has the
+opportunity to make a machinist of himself. The girl who begins as a
+wrapper in a dry goods shop may become a saleswoman, and then possibly
+a buyer for her department. Yet in most states children may not enter
+upon such work until they have reached the age of fourteen years,
+while some states prohibit boys under sixteen years from being
+employed in mines or in connection with dangerous machinery either in
+machine shops or elsewhere. Bitter experience has taught us that these
+restrictions are right and just, and we now have no hesitancy in
+barring young children from such employment, regardless of the
+training it affords. Why, then, do we exempt many forms of street work
+from the operation of the law? Why do we allow little children to
+work at any age, both night and day, as newsboys, bootblacks and
+peddlers in the essentially dangerous environment of the street? Such
+employment offers but a gloomy future--the useless life of the casual
+worker. There is no better position to which it leads, no chance for
+the discovery and development of ability, no reward for good service.
+It seems incredible that we have been so engrossed with throwing
+safeguards about the children in regular industries that we have
+altogether neglected the street worker, for the arguments against
+child labor in factories, mills, mines and retail shops apply with
+even greater force to the work of children in our city streets.
+
+
+                          _Better Substitutes_
+
+There is no reason why newsboys should not be replaced as the medium
+for the sale and delivery of newspapers by old men, cripples, the
+tuberculous and those otherwise incapacitated for regular work. In
+London, the _Westminster Gazette_, the _Pall Mall Gazette_, the
+_Evening Standard_ and the _Globe_ (all penny papers) are sold in the
+streets by old men; the _Westminster Gazette_ pays them a wage of
+1_s._ for selling eighteen copies and after having disposed of this
+number they are given a commission of 8_d._ a quire of twenty-six
+copies, a few men selling from six to eight quires a day. This
+newspaper has followed this method for many years, and its general
+manager declares that it is the most satisfactory system that they
+have been able to evolve. Boys have no sense of responsibility, while
+old men cling to their posts very faithfully. He admitted that the
+_Westminster Gazette_ employed some boys as carriers and that the
+whole subject lay somewhat heavily on his conscience because,
+"practically speaking, these boys have no future ... a few of them may
+become cyclists carrying the newspapers ... in a few years their
+usefulness as cyclists has gone ... then they simply drift away, we
+don't know where, but we do know that they drift to places like
+Salvation Army Shelters, etc. How they earn their living is always one
+of the mysteries of London.... But they have learned nothing from us,
+nothing that gives them any usefulness for any other occupation....
+The great majority become casual labourers dependent entirely on
+casual work.... It is a life in which very little is gained, although
+one would suppose that the open air would be of great benefit. But
+one must remember the insufficient food that these street traders
+have, and the bad conditions of living and the irregular hours. Many
+of these boys, of course, are up all hours of the night.... It is
+quite as bad for a boy in the long run to be engaged as a carrier
+distributor as for him to sell newspapers in the street. There is no
+possible argument for the system except that one's competitors do it,
+and that so long as they do it we must do the same.... We get
+practically all our men from Salvation Army and Church Army Shelters.
+There is an abundant supply.... The ordinary man whom we employ is
+over fifty years of age and runs up to about seventy years.... I think
+if the police would give us every facility for introducing kiosks it
+would be a great improvement upon the present system. If boys were
+prohibited from selling newspapers altogether on the streets, it would
+automatically send the public to the kiosk; ... the public get into
+the habit of getting the newspapers from the boys."[63]
+
+It should be remembered in connection with the above statements that
+the _Westminster Gazette_ is a penny paper, and its manager was of
+opinion that the half-penny papers could not afford to employ men
+because they depended largely for their circulation upon the
+persistence of newsboys in thrusting copies upon the attention of
+people in the streets; he believed that the use of old men would
+curtail their circulation because men are not so active as boys. On
+the other hand, news agents protested against the competition of
+street traders and maintained that they alone were fully able to meet
+the demands of the public. The departmental committee of 1910
+reported: "There can, we think, be little doubt that an active child
+is an effective agent in promoting the circulation of half-penny
+papers, and that if the employment of children were forbidden,
+newspapers would have to rely upon facilities of a more staid and less
+mobile character. But we see no reason to think that purchasers of
+newspapers need be put to any inconvenience, since the news agents
+would be in a position considerably to extend their business, and it
+might reasonably be expected that the system of employing old men as
+salesmen would also be developed. It appears to us economically
+unjustifiable to use children to their own detriment for work which
+can be done by other means."[64]
+
+Referring to the great possibilities for good involved in confining
+the sale and delivery of newspapers to adults who need outdoor work
+and are unable to provide for themselves in other ways, the Secretary
+of the New York Child Labor Committee says: "Where such cities as
+Paris and Berlin do entirely without newsboys--corner stands taking
+their places--it would seem that the least that can be done in
+American cities is to adopt some adequate system of regulation. In
+this connection, the opportunity presented in newspaper selling to
+give work to the aged and handicapped--who otherwise would have to be
+supported by private charity--should not be overlooked."[65]
+
+
+                         _The Newsboys' Court_
+
+In an effort to control to some extent the tendency of newsboys to
+become delinquent and to imbue them with a sense of personal
+responsibility, an interesting experiment in juvenile suffrage and
+jurisprudence has been undertaken in Boston.
+
+During the year 1909, about three hundred newsboys were taken before
+the juvenile court of that city charged with violation of the local
+license rules. As the docket of this court was crowded, these newsboy
+cases were necessarily delayed, and as a result of this situation the
+boys conceived the idea of establishing a newsboys' court which should
+have jurisdiction in all cases of failure to observe the rules
+governing their trade. The following year a petition was presented to
+the Boston School Committee which was favorably acted upon by that
+body, and accordingly on the regular election day of that year the
+newsboys cast their ballots to select three juvenile judges of the
+court. These three boys, together with two adults appointed by the
+School Committee, compose the court. Election of these boy judges is
+held annually, and all licensed newsboys who attend the public schools
+are qualified electors. The court is empowered to investigate and
+report its findings with recommendations to the School Committee in
+all cases of infraction of the newsboy rules. Under the Massachusetts
+law the School Committee is authorized to regulate street trading by
+children under fourteen years of age, hence the newsboys are subject
+to purely local supervision. The supervisor of licensed minors, also
+an appointee of the School Committee, can, in his discretion, take
+complaints in his department before the newsboys' court instead of the
+juvenile court. The newsboy judges are paid fifty cents for their
+attendance at each official session of the court. The charges made
+before the Trial Board, as the Boston newsboys' court is called, range
+from selling without a badge or after eight o'clock in the evening or
+on street cars, to bad conduct, irregular school attendance, gambling
+or smoking. The disposition of these cases varies from reprimands and
+warnings to probation or suspension of license for a definite period,
+or complete revocation of license.[66]
+
+
+                               _Summary_
+
+Although the work of selling newspapers has been, to some extent,
+subdivided and systematized by circulation managers, it has so many
+features highly objectionable for children that a radical departure
+from present methods of handling this business should be taken. We
+know that the work of the newsboy lacks the oversight and discipline
+of adults, that it exposes the children to the varied physical dangers
+lurking in the streets, that the early and late hours cause fatigue,
+that the opportunities for bad companionship are frequent, that
+irregularity of meals and use of stimulants tend to weaken their
+constitutions, that it offers no chance for promotion and leads
+nowhere. We know further that the presence of the newsboy in our
+streets cannot be justified on the ground of poverty. It has been
+demonstrated in other countries that children are not essential to the
+sale and delivery of newspapers; in fact, it has been shown that
+selling at stands and the use of men instead of children in the
+streets are both feasible and satisfactory. Why cannot such practices
+be introduced into the United States? There can be but little doubt as
+to the advisability of this step, but the innovation will certainly
+not be made voluntarily by the newspapers. The law must force the
+issue by prohibiting street work by children.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+BOOTBLACKS, PEDDLERS AND MARKET CHILDREN
+
+
+                              _Bootblacks_
+
+The itinerant bootblack is gradually disappearing from our cities, but
+he is still found in Boston, Buffalo, New York City and a few other
+places. He is being supplanted by the worker at stands, which are
+conducted almost invariably by Greeks. As a result of this change the
+bootblacking business will soon cease to be a street occupation; it is
+discussed here because of the abuses it involves and because it is
+unregulated in many states, owing to its omission from the list of
+employments covered by child labor laws.
+
+
+                          _The Padrone System_
+
+The New York-New Jersey Committee of the North American Civic League
+for Immigrants reports that: "The condition of Greek boys and young
+men in such occupations as pushcart peddling, shoe-shining parlors and
+the flower trade is one of servitude and peonage. It has been found
+that many boys apparently from fourteen to eighteen years of age
+arrive here alone, stating that they are eighteen years old, but in
+reality less than this, and that they are going to relatives. They
+have been found working in the shoe-shining parlors seven days a week
+from 7 A.M. to 9 P.M. and living with the 'boss' in groups varying
+from five to twenty-five under unsanitary conditions, overcrowding and
+irregularity of meals wholly undesirable for young boys. They are
+isolated from learning English or from American contact, and receive
+for their work from $7 to $15 a month and board and lodging. The
+majority of the flower peddlers have been unable to obtain permits,
+with the result that the boys who work for them are arrested for
+violating the law. Boys who have been in the country from three months
+to a year state they have been arrested several times--their first
+experience in this country--and are already hardened so that they
+think nothing of paying fines."[67]
+
+The bootblack business is the chief industry to which the Greek
+padrone system is applied. The United States Immigration Commission
+found[68] that boys employed as bootblacks live in extremely
+unwholesome quarters. Wherever the room is large enough, several beds
+are gathered together with three and sometimes four boys sleeping in
+each bed. In some places the boys merely roll themselves up in
+blankets and sleep on the floor. The bootblacking stands are opened
+for business about 6 o'clock in the morning, consequently the boys are
+obliged to rise about an hour earlier, and wherever their sleeping
+quarters are located at considerable distance from the stands, they
+have to get up as early as 4.30. Arrived at the stands, they remain
+working until 9.30 or 10 at night in cities, and on Saturday and
+Sunday nights the closing hour is usually later. The boys eat their
+lunch in the rear of the establishment, this meal consisting generally
+of bread and olives or cheese. Supper is eaten after the boys reach
+"home," and after having eaten it they retire without removing their
+clothes. Even after their excessively long work day, two of the boys
+are required to wash the dirty rags used for polishing the shoes daily
+so they can be used the next day.
+
+These boys are compelled to work every day in the year without
+vacation. The Immigration Commission found that they are under
+constant espionage, as at every stand the padrone places relatives who
+both work for him and act as spies on the other boys. Their employer
+instructs them to make false statements to questions asked by
+outsiders relative to their ages or conditions of work; many padrones
+also censor the letters written by the boys to their parents or others
+and examine all incoming mail, so as to forestall any efforts made by
+outsiders to induce the boys to leave for other places.
+
+The majority of them cannot read or write their own language, and are
+unable to secure any education in this country because of their long
+work hours. According to the Immigration Commission their mental
+development is perceptibly arrested by the physical fatigue they
+suffer as a result of their long-sustained work without recreation.
+They receive no good advice, nor do they hear anything that would
+tend to elevate them morally. The Commission does not hesitate to
+brand these conditions as deplorable; it declares that the ravages on
+the constitutions of these boys laboring in shoe-shining
+establishments under this system are appalling. It attributes these
+effects to the following causes: long hours, close confinement to
+their work in poorly ventilated places, unsanitary living conditions,
+unhealthful manner of sleeping, excessive stooping required by their
+work, inadequate nourishment due to the "economy" of the padrones who
+furnish the food, the microbe-laden dust from shoes, the inhaling of
+injurious chemicals from the polish they use, the filthy condition of
+their bodies resulting from their failure to bathe and the lack of
+proper clothing for the winter season.
+
+The Greek Consul General at Chicago, himself a physician, in a letter
+to the Immigration Inspector of that city under date of November 16,
+1910, declared that as a result of his experience in examining and
+treating boy bootblacks he was convinced that all boys under eighteen
+years of age who labor for a few years in shoe-shining establishments,
+develop serious chronic stomachic and hepatic troubles which
+predispose them to pulmonary disease; he further declared that
+because of the conditions under which they work the majority of them
+ultimately contract tuberculosis, and that in his opinion it would be
+more humane and infinitely better for young Greeks to be denied
+admission into the United States than to be permitted to land if they
+are intended for such employment. Similar statements are made by other
+Greek physicians of Chicago.
+
+The importation of Greek boys for use as bootblacks in the United
+States started about 1895, when the Greeks began to secure their
+monopoly of the industry by taking it away from the Italians and the
+Negroes, confining it, however, to stands or booths. Most of the early
+padrones have become financially independent. Their success attracted
+other Greeks to this industry, and in a short time almost every
+American city with a population of more than 10,000 had bootblack
+stands operated by them. Thus the traffic in Greek boys began to
+flourish.
+
+The Bureau of Immigration helped to have a number of padrones indicted
+and convicted for offenses against the conspiracy statute and the
+Immigration Act, and these prosecutions made the importers very
+careful as to their manner of procedure. They now bring the boys here
+through the instrumentality of relatives in Greece in such a way that
+the padrones are almost beyond the reach of our criminal statutes.
+
+In some cases it has been found that on leaving Greece for this
+country the boys are told to report to a saloon keeper in Chicago or
+in some other western city, hence they do not know their final
+destination. The saloon keeper has his instructions from the padrones
+and acts as their distributing agent. Padrones who operate in places
+distant from ports of entry easily avoid detection in this way.
+
+In most cases these padrones derive an income from each boy of from
+$100 to as high as $500 a year. The Commission explains this as
+follows: The wages paid by the padrones now to Greek boys in
+shoe-shining establishments range from $80 to $250 per year, the
+average wages being from $120 to $180 per year. The boys are bound by
+agreement to turn their tips over to their padrones: in most cases as
+soon as the tipping patron has departed the boy deposits his tip in
+the register, while in other places tips are put into a separate box
+to which the padrone holds the key. In smaller cities and even in the
+poorest locations each boy's tips may exceed the sum of 50 cents per
+day, while in large cities they average higher. The Greek padrone,
+therefore, receives in return from tips alone nearly double the amount
+of wages paid. By deducting the wages and the annual boarding expenses
+for each boy--an expenditure seldom exceeding the sum of $40 per
+year--there is still a sum left to the padrone to pay him for the
+privilege of allowing the boy to work in his place. In other words,
+from the total amount of tips--money that belongs to the boy by
+right--the padrone is enabled to pay the boy's annual wages and still
+have a respectable sum left, all this independently of the legitimate
+profits of his business.
+
+Relatives of the padrones in Greece often pay the steamship passage of
+boys with the understanding that they are to go to the United States
+and serve the padrone for one year to reimburse him for the passage
+money advanced. A mortgage is placed on the property of the boys'
+father as security, purporting that the father is to receive in cash
+an amount equal to the wages commonly paid to Greek bootblacks for
+one year in the United States, but as a matter of fact a steamship
+ticket and $12 or $15 in money are all that is given. The cash is to
+serve as "show money" to help secure admission to this country past
+the immigration officers at the ports of entry. Advertising is
+systematically carried on throughout all the provinces of Greece with
+a view to exciting the interest of the parents so that they will send
+their boys to the United States, and no efforts are spared in letting
+it become known that there is a great demand here for boy labor at the
+bootblack stands. The padrones themselves even go to Greece every two
+or three years, and while there manage to become godfathers to the
+children of many families; this relationship gives them great
+influence, and through it they are able to secure many boys for their
+service.
+
+Concerning the prevention of these abuses, the report says: "In the
+investigations conducted by the Bureau of Immigration many conferences
+were held with United States attorneys in various jurisdictions with
+the view of instituting proceedings against padrones, if possible,
+under the peonage statutes. The attorneys generally agreed that under
+the evidence submitted to them those laboring in shoe-shining
+establishments are peons, but as the elements of indebtedness and
+physical compulsion to work out the indebtedness are missing, peonage
+laws cannot apply.
+
+"Our immigration laws as now on the statute books provide specifically
+for the exclusion of boys under sixteen years of age only when not
+accompanied by one or both of their parents. This provision cannot
+apply to those boys that come in company with their parents, nor to
+those who have their parents in the United States, nor to such as
+successfully deceive immigration officers by posing as the sons of
+immigrants in whose charge they come. If held for special inspection
+at the ports of entry, these aliens can only be excluded if it appears
+that they are destined to an occupation unsuited to their tender
+years. In the absence of any such evidence, the boards of inquiry
+generally admit. Once landed, it becomes a hard matter to trace them
+and almost impossible to secure evidence in the majority of cases, for
+the boys understand that they will be punished by deportation. This
+knowledge makes them persistent in withholding any information as to
+the manner of their entry into the United States."[69]
+
+Quite recently a young Greek bootblack who was working at a stand in
+an Indianapolis office building confessed to a truant officer that he
+was twelve years old, whereupon the chief truant officer of the city
+went to the place, but on his arrival the boy had changed his mind and
+declared that he was fourteen years old, and every one connected with
+the stand supported the statement. Nevertheless the chief truant
+officer proceeded with the case and found that the boy had been in
+this country only about six months, his parents being still in Greece.
+An older brother had a position as a railroad porter but did not stay
+with the little fellow even on the few occasions he was in the city.
+The boy lived at the home of the proprietor of the stand, whose
+relationship to him was a combination of employer and guardian. This
+man operated four stands in the city, and his dozen or more other
+employees all lived at the same place. The chief truant officer
+charged the man with having worked the boy from 7 A.M. to 9 P.M.
+seven days in the week, which was admitted before the Juvenile Court
+by the defendant, who also volunteered the information that the boy
+worked until 11 P.M. on holidays and on Saturdays. Of course the boy
+was being kept out of school.
+
+In its issue of August 12, 1911, the _Survey_ published a letter from
+a correspondent concerning a case of peonage among bootblacks in the
+city of Rochester, N.Y. This particular case was of a pale, thin,
+under-sized Greek lad who worked at a large stand in a local office
+building. He explained that he worked every day in the week from 7
+A.M. to 9 P.M., including Sundays, and that on Saturdays the hours
+were lengthened to 11 P.M., adding that he had not been absent from
+his stand one day in four years except at one time when he was sick in
+the hospital.
+
+A letter which was written by a Greek in Syracuse, N.Y., on May 4,
+1911, to the editor of the Syracuse _Post-Standard_ was printed in the
+same magazine.[70] This letter recites the wrongs of the bootblacks
+and is reproduced below because of its value as one of the rare
+protests which come from the victims of the system:--
+
+"Before I came to this country from Greece, I heard that this country
+is free, but I don't think so. It is free for the Americans, not for
+the shoe shiners. In this city are too many shoe shiners' stands, and
+the boys which work there--they work fifteen hours a day, and Sunday,
+and almost eighteen on Saturdays. They make only from $12 to $18 a
+month and board, but we don't have any good board neither, but our
+patrons give us bread, tea and a piece of cheese for dinner, supper,
+but no breakfast. We don't have any time to go to the church, not in
+school, and without them we won't be good citizens. They won't let us
+read newspapers, because they are afraid if we learn something we will
+quit, but we can't quit because we can't speak English, and we can't
+find another job. Now I don't mean the boys working in the barber
+shops. They make $10 to $18 a week, and they don't work as hard as we
+do. We wish to work as they do. We want the public and Mr. Mayor to
+cut the hours from fifteen to ten, not Sundays, because we want time
+for school, and weekly work, not monthly. I think I wrote enough."
+
+
+                     _Peddlers and Market Children_
+
+The licensed peddlers of Boston are under orders not to engage little
+children to sell for them with or without compensation. "These
+peddlers have hitherto crowded the markets of this city by inviting
+children to help them in the business, frequently for no other
+compensation than the offal of their pushcarts or stands."[71]
+
+The peddling of chewing gum is a common form of street occupation for
+children. In reality it is merely begging in disguise. The Chicago
+Vice Commission reports that its agents found boys under fourteen
+years of age selling gum late at night in the segregated districts of
+the city. At intervals of from two to three hours their investigators
+returned to the same neighborhood and found these little children
+still engaged in this very questionable form of work. One agent
+reported having seen two little girls of about eleven years in the
+company of a small boy of about eight years selling chewing gum in
+front of a saloon in the vice district between nine and ten o'clock at
+night.[72]
+
+The following table gives the sex, age, nationality, standing in
+school, orphanage and occupation of seventeen children found by one
+person in a single trip through the markets of Cincinnati:--
+
+  ====+=====+====+=====+===========+==========+==========+==============
+      |     |    |     |           |  FATHER  | MOTHER   |
+      |     |    |     |           |  LIVING  | LIVING   |
+      |     |    |     |           +-----+----+-----+----+--------------
+  BOYS|GIRLS|AGE |GRADE|NATIONALITY| YES | NO | YES | NO | SELLING
+  ----+-----+----+-----+-----------+-----+----+-----+----+--------------
+   1  |     |  9 | 2d  |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | baskets
+   1  |     | 10 | 4th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | fruit
+   1  |     | 10 | 3d  |  German   |     |  1 |  1  |    | vegetables
+   1  |     | 10 | 2d  |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | fruit
+      |  1  | 10 | 4th |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | fruit
+      |  1  | 10 | 3d  |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | baskets
+   1  |     | 11 | 4th |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | fruit
+   1  |     | 11 | 3d  |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | baskets
+      |  1  | 11 | 6th |  German   |  1  |    |     | 1  | vegetables
+   1  |     | 12 | 4th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | vegetables
+   1  |     | 12 | 3d  |  American |  1  |    |     | 1  | baskets
+   1  |     | 12 | 4th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | sassafras
+   1  |     | 12 | 6th |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | fruit
+   1  |     | 13 | 5th |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | baskets
+   1  |     | 14 | 3d  |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | sassafras
+   1  |     | 14 | 8th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | vegetables
+      |  1  | 14 | 4th |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | fruit
+  ====+=====+====+=====+===========+=====+====+=====+====+==============
+
+Of these seventeen children nine were Italians, six were Americans,
+two were Germans. Five of the children, all of whom except one were
+Italian, were engaged in selling baskets to the passers-by in markets.
+Six of the children, all of whom except one were Italian, were selling
+fruit. Six of the children were selling vegetables and herbs, all of
+them being Americans and Germans. The occupational characteristics of
+these different peoples are shown by their children, the Italians
+predominating in the sale of fruit, the Germans in the sale of the
+products of their market gardens, the Americans, all of whom were
+boys, in the sale of the herbs they had gathered or the vegetables
+cultivated on their home farms.
+
+Of these seventeen children nine were in their normal grades at
+school, while eight were backward and none ahead of their proper
+grades. This large percentage of retardation is due principally to the
+lack of time for preparation of school lessons on the part of these
+children, as much of their afternoons and evenings is taken up either
+with the work of selling in the markets or with the work of assisting
+with the garden duties at home. Of the eight backward children, four
+were Italians and four were Americans. One of the backward Italian
+girls was fourteen years of age and had left school three weeks prior
+to the inquiry; she was the oldest of six children; her father was
+dead, and she was working for her mother in their fruit store selling
+the fruit from early morning until midnight every day in the week
+except Sunday. As she was the oldest child in the family, it is of
+course easily seen that her retardation in school was largely due to
+her having been kept at work in the shop during the afternoons and
+evenings while she was still attending school. An American boy, who,
+although twelve years of age, was only in the third grade at school,
+was employed by his parents to sell baskets in the market, in spite of
+the fact that his father had a store and was fully able to support the
+child properly. This boy was found, as were many other such children,
+selling baskets in the market at eleven o'clock at night after having
+been there since early in the morning. A thirteen-year-old Italian boy
+was only in the fifth grade; he was selling baskets in one market in
+the morning and in another market during the afternoon and evening;
+both of his parents were living, and his father had a "city job."
+There were six children in the family, two of whom were older and
+employed. The entire family of eight persons occupied two rooms.
+
+It is noteworthy that the fathers of twelve of the children were
+living, only five being dead; while the mothers of fifteen were
+living, only two being dead. Not a single child was a full orphan. In
+the great majority of cases it was not necessary for these children to
+work so prematurely.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+MESSENGERS, ERRAND AND DELIVERY CHILDREN
+
+
+Accustomed to seeing messenger boys engaged during the day in the
+unobjectionable task of delivering telegrams to residences and
+business offices, one is likely to regard this service as an
+occupation quite suitable for children and to give it no further
+thought. However, the character of the work done by the messenger boy
+changes radically after nine or ten o'clock at night. At that hour
+most legitimate business has ceased, and the evil phases of city life
+begin to manifest themselves. From that time on until nearly dawn the
+messenger's work is largely in connection with the vicious features of
+city life. The ignorance of the general public as to the evil
+influences surrounding the night messenger service is strikingly
+illustrated by what one Indiana boy told an investigator; he declared
+that if his father knew what kind of work he was doing, a strap would
+be laid across his back and he would be compelled to abandon it. But
+the father did not know; he thought his boy was simply delivering
+telegrams.
+
+The delivery of telegrams forms but a small part of the boy's work at
+night, because few messages are dispatched after business hours.
+Instead, calls are sent to the office for messengers to go on errands.
+The boys wait upon the characters of the underworld and perform a
+surprising variety of simple tasks; they carry notes to and from the
+inmates of houses of prostitution and their patrons, take lunches,
+chop suey and chile con carne to bawdyhouse women, procure liquor
+after the closing hour, purchase opium, cocaine and other drugs, go to
+drug stores for prostitutes to get medicines and articles used in
+their trade, and perform other tasks that oblige them to cultivate
+their acquaintance with the worst side of human nature. One instance
+was found in which the boy was required to clean up the room of a
+prostitute and to make her bed. The uniform or cap of the messenger
+boy is a badge of secrecy and enables him to get liquor at illegal
+hours or to procure opium and other drugs where plain citizens would
+be refused; hence these boys are thrown into associations of the
+lowest kind, night after night, and come to regard these evil
+conditions as normal phases of life. Usually the brightest boys on the
+night force become the favorites of the prostitutes; the women take a
+fancy to particular boys because of their personal attractiveness and
+show them many favors, so that the most promising boys in this work
+are the ones most liable to suffer complete moral degradation.
+
+Messenger service not only gives boys the opportunity to learn what
+life is at night in "tenderloin" districts, but the character of the
+work actually _forces_ them into contact with the vilest conditions
+and subjects them to the fearful influences always exerted by such
+associations. Some believe that this evil could be prevented by
+forbidding the office to allow messenger boys to go on such errands,
+but this is not practicable for two reasons: first, because an
+essential feature of the messenger service is secrecy--the office does
+not inquire into the nature of the errand to be performed, and even if
+it did so, a false statement could easily be made by the patron over
+the telephone; and second, it would be necessary to send a detective
+along with the boy on each trip to see that he observed the rules.
+Boys are eager to run errands for prostitutes for various reasons, one
+being the extra income assured, as these women give tips with liberal
+hand.
+
+Like other street occupations, the messenger service is a blind alley;
+it leads nowhere. A very few boys are promoted to the position of
+check boy in the telegraph office, and fewer still have an opportunity
+to learn telegraphy. Some of the boys become cab drivers because they
+have familiarized themselves with the city streets; others become
+saloon keepers because they have become well acquainted with this
+method of making a livelihood; some are attracted by the life of
+"ease" which opens before them and enter into agreement with
+prostitutes, upon whose earnings they subsist; others have the courage
+to get away from these influences and secure work as office boys or in
+some other line entirely different from the messenger service.
+
+A considerable number of the inmates of state reform schools were
+formerly messenger boys, indicating that this service is one of the
+roads to delinquency. As the immoral influences surrounding this work
+are especially active among youths, the age limit for such employment
+at night should be made high enough to prevent their being so exposed.
+New York State was first to declare that if this work is to be done at
+night it must be done by men, and has fixed the age limit at
+twenty-one years. The late Judge Stubbs, of the Indianapolis Juvenile
+Court, speaking before the Conference of Juvenile Court Officers held
+in that city in November, 1910, said that messenger boys, and newsboys
+who sell papers in the downtown streets, were the boys most frequently
+charged with delinquency before his court, and declared that
+twenty-one years was low enough as an age limit for night messenger
+service.
+
+Other temptations assail the messenger boy in his work, and are
+frequently yielded to. The old practice of raising the amount of
+charges on the envelope of a telegram is notorious and is still an
+ever present problem to the companies. When a boy has been detected in
+this petty crime and is questioned about it, he too often adds to the
+one misdeed the other equally grievous one of lying, whereupon his
+dismissal usually follows.
+
+Under the direction of the writer an investigation of the night
+messenger service was made in 1910 in Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana, the
+following cases being typical of the conditions found in all cities.
+In one of the larger towns of Indiana, a fourteen-year-old messenger
+boy was interviewed one night by an agent of the National Child Labor
+Committee who had called up the telegraph office by telephone
+requesting that a messenger be sent to him. Early in the course of
+conversation, of his own volition, the boy referred to houses of
+prostitution. Upon being asked what he knew about such places, he
+replied: "Too much--I am there half the night. You see they call for
+messengers to run errands for them. Sometimes I get them drinks,
+opium, medicines from drug stores or anything they want. No matter
+what they ask us to do--it's our business to go ahead and do it." The
+boy led the agent to a disreputable negro district and described his
+activities in this region. "No night passes without my making a dollar
+down here," said he. "The niggers are great smokers of opium, and I
+get it for them; they give me a little jar, and I have it filled up
+for them. It costs them $1.50, and I usually get the change from $2."
+The agent feigned doubt so as to elicit more information, whereupon
+the boy offered to get some opium if he were given a tip. The agent
+gave the boy one dollar and told him he might keep the change; in ten
+minutes he returned with a card of opium which was subsequently
+analyzed in a laboratory and found to be the kind ordinarily prepared
+for smoking purposes. This experience was repeated again and again by
+agents of the National Child Labor Committee in different cities and
+proved beyond the shadow of a doubt that these young boys are forced
+into familiarity with the most degrading conditions.
+
+Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in the same town told the
+agent that there were but few business calls at night, and that nearly
+all of their work was in connection with houses of prostitution. This
+boy spoke of the money he received in tips from inmates and patrons of
+these houses, of his receiving liquor and cigarettes from them, and
+remarked, "I do not have to do this work, but I like it; this job is
+too good to give up; I'm learning a lot of things." This little fellow
+described some extremely revolting scenes of which he had been
+witness in these houses, and upon being asked whether his manager was
+aware of the kind of places he was called to, he replied, "Sure he
+does, for he gets the message over the telephone, then he calls one of
+the boys and sends him to the house."
+
+Another messenger in the same city, who was seventeen years old and
+had been in this service for four years, working daily until half past
+two in the morning, said, in talking about the use of drugs by
+prostitutes, "When they are so full of dope that they don't know what
+to do, they call up for a messenger, and sometimes I have had them
+send me out to a drug store for paris green; they want to kill
+themselves, they are crazy with opium; of course I take their money
+and never show up again." This boy also bought a small package of
+opium for the agent. He declared that he knew every house of
+prostitution in the city and was well acquainted with their
+proprietresses. To prove this, he wrote out a list of fourteen such
+places, putting down the streets and numbers at once from memory.
+These were subsequently referred to persons familiar with the city and
+verified.
+
+It is very distressing to read the testimony of a fourteen-year-old
+messenger boy of another city who had been thrown by his work so much
+in contact with evil conditions that he had come to regard these as
+normal. Although only fourteen years of age, he had lost all faith in
+womankind. In walking through the segregated district with the agent,
+this boy called out in advance the number of each house of
+prostitution, thus showing his familiarity with the whole region. In
+his childish, schoolboy hand, he wrote on a slip of paper a list of
+the bawdyhouses, putting down very promptly from memory the names of
+the proprietresses, the names of the streets and numbers of the
+houses.
+
+Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in this city related many
+disgusting details of his experiences in the service at night--of
+prostitutes smoking, cursing and sprawling on the floor dead drunk. He
+stated that he had never smoked before he became a messenger, but that
+when he saw the women using tobacco in all the houses, he thought
+there could be no harm in it. "If ladies do it, why shouldn't I? So I
+began, and now I smoke a pack of cigarettes a day. I get twenty for a
+nickel and smoke all night. If I didn't, I suppose I'd fall asleep. I
+once lit a cigarette from an opium pipe in one of the houses--but no
+more opium for me." When asked whether his manager knew that he was
+sent to these houses, he replied: "Sure he does, he's the one that
+sends us; if we don't go, we get fired. He knows all the women, too,
+because he jokes with them over the telephone when they call up for a
+boy."
+
+A fifteen-year-old night messenger, when asked what he did with the
+money he received as tips, replied: "Last week I lost a dollar in a
+crap game, and I go to moving-picture shows during the day and buy
+different things; I suppose if my people knew the kind of work I was
+doing, I would get a thick leather strap over my back. They have an
+idea that the messenger business is just taking telegrams to reputable
+people. There are very few business calls at night at our office;
+almost all of them come from houses of prostitution. This is going to
+be a very busy week with us because a convention starts to-morrow, and
+the delegates will want us to take them to the houses."
+
+Another Hoosier messenger was only sixteen years of age, although he
+had been in the service of one company for four years and had
+previously been discharged from another company for having defrauded a
+patron. This lad was a typical boy of the street; his features were
+drawn, black lines were below his eyes, and his walk could be
+described best as a drag. "I know every single house of prostitution
+in this city," said he. "I have been in every one. I get drinks in
+most of them, and many a time I was drunk for a whole day in some
+woman's room." This boy, having been in the service several years,
+spoke of the ravages dissipation had wrought on the women of the
+underworld. He had known many of them when they were just starting in
+their life of shame, and remarked their rapid decline. Voluntarily he
+spoke of the venereal diseases from which he had suffered. He said
+that he had been discharged from his first job as a messenger for
+having defrauded patrons. To illustrate how the scheme worked, he
+said: "A woman wanted me to carry a package to some place and asked me
+what it would cost; I said one dollar, and she said she wouldn't pay
+it because it was too much. I told her to speak to the manager and
+gave her the telephone number where my pal was waiting for the call.
+She asked him whether he was the manager, and he said, 'Yes'; then she
+asked how much the charge was, and he answered one dollar. Then I went
+on the errand, and we split the difference. Somehow the manager got
+wise, and out we went." This boy's conversation was a continuous flow
+of vulgarity. When the agent mentioned gambling, the boy drew from his
+pocket two sets of dice and said they were "ready at any time to do
+business. When the first of the month comes around, I am generally
+short or ahead $5. I lost $8 once. When I have no ready cash, I play
+on account of my salary."
+
+An eighteen-year-old messenger said: "I have been in this business
+here for five years, and a night never passes that I don't go to a
+house of prostitution; that's our main business at night. They could
+not afford to have a messenger service in this town at night if it
+were not for the red light district. We have to do all their work,
+because they trust us." This boy spoke of the venereal diseases other
+boys in the service had, and admitted that he had contracted them
+twice himself.
+
+Another eighteen-year-old messenger boy, who has been in the service
+four years and is afflicted with an exceptionally bad venereal
+infection, said among other things, "There are lots of messengers who
+are kept by women. The boys work only for appearances. I knew two
+messengers who worked with me who were kept by two prostitutes for a
+year, then they gave up the job at the same time and took the
+prostitutes to Chicago, where the women worked for them. One of these
+boys is only about nineteen years old now. You don't learn anything in
+the messenger business except to knock down (overcharge a patron) and
+to go around with prostitutes and gamblers. It kills a fellow. I know,
+because I went down the line, and I'm coming out the wrong end." When
+asked why he didn't quit the job, he replied: "You don't suppose I
+want to work for $3 or $4 a week? I'm used to making pretty good money
+and having a good time." He said that he made from $40 to $75 a month
+according to the tips he received, and spent it as fast as he got it.
+Most of it went in gambling.
+
+A fourteen-year-old messenger boy in another city who works from 6
+P.M. to 7 A.M., in speaking of the use of whisky in houses of
+prostitution, said: "We get it for them; the saloons know the
+messengers, and we stand in with them; the more a house sends for
+whisky the better they stand in with the saloon keeper. If the
+proprietress gets locked up, she will always be bailed out by the
+saloon keeper, but if she don't buy enough stuff from him, he will
+refuse to do it. When a proprietress is put in jail, the cops ring up
+for a messenger from the station house, and they send me to the cell
+where the woman is, and she always gives me a note to take to the
+saloon keeper and he goes down and gets her out." This boy said his
+manager knew the kind of places he visited, but was not in the office
+all night. During the late hours of the night the telegraph operator
+and the clerk were left in charge, and the boy remarked that they had
+told him to try to get a woman into the office if he found one on the
+street, and related instances in which this had been done. He was paid
+a salary of $22 a month.
+
+Another fourteen-year-old messenger in this town is paid $17 a month
+salary and makes $10 or $12 a month in tips.
+
+A thirteen-year-old messenger in another city, after having related
+some of his experiences in the segregated district, said: "I tell you,
+it's mighty dirty work for a boy to be in, but I suppose a fellow has
+to learn these things somehow, and I may as well learn them in the
+messenger service as in any other way. I smoke perique so I can sleep
+in the daytime."
+
+A fourteen-year-old messenger in the same city, employed from noon to
+midnight, had been in the service only one week when interviewed by
+the agent; among other things he said: "All the last week I have been
+doing nothing but go to the red light district. I didn't know what
+this messenger business was until I got into it, and I am going to
+quit just as soon as I see a little more of that kind of thing."
+
+In a certain Indiana city there was found a "kid line" messenger
+service, so called because the proprietor was a mere boy who was
+formerly in the service of another messenger company. He had two day
+boys, but at night answered the calls himself. He was fourteen years
+old and told the agent that he had lived in the "red light" district
+more than at his home on account of the number of calls he had to
+answer there, but of course this was exaggeration intended to convey
+the fact that most of his business was with that region. When he
+entered into business for himself, he went to all the prostitutes in
+the "red light" district and told them that he was commencing on his
+own account and that he wanted them to be his customers. "I get a good
+deal of their business. I get it because I know how to treat them. I
+can get them beer on Sunday and can sneak it into their houses. I know
+all the women and can introduce you to any of them, and can get you
+any amount of beer or whisky that you want. When I was working for
+the---- messenger company there was another boy on the force who tried
+to take all the good calls; he divided his tips with the manager, so
+he was sent to all the houses where good tips were given. There was
+one prostitute who liked me pretty well and gave me ten or fifteen
+cents for myself every time I went to her house. I started to answer a
+call there one night, and the other boy ran after me. We got to the
+place at the same time and had a fight in the hall; the men and women
+in the place gathered around us and offered to give us two dollars
+each if we would scrap for them, so we started right in, and before I
+was through with him he had two black eyes and his face was bleeding,
+then he pulled out a knife, but they took it away from him, and the
+next day I was fired. There is a young girl in one of the houses who
+is a chambermaid and wants me to live with her, and maybe I will but
+I'm afraid my mother will get wise."
+
+The fifteen-year-old messenger of another office showed the agent the
+list of about one hundred calls sent in the previous night, nearly
+every one of which came from the "red light" district.
+
+After weighing such evidence we can readily comprehend the justice of
+the opinion rendered by Dr. Charles P. Neill in the following words:
+"The newsboys' service is demoralizing, but the messenger service is
+debauching.... And, saddest of all, this service appeals strongly to
+the children. The prurient curiosity of the developing boy would
+itself incline him to like these calls to houses of prostitution, but
+they quickly learn also that women who live in these sections are more
+generous with their earnings in the way of tips than are the people in
+the more respectable sections of the city.... It can be said that all
+the boys who go into the messenger service do not go to the bad, but
+it can be said with equal truth that it ruins children by the dozens,
+and that if any boy comes out of this service without having suffered
+moral shipwreck he can thank the mercy of God for it, and not the
+protecting arm of the community that stands idly by and makes no
+attempt to save him from temptation."[73]
+
+In 1908 Congress passed a child labor law for the District of Columbia
+which provided, among other restrictions, that no messenger boy under
+sixteen years should be employed between 7 P.M. and 6 A.M.,--_sixteen
+years_, the beginning of the period of adolescence, when boys have the
+greatest need of protection from the vices running riot in cities!
+
+The Chicago Vice Commission devotes several pages of its report to a
+recital of the experiences of messenger boys in connection with their
+work in the segregated districts. One of the telegraph companies
+maintains a branch office close to one of these districts, where eight
+boys from fifteen to eighteen years of age are employed as
+messengers. These boys are called upon to work at all hours of the day
+and night, their tasks being the same as those of the messengers in
+other cities. A number of specific instances of the wretched
+environment into which these boys are thrown, are given. One of them
+who works from midnight until 10 A.M. was sent by a prostitute to a
+drug store for a package of cocaine hydrochloride, for which he paid
+$5.78, receiving $1 from the prostitute as a tip for the service.
+Another messenger was sent out on a similar errand by another
+prostitute two weeks later and purchased for her a hypodermic needle
+for a syringe; he was charged $2 for this needle, the cost to the
+druggist being 19 cents. A few days later a boy was called by another
+prostitute who confided to him that she had discontinued the use of
+messenger boys for purchasing "dope" because she found that they
+talked too much and could not be trusted, adding that she now had a
+newsboy, who sold papers at a near-by corner, buy the cocaine for her.
+A woman who lives in an apartment house and is the owner and
+proprietor of houses of prostitution in the restricted district, is in
+the habit of sending in an order for cocaine to a druggist, who calls
+a messenger boy to deliver it to her residence. This messenger opened
+one of the packages and, suspecting that it was cocaine, sniffed a
+little of it himself. He confessed that he had done this quite often
+since, and it appeared that he had derived a good deal of pleasure
+from it. The same messenger is sent about three times monthly by a
+certain man to a Chinaman, from whom he buys a package of opium for
+$4. On returning from one of these trips he watched the man open the
+package, take a quantity of the stuff, roll it and heat it, but at
+this point the messenger was told to leave the room. Another messenger
+boy has been employed at this particular branch office for more than
+three years, although he is now only seventeen years old; his earnings
+average about $10 per week, including tips. He is of small stature,
+not mentally bright and at present is afflicted with syphilis of three
+months' duration. Another messenger is a boy of foreign parentage,
+only fifteen years of age, who said he had recently been called quite
+often to a certain house of prostitution where an inmate gave him a
+box with a note to a druggist; the contents cost $1.75, but upon
+returning to the woman he would declare that he had paid $2.50, thus
+obtaining 75 cents on false pretenses, and in addition a tip of half a
+dollar. On one of his trips for this prostitute he had opened the note
+and found that it was a requisition for cocaine; on returning he
+placed some of the contents upon his tongue, but did not like the
+sensation and never repeated it. He is in the habit of picking up
+discarded cigarettes and smoking them. In spite of his age, he knows
+the name of nearly every prostitute in this district and can recognize
+these women at sight; he stated that whenever he entered a house of
+prostitution they would nearly always kiss him, and at different times
+he had had sores on his lips.
+
+Another boy who was attending high school was employed as a messenger
+in the downtown district during Christmas week of 1910. He was sent to
+deliver a message in a house of prostitution, and the girl who
+received it offered to cohabit with him free of charge as a Christmas
+present, stating that it was customary to do this for messenger boys
+on Christmas Day.[74]
+
+A number of other messengers told of similar experiences, stating that
+they were often called to houses of prostitution to perform small
+personal services for the inmates. As to regulation of the service, a
+police order was issued in Chicago in April, 1910, to the effect that
+no messenger or delivery boy under eighteen years was to be allowed in
+the segregated districts at any time.
+
+In arguing against the further restriction of the night messenger
+service, the telegraph companies and other interested organizations
+insist that the majority of these boys are working to support their
+widowed mothers or incapacitated fathers; a recent government report
+says, in referring to the table of families in which there are
+messengers and errand and office boys ten to fourteen years of age,
+classified by percentage of older breadwinners, for Boston, Chicago,
+New York and Washington, "These statistics point to the conclusion
+that the greater part of the families now furnishing children from ten
+to thirteen years of age and fourteen years for the occupation of
+messengers and errand and office boys are by no means either entirely
+or largely dependent upon the earnings of such children for the
+family support."[75] The restriction advocated does not contemplate
+the prohibition of this work to boys of fourteen years and upwards in
+the _daytime_; its object is to shield the youths from the vile
+associations necessarily connected with this work at _night_.
+
+
+                  _Night Service by Men--Not by Boys_
+
+Mr. Owen R. Lovejoy of the National Child Labor Committee, in speaking
+of the study of the night messenger service undertaken by this
+organization, says: "The evidence collected justified the committee in
+cooperating with its affiliated organizations to secure legislation,
+and, counting on the _moral interest of the public_ to promote the
+effort, we made the question one for practical and immediate decision.
+Results apparently justify the policy chosen. A bill was unanimously
+passed by the legislature of New York State [in 1910], excluding any
+person under twenty-one years of age from this occupation between ten
+o'clock at night and five o'clock in the morning."
+
+Massachusetts in 1911 forbade the employment of messengers under
+twenty-one years of age between the hours of 10 P.M. and 5 A.M.,
+except by newspaper offices. Utah fixed the same age limit for this
+work in cities of first and second classes between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M.
+New Jersey did likewise as to cities of the first class, fixing the
+age limit at eighteen years for smaller places, the prohibited hours
+being from 10 P.M. to 5 A.M.
+
+Wisconsin also passed a law in 1911, prohibiting the employment of any
+one under twenty-one years of age as a messenger between 8 P.M. and 6
+A.M. in cities of the first, second and third classes. Ohio, in 1910,
+fixed the age limit for messenger service between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M. at
+eighteen years.
+
+Michigan now prohibits the employment of messengers under eighteen
+years between 10 P.M. and 5 A.M., as do also New Hampshire, Oregon,
+Tennessee and California.
+
+Other states having the advanced type of child labor law prohibit the
+employment of children under fourteen years in the messenger service
+during the day and under sixteen years at night. The states of
+Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico, North
+Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia and Wyoming do
+not yet provide any age limit for this work.
+
+The evil effects of the messenger service have also been noted in
+Great Britain. A schoolmaster of Edinburgh says, "Insolence, coarse
+intonation, swearing, lying, pilfering and lewdness are the chief
+products of message going by boys."[76]
+
+A London health officer has testified as follows: "There is a very
+large employment of boy labour now, boys employed as messengers and
+errand boys, which teaches them nothing useful for their future life;
+and when they have outgrown the age at which they can be employed in
+this way, the risk of drifting into the ranks of the unskilled
+labourer is a very large one."[77]
+
+"The government post office telegraph messengers are not employed
+unless they have passed the seventh standard at school and each
+candidate has to provide a satisfactory certificate of health from his
+own medical attendant. A boy of fourteen must also be over four feet
+eight inches in height. The minimum starting wage in London is seven
+shillings a week, rising by a shilling a week annually to eleven
+shillings. On reaching the age of sixteen the boy has to pass a
+further examination in order to qualify for retention. The various
+_private_ telegraph companies offer much the same terms, though in
+some cases they are able to get boys slightly cheaper, as the
+qualifying standard is not such a high one. It is only during the rare
+periods when the supply of boy labour is more plentiful than usual
+that the private telegraph companies will refuse a boy on account of
+his size. The varied nature of the work they are called upon to
+perform is an undoubted attraction in the eyes of many.... That it is
+bad for them morally is less open to doubt. Even when they are more
+actively employed the most that they can hope to learn is a very small
+amount of discipline. A more serious point is the future of the boys
+when they cease to be messengers."[78]
+
+"It is well to point out that the commonest of these occupations, that
+of errand boy or messenger boy, is seldom a desirable one, quite
+apart from the fact that it generally leads nowhere. It lacks almost
+necessarily what the boy most needs--the compulsory training of the
+habit of disciplined effort."[79]
+
+As Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "The test of the work, however, should
+be not whether boys can do it, but what it does to boys."[80]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VI
+
+EFFECTS OF STREET WORK UPON CHILDREN
+
+
+All the evil effects of street work upon children observed by students
+of the problem have been here divided into three groups, under the
+headings of physical, moral, and material deterioration. It must be
+understood that this is a summary of such effects and that while the
+influences of the street are unquestionably bad, any one child exposed
+to them is not likely to suffer to the full extent suggested below.
+However, deterioration in one form or another is invariably noted in
+children who have been engaged in street work for any length of time,
+and this is sufficient proof of the undesirability of such employment
+for our boys and girls.
+
+
+                   EFFECTS OF STREET WORK ON CHILDREN
+
+  Material        { Form distaste for regular employment.
+  Deterioration   { Small chance of acquiring a trade.
+                  { Drift into large class of casual workers.
+
+                  { Night work.
+                  { Excessive fatigue.
+                  { Exposure to bad weather.
+  Physical        { Irregularity of sleep and meals.
+  Deterioration   { Use of stimulants--cigarettes, coffee, liquor.
+                  { Disease through contact with vices.
+
+                  { Encouragement to truancy.
+                  { Independence and defiance of parental control.
+  Moral           { Weakness cultivated by formation of bad habits.
+  Deterioration   { Form liking for petty excitements of street.
+                  { Opportunities to become delinquent.
+                  { Large percentage of recruits to criminal population.
+
+These are the insidious influences permeating street work and rampant
+in all our cities. They are minimized and even denied by certain
+ignorant or interested parties who base their assertions upon the fact
+that prominent men of to-day were once newsboys or bootblacks, and
+therefore jump to the conclusion that their success is due to the
+training received in this way when young. The truth is more likely to
+be that such individuals have succeeded, not because of this early
+training, but in spite of it. Boys of exceptionally strong character
+will force themselves out of such an environment unscathed, but the
+great majority of children have not sufficient mental and moral
+stamina to withstand these influences. The minority will take care of
+itself under any circumstances,--it is with the weaker majority that
+we must deal. The problem is an urgent one, but generally ignored,
+for, as Myron E. Adams says, the public sees the street worker at his
+best and neglects him at his worst.
+
+The charge that in street work a child has small chance of acquiring a
+suitable trade is one of the worst counts in the indictment. Street
+work leads to nothing else; the various occupations are so many
+industrial pitfalls, and the children who get into them must sooner or
+later struggle out and begin over again at some other line of work, if
+they would succeed.
+
+"These children (street traders) furnish a very large proportion of
+recruits to the criminal population. Those who do not graduate into
+crime form a liking for the petty excitements of the street and a
+distaste for regular employment. They lack skill and perseverance,
+shun the monotony of a permanent job, and as they grow older either
+follow itinerant and questionable trades or become ill-paid and
+inefficient casual laborers. Therefore these young people are a source
+of waste to society rather than of profit."[81]
+
+The large percentage of former newsboys among the inmates of boys'
+reformatories recently induced an active social worker to send an
+inquiry to the superintendents of such institutions and to juvenile
+court judges in different parts of the country relative to the effect
+of newspaper selling on schoolboys. The statements received in reply
+are set forth in a leaflet which was published in 1910.[82]
+
+These officials are practically unanimous in condemning street trading
+by boys, declaring that newsboys are generally stupid and almost
+always morally defiled; that the pittance they earn is bought at great
+sacrifice; that the spending of their earnings without supervision is
+the worst thing that can befall them; that the life leads to gambling,
+dishonesty and spendthrift habits; that it is a dead-end occupation
+leading to nothing; that it abounds in evil temptations; that the boys
+are comparatively idle and see and hear the worst that is to be seen
+and heard on the street; that the work subjects boys to bad influences
+before they are strong enough to resist them; that delinquency results
+from their enforced association with all classes of boys; and
+concluding that every possible protection should be thrown about the
+young boy. Some of these officers gave due consideration to the
+advantages of street trading, and one made the naïve statement that
+newspaper selling was not a bad business for a boy who could withstand
+its temptations.
+
+Although the law of New York State provides a modicum of regulation
+for street trading, nevertheless it has not been effective because of
+extremely indifferent enforcement. Like almost all other
+street-trading laws in the United States, it places the age limit at
+the ridiculous age of ten years. A movement was started recently in
+Buffalo to remedy the situation, and the following statement was
+published:--
+
+"During the past year we have sought to discover, not by theorizing,
+but by uncovering the facts, what is the effect of street work on the
+boy. School records of 230 Buffalo newsboys were secured. Eighteen per
+cent were reported as truants; 23 per cent stood poor or very poor in
+attendance and deportment. Twenty-eight per cent stood poor or very
+poor in scholarship, while only 15 per cent of the other children in
+the same schools failed in their work. An investigation at the truant
+school showed that 46.6 per cent of the boys there had been engaged in
+the street trades. On the basis of these facts and studies made in
+connection with the schools, juvenile courts and reformatories
+elsewhere, we hope to secure legislation raising the age below which
+boys may not engage in the street trades to twelve years, and making
+it illegal for boys under fourteen to sell after 8 P.M. We are also
+striving to secure better enforcement of this law in Buffalo and other
+cities."[83]
+
+This folder also states that circular letters were sent to all Buffalo
+school principals asking about the effect on scholarship of the early
+morning delivery of newspapers by their pupils, and also to
+physicians inquiring about the effect of such work on physical
+development. The hours for such newspaper delivery were from 4.30 A.M.
+to 7 A.M. Eight principals and six physicians denounced such work to
+every one who favored it. Referring to the occupational history of
+reformatory inmates, a recent report for New York City says: "The
+parental school (school for truants) statistics show that 80 out of
+its 230 inmates were newsboys, while 60 per cent of the entire number
+have been street traders. The Catholic Protectorate, full of Italians
+(noted as street traders), gives us a record of 469 or 80 per cent out
+of their 590 boys interviewed, who have followed the street
+profession, and 295 or 50 per cent had been newsboys selling over
+three months. The New York Juvenile Asylum gives us 31 per cent of its
+inmates as newsboys and 60 per cent as street traders. The House of
+Refuge repeats the same story: 63 per cent of those committed to that
+institution had been street traders, of whom 32 per cent were
+newsboys. If 63 per cent of the House of Refuge inmates have been
+street traders, and if the majority of such have begun their so-called
+criminal careers, which end invariably in the state penitentiary, why
+do we permit children to trade on our streets?"[84]
+
+Another American writer says: "Whatever the cause, the effect on the
+newsboy is always the same. He lives on the streets at night in an
+atmosphere of crime and criminals, and he takes in vice and evil with
+the air he breathes. If he grows into manhood and escapes the
+tuberculosis which seizes so many of these boys of the street, the
+things that he has learned as a professional newsboy lead in one
+direction,--toward crime and things criminal. The professional newsboy
+is the embryo criminal."[85]
+
+The dangers to the morals of children are particularly emphasized by
+those who have given this subject any attention. Mr. John Spargo says:
+"Nor is it only in factories that these grosser forms of immorality
+flourish. They are even more prevalent among the children of the
+street trades,--newsboys, bootblacks, messengers and the like. The
+proportion of newsboys who suffer from venereal diseases is alarmingly
+great. The superintendent of the John Worthy School of Chicago, Mr.
+Sloan, asserts that 'one third of all the newsboys who come to the
+John Worthy School have venereal diseases and that 10 per cent of the
+remaining newsboys at present in the Bridewell are, according to the
+physician's diagnosis, suffering from similar diseases.' The newsboys
+who come to the school are, according to Mr. Sloan, on an average of
+one third below the ordinary standard of physical development, a
+condition which will be readily understood by those who know the ways
+of the newsboys of our great cities--their irregular habits, scant
+feeding, sexual excesses, secret vices, sleeping in hallways,
+basements, stables and quiet corners. With such a low physical
+standard the ravages of venereal diseases are tremendously
+increased."[86]
+
+The economic aspect of this work is magnified by most people beyond
+its true proportion; the earnings of street-working children are not
+needed by their families in most cases, and even in those instances
+where their poverty demands such relief it is wrong to purchase it at
+the price paid in evil training and bad effects of every kind.
+Commenting on this point the chief truant officer for Indianapolis
+says: "A large number of truants are recruited from that large
+unrestricted class whose members are to be found competing with one
+another on our street corners from early until late. The pennies which
+many of them earn are a material aid in replenishing the depleted
+resources of some of our homes. Yet, it is a question whether such
+child laborers will not in the future bequeath to society an abundant
+reward of human wreckage which may be traced to such traffic and its
+many temptations."[87]
+
+As to the bad judgment of parents in seeking the premature earnings of
+their children, a Chicago physician says: "The average newsboy, if he
+works 365 days a year, does not earn over a hundred dollars; if he
+becomes delinquent it costs the state at least two hundred dollars a
+year to care for him. When we remember that twelve out of every one
+hundred boys between ten and sixteen become delinquent, and that over
+60 per cent of these boys come from street trades, it does not take
+long for a business man to figure out that it is rather poor economy
+to let a ten-year-old boy go into at least this field of labor....
+From an economic standpoint the family that sends out a ten-year-old
+boy to sell papers loses a great deal more in actual money from the
+boy's lack of future earning capacity than the boy can possibly earn
+by his youthful efforts. In other words, this sort of labor from an
+economic standpoint is an absurdity."[88]
+
+In its splendid report on street trading, the British departmental
+committee of 1910 stated: "We learnt that much of this money, so
+readily made, is spent with equal dispatch. The children spend it on
+sweets and cigarettes, and in attending music halls, and in very many
+cases only a portion, if any, of the daily earnings is taken home....
+In many towns the traders are drawn from the poorest of homes, but
+numerous witnesses have emphatically stated that their experience
+leads them to think that cases where real benefits accrue to the home
+are rare."[89]
+
+The lack of proper training during childhood almost invariably brings
+about a tragedy in the lives of working people. The premature
+employment of children at any kind of labor which interferes with
+their education and their training in work for which they are fitted
+is most disastrous in its effects and far outweighs in future misery
+the little income thus secured in childhood. A careful student of the
+working class declares: "Many bright and capable men and women in this
+neighborhood [Greenwich Village, New York City] would undoubtedly have
+been able to occupy high positions in the industrial world if they had
+not been _forced into unskilled work when young_."[90]
+
+With reference to the effects of street trading an English writer
+says: "It is difficult to imagine a life which could be worse for a
+young boy. Apart from the moral dangers, it is a means of earning a
+livelihood which perhaps more than any other is subject to the most
+violent fluctuations. But the uncertainty of the income is a trifling
+evil by comparison with the certainty of the bad moral effects of
+street trading on boys and youths. The life of the street trader is a
+continual gamble, unredeemed by any steady work; it is undisciplined
+and casual, and exposed to all the temptations of the street at its
+worst. The great majority of the boys who sell papers drift away into
+crime or idleness or some form of living by their wits."[91] The same
+writer also declares: "Few things could have a worse effect than this
+street trading on those engaged in it. It initiates them into the
+mysteries of the beggar's whine and breeds in them the craving for an
+irregular, undisciplined method of life."[92] And the editor of these
+English studies adds: "It is part of the street-bred child's precocity
+that he acquires a too early acquaintance with matters which as a
+child he ought not to know at all. His language and conversation often
+reveal a familiarity with vice which would be terrible were it not so
+superficial."[93]
+
+Speaking of immorality in the narrow sense of the word, the same
+writer says: "We do not believe that immorality of this kind is
+universal among the boys and girls of the labouring classes, nor do we
+believe that the town youth is any worse than his brother and sister
+of the country. Coarseness and impurity are not the distinguishing
+mark of any one class or any one place. We question whether comparison
+of sins and self-indulgence would work out at all to the disadvantage
+of the town labouring class as a whole. It must be remembered that one
+commonplace factor, the glaring publicity of the street, is all on the
+side of the town youth's virtue. The street has its safeguards as well
+as its dangers."[94]
+
+With reference to the blind alley character of street work, another
+English writer avers: "As in London, the labours of the school
+children [in Manchester] are in no wise apprenticeship or preparation
+for their future lives. The grocer's little errand boy will be
+discharged when he grows bigger and needs higher wages; the chemist's
+runner is not in training to become a chemist. The three farthings an
+hour on the one hand, and the physical, moral and intellectual
+degeneration on the other, are all that the little ones here, as
+elsewhere, get out of toil from which many a grown man would
+shrink."[95]
+
+Another English student of labor conditions declares:
+"Teachers--together with magistrates, police authorities, ministers of
+religion and social workers--are practically unanimous in condemning
+street trading as an employment of children of school age. In this
+occupation children deteriorate rapidly from the physical, mental and
+moral point of view."[96]
+
+Still another writer says: "One great evil which results from this
+life of street trading in childhood is the fact that it is fatal to
+industrial efficiency in after life."[97]
+
+The testimony of Sir Lauder Brunton, M.D., given in 1904, on the
+occasion of the inquiry into physical deterioration in Great Britain,
+is to the point, in spite of the fact that the committee directing the
+inquiry stated that "The impressions gathered from the great majority
+of the witnesses examined do not support the belief that there is any
+general progressive deterioration."[98] Sir Lauder Brunton's testimony
+was as follows: "The causes of deficient physique are very numerous
+... it is very likely that in order to eke out the scanty earnings of
+the father and mother the child is sent, out of school hours, to earn
+a penny or two, and so it comes to school wearied out in body by
+having had to work early in the morning, exhausted by not having had
+food, and then is sent to learn. Well, it cannot learn."[99] Later the
+same witness testified, "One of the very worst causes [of physical
+deterioration] is that children in actual attendance at school, work
+before and after schooltime."[100]
+
+In a special inquiry into the physical effects of work upon 600 boys
+of school age made in 1905 by Dr. Charles J. Thomas, assistant health
+officer to the London County Council's education department, it was
+found that many of the children suffered from nervous strain, heart
+disease and deformities as a result of prolonged labor. Of the 600
+boys, 134 were shop boys, 63 were milk boys, 87 were newsboys and the
+others were scattered among various employments. It was found that
+work during the dinner hour and also the long work-day on Saturday
+were particularly harmful. As to fatigue among the newsboys, of those
+working 20 hours or less, 60 per cent were affected; of those working
+between 20 and 30 hours, 70 per cent; while of those working more than
+30 hours per week, 91 per cent showed fatigue. As to anæmia, among the
+newsboys, of those working 20 hours or less it appeared among only 19
+per cent; but of those working 20 to 30 hours, 30 per cent showed it;
+while of those working over 30 hours per week, 73 per cent were
+afflicted in this way. As to nerve strain, of those working 20 hours
+or less 16 per cent were suffering from it; of those working 20 to 30
+hours, 35 per cent; while of those working over 30 hours, 37 per cent
+showed nerve strain. As to deformities, none were noted among boys
+working less than 20 hours a week, but 10 per cent of those working 20
+to 30 hours or more were found to be afflicted. All elementary
+schoolboys showed deformities to the extent of 8 per cent, but of
+those engaged in different kinds of work from 20 to 30 hours a week,
+21 per cent showed deformities. Flatfoot was found to be the chief
+deformity produced by newspaper selling, this being caused by the
+boys' having to be on their feet too much.[101]
+
+One of the most decisive blows delivered against street work by
+children in Great Britain was the statement of Thomas Burke of the
+Liverpool City Council, a son of working people, who had lived in a
+crowded city street for twenty years, had attended a public elementary
+school until fourteen years of age, where the number of child street
+traders was very large, and had become convinced that "work after
+school hours was decidedly injurious to health and character."
+Referring to the material condition of his street-trading
+acquaintances, he said: "Almost all the boys sent out to work after
+school hours from the school referred to have failed in the battle of
+life. Not one is a member of any of the regular trades, while all who
+were sent to trade in the streets have gone down to the depths of
+social misery if not degradation ... a great proportion of those who
+did not work after school hours, or frequent the streets as newspaper
+sellers, occupy respectable positions in the city."[102]
+
+Miss Ina Tyler of the St. Louis School of Social Economy in a study of
+St. Louis newsboys made in 1910, found that of 50 newsboys under 11
+years of age, 43 gambled, 42 went to cheap shows and 23 used tobacco;
+while of 100 newsboys 11 to 16 years of age, 86 gambled, 92 went to
+cheap shows and 76 used tobacco.[103]
+
+Among the conclusions of the British interdepartmental committee of
+1901 is the following: "Street hawking is not injurious to the health
+if the hours are not long, and the work is not done late at night; but
+its moral effects are far worse than the physical, and this employment
+in the center of many large towns makes the streets hotbeds for the
+corruption of children who learn to drink, to gamble and to use vile
+language, while girls are exposed to even worse things."[104]
+
+The British departmental committee of 1910 declared: "In the case of
+both boys and girls the effect of this occupation on future prospects
+cannot be anything but thoroughly bad, except, possibly, in casual and
+exceptional cases. We learn that many boys who sell while at school
+manage to obtain other work upon becoming fourteen, but for those who
+remain in the street the tendency is to develop into loafers and
+'corner boys.' The period between fourteen and sixteen is a critical
+time in a boy's life. Street trading provides him with no training; he
+gets no discipline, he is not occupied the whole of his time; for a
+few years he makes more money and makes it more easily than in an
+office or a workshop, and he is exposed to a variety of actively evil
+influences."[105]
+
+An important division of the study of street-working children concerns
+their standing in the schools. In New York City a few figures are
+available through a study recently made there. The distribution of 200
+newsboys under fourteen years of age among the school grades is shown
+in the following table:[106]--
+
+  ========================================================
+        |            GRADES             |         |
+   AGES +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ SPECIAL |TOTALS
+        | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |         |
+  ------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---------+-------
+      7 | 2 |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |         |   2
+      8 |   | 3 | 2 |   |   |   |   |   |         |   5
+      9 |   | 1 | 6 | 1 |   |   |   |   |         |   8
+     10 |   |   | 6 | 3 | 3 |   |   |   |         |  12
+     11 |   | 5 | 7 |10 | 7 | 4 | 1 |   |    2    |  36
+     12 |   | 1 | 1 |19 |21 | 9 | 7 | 1 |    3    |  62
+     13 |   |   |   |15 |10 |23 |17 | 7 |    3    |  75
+        +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---------+-------
+  Totals| 2 |10 |22 |48 |41 |36 |25 | 8 |    8    | 200
+  ========================================================
+
+Applying the rule that in order to be normal a child must enter the
+first grade at the age of either six or seven years and progress with
+enough regularity to enable him to attend the eighth grade at the age
+of either thirteen or fourteen, it is found that of the 177 newsboys
+ten to thirteen years of age inclusive, 118 are backward, 57 are
+normal and 2 are beyond their grades. This is shown in the following
+table:--
+
+  ==============================================
+     AGES    |BACKWARD | NORMAL | AHEAD | TOTAL
+  -----------+---------+--------+-------+-------
+       10    |    6    |    6   |   0   |  12
+       11    |   22    |   11   |   1   |  34
+       12    |   42    |   16   |   1   |  59
+       13    |   48    |   24   |   0   |  72
+             +---------+--------+-------+-------
+  Totals     |  118    |   57   |   2   | 177
+  Percentages|  67%    |   32%  |   1%  | 100%
+  ===============================================
+
+This table shows that of the 177 newsboys ten to thirteen years of
+age, 67 per cent are backward and 32 per cent are normal, while only 1
+per cent are ahead of their grades. Boys of these ages are subject to
+the restrictions prescribed by the state law as to hours, and it is
+probable that the percentage of retardation would have been even
+greater if work at night had not been to some extent prevented.
+
+A report of New York City conditions made in 1907, before the newsboy
+law was enforced, says: "The shrewd, bright-eyed, sharp-witted lad is
+stupid and sleepy in the schoolroom; 295 newsboys compared with
+non-working boys in the same class were found to fall below the
+average in proficiency. They were also usually older than their
+classmates, that is, backward in their grades."[107]
+
+Referring to Manchester newsboys above the age of fourteen years, an
+English report[108] says: "They are not stupid, or even markedly
+backward, judged by school standards.... As they grow older they sink
+to a lower level, both morally and economically--in fact, little
+better than loafers, without aspiration, and content with the squalor
+of the common lodging-houses in which they live, if only they have
+enough money for their drink and their gambling." Concerning the
+younger newsboys the same report continues: "Those who are the
+children of extremely poor, and often worthless parents, are often
+upon the streets selling their papers during school hours, and their
+attendance at the schools, in spite of prosecution of their parents,
+is so irregular that they make very little progress. These boys take
+to the streets permanently for their livelihood; a few of them
+continue, after the age of fourteen, to earn their living by selling
+newspapers, but most of them sink into less satisfactory kinds of
+occupation." In connection with these statements it should be
+remembered that they portray conditions existing prior to the adoption
+in 1902 of local rules on street trading. With reference to the
+alleged cleverness of street Arabs, a British observer draws this
+distinction: "Street-trading children are more cunning than other
+children, but not more intelligent."[109]
+
+In St. Louis there was no regulation until the Missouri law of 1911
+was passed; and in 1910 Miss Ina Tyler, in a study of 106 newsboys of
+that city, found the following conditions:--
+
+                           NUMBER BELOW NORMAL
+  YEARS                      SCHOOL GRADE
+
+  10                       10  out of  16  62%
+  11                       12  out of  16  75%
+  12                       16  out of  28  57%
+  13                       25  out of  33  75%
+  14                       11  out of  13  84%
+                           --         ---  ---
+                           74         106  70%
+
+These figures were copied by the writer from charts displayed at the
+child labor exhibit of the National Conference of Charities and
+Correction in St. Louis in 1910, but efforts to ascertain the method
+of determining these percentages were unavailing. Therefore they
+cannot be compared with the figures in the preceding tables, because
+it is by no means certain that the standard ages for normal school
+standing were adopted in the compilation of this table.
+
+In Toledo, Ohio, there is no regulation governing street work by
+children, although a local association makes an effort to look after
+the welfare of newsboys. In October, 1911, the writer visited the four
+public common school buildings nearest the business district of this
+city and found 287 children in attendance who were regularly engaged
+in some form of street work out of school hours. The great majority of
+them were newsboys. The distribution of these children according to
+age and grade is given below:--
+
+                                  AGES
+  =====================================================================
+  Grade | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | Totals
+  ------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------
+    1   | 1 | 8 | 5 | 4 | 4 |  1 |    |    |    |    |    |    |  23
+    2   |   |   | 7 |12 | 8 |  2 |  3 |    |  2 |    |    |    |  34
+    3   |   |   | 1 | 5 | 8 | 22 |  4 |  7 |  3 |  1 |    |    |  51
+    4   |   |   |   | 3 | 7 | 17 |  9 | 11 |  6 |  2 |  1 |  2 |  58
+    5   |   |   |   |   |   |  8 | 10 | 10 |  7 |  5 |  4 |    |  44
+    6   |   |   |   |   |   |    |  7 |  7 | 16 |  3 |  4 |    |  37
+    7   |   |   |   |   |   |    |  1 |  5 |  6 |  9 |  3 |  1 |  25
+    8   |   |   |   |   |   |    |    |    |  5 |  7 |  3 |    |  15
+  ------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------
+  Totals| 1 | 8 | 13| 24| 27| 50 | 34 | 40 | 45 | 27 | 15 |  3 | 287
+  =====================================================================
+
+Adopting the same method for determining retardation as in the case of
+the New York figures, we find that of these 287 street-working school
+children of Toledo, 55 per cent are backward, 43 per cent are normal
+and 2 per cent are ahead of their grades. Or, selecting the children
+ten to thirteen years of age, as was done with the New York figures,
+we have the following results:--
+
+  =========================================================
+    AGES     |   BACKWARD  |  NORMAL  |   AHEAD  |  TOTAL
+  -----------+-------------+----------+----------+---------
+     10      |      25     |    25    |          |    50
+     11      |      16     |    17    |     1    |    34
+     12      |      28     |    12    |          |    40
+     13      |      34     |    11    |          |    45
+   Totals    |     103     |    65    |     1    |   169
+  -----------+-------------+----------+----------+---------
+  Percentages|      61%    |    38%   |     1%   |   100%
+  =========================================================
+
+These percentages show that conditions in Toledo are only slightly
+better than in New York City. This is surprising because of the great
+difference in the working conditions of the two cities, the
+metropolitan street children being subjected to far greater nervous
+strain because of the more congested population and heavier street
+traffic.
+
+
+      RETARDED CHILDREN IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (TOLEDO), 1910-1911
+
+             _Grades_
+
+               |    FIRST
+             +-+--------------
+             | |NORMAL AGE 6-7
+             |
+             |      |   SECOND
+             |    +-+--------------
+             |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |
+             |    |      |    THIRD
+             |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 8-9
+             |    |    |
+             |    |    |      |    FOURTH
+             |    |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |      |     FIFTH
+             |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 10-11
+             |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |      |     SIXTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 11-12
+             |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |      |    SEVENTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 12-13
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |     EIGHTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 13-14
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |PER CENT OF
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |ALL RETARDATIONS
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     +-----+----------
+             V    V    V    V    V    V    V    V           V
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+======
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    TOTAL
+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------+------
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+1 year    | 325| 449| 500| 483| 528| 507| 366| 209| 3,367| 53.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+2 years   |  91| 170| 215| 346| 384| 324| 194|  72| 1,796| 28.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+3 years   |  33|  53| 101| 152| 219| 119|  33|  17|   727| 11.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+4 or more |  16|  42|  74| 131| 105|  19|   3|   5|   395|  6.2
+years     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Total     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+retarded  | 465| 714| 890|1112|1236| 969| 596| 303| 6,285|
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Enrollment|    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+each grade|3114|2680|2548|2400|2209|1856|1284| 901|16,992|
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Per cent  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+each grade|14.9|26.6|34.8|46.3|55.9|52.2|46.4|33.6|  36.9|
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+=======
+
+
+  RETARDED STREET WORKERS IN FOUR TOLEDO COMMON SCHOOLS, OCTOBER, 1911
+
+             _Grades_
+
+               |    FIRST
+             +-+--------------
+             | |NORMAL AGE 6-7
+             |
+             |      |   SECOND
+             |    +-+--------------
+             |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |
+             |    |      |    THIRD
+             |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 8-9
+             |    |    |
+             |    |    |      |    FOURTH
+             |    |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |      |     FIFTH
+             |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 10-11
+             |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |      |     SIXTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 11-12
+             |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |      |    SEVENTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 12-13
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |     EIGHTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 13-14
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |PER CENT OF
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |ALL RETARDATIONS
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     +-----+----------
+             V    V    V    V    V    V    V    V           V
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+======
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |TOTAL |
+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------+------
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+1 year    |   4|   8|  22|   9|  10|  16|   9|   3|    81| 51.6
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+2 years   |   4|   2|   4|  11|   7|   3|   3|    |    34| 21.7
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+3 years   |   1|   3|   7|   6|   5|   4|   1|    |    27| 17.2
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+4 or more |    |   2|   4|   5|   4|    |    |    |    15|  9.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Total     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+retarded  |   9|  15|  37|  31|  26|  23|  13|   3|   157|
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Enrollment|  23|  34|  51|  58|  44|  37|  25|  15|   287|
+street    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+workers   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Per cent  |39.1|44.1|72.5|53.4|  59|62.1|  52|  20|  54.7|
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+=======
+
+A comparison between the table given in the report of the Toledo Board
+of Education for 1911 showing the total number of retarded children in
+the elementary schools, and a similar table compiled from the figures
+for the street-trading children in four Toledo schools given on pages
+154 and 155, is most significant. The retardation among the total
+number of pupils enrolled is to be found on page 154.[110]
+
+The corresponding figures for the 287 street-trading children in the
+four schools are to be found on page 155.
+
+It is especially noteworthy that the percentage of retardation among
+the street workers is very much greater than among the total number of
+pupils, in every grade except the eighth, while for all the grades it
+is 17.8 per cent greater. This becomes all the more significant when
+it is remembered that the figures for the total enrollment include the
+street workers; hence the excess of retardation among the latter makes
+the showing of the former worse than if they were excluded, and
+consequently the comparison on page 155 does not appear to be as
+unfavorable to the street workers as it is in reality.
+
+On consideration of the figures in the tables on pages 154 and 155,
+the conclusion is inevitable that street work greatly promotes the
+retardation of school children. There are, of course, other factors
+which contribute to bring about this condition of backwardness, such
+as poverty, malnutrition and mental deficiency, but there can be no
+doubt that the evil effects of street work are in large measure
+responsible for the poor showing made in the schools by the children
+who follow such occupations.
+
+The many quotations in this chapter from authoritative sources with
+reference to the harmful effects of street work upon children
+constitute a most severe indictment. Students of labor conditions,
+specialists and official committees bitterly denounce the practice of
+permitting children to trade in city streets, and cite the
+consequences of such neglect. Material, physical and moral
+deterioration are strikingly apparent in most children who have
+followed street careers and been exposed to their bad environment for
+any length of time. We have provided splendid facilities for the
+correction of our delinquent children through the medium of juvenile
+courts, state reformatories and the probation system, but surely it
+would be wise to provide at the same time an ounce of prevention in
+addition to this pound of cure. Social workers have returned a true
+bill against street work by children. What will the verdict of the
+people be?
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+RELATION OF STREET WORK TO DELINQUENCY
+
+
+The most convincing proof so far adduced to show that delinquency is a
+common result of street work is set forth in the volume on "Juvenile
+Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"[111] being part of the
+Report on the Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+States, prepared under the direction of Dr. Charles P. Neill, United
+States Commissioner of Labor, in response to an act of Congress in
+1907 authorizing the study. The object of this official inquiry into
+the subject of juvenile delinquency was to discover what connection
+exists between delinquency and occupation or non-occupation, giving
+due consideration to other factors such as the character of the
+child's family, its home and environment. This study is based upon the
+records of the juvenile courts of Indianapolis, Baltimore, New York,
+Boston, Newark, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, showing cases of
+delinquency of children sixteen years of age or younger coming before
+these courts during the year 1907-1908. The total number of
+delinquents included in the study is 4839, of whom 2767 had at some
+time been employed and 2072 had never been employed. The entire number
+of offenses recorded for all the delinquents was 8797, the working
+children being responsible for 5471 offenses, or 62.2 per cent, while
+the non-working children were responsible for 3326 offenses, of 37.8
+per cent. This shows that most juvenile offenses are committed by
+working children. The ages of the children committing the offenses
+recorded, ranged from six to sixteen years, and the report adds, "When
+it is remembered that a majority, and presumably a large majority, of
+all the children between these ages are not working, this
+preponderance of offenses among the workers assumes impressive
+proportions."[112]
+
+With reference to the character of the offenses it was found that the
+working children inclined to the more serious kinds. Recidivists were
+found to be far more numerous among the workers than among the
+non-workers. Summing up the results of the discussion to this point
+the report says: "It is found that the working children contribute to
+the ranks of delinquency a slightly larger number and a much larger
+proportion than do the non-workers, that this excess appears in
+offenses of every kind, whether trivial or serious, and among
+recidivists even more markedly than among first offenders."[113]
+
+With reference to the connection between recidivism and street work
+the report says: "The proportion of recidivism is also large among
+those who are working while attending school, and the numbers here are
+very much larger than one would wish to see. Some part of the
+recidivism here is undoubtedly due to the kind of occupations which a
+child can carry on while attending school. Selling newspapers and
+blacking shoes, acting as errand or delivery boy, peddling and working
+about amusement resorts account for over two-thirds of these boys
+(478 of the 664 are in one or another of these pursuits). These are
+all occupations in which the chances of going wrong are numerous,
+involving as they usually do night work, irregular hours, dubious or
+actively harmful associations and frequent temptations to dishonesty.
+In addition, something may perhaps be attributed to the overstrain due
+to the attempt to combine school and work. When a child of 13, a
+bootblack, is 'often on the street to 12 P.M.,' or when a boy one year
+older works six hours daily outside of school time, 'often at night,'
+as a telegraph messenger, it is evident that his school work is not
+the only thing which is likely to suffer from the excessive strain
+upon the immature strength, and from the character of his
+occupation."[114]
+
+While reflecting on the excess of working children among the
+delinquents, one may be inclined to attribute this to bad home
+influences; but the report shows that only one-fifth of the workers as
+opposed to nearly one-third of the non-workers come from distinctly
+bad homes, while from fair and good homes the proportion is
+approximately 76 per cent to 65 per cent. Consequently, the working
+child goes wrong more frequently than the non-working child in spite
+of his more favorable home surroundings.[115]
+
+Of the total number of delinquent boys, both working and non-working,
+under twelve years of age, 22.4 per cent were workers, while of those
+twelve to thirteen years old, 42.4 per cent were workers, and of those
+fourteen to sixteen years old, 80.8 per cent were workers. As
+comparatively few children under twelve years are at work, the fact
+that more than one-fifth of the delinquent boys in this age group are
+working children "becomes exceedingly significant." Of all children
+twelve to thirteen years of age, the great majority are not employed
+because of the fourteen-year age limit prevailing in all the states
+studied except Maryland; hence the larger proportion of working
+offenders cannot be explained by the influences of age. The increase
+of working delinquents above fourteen years is to be expected, because
+so many children go to work on reaching that age.
+
+Remembering that the proportionate excess of workers varies from two
+to nine times the ratio of non-workers, it is evident that this excess
+cannot be explained by a corresponding excess of orphanage, foreign
+parentage, bad home conditions or unfavorable age. As the report says,
+"It seems rather difficult to escape the conclusion that being at work
+has something to do with their going wrong."[116]
+
+The strongest argument against street work by children is to be found
+in the following table[117] of occupations pursued by the largest
+number of delinquents and giving the percentage of total delinquents
+engaged in each.
+
+As the report says, the following classification shows that the
+largest number of delinquent boys were found in those occupations in
+which the nature of the employment does not permit of supervision--namely,
+newspaper selling, errand running, delivery service and messenger
+service. Boys engaged in these occupations, together with bootblacks
+and peddlers, all work under conditions "which bring them into
+continual temptations to dishonesty and to other offenses."[118]
+
+====================================================================
+                       | PER CENT |                      |PER CENT
+        BOYS           |   OF     |        GIRLS         |   OF
+                       |  TOTAL   |                      |  TOTAL
+Industry or Occupation |DELINQUENT|Industry or Occupation|DELINQUENT
+                       |  BOYS    |                      |  GIRLS
+-----------------------+----------+----------------------+----------
+Newsboys               |   21.83  | Domestic service:    |
+Errand boys            |   17.80  |  Servant in private  |
+Drivers and helpers,   |          |    house             |  32.18
+   wagon               |    7.30  | In hotel, restaurant |
+Stores and markets     |    4.23  |    or boarding house |   5.44
+Messengers, telegraph  |    2.59  | Home workers         |  16.33
+Iron and steel         |          |    Total in domestic |----------
+Iron and steel         |    1.84  |         service      |  53.95
+Textiles, hosiery and  |          |                      |
+  knit goods           |    1.84  | Textiles, hosiery and|
+Bootblacks             |    1.77  |   knit goods         |  12.36
+Peddlers               |    1.71  | Stores and markets   |   5.44
+Building trades        |    1.64  | Clothing makers      |   4.95
+Theater                |    1.57  | Candy and            |
+Office boys            |    1.43  |   confectionery      |   4.45
+Glass                  |    1.30  |  Laundry             |   1.98
+====================================================================
+
+The offenses with which the boys were charged are divided in the
+report into sixteen classes. The messenger service furnishes the
+largest proportionate number of offenders charged with "assault and
+battery" and "immoral conduct"; the delivery service those charged
+with "burglary"; bootblacking those charged with "craps and gambling,"
+"incorrigibility and truancy"; peddling those with "larceny and
+runaway," and "vagrancy or runaway." The report calls attention to the
+greater tendency of messengers to immorality, and remarks that it is
+easy to see a connection between bootblacking and the offenses in
+which bootblacks lead. The report continues: "It is worthy to note
+that neither the newsboys nor errand boys, both following pursuits
+looked upon with disfavor, are found as contributing a _leading_
+proportion of any one offense. They seem to maintain what might be
+called a high general level of delinquency rather than to lead in any
+particular direction, errand boys being found in fourteen and newsboys
+in fifteen of the sixteen separate offense groups."[119]
+
+For the purpose of clearly defining the connection between occupation
+and delinquency, and determining whether the delinquency inheres in
+the occupation or in the conditions under which it is carried on,
+there were selected six kinds of employments which are generally
+looked upon by social workers as morally unsafe for children, and a
+comparison was made of conditions as to the parentage, home
+surroundings, etc., prevailing among the workers in these occupations,
+the working delinquents generally, and the whole body of delinquents,
+both working and non-working. Of the delinquent boys under twelve
+years engaged in these six groups of employments (delivery and errand
+boys, newsboys and bootblacks, office boys, street vendors, telegraph
+messengers and in amusement resorts), nearly three-fourths were found
+to be newsboys and bootblacks. As four-fifths of the working
+delinquents under twelve years of age in all occupations are found in
+these six groups, it is evident that this class is largely responsible
+for the employment of young boys, and "comparing these figures with
+those for the working delinquents in all occupations we find that 58.6
+per cent, or nearly three-fifths of all the working delinquents up to
+twelve, come from among the newsboys."[120]
+
+It was found that 54.6 per cent of all the working delinquents had
+both parents living, while newsboys and bootblacks, street vendors and
+telegraph messengers were found to be more fortunate in this respect
+than the great mass of working delinquents, even surpassing the whole
+body of delinquents, working and non-working. As the report says, "One
+so frequently hears of the newsboy who has no one but himself to look
+to that it is rather a surprise to find that the orphaned or deserted
+child appears among them only about half as often relatively as among
+the whole group of workers."[121]
+
+Of the delinquent delivery and errand boys, 78.9 per cent were found
+to have fair or good homes, of the newsboys and bootblacks 75.8 per
+cent, of the street vendors 65 per cent, and of the telegraph
+messengers 78.9 per cent, and in this connection the report declares,
+"Certainly the predominance of these selected occupations among the
+employments of delinquents cannot be explained by the home conditions
+of the children entering them."[122]
+
+The findings with respect to the messenger service fully corroborate
+the charges brought against it by the National Child Labor Committee.
+The report says: "Turning to the messengers, it is seen that they are
+in every respect above the average of favorable conditions. Moreover,
+it is well known that boys taking up this work must be bright and
+quick; there is no room in it for the dull and mentally weak. Plainly,
+then, in this case the occupation, not the kind of children who enter
+it, must be held responsible for its position among the pursuits from
+which delinquents come ... the chief charges brought against it are
+that the irregular work and night employment tend to break down
+health, that the opportunities for overcharge and for appropriating
+packages or parts of their contents lead to dishonesty, and that the
+places to which the boy is sent familiarize him with all forms of vice
+and tend to lead him into immorality."[123] Referring again to the
+messenger service, the report says: "The unfortunate effects of the
+inherent conditions of the work are, however, manifest. Its
+irregularity, the lack of any supervision during a considerable part
+of the time, the associations of the street and of the places to which
+messengers are sent, and the frequency of night work with all its
+demoralizing features, afford an explanation of the impatience of
+restraint, the reckless yielding to impulse shown in the large
+percentage of incorrigibility and disorderly conduct. A glance at the
+main table shows that the two offenses next in order are assault and
+battery and malicious mischief, both of which indicate the same
+traits. On the whole, there seems abundant reason for considering that
+the messenger service deserves its bad name."[124]
+
+With reference to errand and delivery boys, the report finds that as
+the level of favorable conditions keeps so near to the average, it
+seems necessary to attribute the number of delinquents furnished by
+this class more to the conditions of the work than to the kind of
+children taking it up.
+
+The occupational influences of amusement resorts, street vending and
+newspaper selling "are notoriously bad, but a partial explanation of
+the number of delinquents they furnish is unquestionably in the kind
+of children who enter them. It is a case of action and reaction. These
+occupations are easily taken up by immature children, with little or
+no education and no preliminary training. Such children are least
+likely to resist evil influences, most likely to yield to all that is
+bad in their environment."[125]
+
+Having shown that a connection can be traced between certain
+occupations and the number and kind of offenses committed by the
+children working in them, the report next determines to what extent a
+direct connection can be traced between occupation and offense. If a
+working child commits an offense, first, during working hours, second,
+in some place to which his work calls him, and third, against some
+person with whom his work brings him in contact, a connection may be
+said to exist between the misdemeanor and the employment. The report
+insists that either all three of the connection elements must be
+present, or else the offense must be very clearly the outcome of
+conditions related to the work, before a connection can be asserted;
+and it reminds the reader that the number of connection cases shown
+represents an understatement, probably to a considerable degree, of
+the real situation. The number of boy delinquents in occupations which
+show more than five cases of delinquency chargeable to occupation was
+found to be 308; of these, 100 were errand or delivery boys, 129 were
+newsboys, 16 were drivers or helpers, 13 were street vendors and 10
+were messengers.
+
+The number of boy delinquents working at time of last offense and the
+number whose offenses show a connection with the occupation are
+compared, by occupation, in the following table,[126] p. 173.
+
+"Among the errand and delivery boys the percentage (of connection
+cases) is large and the connection close. Larceny accounts for over
+nine-tenths of these cases, the larceny usually being from the
+employer when the boy was sent out with goods, though in some cases
+it was from the house to which the boy was sent. It will be remembered
+that in respect to parental and home condition, age, etc., the
+delinquent errand boys came very close to the average, and their
+antecedents gave no reason to expect they would go wrong so
+numerously. That fact, together with the large proportion of
+connection cases, seems to indicate that the occupation is distinctly
+a dangerous one morally."[130]
+
+  ========================+=============+========================
+                          |             | BOY DELINQUENTS WHOSE
+                          |             |    OFFENSES SHOW A
+                          |     BOY     |    CONNECTION WITH
+                          | DELINQUENTS |       OCCUPATION
+                          | WORKING AT  +--------+---------------
+   OCCUPATION OR INDUSTRY |   TIME OF   |        |   Per Cent
+                          |    LAST     |        |    of Boy
+                          |   OFFENSE   | Number |  Delinquents
+                          |             |        | in Occupation
+                          |             |        |    Working
+  ------------------------+-------------+--------+---------------
+  In amusement resorts    |     40[127] |    7   |     17.5
+  Domestic service        |     50[128] |   14   |     28.0
+  Driver or helper        |    107      |   16   |     14.9
+  Errand or delivery boys |    261      |  100   |     38.3
+  Iron and steel workers  |     27      |    7   |     25.9
+  Messengers              |     38      |   10   |     26.3
+  Newsboys and bootblacks |    346[129] |  129   |     37.2
+  Street vendors          |     25      |   13   |     52.0
+  Stores and markets      |     62      |   12   |     19.3
+  ========================+=============+========+===============
+
+As the various forms of immorality are practiced in secret, the report
+truly says that the evils which are most associated with a messenger's
+life could hardly appear in these studies. "A trace of them is found
+in the case of one boy sentenced for larceny. After his arrest it was
+found that he was a confirmed user of cocaine, having acquired the
+habit in the disreputable houses to which his work took him. Perhaps
+something of the same kind is indicated by the fact that one of the
+few cases of drunkenness occurring among working delinquents came, as
+a connection case, from this small group of messengers. For the most
+part, however, the connection offenses (by messengers) were some form
+of dishonesty, usually appropriating parcels sent out for delivery,
+though in some cases collecting charges on prepaid packages was added
+to this."[131]
+
+The newsboys almost equal the errand boys in their percentage of
+connection cases, though their offenses have a much wider range; in
+fact, the connection cases for newsboys include a greater variety of
+offenses than any other occupation studied. Beggary appears for the
+first time, there being two cases, in both of which the selling of
+papers was a mere pretext, enabling the boys to approach passers-by.
+Street vendors were found to show the highest percentage of connection
+cases, larceny being the leading offense.
+
+The report concludes: "It is a striking fact that in spite of the
+incompleteness of the data, a direct connection between the occupation
+and the offense has been found to exist in the cases of practically
+one-fourth of the boys employed at the time of their latest offense.
+It is also a striking fact that while the delinquent boys working at
+the time of their latest offense were scattered through more than
+fifty occupations, over six-sevenths of the connection cases are found
+among those working in street occupations, and that more than
+three-fifths come from two groups of workers--the errand or delivery
+boys, and the newsboys and bootblacks. It is also significant that the
+connection cases form so large a percentage of the total cases among
+the street traders, the messengers, and the errand or delivery boys,
+their proportion ranging from over one-fourth to over one-half,
+according to the occupation."[132]
+
+In considering the effect of night work upon the morals of children,
+the report says, "The messengers and newsboys show both large numbers
+and large percentages of night work, thus giving additional ground for
+the general opinion as to the undesirable character of their work";
+and again, "In the following occupations the cases of night work are
+more numerous than they should be in proportion to the number ever
+employed in these pursuits: bootblacks, bowling alley and pool room,
+glass, hotel, messengers, newsboys and theaters and other amusement
+resorts."[133]
+
+More than one-fourth of the working boy delinquents were found to be
+attending day school. More than half of these pupils were newsboys and
+bootblacks. It was found that the more youthful the worker, the
+stronger is his tendency toward irregular attendance at school.
+
+Eighty-three boy delinquents were devoting eleven or more hours per
+day to work, and of these, 31 were errand or delivery boys, 7 were
+hucksters or peddlers, 6 were messengers and 2 were newsboys or
+bootblacks.
+
+"For both sexes, the workers show a greater tendency than the
+non-workers to go wrong, even where home and neighborhood surroundings
+appear favorable, but this tendency is not so marked among the girls
+as among the boys."[134]
+
+This report of the government investigation furnishes most conclusive
+evidence as to the evil character of street trading in general. It
+bears out the description so aptly made by a recent writer: "The
+streets are the proverbial schools of vice and crime. If the factory
+is the Scylla, the street is the Charybdis."[135]
+
+Another American writer has lately declared: "A prolific cause of
+juvenile delinquency is the influence of the street trades on the
+working boy. No other form of work has such demoralizing
+consequences.... These boys are brought into the juvenile court, and
+their misdemeanors are often so great that reformatory treatment is
+necessary for them. Accordingly they represent a large proportion of
+the boys in the different institutions. The demoralization produced by
+the street trades affects others than those engaged in such trades,
+but the latter are the chief sufferers; therefore the importance of
+legislation which will shut off this source of infection."[136]
+
+A Chicago physician took occasion to look into the records of the
+juvenile court of that city in 1909, and found that the first 100 boys
+and 25 girls examined that year were representative of the 2500
+delinquents brought into the court during the preceding year. Not less
+than 57 of these boys had been engaged in street work--43 as newsboys,
+12 as errand boys and messengers and 2 as peddlers. Only 13 out of the
+entire number had never been employed. Sixty of them were physically
+subnormal; the general physical condition of the girls was found to be
+much better than that of the boys of the same age, although 40 per
+cent of the girls were suffering from acquired venereal disease.[137]
+
+In the autumn of 1910 there were 647 boys confined in the Indiana
+state reformatory, which is known as the Indiana Boys' School, at
+Plainfield. Of this number 219, or 33.8 per cent, had formerly been
+engaged in street work. To determine the relative delinquency of
+street workers and boys who have never pursued such occupations, it
+would be necessary to compare these 219 delinquents with the total
+number of street workers in Indiana and also to compare the total
+number of inmates who had never followed street occupations with the
+total number of boys within the same age limits in Indiana. A
+comparison of the two percentages would be illuminating, but is
+impossible because it is not known how many street workers there are
+in the state. However, it is safe to assume that the number of
+street-working boys in Indiana is much less than one third of the
+total number of boys. If we accept this as true, then the figures
+indicate that street work promotes delinquency, because one third of
+all the delinquents in the state reformatory had been so engaged. The
+frequent assertion that, merely because a large percentage of the
+inmates of correctional institutions were at some time engaged in
+street work, such employment is therefore responsible for their
+delinquency, cannot be accepted alone as proof of the injurious
+character of this class of occupations, as it is not known how long
+each offender was engaged in such work, nor are the other causes
+contributing to the delinquency of each boy properly considered or
+even known. This defect is avoided in the government's Report on
+Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, which, with
+reference to the common practice of jumping at conclusions in this
+way, says, "This appears to show that selling newspapers is a morally
+dangerous occupation, but the danger cannot be measured, since it is
+not known what proportion of the working children are newsboys, or
+what proportion of the newsboys never come to grief."[138] The
+following tables are of interest as showing in detail the facts as to
+Indiana's delinquent boy street workers, who are confined in the state
+reformatory:--
+
+
+              STREET WORKERS IN INDIANA BOYS' SCHOOL, 1910
+
+            _Table A. Distribution among Street Occupations_
+
+  ==============+============+=====+======+=====+========+======+=====
+  COMMITTED FOR | MESSENGERS |NEWS-|BOOT- |PEDD-|DELIVERY|CAB   |TOTAL
+                |            |BOYS |BLACKS|LERS |BOYS    |DRIVER|
+                +-----+------+     |      |     |        |      |
+                | Day |Night |     |      |     |        |      |
+  --------------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+--------+------+-----
+  Larceny       |  3  |  22  |  88 |   3  |  6  |   3    |      | 125
+  Incorrigi-    |     |      |     |      |     |        |      |
+     bility     |     |   5  |  30 |   1  |  3  |        |   1  |  40
+  Truancy       |     |   2  |  27 |      |  3  |        |      |  32
+  Assault       |     |      |     |      |     |        |      |
+  and battery   |     |   2  |   5 |   1  |     |        |      |   8
+  Burglary      |     |   1  |     |      |     |   2    |      |   3
+  Forgery       |     |   2  |     |      |     |        |      |   2
+  Manslaughter  |     |      |   1 |      |     |        |      |   1
+  Other charges |  1  |   2  |   5 |      |     |        |      |   8
+  --------------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+--------+------+-----
+  Totals        |  4  |  36  | 156 |   5  |  12 |    5   |   1  | 219
+  ==============+=====+======+=====+======+=====+========+======+=====
+
+
+           _Table B. Ages when at Work at these Occupations_
+
+  ==================+=======+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+========
+                    | UNDER |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+                    |   10  | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | TOTALS
+  ------------------+-------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------
+  Day messengers    |       |    |    |  1 |  1 |  2 |    |    |    4
+  Night messengers  |    1  |  2 |  2 |  5 | 12 | 11 |  3 |    |   36
+  Newsboys          |   29  | 29 | 28 | 36 | 19 | 14 |  1 |    |  156
+  Bootblacks        |    3  |    |  1 |    |  1 |    |    |    |    5
+  Peddlers          |    1  |  4 |    |  2 |  3 |  1 |    |  1 |   12
+  Delivery boys     |       |  2 |    |  1 |  1 |    |    |  1 |    5
+  Cab drivers       |       |    |    |    |  1 |    |    |    |    1
+  ------------------+-------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------
+    Totals          |   34  | 37 | 31 | 45 | 38 | 28 |  4 |  2 |  219
+  ==================+=======+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+========
+
+
+                 _Table C. Ages at Time of Commitment_
+
+================+=======+===+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======
+                | UNDER |   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+ COMMITTED FOR  |   9   | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | Total
+----------------+-------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------
+Larceny         |   1   | 2 |  8 | 16 | 16 | 24 | 28 | 19 | 10 |  1 |  125
+Incorrigibility |       | 1 |  4 |  4 |  2 |  7 |  7 |  7 |  8 |    |   40
+Truancy         |       | 2 |  3 |  6 |  4 |  7 |  6 |  3 |  1 |    |   32
+Assault and     |       |   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  battery       |       |   |    |    |  1 |  1 |  5 |  1 |    |    |    8
+Burglary        |       |   |    |    |    |    |  2 |    |    |  1 |    3
+Forgery         |       |   |    |    |    |    |  1 |  1 |    |    |    2
+Manslaughter    |       |   |    |    |    |    |  1 |    |    |    |    1
+Other charges   |       |   |    |    |  3 |  1 |  2 |  2 |    |    |    8
+----------------+-------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------
+  Totals        |   1   | 5 | 15 | 26 | 26 | 40 | 52 | 33 | 19 |  2 |  219
+================+=======+===+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======
+
+
+         _Table D. Nationality and Orphanage of Street Workers_
+
+                                                         OCCUPATIONS
+                  +--------------------------------------- Day messengers
+                  |     +--------------------------------- Night messengers
+                  |     |     +--------------------------- Newsboys
+                  |     |     |     +--------------------- Bootblacks
+                  |     |     |     |     +--------------- Peddlers
+                  |     |     |     |     |     +--------- Delivery boys
+                  |     |     |     |     |     |     +--- Cab driver
+                  |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+                  V     V     V     V     V     V     V    Totals
+===============+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+AMERICAN       |   3 |  25 |  69 |   4 |   6 |   2 |   1 |  110
+NEGRO          |     |   5 |  59 |   1 |   2 |   3 |     |   70
+GERMAN         |     |   3 |  13 |     |   1 |     |     |   17
+IRISH          |     |   1 |   8 |     |   1 |     |     |   10
+POLISH         |   1 |   1 |   3 |     |   1 |     |     |    6
+FRENCH         |     |     |   2 |     |   1 |     |     |    3
+SCOTCH         |     |   1 |     |     |     |     |     |    1
+ITALIAN        |     |     |   1 |     |     |     |     |    1
+JEWISH         |     |     |   1 |     |     |     |     |    1
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+FATHER   | Yes |   4 |  30 | 107 |   5 |   7 |   4 |     |  157
+  LIVING | No  |     |   6 |  49 |     |   5 |   1 |   1 |   62
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+MOTHER   | Yes |   3 |  30 | 119 |   5 |  11 |   5 |   1 |  174
+  LIVING | No  |   1 |   6 |  37 |     |   1 |     |     |   45
+=========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+
+
+            _Table E. Hours and Earnings of Street Workers_
+
+(In only 91 cases were the hours given, and earnings in only 116
+cases.)
+
+                                                       OCCUPATIONS
+                       +-------------------------------- Day messengers
+                       |    +--------------------------- Night messengers
+                       |    |    +---------------------- Newsboys
+                       |    |    |    +----------------- Bootblacks
+                       |    |    |    |    +------------ Peddlers
+                       |    |    |    |    |    +------- Delivery boys
+                       |    |    |    |    |    |    +-- Cab driver
+                       |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+                       V    V    V    V    V    V    V   Totals
+====================+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+=======
+HOURS               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  Day               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+    All             |  3 |    | 29 |  5 | 11 |  5 |    |   53
+    Morning         |    |    | 10 |    |    |    |    |   10
+    Afternoon       |    |    | 11 |    |    |    |    |   11
+--------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------
+  Night             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+    All             |    |  6 |  1 |    |    |    |    |    7
+    Before midnight |    |  2 |  4 |    |  1 |    |  1 |    8
+    After midnight  |    |  1 |  1 |    |    |    |    |    2
+      Totals        |  3 |  9 | 56 |  5 | 12 |  5 |  1 |   91
+====================+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+=======
+DAILY EARNINGS      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  Under 50 cents    |  1 |    | 47 |  1 |  6 |    |    |   55
+  50-75 cents       |  1 |  8 | 23 |  3 |  3 |  3 |    |   41
+  75 cents-$1.00    |  1 |  4 |  5 |    |  3 |  2 |  1 |   16
+  $1.25-$1.50       |    |  1 |  3 |    |    |    |    |    4
+    Totals          |  3 | 13 | 78 |  4 | 12 |  5 |  1 |  116
+====================+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+=======
+
+
+      _Table F. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910_
+
+                                                   COMMITTED FOR
+                  +--------------------------------- Larceny
+                  |     +--------------------------- Truancy
+                  |     |     +--------------------- Incorrigibility
+                  |     |     |     +--------------- Burglary
+                  |     |     |     |     +--------- Assault and battery
+                  |     |     |     |     |     +--- Other charges
+                  |     |     |     |     |     |
+                  V     V     V     V     V     V    Totals
+===============+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+AMERICAN       | 156 |  66 |  53 |   5 |   2 |  11 |  293
+NEGRO          |  40 |  10 |   7 |   1 |   2 |   5 |   65
+GERMAN         |  12 |   4 |   4 |     |   1 |   2 |   23
+IRISH          |   7 |   3 |   5 |     |   1 |   1 |   17
+POLISH         |  10 |   3 |   3 |     |     |     |   16
+ENGLISH        |   3 |     |   1 |   1 |     |     |    5
+JEWISH         |   1 |     |   1 |     |     |     |    2
+SWEDISH        |     |     |   1 |     |     |     |    1
+FRENCH         |   2 |     |     |     |     |     |    2
+MEXICAN        |   1 |     |     |     |     |     |    1
+ITALIAN        |   1 |     |     |   1 |     |     |    2
+HUNGARIAN      |   1 |     |     |     |     |     |    1
+---------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+TOTALS         | 234 |  86 |  75 |   8 |   6 |  19 |  428
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+FATHER   | Yes | 168 |  62 |  44 |   6 |   3 |  15 |  298
+  LIVING | No  |  66 |  24 |  31 |   2 |   3 |   4 |  130
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+MOTHER   | Yes | 182 |  62 |  50 |   7 |   5 |  17 |  323
+  LIVING | No  |  52 |  24 |  25 |   1 |   1 |   2 |  105
+=========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+
+
+      _Table G. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910_
+
+                                               COMMITTED FOR
+              +--------------------------------- Larceny
+              |     +--------------------------- Truancy
+              |     |     +--------------------- Incorrigibility
+              |     |     |     +--------------- Burglary
+              |     |     |     |     +--------- Assault and battery
+              |     |     |     |     |     +--- Other charges
+ AGES AT      |     |     |     |     |     |
+COMMITMENT    V     V     V     V     V     V    Totals
+===========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+ UNDER   9 |   9 |   7 |   1 |     |     |   2 |   19
+         9 |   7 |  10 |   7 |     |     |   3 |   27
+        10 |  10 |  10 |   4 |   1 |     |   2 |   27
+        11 |  20 |  10 |   9 |   2 |     |   3 |   44
+        12 |  25 |  17 |   8 |     |     |   1 |   51
+        13 |  33 |  14 |  10 |   2 |   1 |   1 |   61
+        14 |  46 |  10 |  14 |   1 |   1 |   1 |   73
+        15 |  47 |   5 |   8 |   1 |   2 |   3 |   66
+        16 |  28 |   3 |  12 |     |   1 |     |   44
+        17 |   9 |     |   2 |     |     |   3 |   14
+ OVER   17 |     |     |     |   1 |   1 |     |    2
+-----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+  TOTALS   | 234 |  86 |  75 |   8 |   6 |  19 |  428
+===========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+
+
+                   _Table H. Behavior in Institution_
+
+  =========+================+====================
+           | STREET WORKERS | NON-STREET WORKERS
+  ---------+----------------+--------------------
+  Good     |    39 or 18%   |      95 or 22%
+  Average  |   175 or 80%   |     321 or 75%
+  Bad      |     5 or  2%   |      12 or  3%
+  ---------+----------------+--------------------
+    Totals |   219          |     428
+  =========+================+====================
+
+By far the largest number of street-working delinquents had been
+newsboys, these being followed by messengers, peddlers, bootblacks and
+delivery boys in the order given. From a hasty glance at these tables
+one might conclude that street workers are not so liable to become
+delinquent as those who never follow street occupations, because of
+the smaller number of the former; but it should be remembered that the
+ratio of street-working inmates to the entire number of street-working
+boys in Indiana is much greater than the ratio of the other inmates to
+the whole body of non-street-working children in the state.
+
+In comparing Tables C and G it is seen that the street workers and the
+non-street workers were committed for practically the same offenses,
+and that their distribution according to offense does not vary widely.
+It is significant that a much smaller proportion of the street workers
+were committed to the institution under the age of ten years, than of
+the non-street workers, indicating that street occupations (which are
+not usually entered upon before the age of ten years), if followed for
+a year or two, contribute largely to the promotion of delinquency.
+
+From a comparison of Tables D and F it will be observed that the
+prevalence of delinquency among the street workers cannot be explained
+on the ground of orphanage, as only 28 per cent were fatherless and 21
+per cent motherless, while of the non-street workers 30 per cent were
+fatherless and 25 per cent were motherless. This indicates (1) that
+street work in the great majority of cases is not made necessary by
+orphanage, and (2) that street work causes delinquency in spite of
+good home conditions so far as the presence of both parents
+contributes to the making of a good home. Furthermore, it will be
+noted in Table E that nearly half of the children for whom figures on
+income could be obtained earned less than fifty cents per day--a small
+return on the heavy investment in the risk of health and character.
+
+The difference in behavior at the institution between the street
+workers and the others is shown in Table H to be almost negligible,
+the latter making a slightly better showing.
+
+An English writer says: "There is no difficulty in understanding how
+street trading and newspaper selling lead to gambling. We are told by
+those who are best able to judge, that of the young thieves and
+prostitutes in the city of Manchester, 47 per cent had begun as street
+hawkers. For the younger boys and girls such an occupation, especially
+at night, turns the streets into nurseries of crime. The newspaper
+sellers are not exposed to quite the same dangers, but they are nearly
+all gamblers. They gamble on anything and everything, from the horse
+races reported hour by hour in the papers they sell, to the numbers on
+the passing cabs, and they end by gambling with their lives."[139]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE STRUGGLE FOR REGULATION IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+The economic activities of children in city streets, commonly called
+street trades, are not specifically covered by the provisions of child
+labor laws except in the District of Columbia and the states of
+Massachusetts, Missouri, New York, Oklahoma, Colorado, Utah, Nevada,
+New Hampshire and Wisconsin. The laws of many other states as well as
+of those mentioned, however, prohibit children under fourteen years of
+age from being employed or permitted to work in the distribution or
+transmission of merchandise or messages. If newspapers are
+merchandise, then children under fourteen years would not be allowed
+to deliver newspapers under the provision just stated. This raises a
+nice question as to what is included in the term "merchandise." That
+there is any distinction between newspapers and merchandise is
+practically denied by the street-trades laws of Utah and New
+Hampshire which provide that children under certain ages shall not
+sell "newspapers, magazines, periodicals or _other_ merchandise in any
+street or public place"; the question of delivery, however, is left
+open by these laws. The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia,
+in the case of District of Columbia _vs._ Reider, sustained the
+juvenile court of the District in its decision that newspapers are not
+merchandise and consequently that children under fourteen years of age
+engaged in delivering newspapers are not affected by the law.[140] The
+judge of the trial court stated in his opinion, "No one will seriously
+contend that the nature of the employment in the case at bar is at all
+harmful to the child." The case at bar was the prosecution of a route
+agent for a morning newspaper on account of having employed a minor
+under fourteen years of age to deliver newspapers. This opinion is
+typical of the misplaced sympathy so commonly bestowed upon these
+young "merchants" of the street. In the case cited, the court
+permitted itself to be drawn aside into an interpretation of the
+letter of the law instead of viewing the matter in the light of its
+spirit. The purpose of such a law is to _prevent the labor_ of
+children, not to distinguish between closely related forms of labor.
+Its object is to afford protection, not to provoke discussion of
+purely technical points. The _labor_ of delivering merchandise does
+not differ in any respect from the _labor_ of delivering newspapers
+(the possibly greater weight of merchandise does not alter the case,
+inasmuch as it is usually carried about in wagons); and as the child
+labor law of the District of Columbia forbids the delivery of
+merchandise by children under fourteen years at any time, it follows
+that the delivery of newspapers by such children should not be
+allowed, because the intent of the law is to protect them from the
+probable consequences of such work. Moreover, the District of Columbia
+law prohibits children under sixteen years from delivering merchandise
+before six o'clock in the morning; yet, under the interpretation given
+by the juvenile court, it is perfectly proper for a child even under
+the age of _fourteen_ years to perform the _labor_ of delivery before
+that hour, provided he handles newspapers instead of packages. The
+inconsistency of this is only too apparent. The spirit of the law is
+lost sight of in the close interpretation of its wording. This is one
+of the obstacles always encountered in the movement for child labor
+reform after prohibitory legislation has been enacted.
+
+American legislation on street trading still clings persistently and
+pathetically to the theory that uncontrolled labor is much better for
+children than labor under the supervision of adults, and consequently
+authorizes very young children to do certain kinds of work in the
+streets on their own responsibility, while forbidding them to work at
+other street occupations even under the control of older and more
+experienced persons. This official incongruity must ultimately be
+rescinded and replaced by more rational and comprehensive legislation.
+The fallacy of permitting such a distinction on the ground that the
+child is an independent "merchant" in the one case and an employee in
+the other, must also be abandoned in favor of a more enlightened
+policy.
+
+
+                     _Present Laws and Ordinances_
+
+The following table shows all the laws and ordinances governing
+street trading by children in existence in the United States in 1911.
+
+The city council of Detroit passed an ordinance in 1877 which forbids
+newsboys and bootblacks to ply their trades in the streets without a
+permit from the mayor. No age limit is fixed, no distinction is made
+between the sexes and no hours are specified. Applicants for the
+permit are customarily referred to the chief truant officer for
+approval, and as a rule permits are not issued to boys under ten years
+of age or to girls. An annual license fee of ten cents is charged, and
+the license holder is supplied with a numbered badge which must be
+worn conspicuously. Owing to its manifest weakness, this ordinance is
+of little avail.
+
+It will be observed from the following table that the common age limit
+for boys in street trading is ten years. When we pause to reflect on
+the import of this, it is hard to realize that intelligent American
+communities actually tolerate such an absurdly meager restriction; yet
+the movement for reform has progressed even this far in only a very
+small part of the country--in most places there is no restriction
+whatever! Some day, and that not in the very remote future, we shall
+look back upon the authorized exploitation of the present period with
+the same degree of incredulity with which we now regard the horrors of
+child labor in England during the early part of the nineteenth
+century.
+
+
+                                STATE LAWS
+
+============+===========+==========+=======+=============+=================
+   STATES   | AGE LIMIT | LICENSES | HOURS | ENFORCEMENT |    PENALTIES
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Colorado,   |Girls, 10; |          |       |Factory      |$5-$100 fine for
+1911        |any work   |          |       |inspectors   |first offense,
+            |in streets |          |       |             |$100-$200 fine or
+            |           |          |       |             |imprisonment 90
+            |           |          |       |             |days for 2d
+            |           |          |       |             |offense for
+            |           |          |       |             |employers. $5-$25
+            |           |          |       |             |fine for parents
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+District of |Boys, 10;  |Boys,     |6 A.M. |Factory      |Left to
+Columbia,   |Girls, 16; |10-15     |10 P.M.|inspectors   |discretion of
+1908        |bootblack- |          |       |             |juvenile court
+            |ing,       |          |       |             |
+            |selling    |          |       |             |
+            |anything   |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Missouri,   |Boys, 10;  |          |       |Factory      |Max. fine $100 or
+1911        |girls, 16; |          |       |inspectors   |max. imprisonment
+            |selling    |          |       |             |one year, for
+            |anything   |          |       |             |child
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Nevada, 1911|Boys, 10;  |          |       |             |Child dealt with
+            |girls, 10; |          |       |             |as delinquent
+            |selling    |          |       |             |
+            |anything   |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+New Hamp-   |Boys, 10;  |          |       |Factory      |$5-$200 fine or
+shire, 1911 |girls, 16; |          |       |inspectors;  |imprisonment
+            |publica-   |          |       |truant       |10-30 days, for
+            |tions or   |          |       |officers     |employers and
+            |other mdse.|          |       |             |parents
+            |Boys, 10;  |          |       |             |
+            |girls, 10; |          |       |             |
+            |bootblack- |          |       |             |
+            |ing        |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+New York,   |Boys, 10;  |Boys,     |6 A.M. |Police and   |Dealt with accor-
+1903        |girls, 16; |10-13     |10 P.M.|truant       |ding to law
+            |publica-   |          |       |officers     |
+            |tions      |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Oklahoma,   |Girls, 16; |          |       |Commissioner |$10-$50 fine or
+1909        |publica-   |          |       |of Labor     |imprisonment
+            |tions      |          |       |             |10-30 days for
+            |           |          |       |             |child
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Utah, 1911, |Boys, 12;  |Boys,     |Not    |             |$25-$200 fine or
+1st& 2d     |girls 16;  |12-15     |after  |             |imprisonment
+class       |publica-   |          |9 P.M. |             |10-30 days, for
+cities      |tions or   |          |       |             |employers and
+            |other mdse.|          |       |             |parents
+            |Boys, 12;  |Boys,     |       |             |
+            |girls, 12; |12-15     |       |             |
+            |bootblack- |Girls,    |       |             |
+            |ing        |12-15     |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Wisconsin,  |Boys, 12;  |Boys,     |5 A.M. |Factory      |$25-$100 fine or
+1909, as    |girls, 18; |12-15     |6.30   |inspectors   |imprisonment 10-
+amended     |publica-   |          | P.M., |             |60 days for pa-
+1911, 1st   |tions.     |          |winter |             |rents permitting,
+class       |Boys, 14;  |          |7.30   |             |and others em-
+cities      |girls, 18, |          | P.M., |             |ploying, child
+            |all others |          |summer;|             |under 16 to
+            |           |          |publi- |             |peddle without
+            |           |          |cations|             |permit. Same for
+            |           |          |       |             |newspapers allow-
+            |           |          |       |             |ing boys under
+            |           |          |       |             |16 about office
+            |           |          |       |             |between 9 A.M.
+            |           |          |       |             |and 3 P.M. on
+            |           |          |       |             |school days
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Massachu-   |Mayor and aldermen or selectmen may make re-|Max. fine $10 for
+setts, 1902 |gulations of bootblacking and sale of news- |child; max. fine
+as amended, |papers, merchandise, etc; may prohibit such |$200 or max.
+1910        |sale or trades; or may require license to be|imprisonment 6
+            |obtained from them. School committees in    |months for parent
+            |cities have these powers as to children     |allowing, person
+            |under 14 years.                             |employing, or
+            |                                            |any one furnish-
+            |                                            |ing articles to,
+            |                                            |a child to sell
+============+============================================+=================
+
+
+                             CITY ORDINANCES
+
+==========+===============+==========+=========+=============+=============
+  CITIES  |   AGE LIMIT   | LICENSES |  HOURS  | ENFORCEMENT | PENALTIES
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Boston,   | Boys, 11;     | Boys,    | 6 A.M.  | Supervisor  |Revocation
+1902, by  | girls, 14;    | 11-13    | 8 P.M., | of licensed |of license
+school    | bootblacking, |          | winter  | minors,     |and fine as
+committee | selling       |          | 9 P.M., | police and  |stated for
+          | anything      |          | summer  | truant      |Massachusetts
+          |               |          |         | officers    |
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Cincin-   | Boys, 10;     | Boys,    | 6 A.M.  | Police,     |Fine $1-$5
+nati, 1909| girls, 16;    | 10-13    | 8 P.M.  | truant and  |for child
+          | bootblacking, |          |         | probation   |
+          | selling       |          |         | officers    |
+          | anything      |          |         |             |
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Hartford, | Boys, 10;     | Boys,    | Not     |             |Revocation
+1910      | girls, 10;    | 10-13    | during  |             |of license
+          | selling       | Girls,   | school  |             |by school
+          | anything      | 10-13    | hours   |             |superinten-
+          |               |          | or      |             |dent
+          |               |          | after 8 |             |
+          |               |          | P.M.    |             |
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Newark,   | Boys, 10;     | Boys,    | Not     | Police and  |Child placed
+1904      | girls, 16;    | 10-13    | between | truant      |on probation
+          | newspapers    |          | 9 A.M.  | officers    |or committed
+          |               |          | and 3   |             |to Newark
+          |               |          | P.M.    |             |City Home at
+          |               |          | nor     |             |expense of
+          |               |          | after   |             |parent
+          |               |          | 10 P.M. |             |
+==========+===============+==========+=========+=============+=============
+
+In an attempt to minimize the bad effects of street trading most of
+the communities which have enacted laws or ordinances on the subject
+provide for the issuance of licenses to boys, and in some cases also
+to girls, in the belief that in this way the work of the children can
+best be brought under some degree of control. However, this is merely
+temporizing, although it affords an opportunity to gather facts and
+undoubtedly marks a step toward a better solution of the problem. This
+is brought out clearly by a recent British report on street trading:
+"Our general impression, gathered in towns in which by-laws had been
+made, was that, though in exceptional cases much good had resulted
+from their adoption, on the whole this method of dealing with what we
+have come to consider an unquestionable evil, has not proved adequate
+or satisfactory. In many instances it has been pointed out to us that
+a system of licensing and badging is but a method of legalizing what
+is indisputably an evil, and that a set of by-laws, however rigorously
+enforced, can at best only modify the difficulties of the
+position."[141]
+
+The social workers of Chicago, keenly alive to the menace of the
+situation, bewail the lack of protection for street workers in the
+following words: "The child labor law and the compulsory school law
+and the juvenile court law form the body of protective legislation
+which has been developing in behalf of the children of Illinois during
+the past twenty years. By none of the three, however, except in so far
+as street trading by a child under ten is counted an element in
+dependency, is the street-trading child safeguarded against parental
+neglect or greed, the vicious sights and sounds of the city street and
+the demoralizing habit of irregular employment."[142]
+
+
+                       _Opposition to Regulation_
+
+The opposition to bringing the street trades under some degree of
+restriction has come, as might be expected, from very interested
+sources. In Illinois the newspaper publishers figured prominently in
+the movement to prevent the passage of the street-trades measure
+introduced in the legislature of that state at its session of 1911.
+This has not always been the case, however, as the circulation
+managers of the five leading daily newspapers of St. Louis wrote
+letters to the legislature of Missouri favoring the passage of that
+section of the child labor bill of 1911, which provided that boys
+under ten years and girls under sixteen years should not sell anything
+in any street or public place within the state. This provision was
+enacted into law, but it is safe to say that if the rational age limit
+of sixteen years for boys had been advocated instead of ten years, the
+newspapers would have been most active in opposing this section. In
+Cincinnati the circulation managers of the newspapers most affected by
+the street-trades ordinance passed by the City Council in 1909 agreed
+to its provisions before the measure was submitted to the Council,
+and consequently it passed without opposition.
+
+In New Haven and Hartford repeated attempts have been made to secure
+regulation of street trading by means of city ordinances, and at two
+sessions of the state legislature bills have been introduced which
+provided for such restriction, but all these efforts have been
+persistently fought by a leading newspaper of Hartford in which city
+it has always been customary to have girls as well as boys selling
+newspapers on the street. In 1910, a city ordinance was passed in
+Hartford providing that boys and girls under ten years should be
+prohibited from trading in the streets and that between the ages of
+ten and fourteen years they should be licensed and not allowed to sell
+after 8 P.M. The newsgirls were not banished from the street because
+it was held that they were "a pretty good sort of girl after all," and
+that so long as it could not be proved that they were _demoralized_ by
+the work, they should be permitted to go on with it. In other words,
+the city clings to the fine old American policy of delaying action
+until some calamity makes it necessary.
+
+The objections offered by interested parties to the by-laws drafted by
+the London County Council at a hearing held in 1906, show that the law
+of self preservation operates in England as in other quarters of the
+Earth. News agents, employing little boys to deliver newspapers,
+declared that conditions were not bad; that the work was healthful;
+that the wages were a great help to poor parents; that they could not
+afford to employ older boys; that the lads should be allowed to begin
+at 6 A.M. and work not more than ten hours a day outside of school
+with a maximum weekly limit of twenty-five hours; that to prohibit the
+delivery of newspapers before 7 A.M. and after 7 P.M. would be a great
+injustice to the trade; that boys wouldn't stay in bed even if 7 A.M.
+were fixed as the hour for beginning work; that such work does not
+interfere with schooling; that the boys are well looked after; in
+short, that the by-laws would ruin them and bring starvation to the
+children. One news agent in declaiming against the hours fixed for the
+delivery of newspapers, insisted that the restriction would throw boys
+out of employment and send them to trade in the streets with their
+undesirable associations, apparently unmindful of the fact that
+delivery boys themselves worked in that environment. The dairymen were
+horrified at the limit placed on hours, urging that the little boys in
+their employ should begin to deliver milk at 5 A.M., as early work was
+beneficial and the wages useful to poor parents. Shopkeepers denounced
+the by-laws as too drastic, because they would prevent such light work
+as errand running at noon and casual employment in the evening after
+7, resulting in hardship to both parents and children; one
+acknowledged that if he were prevented from employing cheap labor his
+business would suffer; another said that he employed a boy at noon and
+also from 5.30 to 9 P.M., the work being light and the parents
+satisfied, and that the training was good for boys. A fruiterer
+actually declared that the limit of eight hours on Saturday would make
+a boy valueless to him; another said he employed a boy for one hour in
+the morning, from 6 to 9 in the evening, and also on Saturday morning
+and evening, in running errands, and that the work was not heavy;
+another employed boys after school from 6 to 9.30 P.M., insisting that
+the work was good for them, as it kept them from the street and gave
+them an insight into business habits.[143] It should be remembered
+that all this work was performed by the children in addition to
+attending school both morning and afternoon.
+
+The testimony given before the British Interdepartmental Committee of
+1901 by the secretary of an association representing many thousand
+retail shopkeepers, would be amusing if it were not so sinister. He
+presented the subject of child labor in a most favorable aspect,
+declaring that the wages were needed on account of poverty in the
+families; that the work was light and had a _very beneficial_ effect
+on health because it was done in the open air; that good meals were
+given in addition to cash wages and were _very beneficial_; that the
+effect on the boys' character was _very beneficial_, as the work
+cultivated businesslike habits and kept the boys from running the
+streets, frequently affording promotion to the higher grades of
+shopkeeping.[144] Another British Committee, investigating conditions
+in Ireland, reported, "We found but one witness (a newspaper manager
+of Belfast) to testify that the present conditions of selling papers
+in the street were satisfactory and cannot be improved; and that
+instead of tending to demoralize, they have the opposite effect."[145]
+
+
+               _Ways and Means of Regulating Street Work_
+
+As to the control of street trading by children there are two methods
+by which the desired end may be approached. First, a mutual agreement
+as to self-imposed restrictions among the managers of all the business
+interests in connection with which children work on the streets. This
+method, however, can be dismissed from consideration at once on
+account of its impracticability. Street work embraces many different
+kinds of commercial activity, and as one manager is the competitor of
+all others in the same line of business and is free to adopt such
+lawful means of placing his wares on the market as he sees fit, it
+would be clearly impossible to force any one into such an agreement
+against his will. Moreover, new competitors may enter the field at
+any time who would not be bound by the agreement of the others, and
+consequently this would soon be broken by the force of competition
+following the intrusion of these new parties.
+
+Second, regulation by constituted legislative authority. This is the
+more feasible method, and such regulation may be obtained from either
+of two sources--the municipality or the state. There is a question as
+to which of the two is the better for the purpose. Regulation by the
+state has the advantage of making the provisions apply uniformly to
+all cities within its borders and is obtained by no more effort than
+is required to get an ordinance through the Council of a single
+municipality. On the other hand, the municipal ordinance has the
+advantage of being secured by residents of the community who are
+intelligently concerned in the local problem and who will therefore
+take an active interest in having its provisions enforced. However,
+the good features of both these methods are united in the English
+plan, a modification of which has been adopted by Massachusetts.
+According to this plan the state fixes a minimum amount of
+restriction and authorizes local authorities, including boards of
+education, to increase the scope of restriction, and provides
+penalties for violation of the same.
+
+As to the degree of regulation, an ultra-conservative measure would
+prohibit boys under ten and girls under sixteen years from selling
+anything at any time in the streets or public places of cities, while
+the age limit for boys is raised to fourteen years for night work. The
+issuance of licenses to boys ten to fourteen years of age who wish to
+engage in street trading is the usual accompaniment of such
+restriction, and while ordinarily of little avail, it could be made of
+some assistance to truant and probation officers in their efforts to
+enforce the compulsory education and delinquency laws. The age limit
+for boys has been advanced to eleven years by the School Committee of
+Boston, and to twelve years for newsboys and fourteen years for other
+street workers by the state of Wisconsin. But all efforts to secure
+such regulation should be based upon the principle that street trading
+is an undesirable form of labor for children, and consequently should
+be subject to at least the same restrictions as other forms of child
+labor.
+
+
+               _Probable Course of Regulation in Future_
+
+American child labor laws usually contain a provision to the effect
+that no child under sixteen years shall engage in any employment that
+may be considered dangerous to its life or limb or where its health
+may be injured or morals depraved. This is sonorous, but
+ineffective,--the particular kinds of improper work should be
+specified. In this list of undesirable forms of labor, street work
+should be included. Great Britain has had far more experience in the
+matter of regulating the work of children than any state of this
+country, and, in the light of all this experience, her departmental
+committee of 1910 has emphatically declared that street trading by
+boys under seventeen and girls under eighteen years should be
+absolutely prohibited. This should be our ideal in America. Commenting
+on the banishment of young girls from the streets of New York City,
+Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "If the law against street selling and
+peddling by girls to the age of sixteen years can be thus effectively
+enforced in a city in which the depths of poverty among the immigrants
+are so frightful as they are in New York, there is no reason for
+assuming that it is impossible to prohibit efficiently street selling
+by boys."[146] Girls under eighteen years should never be allowed to
+go out in the streets for commercial purposes, no matter how innocent
+these purposes may be in themselves. One of the most important
+features of the movement in America should be the absolute prohibition
+of such work by minors under eighteen years at night; this is urged
+because it is in harmony with the provisions of our most advanced
+child labor laws and is fully justified because of the evil character
+of the influences rampant in cities after dark, and because such night
+work affords children a constant opportunity to cultivate their
+acquaintance with, if not to know for the first time, conditions from
+which every effort should be made to isolate them. For night messenger
+service the age limit should be twenty-one years.
+
+The enforcement of such regulation as is now provided by the few
+states and cities which have given this subject any attention, is
+variously intrusted to factory inspectors, police, truant and
+probation officers, but in Boston the school committee has delivered
+this task into the hands of one man who is known as the supervisor of
+licensed minors. The Boston plan for enforcement seems to have given
+better results than the common system of intrusting the enforcement to
+officers already overburdened with other duties, but it is clearly
+impossible for one officer to handle the situation unaided in a large
+city--the plan would be considerably improved by the appointment of
+several assistants.
+
+"The licensing by the Boston School Committee of minors of school age
+to trade in the streets of Boston came about through an act of
+legislature in 1902. The need of supervision of minors licensed under
+this act became very apparent, as their numbers increased and their
+street influences reacting on their school life became better
+understood. To meet this need a supervisor of licensed minors was
+appointed whose duties are to secure the strict enforcement of the
+law, regulations governing the various forms of street work of
+children of school age, also to have general supervision of the
+details of the licensing department."[147]
+
+Human nature in children is not in the least unlike human nature in
+adults. Just as we need an interstate commerce commission backed by
+the federal government to supervise the large business affairs of men,
+so do we need a supervisor of children's commercial activities in city
+streets, clothed with authority by the municipal government.
+
+The Boston plan is now being advocated for New York City: "In the
+street trades the Committee recommends that the principle of
+supervision of licensed minors, as practised for a number of years in
+Boston, be adopted, and that an office be created in the Department of
+Education that shall have supervisory control of all minors engaged in
+street trades. It recommends furthermore that the minimum age limit
+for licensing boys be raised from ten to fourteen years, and that the
+legal limit for selling at night be reduced from 10 to 8, to
+correspond more nearly with the provisions of labor legislation
+dealing with children in factories."[148]
+
+The first attempt to control the situation in New York City was
+intrusted to the police, but the results were not satisfactory, as
+they looked upon the matter with indifference. Subsequently the truant
+officers also were charged with this duty, and in 1908 four men were
+assigned to give their entire attention to this work between 3 P.M.
+and 11 P.M., and at present eight men are so engaged, but no very
+marked improvement is noticeable. In Rochester the enforcement of the
+state law was brought about through the efforts of the women of that
+city; both business women and shoppers were asked to consider
+themselves members of a vigilance committee and to notify the board of
+education and the police department by telephone whenever any
+violations of the law were observed upon the streets. Within five days
+so many complaints had been received that both the superintendent of
+schools and the president of the board of education arranged a meeting
+at which their attention was invited to the widespread disregard of
+the law. As a result, steps were taken at once to insure enforcement,
+and finally the board of education appointed one truant officer, and
+the commissioner of police detailed a policeman especially for the
+work of reporting violations.
+
+In addition to providing an improved method of enforcement, efforts
+have been made in Boston to deal more effectively with the difficult
+problem of keeping street traders out of saloons, the licensing board
+having issued an order to all holders of liquor licenses to prohibit
+minors from loitering upon the licensed premises, more especially
+newsboys and messenger boys.
+
+The efforts of the school committee to regulate street trading in
+Boston have been further supplemented by organizing a Newsboys'
+Republic, which is described as follows: "Perhaps the most important
+result of supervision so far has been the gradual introduction of a
+plan for self government among the licensed newsboys through the
+so-called Boston School Newsboys' Association. This association is
+pledged to the enforcement of the license rules and the suppression of
+smoking, gambling and other street vices, more or less common among
+the street boys of certain neighborhoods. The association is run by
+the boys themselves, through officers of their own choosing,
+consisting of one newsboy captain and two lieutenants for each school
+district; also a chief captain and general secretary and an executive
+board of seven elected from the ranks of the captains. The general
+duties of the captains and lieutenants are, first, to see that all
+licensed newsboys of their respective school districts live up to
+their license rules, and the principles of the association. Secondly,
+to see that all boys not licensed shall not interfere with or in any
+way hurt the business of the licensed newsboys. These duties are
+performed through weekly inspections on the street, supplemented by
+monthly inspection at schools, at which time branch meetings of all
+the boys in each district are frequently held."[149]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IX
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF STREET TRADES REGULATION IN EUROPE
+
+
+                            _Great Britain_
+
+Attention was called to the problem of street trading by children in
+England for the first time, in a comprehensive way, in 1897. A few
+close observers of social conditions noticed that the situation was so
+grave as to demand an immediate remedy, and accordingly, upon their
+initiative, an organization was effected for the purpose of studying
+the subject. This organization took the form of a private association
+known as the Committee on Wage-Earning Children. The committee
+conferred with the officers of the board of education and succeeded in
+arousing their interest to the extent of securing a promise for the
+collection of a return from the elementary schools of England and
+Wales concerning the labor of public school pupils, their ages, and
+other relevant information. In 1898, the House of Commons ordered
+this inquiry to be made, and in June of that year copies of a schedule
+were sent by the educational department to all the public elementary
+schools in England and Wales. Many schoolmasters misunderstood the
+meaning of this schedule and failed to report the children of their
+schools who were actually engaged in various forms of work outside of
+school hours. Only about half of the schedules were filled and
+returned, but these showed that 144,026 children were following some
+kind of gainful occupation in addition to attending school. Many
+schoolmasters reported pitiable cases of child exploitation, as, for
+example, the following: "Boys helping milkmen are up at 5 o'clock in
+the morning, whilst those selling papers are about the streets to a
+very late hour at night. During lessons many fall off to sleep, and if
+not asleep the effort to keep awake is truly painful both to boy and
+teacher. The educational time, as a consequence, is materially
+wasted."[150] "These are sad cases, viz. one boy (aged eleven, in
+Standard III) works daily, as a grocer's errand boy, for 1_s._ 6_d._
+a week, from 8 to 9 A.M., from 12 to 1.30 P.M., and from 4.30 to 7.30
+P.M. On Saturday from 8 A.M. to 10 P.M. Another boy, aged ten in
+Standard III, works also as a grocer's errand boy for 1_s._ 6_d._ per
+week, from 8.30 to 9 A.M., from 12 to 1.30 and from 5 to 8 P.M., and
+on Saturday from 8.30 A.M. to 11 P.M." And all this in addition to
+twenty-seven and one half hours of school every week! A boy who works
+for 56-3/4 hours a week, selling papers, is employed as follows:
+"Monday to Friday, from 7 A.M. to 8.45 A.M., from 12 to 1 P.M., and
+from 4 to 10 P.M., and on Saturday from 7 A.M., to 10 A.M., from 12 to
+2 P.M. and from 3 to 11 P.M." "This is a very bad case: called at 2
+and 3 o'clock A.M., the boy (aged eight) is so tired that he is
+obliged to go to bed again, and is often absent from school, and made
+to work in the evening as well."[151] Many schoolmasters also
+testified to the need of a remedy; one of these wrote on the schedule:
+"May I be allowed to express my gratitude to the education department
+for making this inquiry, and express the hope that the department will
+be able to frame some regulation to meet and relieve the onerous
+conditions under which many of the young have to gain education.
+Without exaggeration I can truthfully assert that there are to-day in
+our national and board schools thousands of little white slaves."[152]
+
+Nothing more came of the movement until January, 1901, when the
+Secretary of State for the Home Department appointed an
+interdepartmental committee "to inquire into the question of the
+employment of children during school age, and to report what
+alterations are desirable in the laws relating to child labour and
+school attendance and in the administration of these laws." After
+making careful investigation this committee declared: "In the case of
+street-trading children very strong powers of regulation are required.
+These children are exposed to the worst influences; they enter public
+houses to ply their trade, they are kept up late at night and exposed
+to inclement weather, and the precarious nature of their trade
+disinclines them to steady work, and encourages them to dissipate
+their earnings in gambling ... there should be power to prohibit
+street trading by children; to make regulations as to the age and sex
+of street traders, and the days and hours on which they may ply their
+trade; to grant licenses to those permitted to trade and to require
+the wearing of badges or uniforms; to forbid street traders to enter
+public houses or to importune or obstruct passengers; and generally to
+control their conduct and to cope with the evil in every reasonable
+way."[153] The committee further reported: "Our main recommendation is
+that the overworking of children in those occupations which are still
+unregulated by law should be prevented by giving to the county and
+borough councils a power to make labour by-laws; ... further we
+suggest that the gaps that may be left by local by-laws should be
+filled up by a general prohibition of night labour by children and of
+labour manifestly injurious to health."[154] This committee reported
+that the number of children in England and Wales attending school and
+also in paid employment was far greater than as reported by the
+parliamentary return, estimating that the total number was no less
+than 300,000 in 1898.[155]
+
+One of the witnesses before this committee was a London truant officer
+of eighteen years' experience, who testified that every month he met
+with hundreds of cases of milk boys who "go to work at 5 A.M. and
+knock off at 8.30 and get to school at 9.45. At twelve they return to
+work, and after school at 4.30 they go again and wash up. The latest
+hour they work is about 8 P.M. I have frequently seen these children
+fast asleep in school. It is a common thing to see children of tender
+age outside the different theatres trying to sell newspapers at 11
+o'clock at night. The percentage of cases in which this work is
+necessary is very small; it simply means that a little more money is
+spent in the public houses."[156] The report of this committee
+contains a great mass of testimony from persons in many walks of life,
+nearly all of whom declared that street trading by children is bad and
+should be regulated. They differentiated between the hawking of
+articles in the streets and their delivery for employers, and one of
+the witnesses from Liverpool testified that the local regulation of
+street trading by children in that city did not apply to bootblacks
+nor to boys who carried parcels because they were not selling
+anything.[157]
+
+In 1902, an interdepartmental committee was appointed to study the
+subject in Ireland, and in its report stated: "The principal dangers
+to which they [street traders] are exposed are those arising from late
+hours in the streets, truancy, insufficient clothing, entering
+licensed premises to find sale for their goods, obstructing, annoying
+or importuning passengers, begging, fighting with other children,
+playing football or other games in the streets, using bad language,
+playing pitch and toss (a gambling game), smoking--all of which are
+matters of common observation, and have been testified to by many of
+the witnesses. In our opinion these evils can be lessened, if not
+entirely removed, by the simple system of regulation, licenses and
+badges."[158]
+
+The direct result of the reports of these committees was the passage
+by Parliament of the Employment of Children Act, 1903. Section 3 of
+this act provides, first, that no child under eleven years shall
+engage in street trading; second, no child under fourteen years shall
+be employed between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M.; third, no factory or workshop
+half-timer shall be employed in any other occupation; fourth, no child
+under fourteen years shall handle heavy weights likely to result in
+injury; fifth, no child under fourteen years shall engage in any
+injurious employment. Sections 1 and 2 of this act give to local
+authorities power to make by-laws regulating the employment of
+children. The provisions of Section 2 concerning street trading are in
+substance as follows: any local authority may make by-laws with
+respect to street trading by persons under the age of sixteen years
+and may prohibit such street trading subject to age, sex or the
+holding of a license; may regulate the conditions on which such
+licenses may be granted and revoked; may determine the days and hours
+during which and the places at which such street trading may be
+carried on; may require such street traders to wear badges and may
+regulate generally the conduct of such street traders; provided that
+the right to trade shall not be made subject to any conditions having
+reference to the poverty or general bad character of the person
+applying for this right, and provided also that the local authority
+shall have special regard to the desirability of preventing the
+employment of girls under sixteen years in streets and public places.
+
+Section 2 b of the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1904,
+imposes a penalty upon _adults_ who cause, procure or allow boys under
+fourteen or girls under sixteen to trade in the streets between 9 P.M.
+and 6 A.M.
+
+An official report made in 1907 gives the names of all counties,
+boroughs and urban districts in Great Britain which had up to that
+time made by-laws to regulate street trading by children. In England
+and Wales, 2 counties, 60 cities and boroughs and 4 urban districts
+had done so; in Scotland, 3 burghs and the school board districts of
+11 burghs and 12 parishes; and in Ireland, 4 cities and boroughs and 1
+urban district had made such by-laws.[159]
+
+By 1910, out of 74 county boroughs in England and Wales, not less than
+50 had made street-trading by-laws, and these included most of the
+larger places; but out of 191 smaller boroughs and smaller urban
+districts only 41 had done so; while among 62 administrative counties
+only 3 had made by-laws. In addition to these, 4 county boroughs and 2
+of the smaller boroughs had made street-trading by-laws under local
+acts.
+
+In Scotland, of the 33 county councils empowered to make by-laws, not
+one had done so by 1910; while of 56 burghs only 3 had passed by-laws;
+of 979 school boards only 27 had made such regulations. Edinburgh
+passed by-laws under a private act.
+
+In Ireland, out of 33 county councils not one had made by-laws; of the
+43 councils of urban districts with a population of over 5000, only 5
+had passed regulations.
+
+In 1909 the Secretary of State for the Home Department appointed a
+departmental committee to inquire into the operation of the Employment
+of Children Act, 1903, and to consider whether any and what further
+legislative regulation or restriction was required in respect of
+street trading and other employments dealt with in that act. This
+committee confined its report, which was submitted in 1910, to the
+subject of street trading; and its great contribution to the cause of
+child welfare is its recommendation that street trading should be
+_prohibited_ rather than regulated. The statute of 1903 prohibits all
+work by children under the age of eleven years, and its restrictions
+on street employment by children above that limit, out of school
+hours, are prohibitions of _night_ work after nine o'clock,
+consequently a child above the age of eleven years who engages in
+street trading is restrained, during the day, only by such by-laws as
+may have been adopted by the local authority. The committee found that
+even in communities where by-laws had been adopted they were not
+always observed, and also that where no by-laws had been passed the
+minimum statutory restrictions were frequently ignored. The report
+declared that: "A considerable amount of street trading is still done
+by children under eleven. Special censuses taken in Edinburgh revealed
+the fact that children as young as seven were trading in the streets.
+The great bulk of the evidence received in and from Scotland points
+to the conclusion that the Act [of 1903] has been almost a dead-letter
+in that country.... Infringements of the Act in Ireland are no less
+common. In Waterford newspapers are sold by children of nine years old
+up to 11 P.M. and later."[160] The issuance of licenses and badges was
+denounced as giving the stamp of official approval to what is
+recognized as an evil, the adoption of by-laws resulting merely in a
+partial improvement of conditions even when rigorously enforced.
+
+After having devoted several months to the inquiry, during which
+evidence was gathered in London, Manchester, Edinburgh, Glasgow,
+Dublin, Belfast, Birmingham and Liverpool in addition to receiving the
+testimony of witnesses from Sheffield, Nottingham, Bolton and other
+centers, the committee made this very noteworthy and significant
+declaration: "We have come to the conclusion ... that the effect of
+street trading upon the character of those who engage in it is only
+too frequently disastrous. The youthful street trader is exposed to
+many of the worst of moral risks; he associates with, and acquires the
+habits of, the frequenters of the kerbstone and the gutter. If a match
+seller, he is likely to become a beggar--if a newspaper seller, a
+gambler; the evidence before us was extraordinarily strong as to the
+extent to which begging prevails among the boy vendors of evening
+papers. There was an almost equally strong body of testimony to the
+effect that, at any rate in crowded centres of population, street
+trading tends to produce a dislike or disability for more regular
+employment; the child finds that for a few years money is easily
+earned without discipline or special skill; and the occupation is one
+which sharpens the wits without developing the intelligence. It leads
+to nothing practically, and in no way helps him to a future career.
+There can be no doubt that large numbers of those who were once street
+traders drift into vagrancy and crime.... Much evidence was given to
+the effect that the practice of street trading, even though only
+carried on in the intervals of school attendance, tends to produce a
+restless disposition, and a dislike of restraint which makes children
+unwilling to settle down to any regular employment. So far as girls
+are concerned, there must be added to the above evils an
+unquestionable danger to morals in the narrower sense. The evidence
+presented to us on this point was unanimous and most emphatic. Again
+and again persons specially qualified to speak, assured us that, when
+a girl took up street trading, she almost invariably was taking a
+first step toward a life of immorality. The statement that the
+temptations are great, and the children practically defenseless, needs
+no amplification. An occupation entailing such perils is indisputably
+unfit for girls."[161]
+
+The need for _prohibition_ of street trading was realized by this
+committee, the change being urged in the following epoch-making
+statement: "After carefully considering the operation of the by-laws
+adopted since 1903, and comparing the present state of affairs with
+that existing before the passing of the act, we have come to the
+conclusion that the difficulties of the situation cannot be said to
+have been met, or any substantial contribution to a solution of the
+problem made, by the existing law and the machinery set up for its
+enforcement. Regulation, however well organized and complete, will not
+turn a wasteful and uneconomic use of the energies of children into a
+system which is beneficial to the community. Consequently we feel that
+we have no choice but to recommend the complete statutory prohibition
+of street trading either by boys or by girls up to a specific age. In
+the case of boys we feel that it would be wise to name an age which
+would render it likely that they would have had full opportunities of
+taking to regular work before they could legally trade in the streets.
+We think the most suitable age would be seventeen, which gives an
+interval of three or four years after the ordinary time of leaving an
+elementary school.... So far as girls are concerned, we feel that the
+arguments in favor of prohibiting trading increase rather than
+diminish in force as the age of the traders advances. The entire body
+of testimony laid before us has forced upon us the conclusion that
+street trading by girls is entirely indefensible, and that no system
+of regulation is sufficient to rid the employment of its risks and
+objections. On the other hand, we have not been able to discover any
+trace of hardship having resulted in any of those towns in which
+by-laws have prohibited trading by girls, or have restricted the ages
+during which trading is permitted. We think that the age of
+prohibition should be higher for girls than for boys, and, while we
+feel that it should, in any event, not be less than eighteen, we
+should be willing to see it fixed as high as twenty-one."[162]
+
+As to the administration of the law, the committee declared that this
+should be delivered into the hands of the education authorities who
+could charge the regular truant officers with the work of enforcement
+or employ special officers for the purpose. The placing of
+responsibility upon the parents of child offenders was indorsed, but
+the committee criticised administrators because of the small penalties
+imposed as fines, the amounts being easily covered by the earnings of
+the traders, and hence an increase of the maximum fine was
+recommended.
+
+A minority report was submitted by four members of this committee who
+declined to support the recommendation of the majority that street
+trading should be immediately and universally prohibited in the case
+of boys up to the age of seventeen. These members held that the cause
+of street trading should first be removed by organizing employment
+bureaus for children, by giving the children the benefit of vocational
+direction, and by promoting industrial education for boys both while
+attending the elementary schools and after.
+
+
+                              _Liverpool_
+
+As to local efforts to regulate the street-trading evil, the first
+steps were taken in Liverpool. In this city the condition of child
+street traders was particularly bad; half of them were girls, and the
+stock in trade was usually newspapers and matches--the children were
+dirty, ragged and running the streets at all hours of the night, the
+apparent trade in newspapers and other articles being frequently used
+to cover up much worse things; in fact, many of the girls were
+practically prostitutes. Quite a number of these children were nothing
+more or less than beggars, and deliberately appeared in ragged
+clothing for the purpose of exciting sympathy. A local association
+undertook to supply them with clothing, but many refused this aid
+"because it would interfere with their trade." Commenting on similar
+practices among the street traders of Dublin, Sir Lambert H. Ormsby,
+M.D., said in 1904: "They sell other things besides ... matches
+principally. Of course the selling of matches is merely a means of
+evading being taken up by the police for begging. The matches are only
+humbug; they do not want to sell them ... they do it for begging
+purposes."[163] In 1897 the Liverpool Watch Committee appointed a
+subcommittee to consider the question of children trading in streets,
+and this subcommittee reported that: "The practice is attended, first,
+with injury to the health of the children; second, with interference
+with the education of such as are of school age; third, with danger to
+the moral welfare of the children inasmuch as the practice frequently
+leads to street gambling, begging, sleeping out and other undesirable
+practices, and in some cases to crime." They were of opinion--in which
+the inspector of reformatories concurred--that much of the money
+earned by the children went to indulge the vicious and intemperate
+propensities of parents and guardians.
+
+By the Liverpool Corporation Act, 1898, Parliament gave the city power
+to regulate street trading by children, and accordingly the following
+provisions were made by the city council: (1) no licenses to any child
+under eleven; (2) boys eleven to thirteen and girls eleven to fifteen
+inclusive, to be licensed if not mentally or physically deficient,
+with consent of parent or guardian; (3) licenses good one year; (4)
+badges also to be issued; (5) no charge for license or badge; (6)
+licenses may be revoked by Watch Committee for cause; (7) no licensed
+child to trade after 9 P.M., nor unless decently clothed, nor without
+badge, nor in streets during school hours unless exempted from school
+attendance, and no licensed child may alter or dispose of badge, or
+enter public houses to trade, or importune passengers. These
+regulations took effect May 31, 1899, and marked the formal beginning
+of the movement against street trading by children.
+
+In 1901 the Liverpool subcommittee reported that it was "of opinion
+that the application of the powers conferred by the Act has had the
+effect of greatly reducing the number of children trading in the
+streets, especially during school hours and late in the evenings, and
+of improving the condition, appearance, and behaviour of those
+children who still engage in street trading." This subcommittee
+recommended raising the boys' age limit for licenses from fourteen to
+sixteen years, and was inclined to advise the total prohibition of
+street trading by girls.[164]
+
+
+                                _London_
+
+Under the powers conferred on local authorities by the Employment of
+Children Act 1903, the London County Council framed in February, 1905,
+a set of by-laws, the provisions of which seemed quite innocuous.
+Nevertheless a considerable outcry was raised by persons whom they
+would affect, and thereupon the Secretary of State withheld his
+confirmation and authorized Mr. Chester Jones to hold an inquiry at
+which complaints could be heard as well as arguments in favor of the
+by-laws. This inquiry was held in June and July of 1905, and
+schoolmasters, attendance officers, police inspectors, news agents and
+others testified. Mr. Jones held that it was his duty "to endeavour to
+discover where the line should be drawn, and that it was not open to
+argument either that child labour should entirely be prohibited or
+that it should be unregulated."[165]
+
+In his report Mr. Jones took up each by-law separately and discussed
+it, recommending that it be either confirmed or rejected in accordance
+with his findings. He also drafted a set of by-laws and submitted them
+with the recommendation that they be adopted instead of the ones
+originally passed by the London County Council. Referring to these, he
+says: "An important respect in which my suggested by-laws differ from
+the County Council by-laws is in differentiating between employment in
+connection with street stalls and other forms of street trading. It
+seemed to be the general opinion [of witnesses] that the former
+employment, being under the supervision of some adult person, probably
+the parent, is not so harmful in its effects on the morals of the
+child as the latter, and it must be remembered that the main objection
+to street trading was on the ground rather of its affecting the
+morality than the health and education of the children."[166] The
+regulations drafted by Mr. Jones were not even so drastic as those
+proposed by the London County Council, and in recommending milder
+restrictions Mr. Jones says: "A set of by-laws should not err upon the
+side of overstringency, nor should they be in advance of public
+opinion; the first, because taking a step more or less in the dark
+might cause hardships impossible to avoid, and the second, because any
+by-laws of this sort, being most difficult of enforcement, will
+certainly be evaded unless backed up by the weight of public
+opinion."[167]
+
+The County Council, however, did not follow Mr. Jones's
+recommendations in their entirety, but adopted a more stringent set of
+by-laws which were put in force in October, 1906. In December, 1909,
+the County Council again amended the by-laws, and an inquiry relative
+to these changes was held by Mr. Stanley Owen Buckmaster in October,
+1910. Mr. Buckmaster recommended a number of changes of minor
+importance which were adopted by the Council, and accordingly the new
+by-laws were adopted and took effect on June 3, 1911. This set of
+by-laws will be found in the Appendix, page 264. The most significant
+feature which they present is the raising of the age limit for boys to
+fourteen years and for girls to sixteen years without exemption. The
+old by-laws prohibited street trading by children under sixteen years
+between the hours of 9 P.M. and 6 A.M., and this provision was
+retained in the new by-laws, applying, however, only to boys, inasmuch
+as girls under that age are prohibited from trading in the streets at
+any time. These London by-laws on street trading are identical with
+the provisions of the most advanced American child labor laws on
+factory employment, and consequently they blaze the way for the
+application of these provisions in the United States to street trading
+as well as to employment in factories, mills and mines.
+
+
+                              _Manchester_
+
+Although the British departmental committee of 1910 was not favorably
+impressed by the results of regulation as a cure for the evils of
+street trading, nevertheless it gave due credit to the city of
+Manchester for what had been accomplished there under the license
+system. Referring to this city, the report says: "In Manchester such
+good results as can be arrived at by the method of regulation were,
+perhaps, more apparent than anywhere else. In that city the entire
+evidence testified to the fact that the regulation of street trading
+is very highly organized; a special staff of selected, plain-clothes
+officers, giving their whole time to the work, knowing the traders
+personally, visiting the homes, advising the parents, clothing the
+children and apparently exerting a most beneficial influence. All that
+can be done through the instrument of regulation seems to be done
+there, the various authorities working together to that end."[168]
+
+An English writer says that regulation in Manchester "has greatly
+improved the conditions of the newspaper boys and others who earned
+their living by hawking goods in the streets. It is something to the
+good at any rate that a boy should be compelled to be decently
+dressed and so avoid the obvious temptation of appealing to the
+sympathies of the public by the picturesque raggedness of his
+clothing. At the same time one cannot help feeling that halfway
+legislation of this sort is only playing with the problem and that the
+only really satisfactory law would be one which prohibited street
+trading by children altogether."[169]
+
+
+                           _New South Wales_
+
+The British Colony of New South Wales has adopted some mild
+restrictions under the Employment of Children Act, 1903, and the
+president of the State Children Relief Board for New South Wales
+states in his report for the year ending April 5, 1910, that "the
+Board is not favorably impressed with the principle of street trading
+by juveniles, realizing that even under the most careful
+administration children, when once licensed to engage in street
+trading, are exposed to great temptations."
+
+
+                                _Canada_
+
+The province of Manitoba, Canada, forbids children under twelve years
+from trading in the streets at any time; licenses are issued to boys
+twelve to sixteen years old, who are not allowed to sell after 9 P.M.
+Some boys have been denied licenses because of their poor school
+record, others because of lack of proof as to age, others on account
+of not being physically qualified, and still others because there was
+no need for their earning money in this way. The licensed boys are
+kept under supervision; their attendance at school is watched; and if
+they persist in selling after 9 P.M. or disobey instructions, their
+licenses are revoked.[170]
+
+
+                               _Germany_
+
+The Industrial Code of Germany prohibits children under fourteen years
+from offering goods for sale on public roads, streets or places, and
+peddling them from house to house. In localities in which such sale or
+peddling is customary, the local police authorities may permit it for
+certain periods of time not exceeding a total of four weeks in any
+calendar year. "Under this provision there was considerable street
+trading, especially in the larger cities. In Berlin, for instance,
+during the weeks preceding Christmas, numerous children under fourteen
+were thus employed. Protests against the practice were made by the
+Consumers' League and similar organizations, and resulted in the
+passage of a police regulation, for its restriction; and in 1909 a
+further step was taken by providing that no exceptions of this sort be
+thereafter permitted, so that now the employment of children under
+fourteen years of age in street trading is absolutely forbidden in
+Berlin."[171]
+
+The Industrial Code forbids children under twelve years to deliver
+goods or perform other errands except for their own parents. Children
+over twelve years may so engage for not more than three hours daily
+between 8 A.M. and 8 P.M., but not before morning school nor during
+the noon recess nor until one hour after school has closed in the
+afternoon; on Sundays and holidays such children may do this work only
+for two hours between 8 A.M. and 1 P.M., but not during the principal
+church service or the half hour preceding it. Such children must
+first obtain the _Arbeitskarte_ from the local police authority, which
+is issued upon request of the child's legal representative. Employers
+must notify the police authority in advance of the employment of such
+children.
+
+
+                                _France_
+
+The labor of children in France is regulated by the law of November 2,
+1892, as amended by the act of March 30, 1900. This law applies to
+factories, workshops, mines and quarries, exempting home industries,
+agricultural work and purely mercantile establishments.[172] The work
+of children in city streets is not even mentioned. New legislation has
+recently been proposed to regulate the employment of minors under 18
+years of age and of women in the sale of merchandise from stands and
+tables on sidewalks outside of bazaars and large stores. According to
+its provisions, the work of such persons would be prohibited for more
+than two hours at a time and for more than six hours a day, while
+seats and heating facilities would have to be supplied the same as
+for employees inside the large establishments.[173]
+
+In Paris, newspapers are sold almost exclusively at kiosks on street
+corners, presided over by middle-aged women.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONCLUSION
+
+
+Many years ago Macaulay declared, "Intense labor, beginning too early
+in life, continued too long every day, stunting the growth of the
+mind, leaving no time for healthful exercise, no time for intellectual
+culture, must impair all those high qualities that have made our
+country great. Your overworked boys will become a feeble and ignoble
+race of men, the parents of a more feeble progeny; nor will it be long
+before the deterioration of the laborer will injuriously affect those
+very interests to which his physical and moral interests have been
+sacrificed. If ever we are forced to yield the foremost place among
+commercial nations, we shall yield it to some people preëminently
+vigorous in body and in mind." To-day these words seem to us a
+veritable prophecy--but we must not forget that they apply to America
+no less than to England. If our civilization is to continue and to
+improve with time, every child must have a proper opportunity to grow
+under conditions as nearly normal as possible; we must secure to the
+children their birthright--the right to play and to dream, the right
+to healthful sleep, the right to education and training, the right to
+grow into manhood and into womanhood with cleanness and strength both
+of body and of mind, the right of a chance to become useful citizens
+of the future. Eternal vigilance is the price of protection for
+childhood, and while "Women and children first" is a rigid law of the
+sea, "Children first" is the fundamental law both of Nature and
+civilization.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Wisconsin Statutes, Section 1728 p., Laws of 1911.
+
+  [2] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment of
+  Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Minutes of Evidence, Q.
+  71. Cf. also Great Britain--Employment of Children Act, 1903, Section
+  13.
+
+  [3] _The Newsboy_, Pittsburgh, April, 1909.
+
+  [4] Great Britain--Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment
+  of School Children, 1901, pp. 18, 19.
+
+  [5] Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia," _Charities
+  and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [6] "The Child in the City," Handbook of Chicago Child Welfare
+  Exhibit, 1911, p. 25.
+
+  [7] "A Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City Streets," a
+  folder issued by Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+  representing local organizations, 1911.
+
+  [8] Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee, p. 8.
+
+  [9] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [10] _The Survey_, April 22, 1911, p. 138.
+
+  [11] "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England)," edited by E. J.
+  Urwick, 1904, p. 296.
+
+  [12] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment of
+  Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
+
+  [13] Twelfth Census of United States, Vol. II, Population, Part II, p.
+  506.
+
+  [14] Twelfth Census of United States, Special Reports, Occupations,
+  1904, pp. xxiv, cxxxiii.
+
+  [15] _Idem_, pp. xxiii, cxxxiii.
+
+  [16] Twelfth Census of United States, 1900, Vol. VII, p. cxxv.
+
+  [17] Instructions to Enumerators, Thirteenth Census of the United
+  States, pp. 32-34.
+
+  [18] These tables were copied from charts displayed at the Chicago
+  Child Welfare Exhibit, May, 1911.
+
+  [19] "The Child in the City," Handbook of the Child Welfare Exhibit,
+  Chicago, May 11-25, 1911, p. 25.
+
+  [20] _Idem_, p. 25.
+
+  [21] "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, pp. 241-242.
+
+  [22] "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
+  Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+  representing local organizations, 1911.
+
+  [23] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [24] Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the Greek Padrone
+  System in the United States, 1911, p. 9.
+
+  [25] A more detailed presentation of this matter will be found in
+  Chapter IV.
+
+  [26] Immigration Commission's Report, p. 9.
+
+  [27] Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House of Commons
+  Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 17.
+
+  [28] _Idem_, p. 21.
+
+  [29] _Idem_, p. 17.
+
+  [30] Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House of Commons
+  Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 25.
+
+  [31] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 8.
+
+  [32] _Idem_, p. 9.
+
+  [33] _Idem_, p. 10.
+
+  [34] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 18.
+
+  [35] _Idem_, p. 16.
+
+  [36] Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, p. 178.
+
+  [37] Report of President of State Children Relief Board of New South
+  Wales for year ending April 5, 1910, pp. 39-40.
+
+  [38] Vierteljahrshefte des Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amts, 1900, Heft
+  III, p. 97. See also Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental
+  Committee on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 3, p. 294.
+
+  [39] Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 84.
+
+  [40] Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 56.
+
+  [41] _Idem_, p. 63.
+
+  [42] _Idem_, p. 65.
+
+  [43] _The Hustler_, organ of Boston Newsboys' Club, February, 1911.
+
+  [44] Report of the Newsboys' Home Association of Washington, D.C.,
+  1863-1864, p. 7.
+
+  [45] "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys Engaged in
+  Street Trading in Manchester," by E. T. Campagnac and C. E. B.
+  Russell; Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 45, pp. 456-457.
+
+  [46] Handbook of New York Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911, p. 33.
+
+  [47] "Child Labor on the Street," _The Newsboy_, leaflet of New York
+  Child Labor Committee, 1907.
+
+  [48] Report of Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington,
+  D.C., 1889, p. 10.
+
+  [49] "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys Engaged in
+  Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac and Russell, 1901.
+
+  [50] Child Labor at the National Capital, an address delivered in
+  Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of National Child Labor
+  Committee.
+
+  [51] Mary E. McDowell, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee,
+  pp. 6-7.
+
+  [52] "The Social Evil in Chicago" by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, p. 242.
+
+  [53] Miss Todd, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee, p. 12.
+
+  [54] National Child Labor Committee, Pamphlet 114, p. 12.
+
+  [55] Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken Before Departmental
+  Committee on Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, Q. 9724.
+
+  [56] Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 46.
+
+  [57] _Charities and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [58] "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 12.
+
+  [59] "Child Labor on the Street," _The Newsboy_, leaflet of New York
+  Child Labor Committee, 1907.
+
+  [60] "Children in American Street Trades," 1905, Pamphlet 14 of
+  National Child Labor Committee.
+
+  [61] _Charities and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [62] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 23.
+
+  [63] Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken before Departmental
+  Committee on Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, Q. 1837 _et seq._
+
+  [64] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
+
+  [65] George A. Hall, "The Newsboy," in Proceedings of Seventh Annual
+  Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 102.
+
+  [66] School Document, No. 14, 1910, Boston Public Schools, pp. 42-44.
+
+  [67] Report of New York-New Jersey Committee of the North American
+  Civic League for Immigrants, December, 1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.
+
+  [68] Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the Greek Padrone
+  System in United States, 1911, p. 10.
+
+  [69] Abstract of Report on Greek Padrone System in United States, by
+  Immigration Commission, 1911, p. 22.
+
+  [70] _Survey_, Vol. XXVI, p. 591.
+
+  [71] School Document, No. 10, 1910, Boston Public Schools, p. 133.
+
+  [72] "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, p. 242.
+
+  [73] "Child Labor at the National Capital," an address delivered in
+  Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of National Child Labor
+  Committee.
+
+  [74] "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, p. 244.
+
+  [75] Bulletin 69 of Bureau of Census, "Child Labor in the United
+  States," 1907, p. 170.
+
+  [76] Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," p. 179.
+
+  [77] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical
+  Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 10,440.
+
+  [78] J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy Life in
+  Our Cities," edited by E. J. Urwick (England), 1904, p. 121.
+
+  [79] E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities" (England),
+  1904, p. 305.
+
+  [80] "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 15.
+
+  [81] Victor S. Clark, "Women and Child Wage Earners in Great Britain,"
+  Bulletin 80, United States Bureau of Labor, p. 28.
+
+  [82] "Newsboy Life--What Superintendents of Reformatories and Others
+  think about its Effects," Leaflet No. 32 of National Child Labor
+  Committee, 1910.
+
+  [83] "Buffalo Child Labor Problems," folder issued by New York Child
+  Labor Committee, 1911, p. 3.
+
+  [84] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [85] Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia," _Charities
+  and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [86] John Spargo, "Bitter Cry of the Children," 1906, p. 184.
+
+  [87] James L. Fieser, "Causes of Truancy," Indiana Bulletin of
+  Charities and Correction, June, 1910, p. 227.
+
+  [88] James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile Court,"
+  Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee, 1909.
+
+  [89] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 12.
+
+  [90] Mrs. Louise B. More, "Wage-Earners' Budgets," 1907, p. 148.
+
+  [91] J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy Life in
+  Our Cities (England)," edited by E. J. Urwick, 1904, p. 131.
+
+  [92] _Idem_, p. 135.
+
+  [93] E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities," 1904, p. 307.
+
+  [94] _Idem_, p. 309.
+
+  [95] Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, pp. 179-180.
+
+  [96] Constance Smith, Report on the Employment of Children in the
+  United Kingdom, 1909, p. 11.
+
+  [97] Margaret Alden, M.D., "Child Life and Labour," 1908, p. 118.
+
+  [98] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical
+  Deterioration, 1904, Vol. I, paragraph 68.
+
+  [99] _Idem_, Vol. II, Q. 2453.
+
+  [100] _Idem_, Vol. II, Q. 2479.
+
+  [101] Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence taken before Departmental
+  Committee on Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, Q. 9503 _et seq._
+
+  [102] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 39, p. 418.
+
+  [103] Copied from Charts in Child Labor Exhibit at National Conference
+  of Charities and Correction, St. Louis, May, 1910.
+
+  [104] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 11.
+
+  [105] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, 1910, p. 12.
+
+  [106] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [107] "Child Labor on the Street," leaflet of New York Child Labor
+  Committee, _The Newsboy_, 1907.
+
+  [108] "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys Engaged in
+  Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac and Russell, 1901.
+
+  [109] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of Children
+  during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Q. 3862.
+
+  [110] Report of the Board of Education of the Toledo City School
+  District, 1910-1911, p. 141.
+
+  [111] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session.
+
+  [112] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 39.
+
+  [113] _Idem_, p. 42.
+
+  [114] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 44.
+
+  [115] _Idem_, p. 59.
+
+  [116] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 62.
+
+  [117] _Idem_, p. 69.
+
+  [118] _Idem_, p. 71.
+
+  [119] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 73.
+
+  [120] _Idem_, p. 84.
+
+  [121] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 86.
+
+  [122] _Idem_, p. 87.
+
+  [123] _Idem_, p. 90.
+
+  [124] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 91.
+
+  [125] _Idem_, p. 92.
+
+  [126] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 105.
+
+  [127] Includes 17 in bowling alleys and pool rooms and 23 in theaters
+  and other places of amusement.
+
+  [128] Includes 2 in boarding houses, 26 home workers (precise
+  character of work not specified), 10 in restaurants, and 12 in private
+  families.
+
+  [129] Includes 26 bootblacks and 320 newsboys.
+
+  [130] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 106.
+
+  [131] _Idem_, pp. 106-107.
+
+  [132] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 108.
+
+  [133] _Idem_, pp. 116-117.
+
+  [134] _Idem_, p. 134.
+
+  [135] Davis Wasgatt Clark, "American Child and Moloch of To-day,"
+  1907, p. 40.
+
+  [136] George B. Mangold, "Child Problems," 1910, p. 232.
+
+  [137] James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile Court,"
+  Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee, 1909.
+
+  [138] Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners
+  in the United States, 1911, p. 22.
+
+  [139] E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England),"
+  1904, p. 304.
+
+  [140] Bulletin 81, United States Bureau of Labor, p. 416.
+
+  [141] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on the
+  Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 9.
+
+  [142] "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
+  Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+  representing local organizations, 1911.
+
+  [143] Report on Bylaws made by London County Council under Employment
+  of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones, 1906, pp. 24-27.
+
+  [144] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 33, p. 403.
+
+  [145] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment of
+  Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
+
+  [146] "Street Trades," in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting of
+  National Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 108.
+
+  [147] School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools, pp. 34-35.
+
+  [148] Committee on Work and Wages, Handbook of New York Child Welfare
+  Exhibit, 1911, p. 33.
+
+  [149] School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools, p. 36.
+
+  [150] Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House of
+  Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, p. 14.
+
+  [151] Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House of
+  Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, pp. 26-27.
+
+  [152] _Idem_, p. 16.
+
+  [153] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, pp. 20-21.
+
+  [154] _Idem_, p. 24.
+
+  [155] _Idem_, p. 9.
+
+  [156] _Idem_, Q. 1123.
+
+  [157] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, Q. 7203.
+
+  [158] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the
+  Employment of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. 6.
+
+  [159] Great Britain, Return of Local Authorities which have made
+  By-laws under the Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1907.
+
+  [160] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 7.
+
+  [161] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 11.
+
+  [162] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
+
+  [163] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical
+  Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 12757-12759.
+
+  [164] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 37, pp. 415-416.
+
+  [165] Report on the By-laws made by the London County Council under
+  the Employment of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones, 1906, p. 5.
+
+  [166] _Idem_, p. 16.
+
+  [167] _Idem_, p. 15.
+
+  [168] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 9.
+
+  [169] J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy Life in
+  our Cities," 1904, p. 131.
+
+  [170] "Citizens in the Making," Annual Report of Superintendent of
+  Neglected Children for Province of Manitoba, Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.
+
+  [171] C. W. A. Veditz, "Child Labor Legislation in Europe," in
+  Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 242.
+
+  [172] Henry Ferrette, "Manuel de législation industrielle," 1909, p.
+  149.
+
+  [173] Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 14th Year, No. 106, p. 566.
+
+
+
+                              BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+                                 BOOKS
+
+  ADAMS, MYRON E., _Children in American Street Trades_, in Proceedings
+     of First Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1905,
+     pp. 25-46.
+
+  ---- _Municipal Regulations of Street Trades_, in Proceedings of
+     National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1904, Vol. XXXI,
+     pp. 294-300.
+
+  ALDEN, MARGARET, _Child Life and Labour_.
+
+  BRITTON, JAMES A., _Child Labor and the Juvenile Court_, in
+     Proceedings of Fifth Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
+     Committee, 1909, p. 111.
+
+  BROWN, EMMA E., _Child Toilers of Boston Streets_.
+
+  _Buffalo Child Labor Problems_, folder issued by New York Child Labor
+     Committee, 1911.
+
+  CAMPAGNAC AND RUSSELL, _Education, Earnings and Social Condition of
+     Boys Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester_, Board of Education
+     Special Reports on Educational Subjects, 1902, Vol. VIII, pp.
+     653-670.
+
+  _Child Labor in Germany Outside of Factories_, in Report of United
+     States Commissioner of Education, 1900-1901, Vol. I, pp. 54-80.
+
+  _Child Labor on the Street--The Newsboy_, leaflet of New York Child
+     Labor Committee, 1907.
+
+  _Child Labor in the United States_, Bulletin 69 of Bureau of Census,
+     1907.
+
+  CLARK, DAVIS W., _American Child and Moloch of To-day_, 1907, p. 40.
+
+  CLARK, VICTOR S., _Woman and Child Wage Earners in Great Britain_, in
+     Bulletin 80 of United States Bureau of Labor, January, 1909.
+
+  CLOETE, J. G., _The Boy and his Work_, in _Studies of Boy Life in Our
+     Cities_, edited by E. J. Urwick, 1904, pp. 129-133.
+
+  CLOPPER, EDWARD N., _Children on the Streets of Cincinnati_, in
+     Proceedings of Fourth Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
+     Committee, 1908, pp. 113-123.
+
+  ---- _Child Labor in Street Trades_, in Proceedings of Sixth Annual
+     Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1910, pp. 137-144.
+
+  CONANT, RICHARD K., _Street Trades and Reformatories_, in Proceedings
+     of Seventh Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1911,
+     pp. 105-107.
+
+  _Employment of Children Act_, 1903, Great Britain, in J. N. Larned's
+     _History for Ready Reference_, 1910, Vol. VII, p. 87.
+
+  DAVIS, PHILIP, _Child Life on the Street_, National Conference of
+     Charities and Correction, 1909.
+
+  FIESER, JAMES L., _Causes of Truancy_, in Indiana Bulletin of
+     Charities and Correction, June, 1910, p. 227.
+
+  FLEISHER, ALEXANDER, _The Newsboys of Milwaukee_, in Fifteenth
+     Biennial Report, Part III, of Wisconsin Bureau of Labor, 1911-1912,
+     pp. 61-96.
+
+  GIBBS, S. P., _Problem of Boy Work_.
+
+  GREAT BRITAIN, Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages),
+     Parliament Sessional Papers 1899, Vol. 75.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of School
+     Children, 1901.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of Children
+     during School Age in Ireland, 1902.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical Deterioration,
+     1904, Vol. II, Q. 2453-2479, 10,440, 12,757.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Partial Exemption from
+     School Attendance.
+
+  ---- Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of Children Act,
+     1903, 1910.
+
+  ---- Report on By-laws made by London County Council under Employment
+     of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones, 1906.
+
+  ---- Report of Education Committee of London County Council, March 21,
+     1911, pp. 690-696.
+
+  Report of President of State Children Relief Board of New South Wales
+     for year ending April 5, 1910, pp. 39-40.
+
+  Citizens in the Making, Annual Report of Superintendent of Neglected
+     Children for Province of Manitoba, Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.
+
+  _Greek Padrone System in United States_, Abstract of Immigration
+     Commission's Report on, 1911.
+
+  GUNCKEL, J. E., _Boyville_, 1905.
+
+  HALL, GEORGE A., _The Newsboy_, in Proceedings of Seventh Annual
+     Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1911, pp. 100-102.
+
+  HENDERSON, CHARLES R., _Street Trading of Children_, in his
+     _Preventive Agencies and Methods_, 1910, Vol. III, pp. 97-100.
+
+  _Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment_, Vol. VIII of
+     Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in United
+     States, Senate Document 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session.
+
+  KELLEY, FLORENCE, _Children in Street Trades_ and _Telegraph and
+     Messenger Boys_, in her _Some Ethical Gains through Legislation_,
+     1905, pp. 11-26.
+
+  ---- _Street Trades_, in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting of
+     National Child Labor Committee, 1911, pp. 108-110.
+
+  MANGOLD, GEORGE B., _Child Problems_, 1910, p. 232.
+
+  NEILL, CHARLES P., _Child Labor at the National Capital_, in
+     Proceedings of Second Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
+     Committee, 1905, pp. 17-20.
+
+  _New York Child Welfare Exhibit, Handbook of_, 1911, p. 33.
+
+  _Newsboys' Home Association of Washington, D.C., Report of_,
+     1863-1864.
+
+  _Newsboy Law_, in Handbook of Child Labor Legislation, 1908, National
+     Consumers' League, p. 63.
+
+  _Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington, D.C._, 1889.
+
+  _Newsboy Life--What Superintendents of Reformatories and Others Think
+     about its Effects_, Leaflet 32 of National Child Labor Committee,
+     1910.
+
+  North American Civic League for Immigrants, Report of New York-New
+     Jersey Committee, December, 1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.
+
+  PEACOCK, ROBERT, _Employment of Children with Special Reference to
+     Street Trading_, in Proceedings of Third International Congress for
+     Welfare and Protection of Children, 1902, pp. 191-202.
+
+  _Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City Streets_, a folder
+     issued by Chicago Board of Education and a committee representing
+     local organizations, 1911.
+
+  _Problems of Street Trading_, in Proceedings of Fifth Annual Meeting
+     of National Child Labor Committee, 1909, pp. 230-240.
+
+  _Saving the Barren Years_, in The Child in the City, Handbook of
+     Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911, pp. 25-27.
+
+  School Document No. 14, 1910, Boston Public Schools, pp. 41-44.
+
+  School Document No. 10, 1910, Boston Public Schools, pp. 132-138.
+
+  School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools, pp. 34-37.
+
+  SCOTT, LEROY, _The Voice of the Street_.
+
+  SHERARD, ROBERT H., _Child Slaves of Britain_.
+
+  SMITH, CONSTANCE, _Report on Employment of Children in United
+     Kingdom_.
+
+  _The Social Evil in Chicago_, Report of Chicago Vice Commission, 1911,
+     pp. 241-245.
+
+  SPARGO, JOHN, _Street Trades_ in his _Bitter Cry of the Children_,
+     1906, pp. 184-188, 258-259.
+
+  STELZLE, CHARLES, _The Boy of the Street_, New York, 1904, pp. 7, 41.
+
+  URWICK, E. J., editor of _Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities_
+     (England), 1904.
+
+  VEDITZ, C. W. A., _Child Labor Legislation in Europe_, Bulletin 89 of
+     United States Bureau of Labor, July, 1910.
+
+  WATSON, ELIZABETH C., _New York Newsboys and their Work_, 1911.
+
+  WHITIN, E. S., _Child Labor: Street Trades_, in his _Factory
+     Legislation in Maine_, 1908, pp. 137-138.
+
+  WILLIAMS, M., _The Street Boy: Who He is and What to do with Him_,
+     National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1903.
+
+  WILLIAMSON, E. E., _The Street Arab_, in Proceedings of National
+     Conference of Charities and Correction, 1898, Vol. XXV, pp.
+     358-361.
+
+
+                           MAGAZINE ARTICLES
+
+  Child Labor, by Florence Kelley, _Twentieth Century_, 1911, Vol. V,
+     pp. 30-34.
+
+  Child Laborers of the Street--The New York Bills, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 205-206.
+
+  Child Labor and the Night Messenger Service, by Owen R. Lovejoy, _The
+     Survey_, Vol. XXIV, pp. 311-317.
+
+  Child Street Trades in London, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X,
+     pp. 149-150.
+
+  Children as Wage Earners--Street Sellers, _Fortnightly Review_, 1903,
+     Vol. LXXIX, pp. 921-922.
+
+  Committee on Wage-earning Children--Third Annual Report, _Economic
+     Review_, 1904, Vol. XIV, pp. 208-211.
+
+  Convalescent Men for Newsboys, _The Survey_, 1910, Vol. XXV, p. 809.
+
+  Enforcing the Newsboy Law in New York and Newark, by J. K. Paulding,
+     _Charities and Commons_, 1905, Vol. XIV, pp. 836-837.
+
+  Ethics of the Newsboy, by A. Saxby, _Western_, Vol. CLVIII, pp.
+     575-578.
+
+  The Greek Bootblack, by Leola Benedict Terhune, _The Survey_, 1911,
+     Vol. XXVI, pp. 852-854.
+
+  The Greek Boy Who Shines Shoes, _The Survey_, 1911, Vol. XXVI, p. 591.
+
+  Hartford Regulates Child Street Trades, _The Survey_, 1910, Vol. XXV,
+     p. 511.
+
+  Industrial Democracy: A Newsboys' Labor Union and What It Thinks of a
+     College Education, by R. W. Bruère, _Outlook_, 1906, Vol. LXXXIV,
+     pp. 878-883.
+
+  John E. Gunckel of Toledo: the Newsboys' Evangelist, by A. E. Winship,
+     _World To-day_, 1908, Vol. XV, pp. 1169-1173.
+
+  De Kid Wot Works at Night, by William Hard, _Everybody's_, 1908, Vol.
+     XVIII, pp. 25-37.
+
+  Milwaukee Regulates Its Street Trades--Other Wisconsin Child Labor
+     Advances, _Survey_, 1909, Vol. XXII, p. 589.
+
+  New Jersey Children in Street Trades by E. B. Butler, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1907, Vol. XVII, pp. 1062-1064.
+
+  New Rules for Street Trades in Boston, with a Comparison of
+     Regulations in Liverpool, _Charities and Commons_, 1909, Vol. XXI,
+     pp. 953-954.
+
+  New York's Newsboy Lodging House, _Charities and Commons_, 1908, Vol.
+     XXI, pp. 147-148.
+
+  New York's Newsboys Licensed, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. XI,
+     pp. 188-189.
+
+  The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia, by Scott Nearing, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1907, Vol. XVII, pp. 778-784.
+
+  The Newsboy Breadwinner Story, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. XI,
+     pp. 482, 568.
+
+  Newsboy Wanderers are Tramps in the Making, by Ernest Poole,
+     _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 160-162.
+
+  Newsboys Elect Their Own Judge, _Survey_, 1910, Vol. XXV, p. 312.
+
+  Night Messenger Service, by Owen R. Lovejoy, _Survey_, Vol. XXV, p.
+     504.
+
+  The Press and its Newsboys, by John Ihlder, _World To-day_, 1907, Vol.
+     XIII, pp. 737-739.
+
+  Sale of Goods on Sidewalks (in France), Daily Consular and Trade
+     Reports, 14th Year, No. 106, p. 566.
+
+  School Children as Wage Earners, by E. F. Hogg, _Nineteenth Century_,
+     1897, Vol. XLII, pp. 235-244.
+
+  School Children as Wage Earners--Street Trading in Liverpool, by J. E.
+     Gorst, _Nineteenth Century_, 1899, Vol. XLVI, p. 16.
+
+  Street Children, by Benjamin Waugh, _Contemporary Review_, 1888, Vol.
+     LIII, pp. 825-835.
+
+  Street Labor and Juvenile Delinquency, by Josephine C. Goldmark,
+     _Political Science Quarterly_, 1904, Vol. XIX, pp. 417-438.
+
+  Street Trades and Delinquency, _Survey_, 1911, Vol. XXVI, p. 285.
+
+  The Street-trading Children of Liverpool, by Thomas Burke,
+     _Contemporary Review_, 1900, Vol. LXXVIII, pp. 720-726.
+
+  Street Trading by Children (Bradford, England), Daily Consular and
+     Trade Reports, 14th Year, No. 89, p. 246.
+
+  Two O'clock Sunday Morning, by Scott Nearing, _The Independent_, 1912,
+     Vol. LXXII, No. 3297, pp. 288-289.
+
+  A Western Newspaper and its Newsboys, by W. B. Forbush, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1907, Vol. XIX, pp. 798-802.
+
+  Waifs of the Street, by Ernest Poole, _McClure's_, Vol. XXI, pp.
+     40-48.
+
+  What Boston Has Done in Regulating the Street Trades for Children, by
+     Pauline Goldmark, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp.
+     159-160.
+
+  What of the Newsboy of the Second Cities? Investigations carried on in
+     Buffalo, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 368-371.
+
+
+
+
+                               APPENDICES
+
+
+
+
+                               APPENDIX A
+
+                                  LAWS
+
+The law of Wisconsin relative to street trading, as amended in 1911,
+is given below in its entirety, because it is the most advanced law of
+its kind in the United States.
+
+
+                              _Wisconsin_
+
+SECTION 1728 p. The term "street trade," as used in this act, shall
+mean any business or occupation in which any street, alley, court,
+square or other public place is used for the sale, display or offering
+for sale of any articles, goods or merchandise. No boy under the age
+of twelve years, and no girl under the age of eighteen years, shall in
+any city of the first class distribute, sell or expose or offer for
+sale newspapers, magazines or periodicals in any street or public
+place.
+
+SECTION 1728 q. No boy under fourteen years of age, shall, in any city
+of the first class, work at any time, or be employed or permitted to
+work at any time, as a bootblack or in any other street trade, or
+shall sell or offer any goods or merchandise for sale or distribute
+hand bills or circulars or any other articles, except newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals as hereinafter provided.
+
+SECTION 1728 r. No girl under eighteen years of age shall, in any city
+of the first class, work at any time, or be employed or permitted to
+work at any time, as a bootblack or at any other street trades or in
+the sale or distribution of hand bills or circulars or any other
+articles upon the street or from house to house.
+
+SECTION 1728 s. No boy under sixteen years of age shall, in any city
+of the first class, distribute, sell or expose or offer for sale any
+newspapers, magazines or periodicals in any street or public place or
+work as a bootblack, or in any other street or public trade or sell or
+offer for sale or distribute any hand bills or other articles, unless
+he complies with all the legal requirements concerning school
+attendance, and unless a permit and badge, as hereinafter provided,
+shall have been issued to him by the state factory inspector. No such
+permit and badge shall be issued until the officer issuing the same
+shall have received an application in writing therefor, signed by the
+parent or guardian or other person having the custody of the child,
+desiring such permit and badge, and until such officer shall have
+received, examined and placed on file the written statement of the
+principal or chief executive officer of the public, private or
+parochial school, which the said child is attending, stating that such
+child is an attendant at such school with the grade such child shall
+have attained, and provided that no such permit and badge shall be
+issued, unless such officer issuing it is satisfied that such child
+is mentally and physically able to do such work besides his regular
+school work as required by law.
+
+SECTION 1728 t. Before any such permit is issued, the state factory
+inspector shall demand and be furnished with proof of such child's age
+by the production of a verified baptismal certificate or a duly
+attested birth certificate, or, in case such certificates cannot be
+secured, by the record of age stated in the first school enrollment of
+such child. Whenever it appears that a permit was obtained by wrong or
+false statements as to any child's age, the officer who granted such
+permit shall forthwith revoke the same. After having received,
+examined and placed on file such papers, the officer shall issue to
+the child a permit and badge. The principal or chief executive officer
+of schools, in which children under fourteen years of age are pupils,
+shall keep a complete list of all children in their school to whom a
+permit and badge has been issued, as herein provided.
+
+SECTION 1728 u. Such permit shall state the place and date of birth of
+the child, the name and address of its parents, guardian, custodian or
+next friend, as the case may be, and describe the color of hair and
+eyes, the height and weight and any distinguishing facial marks of
+such child, and shall further state that the papers required by the
+preceding section have been duly examined and filed; and that the
+child named in such permit has appeared before the officer issuing
+the permit. The badge furnished by the officer issuing the permit
+shall bear on its face a number corresponding to the number of the
+permit, and the name of the child. Every such permit, and every such
+badge on its reverse side, shall be signed in the presence of the
+officer issuing the same by the child in whose name it is issued.
+Provided, that in case of carrier boys working on salary for newspaper
+publishers delivering papers, a card of identification shall be issued
+to such carriers by the factory inspector, which they shall carry on
+their person, and exhibit to any officer authorized under this act,
+who may accost them for a disclosure of their right to serve as such
+carriers.
+
+SECTION 1728 v. The badge provided for herein shall be such as the
+state factory inspector shall designate, and shall be worn
+conspicuously in sight at all times in such position as may be
+designated by the said factory inspector by such child while so
+working. No child to whom such permit and badge or identification card
+are issued shall transfer the same to any other person.
+
+SECTION 1728 w. No boy under fourteen years of age shall, in any city
+of the first class, sell, expose or offer for sale any newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals after the hour of six-thirty o'clock in the
+evening, between the first day of October and the first day of April,
+nor after seven-thirty o'clock in the evening between the first day of
+April and the first day of October, or before five o'clock in the
+morning; and no child under sixteen years of age shall distribute,
+sell, expose or offer for sale any newspapers, magazines or
+periodicals or shall work as a bootblack or in any street or public
+trades or distribute hand bills or shall be employed or permitted to
+work in the distribution or sale or exposing or offering for sale of
+any newspapers, magazines or periodicals or as a bootblack or in other
+street or public trades or in the distribution of hand bills during
+the hours when the public schools of the city where such child shall
+reside are in session. Provided, that any boy between the ages of
+fourteen and sixteen years, who is complying and shall continue to
+comply with all the legal requirements concerning school attendance,
+and who is mentally and physically able to do such delivery besides
+his regular school work, shall be authorized to deliver newspapers
+between the hours of four and six in the morning.
+
+SECTION 1728 x. The commissioner of labor or any factory inspector
+acting under his direction shall enforce the provisions of this law,
+and he is hereby vested with all powers requisite therefor.
+
+SECTION 1728 y. The permit of any child, who in any city of the first
+class distributes, sells or offers for sale any newspapers, magazines
+or periodicals in any street or public place or works as a bootblack
+or in any other street trade, or sells or offers for sale or
+distributes any hand bills or other articles in violation of the
+provisions of this act, or who becomes delinquent or fails to comply
+with all the legal requirements concerning school attendances shall
+forthwith be revoked for a period of six months and his badge taken
+from said child. The refusal of any child to surrender such permit,
+and the distribution, sale or offering for sale of newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals or any goods or merchandise, or the working
+by such child as a bootblack or in any other street or public trade,
+or in distributing hand bills or other articles, after notice, by any
+officer authorized to grant permits under this law of the revocation
+of such permit and a demand for the return of the badge, shall be
+deemed a violation of this act. The permit of said child may also be
+revoked by the officer who issued such permit, and the badge taken
+from such child, upon the complaint of any police officer or other
+attendance officer or probation officer of a juvenile court, and such
+child shall surrender his permit and badge upon the demand of any
+police officer, truancy or other attendance officer or probation
+officer of a juvenile court or other officer charged with the duty of
+enforcing this act. In case of a second violation of this act by any
+child, he shall be brought before the juvenile court, if there shall
+be any juvenile court in the city where such child resides, or, if
+not, before any court or magistrate having jurisdiction of offenses
+committed by minors and be dealt with according to law.
+
+SECTION 1728 z. Any parent or other person who employs a minor under
+the age of sixteen years in peddling without a license or who, having
+the care or custody of such minor, suffers or permits the child to
+engage in such employment, or to violate sections 1728 p to 1728 za,
+inclusive, shall be punished by a fine not to exceed one hundred
+dollars nor less than twenty-five dollars, or by commitment to the
+county jail for not more than sixty days or less than ten days.
+
+SECTION 1728 za. Providing that no badge shall be issued for a boy
+selling papers between the ages of twelve and sixteen years by the
+state factory inspector, except upon certificate of the principal of
+either public, parochial or other private school attended by said boy,
+stating and setting forth that said boy is a regular attendant upon
+said school. No boy under the age of sixteen years shall be permitted
+by any newspaper publisher or printer or persons having for sale
+newspapers or periodicals of any character, to loiter or remain around
+any salesroom, assembly room, circulation room or office for the sale
+of newspapers, between the hours of nine in the forenoon and three in
+the afternoon, on days when school is in session. Any newspaper
+publisher, printer, circulation agent or seller of newspapers shall
+upon conviction for permitting newsboys to loiter or hang around any
+assembly room, circulation room, salesroom or office where papers are
+distributed or sold, shall be punished by a fine not to exceed one
+hundred dollars nor less than twenty-five dollars, or by commitment to
+the county jail for not more than sixty days or less than ten days.
+
+
+                           _London, England_
+
+          BY-LAWS ADOPTED BY THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL AND PUT IN FORCE
+  ON JUNE 3, 1911
+
+          By-laws 1-9 concern the employment of children generally.
+
+10. No girl under the age of 16 years shall be employed in or carry on
+street trading.
+
+11. No boy under the age of 14 years shall be employed in or carry on
+street trading.
+
+12. No boy under the age of 16 years shall be employed in or carry on
+street trading before 6 in the morning or after 9 in the evening.
+
+13. No boy under the age of 16 years shall at any time be employed in
+or carry on street trading unless
+
+(1) He is exempt from school attendance, and
+
+(2) He first procures a badge from the London County Council, which he
+shall wear whilst engaged in street trading on the upper part of the
+right arm in such a manner as to be conspicuous.
+
+The badge shall be deemed to be a license to trade, and may be
+withheld or withdrawn for such period as the London County Council
+think fit in any of the following cases--
+
+(_a_) If the boy has, after the issue of the badge to him, been
+convicted of any offense.
+
+(_b_) If it is proved to the satisfaction of the London County Council
+that the boy has used his badge for the purpose of begging or
+receiving alms, or for any immoral purpose, or for the purpose of
+imposition, or for any other improper purpose.
+
+(_c_) If the boy fails to notify the London County Council within one
+week of any change in his place of residence.
+
+(_d_) If the boy commits a breach of any of the conditions under which
+such badge is issued; such conditions to be stated on such badge or
+delivered to the boy in writing.
+
+14. A boy to whom a badge has been issued by the London County Council
+shall in no way alter, lend, sell, pawn, transfer, or otherwise
+dispose of, or wilfully deface, or injure such badge, which shall
+remain the property of the London County Council, and he shall, on
+receiving notice in writing from the London County Council (which may
+be served by post) that the badge has been withdrawn, deliver up the
+same forthwith to the London County Council.
+
+15. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged in street trading,
+shall not enter any premises used for public entertainment or licensed
+for the sale of intoxicating liquor for consumption on the premises
+for the purpose of trading.
+
+16. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged in street trading,
+shall not annoy any person by importuning.
+
+17. Nothing in these by-laws contained shall restrict the employment
+of children in the occupations specified in section 3 (_a_) of the
+Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1904, further than such
+employment is already restricted by statute.
+
+
+                               APPENDIX B
+
+TWO TYPES OF NEWSBOY BADGES.
+
+[Illustration: BADGE USED IN CINCINNATI.]
+
+[Illustration: BADGE USED IN BOSTON.]
+
+
+                               APPENDIX C
+
+                        CARDS FOR INVESTIGATIONS
+
+The cards used in the inquiries into the newsboy situations of
+Philadelphia and Milwaukee are reproduced here, in the hope that they
+will be of use in furnishing suggestions to any organization or
+individual who contemplates making such an investigation elsewhere. It
+will be observed that these cards are practically confined to
+questions affecting newsboys only, and would have to be considerably
+amplified, if intended for use in a general study of street work by
+children.
+
+
+     Cards used by Boston School Committee for Issuance of Licenses
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                        APPLICATION FOR A LICENSE
+
+  To the School Committee of the City of Boston:
+
+   I hereby apply for a license for my son as NEWSBOY--PEDLER--BOOTBLACK.
+
+                                                                SIGNATURE
+                                                                OF PARENT
+
+   I promise to see that he lives up to the license rules. ________________
+
+                                                               SIGNATURE
+                                                                 OF BOY
+
+   I promise to live up to the license rules.              ________________
+
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  SCHOOL RECORD OF BOY TO BE FILLED OUT BY THE TEACHER AND PRINCIPAL
+  ---------------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
+     PLACE OF BIRTH    |   DATE OF BIRTH   |              RESIDENCE
+                       |                   |
+  -------+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
+   GRADE | SCHOLARSHIP | PHYSICAL DEFECT?  |  SIGNATURE OF TEACHER
+         |             |                   |
+  -------+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
+
+   I hereby certify that this Boy's attendance is______ His conduct is_____
+
+
+         SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL                            SCHOOL
+
+   ____________________________________       _____________________________
+
+
+    GRANTED WITH THE APPROVAL OF THE SCHOOL COMMITTEE:
+
+               __________________________ SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                    (CARD RETURNED TO SCHOOL FOR FILE)
+                             LICENSED MINORS
+                                 _________
+
+
+  ________________________________________      No.________________________
+
+  Birth date
+
+  Teacher                                       Grade
+
+  School
+
+  Badge given              Expires and must be returned
+  =========================================================================
+
+                             READ AND COPY
+
+              LICENSE RULES OF THE BOSTON SCHOOL COMMITTEE
+
+                               _________
+
+    No boy can get a license unless he is eleven years of age and able to
+  understand and COPY the following:
+
+                           A LICENSED NEWSBOY
+
+                MUST                               MUST NOT
+
+  1. Must ATTEND school regularly.  |   6. Must not sell before 6 A.M.
+  2. Must be "GOOD" in conduct.     |   7. Must not sell after 8 P.M.
+  3. Must have no UNLICENSED        |        (9 P.M. in baseball season.)
+       boy help him.                |   8. Must not sell in SCHOOL HOURS.
+  4. Must keep the badge TO         |   9. Must not sell on CARS.
+       HIMSELF.                     |  10. Must not sell without wearing
+  5. Must RETURN his badge to the   |        the badge IN PLAIN SIGHT
+       Superintendent of Schools    |        ALL THE TIME.
+       when ordered to do so.       |
+
+    Any boy who breaks any of the above rules is liable to have his license
+  revoked or go to court and pay a maximum fine of TEN dollars.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+        Form of Application for License used in Hartford, Conn.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                             ~City of Hartford~
+
+
+  TO THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS:--
+
+    I hereby make application for a Street-Sales Permit for
+  ______________________________________________________________________
+
+  Born in ______________________________________________________________
+
+  Age ______________ Sex _______________ Complexion ____________________
+
+  Eyes _____________ Hair ______________ Figure ________________________
+
+  Living at_________________________________________ Street ____________
+
+  If such license is granted I agree that it shall be for this child and
+  for no other.
+
+  ________________________________________ Parent, Guardian, Next Friend
+
+  Hartford, ____________________________
+
+
+                          =School Information=
+
+  ______________________________________________________________________
+
+  Living at _______________________________________ _Street_____________
+
+  is pupil in this School, is regular in attendance, and is a suitable
+  child to have a Street-Sales Permit.
+
+                             ________________________________ Principal.
+
+                             __________________________________ Teacher.
+
+  __________________________________ School.
+
+  The age, sex, complexion, eyes, hair, and figure, should be as
+  described above.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+  Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of a Badge in
+                     Province of Manitoba, Canada.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                            LICENSED NEWSBOY
+
+  No. __________________          Date _________________________________
+
+  Child's name _____________________________________ Age _______________
+
+  Father's name ____________________________ Address ___________________
+
+  Mother's name ________________________________________________________
+
+  Father's occupation __________________________________________________
+
+  School and Grade _____________________________________________________
+
+  Principal's name _____________________________________________________
+
+  Church __________________ Clergyman __________________________________
+
+  Address ______________________________________________________________
+
+  Is child of apparently normal development? ___________________________
+
+  What proof has been given that he is over twelve years of age? _______
+
+  ______________________________________________________________________
+
+  Why do parents want him to sell papers? ______________________________
+
+  Can child read? ______________________________________________________
+
+  Can child write? _____________________________________________________
+
+  Has badge been granted? _____________ No. of badge ___________________
+
+  If badge has not been granted, state why _____________________________
+
+             _____________________________________________
+                 _Superintendent Neglected Children,
+                                  Province of Manitoba._
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+  Sample of Card used in Investigation of Street Trades in Philadelphia
+
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+  Name_______________________________Address_______________________________
+
+  Age_______________sells__________________________at______________________
+
+  From________to________every day. Works from________to________on Saturday.
+
+  How long in street trades_____________Income________________per__________
+
+  Parents living_____lives at home_______contributes_______per_____to home.
+
+  If not living at home where does boy reside?
+
+     Lodging house___ Furnished room___
+
+  Some relative___$__per___paid for board. Does boy gamble__drink__smoke___
+
+  Habit acquired prior to engaging in street trades________________________
+
+  Does vendor save part earnings___________________________________________
+
+  Where and with whom does boy spend non-working hours_____________________
+
+  At what hour does newsboy reach home_____Has boy a route (exclusive)_____
+
+  General health of boy____________________________________________________
+
+  Schooling________________________________________________________________
+
+  Is selling boy's own choice______________________________________________
+
+  How many nights so far this summer has boy stayed out all night__where___
+
+  Investigator________________________________Date_________________________
+
+
+                    =Philadelphia Investigation Card=
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+      Sample of Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+   NAME                  ADDRESS                CITY
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| I. FAMILY                                                               |
++======================+=================+=============+==================+
+|Name of   {Guardian}  | Nationality:    | Religion:   | Occupation:      |
+|person he {Parent  }  |                 |             |                  |
+|lives with{        }  |                 |             |                  |
++--------------------+-+------+--------+-+-------+-----+------------------+
+|Number in Family:   |Mother  |Father  | Total   |Number contributing     |
+|                    |        |        |Children | to family support      |
++--------------------+--------+--------+---------+------------------------+
+|Age of Boy, yr. mo. |Number of years  |Papers handled Daily  Sunday     *|
+|                    | selling papers  |               Weekly             |
++--------------------+-----------------+----------------------------------+
+|Sells papers as Employer      Employee of               Individual      *|
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+|Sells at (street)                                                        |
++---------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
+|Sells: Morning    Afternoon    Evening    After 9 P.M.  *|Permit Number *|
+|                                                         |Has none       |
++------------------+--------------------------+-----------+---------------+
+|Does he come      |Where else does he eat?   | How often (elsewhere)     |
+|home for supper?  |                          | per week?                 |
++------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------+
+|Arrives home      |P.M. Saturday nights      |Leaves to {deliver}   A.M.*|
+|P.M. week nights  |                          |          {sell   }        |
++------------------+---------------+----------+-+-------------------------+
+|Does he stay out    How often     |Shoot       |Go into {Saloons   }     |
+|all night?          per week?     |"craps"?    |        {Tenderloin}     |
++-----------------------+-----------------------+-------------------------+
+|Does he like           |Family require         |Why is he working?       |
+|the work?              |his working?           |                         |
++=======================+=======================+=========================+
+| II. SCHOOL                                                              |
++==============================+==========================================+
+|School attended:              | Location:                                |
++-------------------------+----+----------+-------------------------------+
+|Informant:               | Grade:        | Years in school:              |
++-------------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+|Boy's standing in  Good   Fair   Poor   *| Conduct: Good   Fair   Poor  *|
+|school work:        Poor                 |                               |
++------------------+----------------------+-------------------------------+
+|Is Boy drowsy?    |Is school work injured by selling papers?  Yes  No   *|
++------------------+--------------+--------------------+------------------+
+|Attendance: Regular  Irregular  *|Number of days      |Absences excused  |
+|                                 |absent last month:  |                  |
++---------------------------------+--------------------+------------------+
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+           Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
++--------------------------------------------++---------------------------+
+|     III. INCOME (AMOUNT RECEIVED BY        ||                           |
+|          FAMILY CASHIER)                   ||IV. TO BE OBTAINED FROM BOY|
++----------------------------------+---------+|                           |
+|SOURCE  OCCUPATION  PER  NO. WEEKS| TOTAL   ||                           |
+|                   WEEK  PER YEAR |PER YEAR ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Newsboy                           |      |  ||What does boy       $      |
+|                                  |      |  ||earn per week?             |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Other Children                    |      |  ||How much given      $      |
+|                                  |      |  ||to family?                 |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Father                            |      |  ||Why is he selling papers?  |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Mother                            |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Rents                             |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Lodgers                           |      |  ||                           |
+|(outside of family)               |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Other                             |      |  ||                           |
+|Sources                           |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Total                             |      |  ||                           |
++==================================+======+==++===========================+
+|Remarks--Housing:                           ||      INSTRUCTIONS         |
+|                                            ||                           |
+|                                            || It is necessary to get    |
+|                                            ||answers to all questions,  |
+|                                            ||as there are a             |
++--------------------------------------------++comparatively small number |
+|                                            ||of cases being             |
+|                                            ||investigated.              |
+|                                            || Divisions I and III are to|
+|                                            ||be obtained from the       |
+|                                            ||family.                    |
++--------------------------------------------++ Division II from school   |
+|Cleanliness:                                ||principal or teacher.      |
+|                                            || Division IV from the boy  |
+|                                            ||himself, away from his     |
+|                                            ||family, if possible.       |
+|                                            || Only boys under 14 are to |
++--------------------------------------------++considered.                |
+|Other:                                      || If parent is dead, cross  |
+|                                            ||out line two, over.        |
+|                                            || * Use check ([X]) to mark |
+|                                            ||what answer is.            |
+|                                            || If there are several      |
+|                                            ||answers, check each.       |
++--------------------------------------------++---------------------------+
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Addams, Jane, on Illinois child labor law, 15.
+
+  Age limit (_see_ Laws and Ordinances), 194-196.
+
+  Austria, investigation of 1907, 49-51.
+
+
+  Begging, 38, 69, 96, 220.
+
+  Berlin regulations, 240.
+
+  Bootblacks, 83, 93.
+    Ages, 84.
+    Delinquency, 165.
+    Diseases, 87, 88.
+    Earnings, 84, 89, 95.
+    Environment, 86, 87.
+    Home conditions, 85.
+    Hours, 84, 85, 94, 95.
+    Padrone System, report by Immigration Commission, 86-92.
+      Report by North American Civic League for Immigrants, 83, 84.
+
+  Boston, license statistics, 33.
+    Regulations of street work, 196.
+
+  Boston Newsboys' Court, 79-81.
+
+  Boston Newsboys' Republic, 212.
+
+  Buffalo conditions, report on, 132, 133.
+
+
+  Canada, 238.
+
+  Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, 14, 29.
+
+  Chicago statistics of local studies, 28, 29.
+
+  Chicago Vice Commission's report, 30, 67, 96, 118.
+
+  Child Welfare Exhibit, 14.
+    Chicago, 29.
+    New York, 60.
+
+  Cincinnati, license statistics, 35, 71.
+    Market children, 97.
+    Newsboy conditions, 54.
+    Regulations of street work, 196.
+
+
+  Delinquency, relation to street work, report of Dr. Charles P. Neill,
+  159.
+    Chicago juvenile court records, 178.
+    Connection between occupation and offense, 171.
+    Records of Indiana Boys' School, 179-187.
+
+  Delivery Service, 68, 161-174.
+
+  Detroit, regulations of street work, 193.
+
+
+  Edinburgh, conditions in, 44, 125, 224.
+
+  Effects of street work, classified, 128.
+    In Buffalo, 132, 133.
+    In physical deterioration, 142-145.
+    Opinions of superintendents of reformatories, 131, 132.
+
+  Employment distinguished from independent work, 2, 192.
+
+  Enforcement of regulations, 132, 208, 211.
+
+  Errand running, 202.
+    Delinquency, 161-174.
+
+
+  France, regulations, 241.
+
+
+  Germany, inquiry of 1898, 45-48.
+    Regulations, 239.
+
+  Girls as newspaper sellers, 31, 65, 200.
+
+  Great Britain, Departmental Committee of 1910, 76, 138, 147, 197, 223,
+  237.
+    Employment of Children Act, 1903, 221.
+    Interdepartmental Committee of 1901, 43, 73, 145, 203, 217.
+    Interdepartmental Committee of 1902 on Ireland, 150, 294, 220.
+    Interdepartmental Committee of 1904 on Physical Deterioration, 125,
+    142.
+    Parliamentary return of 1899, 39-42, 215.
+
+
+  Hartford, regulations of street work, 196.
+
+  Housing problem's relation to street trading, 20.
+
+
+  Illinois, effort to regulate street trading, 14, 198.
+
+  Immigration Commission, report on Padrone System, 36, 86-92.
+
+  Ireland, report of Interdepartmental Committee of 1902, 150, 204, 220.
+
+
+  Kelley, Florence, on street trading, 52, 70, 127, 207.
+
+
+  Laws, table of state, 194.
+
+  Licenses for street work required, 197, 209.
+
+  License statistics, of Boston, 33.
+    Of Cincinnati, 35, 71.
+    Of New York, 16, 34.
+
+  Liverpool, conditions, 230.
+    Regulations, 232.
+
+  London County Council bylaws, 233-236, 264.
+
+  Lovejoy, Owen R., on messenger service, 123.
+
+
+  Manchester regulations, 236.
+
+  Market children, 21, 96.
+    Ages, 97.
+    Earnings, 96.
+    Home conditions, 99, 100.
+    Hours, 99.
+    Nationalities, 97, 98.
+    Orphanage, 100.
+    Retardation, 98, 99.
+
+  Merchandise, distinction between newspapers and, 189.
+
+  Messenger boys, 101.
+    Ages, 106-117.
+    Character of work, 101-104.
+    Chicago Vice Commission's report, 118-121.
+    Delinquency, 104, 165, 169.
+    Diseases, 111, 112, 113.
+    Earnings, 106, 112, 113, 114.
+    Environment, 102, 103.
+    Hours, 108, 113, 115, 119.
+    Investigation in Ohio Valley, 106-117.
+    Lack of prospects, 104, 126.
+    Poverty as excuse for work, 122.
+    Use of men instead of boys, 105, 123-125.
+
+
+  Nationality of street workers, 33, 97.
+
+  Nearing, Scott, conditions in Philadelphia, 69, 135.
+
+  Neill, Charles P., on newsboys' work, 64.
+    On messenger service, 117.
+    Report on Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, 159.
+
+  Newark, regulations of street work, 196.
+
+  New York, report of newsboy investigation, 16, 34, 148.
+    Child Welfare Exhibit, 60.
+    Regulations of street work, 195.
+
+  Newsboys, ages, 54-60.
+    Associations, 66.
+    Character of work, 56-58.
+    Classified, 52.
+    Delinquency, 165.
+    Diseases, 136.
+    Earnings compared with factory wages, 58.
+    Environment, 60, 135.
+    Home conditions, 70-72.
+    Hours, 65-70.
+    Irregularity of meals, 61.
+    Orphanage, 71, 168.
+    Retardation, 147-156.
+    Substitutes, 75-79.
+    Tricks of the trade, 63-64.
+
+  Newsboys' Court of Boston, 79-81.
+
+  Newsboys' Republic of Boston, 212.
+
+  New South Wales, license statistics, 45.
+    Regulations, 45, 238.
+
+  Newspapers, as merchandise, 189.
+    Attitude toward regulation, 28, 199.
+
+  Night work, of messengers, 101, 169.
+    Of newsboys, 65-70.
+
+
+  Ordinances, table of city, 196.
+
+
+  Padrone System, report, of Immigration Commission, 36, 86-92.
+    North American Civic League for Immigrants, 83, 84.
+
+  Peddlers, findings of Chicago Vice Commission, 96.
+    Cincinnati statistics, 97.
+    Delinquency, 165.
+    Immigration Commission's report, 36.
+
+  Philadelphia conditions, 69.
+
+  Playgrounds, 22.
+
+  Poverty as an excuse for street work, 70-73, 136-138.
+
+  Prohibition, of night work, 208.
+    Of street work by children, 224, 227.
+
+
+  Regulation, by municipality or state, 205.
+    Degree of, 193, 206.
+    In future, 207.
+    Unsatisfactory, 228.
+
+  Retardation in school of street workers, 98, 147-156.
+
+  Rochester, method of enforcement, 211.
+
+
+  St. Louis statistics, 146, 151.
+
+  School, as social center, 21.
+    Retardation of street workers, 98, 147-156.
+
+  Scotland, conditions, 44, 225.
+
+  Spargo, John, on effects of street work, 135.
+
+  Statistics, of U.S. Census, 24, 25.
+    Austria, 49-51.
+    Boston, 33.
+    Chicago, 28, 29.
+    Cincinnati, 35, 71.
+    Germany, 45-48.
+    Great Britain, 40-44, 143-145.
+    New York, 16, 34, 148.
+
+  Street as a social agent, 17.
+
+  Street employments, distinction between, 5.
+
+  Street occupations, of minor importance, 38.
+    Classified, 4.
+    Contrasted with regular work, 73, 139.
+
+  Street trading defined, 3.
+    Neglected in legislation, 7, 12, 192.
+
+  Street trading problem related to other problems, 20.
+
+
+  Toledo, retardation of street workers, 152-156.
+
+
+  Vagrants, Chicago report on, 32.
+
+  Vice Commission of Chicago, report, 30, 67, 96, 118.
+
+
+  Wisconsin, law, 257.
+
+
+
+
+  The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan
+     books on kindred subjects.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                   NOTABLE WORKS BY MISS JANE ADDAMS
+
+
+
+
+A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil
+
+                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net; by mail, $1.10_
+
+It is almost unnecessary to call attention to the importance of a new
+book by Jane Addams. As a servant of the public good Miss Addams, both
+through her work at Hull-House and through her writings, has made for
+herself a name all over the world. She does not view things from a
+standpoint of destructive criticism, but rather from that of
+constructive, her aim being always to better the conditions in the
+particular field which she is considering. In "A New Conscience and an
+Ancient Evil," she considers sanely and frankly questions which
+civilized society has always had confronting it and in all probability
+always will. Something of her attitude of mind and of her purpose in
+writing this book as well as a glimpse of the character of the volume
+may be seen from the following paragraph taken from her preface:
+
+"'A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil' was written, not from the
+point of view of the expert, but because of my own need for a
+counter-knowledge to a bewildering mass of information which came to
+me through the Juvenile Protective Association of Chicago. The reports
+which its twenty field officers daily brought to its main office
+adjoining Hull-House became to me a revelation of the dangers incident
+to city conditions and of the allurements which are designedly placed
+around many young girls in order to draw them into an evil life."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Miss Addams's volume is painful reading, but we heartily wish that it
+might be read and pondered by every man and woman who to-day, in smug
+complacency, treat with indifference and contempt the great struggle
+for social purity."--_The Nation._
+
+"As an educational weapon, incalculably valuable. A torch with which
+every thinking citizen should be armed for a crusade against the
+dark-covered evil at which it is aimed."--_The Continent._
+
+
+
+
+The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets
+
+                                _12mo, cloth, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_
+
+A protest against the practice of every large city of turning over to
+commercialism practically all the provisions for public recreation,
+leaving it possible for private greed to starve or demoralize the
+nature of youth.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Few persons in this country are better qualified to speak with
+authority on any subject connected with the betterment of the poor
+than is Jane Addams."--_New York Herald._
+
+"The book should be in the hands of every preacher and laborer for
+humanity. I wish that parents might make it a text-book."--Rev.
+MADISON C. PETER in _The New Orleans Daily News_.
+
+"It is brimming full of the mother sentiment of love and yearning, and
+also shows such sanity, such breadth and tolerance of mind, and such
+philosophic penetration into the inner meanings of outward phenomena
+as to make it a book which no one who cares seriously about its
+subject can afford to miss."--_New York Times._
+
+
+
+
+Newer Ideals of Peace
+
+                                             _12mo, cloth, leather back,
+                                              $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_
+
+"A clean and consistent setting forth of the utility of labor as
+against the waste of war, and an exposition of the alteration of
+standards that must ensue when labor and the spirit of militarism are
+relegated to their right places in the minds of men.... Back of it
+lies illimitable sympathy, immeasurable pity, a spirit as free as that
+of St. Francis, a sense of social order and fitness that Marcus
+Aurelius might have found similar to his own."--_Chicago Tribune._
+
+The editor of _Collier's_ writes: "To us it seems the most
+comprehensive talk yet given about how to help humanity in America
+to-day."
+
+"It is given to but few people to have the rare combination of power
+of insight and of interpretation possessed by Miss Addams. The present
+book shows the same fresh virile thought, and the happy expression
+which has characterized her work.... There is nothing of namby-pamby
+sentimentalism in Miss Addams's idea of the peace movement. The volume
+is most inspiring and deserves wide recognition."--_Annals of the
+American Academy._
+
+"No brief summary can do justice to Miss Addams's grasp of the facts,
+her insight into their meaning, her incisive estimate of the strength
+and weakness alike of practical politicians and spasmodic reformers,
+her sensible suggestions as to woman's place in our municipal
+housekeeping, her buoyant yet practical optimism."--_Examiner._
+
+
+
+
+Democracy and Social Ethics
+
+                                    _Half leather, ix + 281 pages, 12mo,
+                                              $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_
+
+"The result of actual experience in hand-to-hand contact with social
+problems.... No more truthful description, for example, of the 'boss'
+as he thrives to-day in our great cities has ever been written than is
+contained in Miss Addams's chapter on 'Political Reform.' ... The same
+thing may be said of the book in regard to the presentation of social
+and economic facts."--_Review of Reviews._
+
+"The book is startling, stimulating, and intelligent."--_Philadelphia
+Ledger._
+
+
+
+
+Twenty Years at Hull-House
+
+                                                 _Ill., dec. cloth, 8vo,
+                                              $2.50 net; by mail, $2.68_
+
+Jane Addams's work at Hull-House is known throughout the civilized
+world. In the present volume she tells of her endeavors and of their
+success--of the beginning of Hull-House, of its growth and its present
+influence. For every one at all interested in the improvement of our
+cities, in the moral education of those who are forced to spend much
+of their time on the streets or in cheap places of amusement--"Twenty
+Years at Hull-House" is a volume of more than ordinary interest and
+value.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"The personality of Jane Addams is one of the finest achievements of
+that idea of democracy, service, and freedom for which America means
+to stand before the world."--_N. Y. Times._
+
+"The story of the beginnings of this remarkable undertaking
+(Hull-House), the problems that were faced and conquered in the early
+days, the unsuspected resources that were developed among the crowded
+city population of foreign birth, and the efforts continuously made
+for the betterment of labor legislation in the State of Illinois, are
+all set forth with simplicity and directness. On the whole it is a
+wonderful record of accomplishment, full of suggestion to social
+reformers the world over."--_Review of Reviews._
+
+"Who reads this book lightly misses a great opportunity."--_Bellman._
+
+"The story is one of singular interest and has a strange affinity with
+the stories of other great moral and spiritual leaders of
+humanity."--_Bookman._
+
+
+
+
+On City Government
+_The American City_
+
+      By DELOS F. WILCOX, Ph.D.
+
+    "In the 'American City' Dr. Wilcox ... has written a book that every
+    thoughtful citizen should read. The problems of the street, the
+    tenement, public utilities, civic education, the three deadly vices,
+    municipal revenue and municipal debt, with all their related and
+    subsidiary problems, are clearly and fully considered."--_Pittsburgh
+    Gazette._
+
+                              _6 + 423 pages, 12mo, cloth, leather back,
+                                           $1.25 net. Citizens' Library_
+
+
+
+
+Great American Cities
+_Their Problems and Their Government_
+
+      By DELOS F. WILCOX, Chief of the Bureau of Franchises, of the
+      Public Service Commission for the first District, New York
+
+    A detailed account of present conditions in the half-dozen largest
+    cities of the country, including Chicago.
+
+                                         _Half leather, 12mo, $1.25 net_
+
+
+
+
+On Industrial Legislation
+_Some Ethical Gains through Legislation_
+
+      By MRS. FLORENCE KELLEY
+
+    The book has grown out of the author's experience as Chief Inspector
+    of Factories in Illinois from 1893 to 1897, as Secretary of the
+    National Consumers' League from 1899 till now, and chiefly as a
+    resident at Hull-House, and later at the Nurses' Settlement, New
+    York.
+
+                                  _Cloth, leather back, 341 pages, 12mo,
+                                           $1.25 net. Citizens' Library_
+
+
+
+
+On Charitable Effort
+_How to Help_
+
+      By MARY CONYNGTON, of the Department of Commerce and Labor,
+      Washington
+
+    Not only is the professional charity worker often in need of advice
+    as to the best methods of investigation, administration, etc., but
+    the non-professional worker, with his zeal unrestrained by special
+    training, is even more emphatically in need of such guidance as this
+    sound and competent book gives.
+
+                                   _New edition, cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net_
+
+
+
+
+The Development of Thrift
+
+      By MARY W. BROWN, Secretary of the Henry Watson Children's Aid
+      Society, Baltimore
+
+    "An excellent little Manual, a study of various agencies, their
+    scope and their educating influences for thrift. It abounds in
+    suggestions of value."--_Chicago Inter-Ocean._
+
+                                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net_
+
+
+
+
+Friendly Visiting among the Poor
+
+      By MARY E. RICHMOND, General Secretary of the Charity Organization
+      Society of Baltimore
+
+    "A small book full of inspiration, yet intensely
+    practical."--CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON.
+
+                                                _Cloth, 16mo, $1.00 net_
+
+
+
+
+The Care of Destitute, Neglected, and Delinquent Children
+
+      By HOMER FOLKS, Ex-Commissioner of Public Charities, New York City
+
+    CONTENTS.--Conditions prevalent at the opening of the Nineteenth
+    Century; Public Care of Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Private
+    Charities for Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Removal of Children
+    from Almshouse; The State School and Placing Out System; The County
+    Children's Home System; The System of Public Support in Private
+    Institutions; The Boarding Out and Placing Out System; Laws and
+    Societies for the Rescue of Neglected Children; Private Charities
+    for Destitute and Neglected Children, 1875-1900; Delinquent
+    Children; Present Tendencies.
+
+                                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net_
+
+
+
+
+Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy
+
+      By JOSEPH LEE, Vice-President of the Massachusetts Civic League
+
+    CONTENTS.--Essence and Limitations of the Subject; Before 1860;
+    Savings and Loans; The Home; Health and Building Laws, Model
+    Tenements; The Setting of the Home; Vacation Schools; Playgrounds
+    for Small Children; Baths and Gymnasiums; Playgrounds for Big Boys;
+    Model Playgrounds; Outings; Boys' Clubs; Industrial Training; For
+    Grown People; Conclusion.
+
+                                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                Publishers  64-66 Fifth Avenue  New York
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber's Notes:
+
+  The following changes have been made to the text:
+
+  - In the table introduced as "Street traders and street employees may be
+    classified by occupation as follows:--" Newspaper sellers was written
+    as one word once.
+
+  - In the table detailing the occupation of children in Germany,
+    introduced as "Seven divisions of these children were made
+    according to occupation ..." the word Austragedienste was wrongly
+    hyphenated.
+
+  - In the TABLE E. HOURS AND EARNINGS OF STREET WORKERS a header
+    "OCCUPATIONS" was missing (compared to TABLE D before), and was added.
+
+  - In Footnote [172] the title of Mr. Ferrette's work was misspelled as
+    "Manuel de Lègislation Industrielle", and was changed to "Manuel de
+    législation industrielle" in accordance with its original title.
+
+  - In the Index entry "Great Britain ... Interdepartmental Committee of
+    1902 on Ireland ..." the reference to page 294 was changed to page 204.
+
+  The following changes have been made to the formatting and layout:
+
+  - Tables D to G in Chapter VII, and some tables in Annex C were changed
+    in layout to enable readability in plain text.
+
+  - In "Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card": Original
+    uses check mark, rendered here as [X].
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Child Labor in City Streets, by 
+Edward Nicholas Clopper
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 44396-8.txt or 44396-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/3/9/44396/
+
+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Heike Leichsenring and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Child Labor in City Streets, by Edward Nicholas Clopper
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Child Labor in City Streets
+
+Author: Edward Nicholas Clopper
+
+Release Date: December 9, 2013 [EBook #44396]
+
+Language: English
+
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS ***
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+(This file was produced from images generously made
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+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+
+ <h1>CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS</h1>
+
+
+ <p class="center">
+   BY <br />
+   <span class="middle">EDWARD N. CLOPPER, Ph.D.</span><br/>
+    SECRETARY OF NATIONAL CHILD LABOR COMMITTEE FOR MISSISSIPPI VALLEY
+ </p>
+
+
+ <p class="center spaced">
+   <span class="special">New York</span><br/>
+   THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br/>
+   1913<br/>
+
+   <span class="small italic">All rights reserved</span>
+ </p>
+
+ <p class="figcenter spaced">
+   <img src="images/logo.png" width="20%" alt="logo" title="logo" />
+ </p>
+
+ <p class="center spaced">
+   THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br/>
+   <span class="small">NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO</span> <br />
+   <span class="small">DALLAS · SAN FRANCISCO</span><br />
+ </p>
+
+ <p class="center spaced">
+   MACMILLAN &amp; CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br />
+   <span class="small">LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA</span><br />
+   <span class="small">MELBOURNE</span>
+ </p>
+
+ <p class="center spaced">
+   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br/>
+   <span class="small">TORONTO</span>
+ </p>
+
+
+ <p class="small center spaced">
+   <span class="smcap">Copyright, 1912,</span><br/>
+   By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+ </p>
+
+ <p class="small center">Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1912. Reprinted
+   January, 1913.</p>
+
+
+ <p class="small center spaced">
+  <span class="special">Norwood Press</span><br/>
+  J. S. Cushing Co.&mdash;Berwick &amp; Smith Co.<br/>
+  Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+ </p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>This volume is devoted to the discussion of
+a neglected form of child labor. Just why
+the newsboy, bootblack and peddler should
+have been ignored in the general movement for
+child welfare is hard to understand. Perhaps
+it is due to "the illusion of the near." Street
+workers have always been far more conspicuous
+than any other child laborers, and it seems that
+this very proximity has been their misfortune.
+If we could have focused our attention upon
+them as we did upon children in factories, they
+would have been banished from the streets
+long ago. But they were too close to us. We
+could not get a comprehensive view and saw
+only what we happened to want at the moment&mdash;their
+paltry little stock in trade. Now that
+we are getting a broader sense of social responsibility,
+we are beginning to realize how blind
+and inconsiderate we have been in our treatment
+of them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The first five chapters of the book review
+present conditions and discuss causes, the next
+two deal with effects, and the final ones are
+concerned with the remedy. The scope has
+been made as broad as possible. All forms of
+street work that engage any considerable number
+of children have been described at length, and
+opinions and findings of others have been freely
+quoted. I have attempted to show the bad
+results of the policy of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>laissez-faire</i></span> as applied
+to this problem. Simply because these little
+boys and girls have been ministering to its
+wants, the public has given them scarcely
+a passing thought. It has been so convenient
+to have a newspaper or a shoe brush thrust at
+one, it has not occurred to us that, for the sake
+of the children, such work would better be done
+by other means. Although good examples have
+been set by European cities, we have not introduced
+any innovations to clear the streets of
+working children.</p>
+
+<p>The free rein at present given to child labor
+in our city streets is productive of nothing but
+harmful results, and it is high time that a determined
+stand was taken for the rights of children
+so exposed. A few feeble efforts at regulation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>
+have been made in some parts of this country,
+but this is an evil that requires prohibition
+rather than regulation. There is no valid
+reason why just as efficient service in streets
+could not be rendered by adults. Certainly it
+would be far more suitable and humane to
+reserve such work for old men and women who
+need outdoor life and are physically unable
+to earn their living in other ways. We could
+buy our newspaper from a crippled adult at a
+stand just as easily as we get it now from an
+urchin who shivers on the street corner. It is
+only a question of habit, and we ought to be
+glad of the change for the good of all concerned.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+E. N. C.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cincinnati, 1912.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<table id="toc" summary="Content">
+ <tr>
+  <th>CHAPTER</th>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>PAGE</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+   <td class="chapnum">I.</td>
+   <td class="middle">The Problem of the Street-working Child&mdash;Public Apathy&mdash;Relation to Other Problems</td>
+   <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">II.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Extent to which Children engage in Street Activities in America and Europe</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">24</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">III.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Newspaper Sellers</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">52</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">IV.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Bootblacks, Peddlers and Market Children</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">83</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">V.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Messengers, Errand and Delivery Children</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">101</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">VI.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Effects of Street Work upon Children</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">128</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">VII.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Relation of Street Work to Delinquency</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">159</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="middle">The Struggle for Regulation in the United States</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">189</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">IX.</td>
+  <td class="middle">Development of Street Trades Regulation in Europe</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">214</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="middle">Conclusion</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#CONCLUSION">243</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="middle">Bibliography</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">245</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="middle">Appendices</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#APPENDICES">255</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="middle">Index</td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#INDEX">277</a></td>
+ </tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">THE PROBLEM OF THE STREET-WORKING CHILD&mdash;PUBLIC
+APATHY&mdash;RELATION TO OTHER
+PROBLEMS</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span>The efforts which have so far been made in
+the United States to solve the child labor
+problem have been directed almost exclusively
+toward improvement of conditions in mines
+and manufacturing and mercantile establishments.
+This singling out of one phase of the
+problem for correction was due to the uneducated
+state of public opinion which made
+necessary a long and determined campaign along
+one line, vividly portraying the wrongs of children
+in this one form of exploitation, before general
+interest could be aroused. Within very recent
+years this campaign has met with signal success,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+and many states have granted a goodly measure
+of protection to the children of their working
+classes as far as the factory, the store and the
+mine are concerned. The time has now come
+for attention to be directed toward the premature
+employment of children in work other than that
+connected with mining and manufacturing, for
+there are other phases of this problem which involve
+large numbers of children and which, up to
+the present, have received but little thought from
+students of labor conditions. The three most
+important of these other phases are the employment
+of children in agricultural work, in home
+industries and in street occupations. This
+volume will deal with the last-named phase&mdash;with
+the economic activities of children in the
+streets and public places of our cities, their
+effects and the remedies they demand.</p>
+
+<p>The street occupations in which children
+commonly engage are: newspaper selling, peddling,
+bootblacking, messenger service, delivery
+service, running errands and the tending of
+market stands. The first three are known as
+street "trades," owing to the popular fallacy
+that the children who follow them are little
+"merchants," and are therefore entitled to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>dignity of separate classification. Careful usage
+would confine this term to newsboys, peddlers
+and bootblacks who work independently of any
+employer. Many children are employed by
+other persons to sell newspapers, peddle goods
+and polish shoes, and such children technically
+are street traders no more than those who run
+errands, carry messages or deliver parcels.
+Consequently the term "street trades" is limited
+in its application, and by no means embraces
+all the economic activities of children in our
+streets and public places.</p>
+
+<p>Wisconsin has written into her laws a definition
+of street trading, declaring that it is "any
+business or occupation in which any street,
+alley, court, square or other public place is used
+for the sale, display or offering for sale of any
+articles, goods or merchandise."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> This covers
+neither bootblacking nor the delivery of newspapers.</p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain the expression "street
+trading" has been officially defined as including:
+"the hawking of newspapers, matches, flowers,
+and other articles; playing, singing, or performing
+for profit; plying for hire in carrying luggage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> or messages; shoe blacking, or any other like
+occupations carried on in streets or public
+places."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Street traders and street employees may be
+classified by occupation as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Classification of street traders and street employees by occupation">
+ <tr>
+  <th>Street Traders<br /> (Working for Themselves)</th>
+  <th>Street Employees <br /> (Working for Others)</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td>Newspaper sellers<br />
+      Peddlers<br />
+      Bootblacks (on street)</td>
+  <td>Newspaper sellers (on salary) <br />
+      Peddlers (on salary)<br />
+      Bootblacks (in stands)<br />
+      Market stand tenders<br />
+      Messengers<br />
+      Errand children<br />
+      Delivery children</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>This classification is based upon the well-known
+economic distinction between profits
+and wages. It is unfortunate that this distinction
+has been applied to juvenile street
+workers, for it has operated to the great disadvantage
+of the "traders." This class has been
+practically ignored in the general movement for
+child welfare, on the ground that these little
+laborers were in business for themselves, and
+therefore should not be disturbed. Recently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+the conviction has been dawning upon observant
+people that, in the case of young children at
+least, the effects of work on an independent
+basis, particularly in city streets, are just as bad
+and perhaps even worse than work under the
+direction of employers. The mute appeal of
+the street-working child for protection has at
+last reached the heart of the welfare movement,
+and the first feeble efforts in his behalf are now
+being put forth, regardless of whether he toils
+for profits or for wages.</p>
+
+<p>This alleged distinction between street trading
+and street employment should be clearly understood,
+as any movement designed to remedy
+present conditions must be sufficiently comprehensive
+to avoid the great mistake of protecting
+one class and ignoring the other. On the one
+hand there is said to be an army of little independent
+"merchants" conducting business
+affairs of their own, while on the other there is
+an array of juvenile employees performing the
+tasks set them by their masters. For purposes
+of regulation this distinction is hairsplitting,
+narrow-minded and unjust, as it has been made
+to defeat in part the beneficent aim of the great
+campaign for child welfare, but nevertheless it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+must be reckoned with. Children under fourteen
+years of age at work in factories and mines
+are often properly called "slaves," and their
+plight is regarded with pity coupled with a
+clarion cry for their emancipation. But tiny
+workers in the streets are referred to approvingly
+as "little merchants" and are freely patronized
+even by the avowed friends of children, who
+thereby contribute their moral support toward
+continuing these conditions and maintaining
+this absurd fiction of our merchant babyhood.
+As an instance of this remarkable attitude,
+there was proudly printed in the Pittsburgh
+<i>Gazette-Times</i> of April 11, 1910, the picture of
+a four-year-old child who had been a newsboy
+in an Ohio town since the age of <i>thirty months</i>,
+and this was described as a most worthy achievement!</p>
+
+<p>That the term "child labor," whose meaning
+has so long been popularly restricted to the
+employment of children in factories, mills,
+mines and stores, is properly applicable to the
+activities of children in all kinds of work for
+profit, is now virtually recognized by a few
+states which prohibit employment of children
+under fourteen years of age "in any gainful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+occupation." But unfortunately the courts
+have rigidly construed the word "employ"
+to mean the purchasing of the services of one
+person by another, hence newsboys, peddlers,
+bootblacks and others who work on their own
+account, do not enjoy the protection of such
+a statute because they are not "employed."
+Under this interpretation a fatal loophole is
+afforded through which thousands of boys and
+girls escape the spirit of the law which seeks
+to prevent their <i>labor</i> rather than their mere
+employment. It is for this reason that, in
+states having otherwise excellent provisions
+for the conservation of childhood, we see little
+children freely exploiting themselves on city
+streets. This situation has been calmly accepted
+without protest by the general public, for,
+while the people condemn child labor in factories,
+they tolerate and even approve of it on the street.
+They labor under the delusion that merely
+because a few of our successful business men
+were newsboys in the past, these little "merchants"
+of the street are receiving valuable
+training in business methods and will later
+develop into leaders in the affairs of men. A
+glaring example of this attitude was given by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+a monthly magazine<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> which fondly referred
+to newsboys as "the enterprising young merchants
+from whose ranks will be recruited the
+coming statesmen, soldiers, financiers, merchants
+and manufacturers of our land."</p>
+
+<p>It is extremely unfortunate that this narrow
+conception has prevailed, as it raises the tremendous
+obstacle of popular prejudice which
+must be broken down before these child street
+workers can receive their share of justice at
+the hands of the law. The only fair and
+logical method of approach toward a solution
+of the child labor problem in all its phases is
+to take high ground and view the subject broadly
+in the light of what is for the best interests of
+children in general.</p>
+
+<p>The state recognizes the need of an intelligent
+citizenship and accordingly provides a system of
+public schools, requiring the attendance of all
+children up to the age of fourteen years. In
+order that nothing shall interfere with the
+operation of this plan for general education,
+the state forbids the employment of children
+of school age. In respect of both these mandates,
+the state has really assumed the guardianship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+of the child; it has accepted the principle
+that the child is the ward of the state and has
+based its action on this principle. A guardian
+should be ever mindful of the welfare of his
+wards, and so, to be consistent, the state should
+carefully shield its children from all forms of
+exploitation as well as from other abuses.</p>
+
+<p>However, in the matter of the regulation of
+child labor, a curious anomaly has arisen&mdash;no
+one may employ a child under fourteen years
+in a <i>factory</i> for even one hour a day without
+being liable to prosecution for disobeying the
+law of the state, because such work might interfere
+with the child's growth and education;
+all of which is right and indorsed by public
+opinion, but&mdash;merely because a child is working
+independently of any employer, he is allowed
+to sell newspapers, peddle chewing gum and
+black boots for any number of hours, providing
+he attends school during school hours! Could
+anything be more inconsistent? To this extent
+the state, as a guardian, has neglected the welfare
+of its ward.</p>
+
+<p>This lack of consideration for street workers
+was emphasized in a British government report
+a number of years ago. Referring to the statutory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+provisions for preventing overwork by
+children in factories, workshops and mines, the
+report declared: "But the labour of children
+for wages outside these cases is totally unregulated,
+although many of them work longer
+than the factory hours allowed for children of
+the same age, and are at the same time undergoing
+compulsory educational training, which
+makes a considerable demand on their energies.
+We think this is inconsistent. In the interests
+of their health and education, it seems only
+reasonable that remedies which have proved so
+valuable in the case of factory children should
+in some form be extended to cover the whole
+field of child labour."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>To insure a good yield, a field requires cultivation
+as well as planting; to effect a cure, a
+patient requires nursing as well as prescription.
+So with the aim of the state&mdash;to insure a
+strong, intelligent citizenship, its children must
+be cared for, as well as provided with schools.
+If a patient is not nursed while the physician
+is absent, his treatment is of little avail; if
+children are not protected out of school hours,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+the purpose of the school is defeated. No
+manufacturer would allow his machinery to run,
+unwatched, outside regular work hours, for
+he knows how disastrous would be the consequences;
+yet this is precisely what the state
+is doing by ignoring the activities of children
+in our city streets&mdash;the delicate machinery of
+their minds and bodies is allowed to run wild
+out of schools hours, and the state seems to
+think nothing will happen! These thoughts
+impel us to the conclusion that the state must
+watch over the child at least until he has reached
+the age limit for school attendance, and in the
+matter of labor regulation its care must not
+be confined to the prevention of one form of
+exploitation while other forms, equally injurious,
+are permitted to flourish unchecked.</p>
+
+<p>Legislation regulating street trading by children
+in this country is now in the stage corresponding
+to that of the English factory acts in
+the early part of the nineteenth century,&mdash;the
+first meager restrictions are being tried. Several
+of the street occupations, viz. messenger service,
+delivery service and errand running, are ordinarily
+included among those prohibited to children
+under fourteen years by state child labor laws,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+because to engage in such work children have to
+be employed by other persons. These occupations
+are covered by the provision common to
+such laws which forbids employment of such
+children "in the distribution or transmission
+of merchandise or messages." The street
+"trades" of newspaper selling, peddling and
+bootblacking are, as yet, almost untouched by
+legislation in the United States, for there exist
+only a very few state laws and city ordinances
+relative to this matter, and these of the most
+primitive kind. The public does not yet realize
+the injustice of permitting young children to
+engage, uncontrolled, in the various street-trading
+activities. It was slow to appreciate the
+dangers involved in the unrestricted employment
+of children in factories, mills and mines, but
+when the awakening finally came, the demand
+for reform was insistent. This gradual development
+of a sentiment favoring regulation characterizes
+also the problem of street employment; the
+present stage is that of calm indifference, ruffled
+only by occasional misgivings. Even this is an
+encouraging sign, inasmuch as the factory agitation
+passed through the same experience, and
+emerged triumphant, crystallized in statute form.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is hard to understand how the public
+conscience can reconcile itself to the chasm
+between the age limit of fourteen years for messenger
+service and freedom from all restraint
+in newspaper selling&mdash;both essentially street
+occupations. Child labor laws are framed in
+accordance with public sentiment, hence the
+people by legislative omission practically indorse
+street trading by little children while condemning
+their employment in other kinds of work.
+Thus the state virtually assumes the untenable
+position that it is right to allow a child of
+tender years to labor in the streets as a newsboy
+without any oversight or care whatever, and
+that it is wrong for him to work in the same field
+as a messenger, or an errand boy, or a delivery
+boy, although such occupations are subject to
+some degree of supervision by older persons.
+In other words, it is held that little children are
+capable of self-control in some street occupations,
+but not able to withstand the dangers of other
+similar street work, even under the control of
+adults! After having described the conditions
+prevailing in Philadelphia among newsboys,
+Mr. Scott Nearing says: "There are many
+causes leading up to this condition. Beneath<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+all others lies the fundamental one&mdash;the lack
+of public sentiment in favor of protecting these
+children. Closely allied to this is another almost
+equally strong&mdash;the lack of public knowledge
+of the true state of affairs."<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit pointed
+out the fact that street trades are quite untouched
+by child labor legislation in the city
+and also in the state, declaring that in Illinois
+a boy or girl too young to be permitted to do
+any other work may haunt the newspaper
+offices, the five-cent shows, the theaters and
+saloons, selling chewing gum and newspapers
+at all hours of the night.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the arguments advanced in support
+of the unsuccessful effort to secure legislation
+on street trading in Illinois in 1911 was the
+following: "Each boy or girl street trader is a
+merchant in his or her own right, and therefore
+before the law is not considered a wage earner,
+although there is merely a fine-spun distinction
+between the child who secures <i>wages</i> as the result
+of his work and one who obtains his reward in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+the form of <i>profits</i>. The effect on the child
+of work performed under unsuitable conditions,
+at unsuitable hours and demanding the exercise
+of his faculties in unchildish ways, is in no
+wise determined by the form in which his earnings
+are calculated. That the results of street
+trading are wholly bad in the case of both boys
+and girls is universally recognized."<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Miss
+Jane Addams has deplored this situation in a
+public statement: "A newsboy is a merchant
+and does not come within the child labor regulations
+of Illinois. The city of Chicago is a
+little careless, if not recreant, toward the children
+who are not reached by the operation of the state
+law."<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>Even in the few localities where regulation
+of street trading has been attempted, the delusion
+that there is some essential difference between
+child labor in factories and child labor
+in streets persists in the legislation itself. The
+latter form of exploitation is assumed to merit
+a wider latitude for its activity, hence it is
+hedged about by much less stringent rules.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+Attention is invited to this inconsistency by
+the report of a recent investigation in New York
+City: "We have in New York 4148 children
+between 14 and 16 years employed in factories
+with their daily hours of labor limited from
+8 <span class="smcap lowercase lowercase">A.M.</span> to 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, while in mercantile establishments
+there are 1645 more of similar age limit,
+none of whom can work before 8 in the morning
+or after 7 in the evening. But on the streets
+of New York City we have approximately
+4500 boys licensed (to say nothing of the little
+fellows too young to be licensed) to sell newspapers.
+That means 4500 legalized to work
+at this particular trade from 6 o'clock in the
+morning until 10 o'clock in the evening (save
+during the school year, when they are supposed
+to attend school from 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>) any day
+and every day, seven days to the week if they
+so desire to do."<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Broader Aspects of the Problem</h3>
+
+<p>Let us consider the matter from another
+point of view and discuss the opportunities for
+constructive work rather than confine our atten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>tion
+to the need of the merely negative remedy
+of restrictive legislation.</p>
+
+<p>The street is painted as a black monster by
+some social workers, who can discern nothing
+but evil in it. Nevertheless the street is closely
+woven into the life of every city dweller, for his
+contact with it is daily and continuous. If it
+is all evil, it ought to be abolished; as this is
+impossible, we must study it to see what it
+really is and what needs to be done with it.
+It is the medium by which people are brought
+into closer touch with one another, where they
+meet and converse, where they pass in transit,
+where they rub elbows with all the elements
+making up their little world, where they absorb
+the principles of democracy,&mdash;for the street is
+a great leveler.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Delos F. Wilcox, in speaking to the subject
+"What is Philadelphia Doing to Protect Her
+Citizens in the Street?" recently said: "The
+street is the symbol of democracy, of equal opportunity,
+the channel of the common life, the thing
+that makes the city.... I fancy that the
+civic renaissance which must surely come, ...
+will never get very far until we have awakened
+to a realization of the dignity of the street<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>&mdash;the
+common street where the city's children
+play, through which the milk wagon drives,
+where the young men are educated, along which
+the currents of the city's life flow unceasingly."<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p>An English writer has expressed a similar
+thought: "We have spoken of the street as a
+dangerous environment from which we would
+gladly rescue the children if we could, and so
+it undoubtedly is in so far as it supplants the
+influence of the home, tends to nullify that of
+the school and lets the boys and girls run wild
+just when they most need to be tamed....
+It is, in fact, so strange a mixture of good and
+evil, so complex an influence in the growth of
+boy and girl, of youth and man, among our
+great city population, that it is necessary to
+attempt to analyze it a little more exactly.
+It is for the majority the medium in which the
+social conscience is formed, and through which
+it makes its power felt. In it the all-powerful
+agents of progress, example, imitation, the spread
+of ideas and the discussion of good and evil are
+incessantly at work."<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is only natural that such a general agency
+for communication should have been abused.
+Its popularity alone would inevitably lead to
+such a result, with no restrictions imposed upon
+street intercourse. The very popularity of the
+games of billiards, pool and cards and of dancing
+led to their abuse and consequent disrepute
+in the eyes of many persons who were blinded
+to their intrinsic worth as diversions, by the
+abuses to which they were subjected. The
+marked success attending the proper use of
+all these amusements in social settlements and
+parish houses stimulates the imagination as to
+what might be accomplished with the street if
+its abuses also were eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>It is of course absurd to pass judgment summarily
+upon the street, for the street can exert
+no influence of itself; the evil issues from its
+abuse by those who frequent it, and it is this
+abuse that should be suppressed. This immediately
+raises the question as to what constitutes
+this abuse. We must bear in mind that the real
+purpose of the street is to serve as a means of
+communication, a passageway for the transit
+of passengers and commerce. It was never
+intended for a playground, nor a field for child<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+labor, nor a resort for idlers, nor a depository
+for garbage, nor a place for beggars to mulct
+the public. These fungous growths from civic
+neglect ought to be cut away. "A place for
+everything and everything in its place" would
+be an efficacious even if old-fashioned remedy:
+playgrounds for the children, workshops for the
+idlers, reduction plants for the garbage and
+asylums for the beggars. With these reforms
+effected and carefully maintained, the street
+would soon become much more wholesome and
+attractive.</p>
+
+<p>These considerations have been advanced
+to indicate the intimate relation which exists
+between the problem of the child street worker
+and many other problems with which social
+workers are now struggling. Child labor in
+city streets must be abolished, but at the same
+time coöperation with other movements is
+necessary before a satisfactory solution of the
+problem can be assured.</p>
+
+<p>For example, it would be a short-sighted
+policy to prohibit young children from selling
+goods in home market stands without reporting
+to the housing authorities cases in which large
+families live in one or two filthy rooms, display<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>ing
+and selling their wares in the doorway and
+from the window. Our Italian citizens are not
+committing race suicide, but in spite of their
+numerous progeny they crowd together in extremely
+limited space, combining their home life
+with the customary business of selling fruit.
+Their young children assist in tending the stands
+on market days and nights or sit on the sidewalk
+selling baskets to passers-by; at closing
+time their goods are often stored in the same
+room that serves for sleeping quarters, cots
+being brought out from some dark hiding place.
+In such circumstances the mere prevention of
+child labor is not sufficient&mdash;the housing conditions
+also should be remedied so as to give
+the children a more suitable place in which to
+play, study and sleep, a better home in which
+to use their leisure.</p>
+
+<p>Again, a movement to prohibit street work
+by children should give impetus to that which
+seeks to make the public school a social center,
+and especially to that for public vacation schools.
+Many of the homes of city children very
+largely lack the element of attractiveness which
+is so essential in holding children under the
+influence of their parents, and this want must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+be filled as far as possible by making the school
+an instrument not merely for instruction, but
+also for the entertainment and socializing of
+the entire neighborhood.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the regulating of street trading should
+be undertaken jointly with the movement to
+supply adequate playground facilities. Playgrounds
+are not a municipal luxury, but a necessary.
+Children must have some suitable place
+for recreation. It is not a function of the street
+to furnish the space for play, and as children
+cannot and should not be kept at home all the
+time, it follows that ground must be set apart
+for the purpose. On these points a British
+report says: "We have no doubt that insanitary
+homes and immoral surroundings, with the want
+of any open spaces where the children could
+enjoy healthy exercise and recreation, are strong
+factors in determining towards evil courses in
+the cases of the children of the poor."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The
+need for more playgrounds in Chicago was
+partially supplied by having one block in a congested
+district closed to traffic during August,
+1911, so that children could play there without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+risking their lives, from eight in the morning
+to eight in the evening. In providing this
+emergency playground, Chicago has set an
+example that will undoubtedly be imitated by
+other cities.</p>
+
+<p>In this way the abolition of child labor in
+city streets would result in benefit not only to
+the children, but to the entire community as
+well. It would promote a general civic awakening
+that would make each town and city a better
+place to live in, a better home for our citizens
+of the future.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">EXTENT TO WHICH CHILDREN ENGAGE IN STREET
+ACTIVITIES IN AMERICA AND EUROPE</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>There are no reliable figures either official
+or unofficial showing the number of children
+engaged in street activities in any city of the
+United States or in the country at large. The
+figures given by the United States Census of
+1900 are so inadequate that they can hardly
+mislead any one endowed with ordinary powers
+of observation. It solemnly declares that in
+that year there was a grand total of 6904 newspaper
+carriers and newsboys, both adults and
+children, in the entire United States, of whom
+69 were females.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> In all probability there was a
+greater number at that time in some of our larger
+cities alone. In the group called "other persons
+in trade and transportation" only 3557 children
+ten to fifteen years of age are reported, although
+this group embraces nine specified occupations,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+of which that of the newsboy is only one.
+Besides these, many other occupations (in
+which 63 per cent of the total number of
+persons reported are engaged) are not specified.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
+Consequently the number of newsboys ten to
+fifteen years old reported by the enumerators for
+the entire country must have been ridiculously
+small.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the total number of bootblacks ten
+years of age and upwards in the country was
+reported as 8230, they being included in the
+group called "other domestic and personal service."
+Only 2953 children ten to fifteen years
+of age were reported in this group, which includes
+five specified occupations, of which that
+of the bootblacks is only one, and many others
+(in which 67 per cent of the total number of
+persons reported are engaged) which are not
+specified.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>The inadequacy of these figures to convey any
+idea whatsoever as to the extent of child labor
+in street occupations in this country is painfully
+apparent; they are quoted here merely to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+show the poverty of statistics on this subject.
+Their inaccuracy is practically conceded by the
+report itself in the following words: "The limitations
+connected with the taking of a great
+national census preclude proper care upon the
+question of child employment. There is great
+uncertainty as to the accuracy of a mass of
+information of this character taken by enumerators
+and special agents, who either do not
+appreciate the importance of the investigation
+or find it impracticable to devote the time to
+the inquiry necessary to secure good results."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is reason to hope for more reliable data
+from the 1910 census; but unfortunately the
+figures will probably not be available until 1913.
+The enumerators employed by the Federal
+government for the Census of 1910, were instructed
+to make an entry in the occupation
+column of the population schedule for every
+person enumerated, giving the exact occupation
+if employed, writing the word "none" if
+unemployed, or the words "own income" if
+living upon an independent income. It was
+stated positively that the occupation followed
+by a child of any age was just as important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+for census purposes as the occupation followed
+by a man, and that it should never be taken for
+granted without inquiry that a child had no
+occupation.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<p>However, upon inquiry by enumerators at
+the time of the census taking as to the occupation
+of children, many parents undoubtedly
+replied in the negative, even though their children
+may have been devoting several hours
+daily outside of school to street work, under the
+impression that this was not an occupation.
+Consequently it is safe to assume that the
+figures for street-working children in the United
+States according to the Census of 1910 when
+published will be under the true number.
+Nevertheless, they can hardly fail to reflect conditions
+far better than did the figures for 1900.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Chicago</h3>
+
+<p>It is only from the reports of occasional and
+very limited local investigations that material
+as to the actual state of affairs can be obtained.
+Social workers of Chicago had a bill introduced
+into the Illinois legislature at its session of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+1911, providing that boys under ten years and
+girls under sixteen years should be prohibited
+from selling anything in city streets, and some
+material was gathered to be used in support
+of this measure. In connection with what has
+already been said in <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chapter I</a>, it is interesting
+to note that although the provisions of this bill
+were very mild, and strong efforts were put
+forth by social workers to secure its passage, it
+was not allowed to become a law largely because
+of the absence of public opinion and partly
+because of the opposition by newspaper publishers
+and others who were afraid that their
+interests might suffer through the granting of
+protection to such little children.</p>
+
+<p>In one of the schools of Chicago, pupils were
+found to be trading in the streets in addition to
+attending school in the following percentages:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class="listcontainer">
+<ul class="not">
+<li>65 per cent of 5th grade children</li>
+<li>35 per cent of 4th grade children</li>
+<li>15 per cent of 2d grade children</li>
+<li>12 per cent of 1st grade children</li>
+</ul>
+(Figures for 3d grade were not given.)
+</div>
+
+<p>All of these children were attending school
+twenty-five hours a week, and many cases of
+excessive work out of school hours were found.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Some allowance should be made for possible
+exaggeration on the part of these children, but
+nevertheless it is certain that many of them
+were working to an injurious extent. The hours
+given were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="listcontainer">
+<ul class="not">
+ <li>1 boy over 50 hours</li>
+ <li>4 boys over 40 hours</li>
+ <li>5 boys over 35 hours</li>
+ <li>7 boys over 30 hours</li>
+ <li>18 boys over 20 hours</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p>Their average earnings per week were found
+to be as follows:<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Average earnings of street-trading children">
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">5th grade children</td>
+  <td class="right">$1.18</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">4th grade children</td>
+  <td class="right">.85</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">3d grade children</td>
+  <td class="right">.60</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">2d grade children</td>
+  <td class="right">.43</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">1st grade children</td>
+  <td class="right">.36</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>In referring to the weekly income of the
+children from this source, the Handbook of the
+Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit declared that
+it was "a pitiable sum to compensate for the
+physical weariness and moral risk attending
+street trades in a large city. School reports
+show that street trades, when carried on by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+young children, lead to truancy, low vitality,
+dullness and the breaking down of parental
+control. Since the children are on the streets
+at all hours, careless habits are developed which
+often lead to moral ruin to both boys and girls."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>An instance was related wherein the teacher
+of a fifth grade in a Chicago school asked those
+of her pupils who worked for money to raise
+their hands. In the class of 38 pupils, 26
+acknowledged that they were little breadwinners!
+One boy said he worked ten hours a
+day besides attending school; others had less
+striking records, spending from twenty to forty
+hours a week selling chewing gum and newspapers,
+blacking boots and pursuing the various
+other street occupations which the Illinois law
+leaves open to children of all ages.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>Referring to the economic and home conditions
+surrounding young children in Chicago
+and the many phases of danger to their moral
+well-being, the Vice Commission of that city
+reported that its agents had found small boys
+selling newspapers in segregated districts and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+that one night an investigator had counted
+twenty newsboys from eleven years upwards so
+engaged at midnight and after. Besides these
+newsboys, many little boys and girls were found
+peddling chewing gum near disorderly saloons
+where prostitutes were soliciting. Numerous
+examples of employment in vicious environment
+are cited, principally of the peddling of newspapers
+and chewing gum by young children at
+all hours of the night in the "red light" districts,
+about saloons and museums of anatomy.
+Even in the rear rooms of saloons, boys were
+seen offering their wares and heard to join in
+obscene conversation with the patrons of these
+resorts.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>A folder published in Chicago by the advocates
+of street-trade regulation calls attention
+to these conditions, and states, with regard to
+little newsgirls who sell papers in the vice
+regions: "It is not surprising if some of them,
+becoming so familiar with the practices of the
+district, take up the profession of the neighborhood.
+The Juvenile Protective Association
+reports one little girl who entered the life of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+professional prostitute at the age of fourteen,
+after having sold newspapers for years in the
+district."<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another element of this problem, seldom
+considered, is described also in this folder&mdash;the
+vagrants, who constitute a large and growing
+class deserving the attention of both city
+and citizen. "Three classes of persons, who
+add little to the general circulation, while detracting
+much from the tone of the business
+and working a real injury to themselves, are
+engaged in selling newspapers; these are the
+small boy, the semi-vagrant boy, and the young
+girl. The business of selling newspapers in
+Chicago is so systematized that the 'vagrant'
+cannot prosper, and yet the 'vagrant' is in
+our midst. He can be found on State Street
+at 11 o'clock on a Saturday night with one
+newspaper under his arm&mdash;not attempting to
+sell it, but using it as a bait to beg from the
+passers-by. He can be found in the <i>American</i>
+news alley, sometimes fifty, sometimes a hundred
+strong, sleeping on bags, under boxes, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+on the floor of the newspaper restaurant.
+With this boy, and with all those who are obviously
+too young to be permitted to engage in
+street trading, it is our duty to deal if we are
+to preserve the attitude the American city
+takes toward the dependent child."</p>
+
+<table class="lined w50" summary="Nationalities of Boston Child Street Traders">
+<caption><span class="smcap">Nationalities of Boston Child Street Traders</span></caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w5" />
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w5" />
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w20" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th colspan="4">Place of Birth</th>
+  <th>Number</th>
+  <th>Percentage</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td rowspan="3" class="bl left">America</td>
+  <td rowspan="3" style="font-size:550%; text-align:right; padding: 0em; vertical-align: top;">&#123;</td>
+  <td>Boston</td>
+  <td class="br right">1,556</td>
+  <td rowspan="3"  class="br right">1860</td>
+  <td rowspan="3" class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">70</span>.<span class="nachkomma">&nbsp;</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td>Elsewhere in Mass.</td>
+  <td class="br right">171</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td>Other states</td>
+  <td class="br right">133</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Russia</td>
+  <td class="br right">473</td>
+  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">17</span>.<span class="nachkomma">5</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Italy</td>
+  <td class="br right">161</td>
+  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">6</span>.<span class="nachkomma">&nbsp;</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Other foreign countries</td>
+  <td class="br right">162</td>
+  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">6</span>.<span class="nachkomma">&nbsp;</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="br bl">Not given</td>
+  <td class="br right">8</td>
+  <td class="br right"><span class="vorkomma">&nbsp;</span>.<span class="nachkomma">5</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="br bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="br bl bb bt right">2664</td>
+  <td class="br bl bb bt right"><span class="vorkomma">100</span>.<span class="nachkomma">0</span></td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Boston</h3>
+
+<p>In Boston, during the year 1910, there were
+issued to newsboys, peddlers and bootblacks
+from eleven to thirteen years of age inclusive,
+2664 licenses. Of these nearly all (2525) were
+issued to newsboys, while 114 were issued to
+bootblacks and 25 to peddlers. Of these license<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+holders 904 were eleven years old, 900 were
+twelve years old, and 860 were thirteen years
+old. It is interesting to note that nearly three
+fourths of these children were born in the
+United States; the table on <a href="#Page_33">page 33</a> shows their
+distribution among nationalities.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">New York City</h3>
+
+<p>The actual number of children engaged in
+street activities at any given time is less than
+the number of licenses issued during the year,
+inasmuch as not all such children persist in
+pursuing this work, many of them working only
+a few weeks, while a few never enter upon the
+tasks which they have been licensed to perform.
+This is borne out by the experience of investigators
+in New York City; the report of a study
+made there recently says: "We are told by
+the department of education issuing newsboy
+badges that 4500 boys have these badges, yet
+when we secured the addresses of some of these
+from their application cards ... we found that
+not 30 per cent of the 100 cases investigated
+lived at listed addresses. Many such were
+bogus numbers, open lots, factories, wharves,
+and in some cases the middle of East River<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+would wash over the house number given.
+When we did find a correct address, the children
+so located in six cases out of ten were not following
+the trade. In some instances they never
+sold papers, obtaining badges simply because
+other boys were applying for them, and after
+receiving a badge tucked it away in a drawer
+or maybe sold it or gave it away."<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Cincinnati</h3>
+
+<p>In Cincinnati from June to December, 1909,
+1951 boys from ten to thirteen years of age
+were licensed to sell newspapers, this number
+being about 15 per cent of the total number of
+boys of these ages in the city. Their distribution
+according to age was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Licensed newspaper sellers Cincinnati">
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">10 years</td>
+  <td class="right">424</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">11 years</td>
+  <td class="right">466</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">12 years</td>
+  <td class="right">539</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">13 years</td>
+  <td class="right">522</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">Total</td>
+  <td class="right bt">1951</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p>The Cincinnati figures do not include bootblacks,
+peddlers or market children, as no
+licenses were issued for such occupations, al<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>though
+they are specifically covered by the municipal
+ordinance regulating street trades.</p>
+
+<p>The above data were available only because
+there has been some attempt in Boston, New
+York and Cincinnati to restrict the employment
+of children in street occupations; as in the great
+majority of cities and states there is absolutely
+no regulation of this kind, there are of course
+no figures to indicate conditions.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">The Padrone System</h3>
+
+<p>In almost every city of the United States
+having a population of more than 10,000, there
+is to be found the padrone system, which is
+operated principally in the interests of the bootblacking
+business which the Greeks control.
+The peddling of flowers, fruit and vegetables
+in Chicago and New York is partly subject to
+the same methods. The labor supply furnished
+by this system for peddling and bootblacking
+consists generally of children from twelve to
+seventeen years of age.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Immigration Commission states in its
+report that there are several thousand shoe-shining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+establishments in the United States
+operated by Greeks who employ boys as bootblacks,
+and that with few exceptions they are
+under the padrone system.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> A few boys under
+sixteen years of age are employed under the
+Greek padrone system as flower vendors, and
+these are found chiefly in New York City.
+They are hired by florists to sell flowers in the
+streets and public places&mdash;largely old stock
+that cannot be handled in the shops. These
+boys usually live in good quarters, are well fed
+and receive their board and from $50 to $100
+a year in wages. When not engaged in peddling,
+they deliver flowers ordered at the shops. The
+boys employed by the padrones to peddle
+candy, fruit and vegetables usually live in
+basements or in filthy rooms; here they are
+crowded two, three and sometimes four in one
+bed, with windows shut tight so as to avoid
+catching cold. The fruit and vegetables still
+on hand are stored for the night in these bedrooms
+and in the kitchen. In each peddling
+company there are usually three or four wagons
+and from four to eight boys.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Minor Street Occupations</h3>
+
+<p>There are a few so-called street trades in
+which a relatively small number of children are
+engaged which so far have not been mentioned
+in this volume. These are the leading of blind
+persons and the accompanying of beggars in
+general, little children being found valuable
+for such work because they help to excite the
+sympathy of passers-by. A few children also
+are employed as lamplighters to go about
+towns lighting street lamps in the evening and
+extinguishing them in the early morning. A
+class of street boys who have as yet received
+no name in this country, but in England are
+called "touts," haunt the neighborhood of railroad
+depots and lie in wait for passengers with
+hand baggage, offering to carry it to the train
+for a small fee.</p>
+
+<p>Some children are used as singers or performers
+upon musical instruments, but this is
+in reality only another form of begging. The
+writer found one instance of a young boy who
+was employed by the public library of one of
+our large cities to gather up overdue books
+about the city and to collect the fines imposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+for failure to return the same. Very frequently
+in the course of his work this boy had to enter
+houses of prostitution, as the inmates are steady
+patrons of the public library, reading light literature,
+and are quite negligent in the matter
+of returning the books within the prescribed
+time. Immediately upon the librarian's learning
+of the situation, he was relieved of this duty,
+and a man was detailed to perform the task.
+Such special occupations as these do not constitute
+a real factor in the problem because of
+the small number of children involved, and
+hence they are omitted from consideration.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Great Britain</h3>
+
+<p>Turning to Europe we find much more information
+on this subject. In Great Britain
+the House of Commons in 1898 ordered an
+inquiry to be made into the extent of child
+labor among public school pupils, and the education
+department sent schedules to the 20,022
+public elementary schools in England and Wales
+for the purpose of determining the facts. A little
+more than half of the schools returned the
+schedules blank, stating that no children were
+employed; this introduced a large element of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+error into the return, as many of the schoolmasters
+misunderstood the meaning of the
+schedules, and consequently quite a number of
+children who should have been included were
+omitted from the total. The 9433 schedules
+which were filled and returned showed that
+144,026 children (about three fourths boys and
+one fourth girls) were in attendance full time
+at the public elementary schools of England and
+Wales and known to be employed for profit
+outside of school hours.</p>
+
+<p>The ages of these children reported as employed
+were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Age of working pupils in England and Wales">
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="left">Under 7 years</td>
+  <td class="right">131</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">7</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">1,120</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">8</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">4,211</td>
+</tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">9</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">11,027</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">10</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">22,131</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">11</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">36,775</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">12</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">47,471</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">13</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">18,556</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">14</td>
+  <td class="left">and over</td>
+  <td class="right">1,787</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="left">Not given</td>
+  <td class="right">817</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">Total</td>
+  <td class="right bt">144,026</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>The standards or school grades in which these
+working children were enrolled and the total
+enrollment for the year ended August 31, 1898,
+were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28" href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="School grades into which working children were enrolled">
+ <tr>
+  <th colspan="2">Working Children</th>
+  <th>Total Enrollment</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">No Standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">329</td>
+  <td class="right br">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">1st standard</td>
+  <td class="right br"> 3,890</td>
+  <td class="right br">2,875,088</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">2d standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">11,686</td>
+  <td class="right br">723,582</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">3d standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">24,624</td>
+  <td class="right br">679,096</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">4th standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">36,907</td>
+  <td class="right br">590,850</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">5th standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">37,315</td>
+  <td class="right br">421,728</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">6th standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">21,975</td>
+  <td class="right br">212,546</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">7th standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">6,382</td>
+  <td class="right br">66,442</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">Ex-7 standard</td>
+  <td class="right br">382</td>
+  <td class="right br">7,534</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">Not stated</td>
+  <td class="right br">536</td>
+  <td class="right br">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="leftindent bl bb">Total</td>
+  <td class="right br bb bt">144,026</td>
+  <td class="right br bb bt">5,576,866</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The occupations followed by these children
+were divided into three main groups, and each
+of these groups was further divided into three
+classes. These divisions and the number of
+children in each were as follows:<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29" href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Occupations of working pupils">
+ <tr>
+  <th colspan="2">Piecework, chiefly Boys</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Time-work, chiefly Boys</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Domestic Employment, girls only, with One or Two Exceptions</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Selling newspapers</td>
+  <td class="br rightbottom">15,182</td>
+  <td class="leftnarrow">In shops or running errands for shopkeepers</td>
+  <td class="rightbottom">76,173</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Minding babies</td>
+  <td class="br rightbottom">11,585</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Hawking goods</td>
+  <td class="br rightbottom">2,435</td>
+  <td class="leftnarrow">Agricultural occupations</td>
+  <td class="rightbottom">6,115</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other housework, including laundry work, etc.</td>
+  <td class="br rightbottom">9,254</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Sports, taking dinners, knocking-up, etc.</td>
+  <td class="br bb rightbottom">8,627</td>
+  <td class="leftnarrow bb">Boot and knife cleaning, etc. (house boys)</td>
+  <td class="rightbottom bb">10,636</td>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Needlework and like occupations</td>
+  <td class="br bb rightbottom">4,019</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The return revealed a surprising variety of
+occupations followed by these children&mdash;about
+200 different kinds in all.</p>
+<table class="intext" summary="Working hours per week">
+ <tr>
+  <th class="harmonized">Hours per Week</th>
+  <th class="right harmonized">Number of Children</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Under 10</td>
+  <td class="right">39,355</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">10-20</td>
+  <td class="right">60,268</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">21-30</td>
+  <td class="right">27,008</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">31-40</td>
+  <td class="right">9,778</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">41-50</td>
+  <td class="right">2,390</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">51-60</td>
+  <td class="right">576</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">61-70</td>
+  <td class="right">142</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">71-80</td>
+  <td class="right">59</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Over 81</td>
+  <td class="right">16</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Not stated</td>
+  <td class="right">4,434</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Total</td>
+  <td class="right bt">144,026</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The number of hours per week devoted by
+these children to the various employments will
+be found in the above table; it should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+remembered that these hours were given to work
+in addition to the time spent at school.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30" href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was recognized that the figures given by
+this parliamentary return did not represent the
+real situation, but nevertheless its revelations
+were sufficiently startling to show the need of
+further investigation. Accordingly in 1901 there
+was appointed an interdepartmental committee
+which after careful study reported that the
+figures in the parliamentary return were well
+within the actual numbers, but that the facts
+it contained were substantially correct.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31" href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> This
+committee estimated the total number of children
+who were both in attendance at school
+and in paid employments in England and Wales
+at 300,000;<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32" href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> it declared that cases of excessive
+employment were "sufficiently numerous to
+leave no doubt that a substantial number of children
+are being worked to an injurious extent."<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33" href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<p>Referring to the amount of time devoted by
+the children to gainful employment outside of
+school, the committee reported, "On a review<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+of the evidence we consider it is proved that in
+England and Wales a substantial number of
+children, amounting probably to 50,000, are
+being worked more than twenty hours a week
+in addition to twenty-seven and one-half hours
+at school, that a considerable proportion of
+this number are being worked to thirty or forty
+and some even to fifty hours a week, and that
+the effect of this work is in many cases detrimental
+to their health, their morals and their
+education, besides being often so unremitting
+as to deprive them of all reasonable opportunity
+for recreation. For an evil so serious, existing
+on so large a scale, we think that some remedy
+ought to be found."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34" href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The committee estimated
+the total number of children selling newspapers
+and in street hawking at 25,000.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35" href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+<p>With reference to conditions in Edinburgh,
+an English writer says, "Of the 1406 children
+employed out of school hours in Edinburgh,
+307 are ten years of age or under. Four of them
+are six years old, and eleven are seven years
+of age. We hear of boys working seventeen
+hours (from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 12 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>) on Saturday.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+For children to work twelve, thirteen and fourteen
+hours on Saturday is quite common. The
+average wage seems to be three farthings an hour,
+but one hears of children who are paid one shilling
+and sixpence for thirty-eight hours of toil."<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36" href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>In New South Wales boys are permitted to
+trade on the streets at the age of ten years, and
+up to fourteen years may engage in such work
+between the hours of 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> except
+while the schools are in session; after they are
+fourteen years old they may trade between
+6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Such children are licensed,
+and during the six months ending March 31,
+1910, 714 licenses were issued, 72 per cent of
+them being to children under fourteen years of
+age; 92 per cent of these children were engaged
+in hawking newspapers, the others being scattered
+through such occupations as peddling
+flowers, fruit and vegetables, fish, fancy goods,
+matches, bottles, pies and milk.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37" href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Germany</h3>
+
+<p>In December, 1897, the German Imperial
+Chancellor, referring to the incomplete census<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+returns as to child labor, requested the governments
+to furnish him with information as to
+the total number of children under fourteen
+employed in labor other than factory labor,
+agricultural employment and domestic service,
+and the kinds of work done. In this circular
+he said: "But, above all, where the kind of
+occupation is unsuitable for children, where
+the work continues too long, where it takes
+place at unseasonable times and in unsuitable
+places, child labor gives rise to serious consideration;
+in such cases it is not only dangerous
+to the health and morality of the children, but
+school discipline is impaired and compulsory
+education becomes illusory. For children cannot
+possibly give the necessary attention to
+their lessons when they are tired out and
+when they have been working hard in unhealthful
+rooms until late at night. I need
+only instance employment in skittle alleys
+late in the evening, in the delivery of newspapers
+in the early morning and the employment
+of children in many branches of home
+industry. The most recent researches undertaken
+in different localities show that the
+employment of children in labor demands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+earnest attention in the interests of the rising
+generation."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38" href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>Inquiries extending over almost the whole
+German Empire were accordingly made by the
+different states from January to April, 1898.
+It was found that 544,283 children under fourteen
+years were employed in labor other than
+factory labor, agricultural employment and
+domestic service. This was 6.53 per cent of
+the total number of children of school age
+(8,334,919).</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the effects of such work, this
+German report says: "As the children who carry
+around small wares, sell flowers, etc., go from
+one inn to another, they are exposed to evil
+influences, and are liable to contract at an early
+age, bad habits of smoking, lying, drinking....
+The delivery of newspapers is a particularly
+great strain on the children, as it occupies them
+both before and after school hours."</p>
+
+<p>Seven divisions of these children were made
+according to occupation, four of them relating
+to street work. Under the heading <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Handel</i></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+were included children in many kinds of work,
+among them hawking fruit, milk, bread, brooms,
+flowers, newspapers, etc.; under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Austragedienste</i></span>
+were included only the delivery and
+carrying around of bread, milk, vegetables,
+beer, papers, books, advertisements, circulars,
+bills, coals, wood, boots and shoes, washing,
+clothes, etc.; under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Gewöhnliche Laufdienste</i></span>
+were included only errand boys and messengers;
+under <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Sonstige gewerbliche Thätigkeit</i></span> were included,
+among other occupations, blacking
+boots, leading the blind, street singers and
+players, etc.</p>
+
+<table class="lined w80" summary="Situation in Germany">
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w50" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>Boys</th>
+  <th>Girls</th>
+  <th>Sex not stated</th>
+  <th>Total</th>
+  <th>Percentage</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Handel</span> (retail trade)</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">7,507</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">4,540</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">5,576</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">17,623</td>
+  <td class="bl br rightbottom">3.31</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Austragedienste</span> (delivery service)</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">67,188</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">36,966</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">31,676</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">135,830</td>
+  <td class="bl br rightbottom">25.52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Gewöhnliche Laufdienste</span> (general  messenger service)</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">23,321</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">2,134</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">10,454</td>
+  <td class="bl rightbottom">35,909</td>
+  <td class="bl br rightbottom">6.75</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow"><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Sonstige  gewerbliche Thätigkeit</span> (other forms of labor)</td>
+  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">6,281</td>
+  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">2,387</td>
+  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">3,119</td>
+  <td class="bl bb rightbottom">11,787</td>
+  <td class="bl br bb rightbottom">2.21</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3 class="italic">Conditions in Austria</h3>
+
+<p>The Austrian Ministry of Commerce began an
+investigation of actual conditions in Austria<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+late in 1907 in response to the agitation for a
+new law that would regulate child labor not
+only in factories, but also in home industries,
+in commerce, and even in agriculture. In his
+Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe,
+Mr. C. W. A. Veditz refers to the findings of
+this investigation in a number of the provinces.
+In Bohemia, of 676 children in trade and transportation,
+but still attending school, 169 were
+engaged in peddling and huckstering; in delivering
+goods and going errands 1554 children were
+employed, being generally hired to deliver
+bread, milk, meats, groceries, newspapers, books,
+telegrams, circulars&mdash;in fact, all manner of
+goods.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39" href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> In the province of Upper Austria
+children are paid from two to seven crowns
+(40.6 cents to $1.42) a month for delivering
+newspapers daily, while in the duchy of Salzburg
+the pay varies from twenty to fifty hellers
+(4 to 10 cents) a day for delivering bread or
+newspapers.</p>
+
+<p>In the province of Lower Austria, "referring
+now to the other main occupations in which
+school children are employed outside of industry
+proper, the report [of the investigation] shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+that ... those working in trade and transportation
+usually help wait on customers in
+their parents' stores; a number, however, sell
+flowers, shoe laces, etc., or huckster bread,
+butter and eggs, or carry passengers' baggage
+to and from railway stations. Most of those
+put down as delivering goods are engaged in delivering
+bread, milk, newspapers and washing."<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40" href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+Children who sell flowers, bread or cigars in
+Vienna earn one to two crowns (20.3 to 40.6 cents)
+a day during the week, and on Sundays as much
+as three crowns (60.9) cents. "The children
+employed [in Lower Austria] to deliver goods
+and run errands are also usually employed by
+non-relatives and receive wages in money.
+Those who deliver milk, and who work one half
+to one hour a day, generally receive twenty
+hellers to one crown (4 to 20.3 cents) weekly;
+in exceptional cases two crowns (40.6 cents),
+and in some instances only food and old clothes.
+For delivering bread and pastry, wages are
+reported as thirty hellers (6 cents) a week and
+some meals, or fifty hellers to two crowns
+(10 to 40.6 cents) a week without meals; in
+exceptional cases, 10 per cent of the receipts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+For delivering papers, which requires one to
+two hours a day, children receive two to ten
+crowns (40.6 cents to $2.03) a month. For
+delivering of washing, thirty hellers (6 cents)
+for a two-hours' trip, or sixty hellers to two
+crowns (12 to 40.6 cents) a week. Children
+who carry dinner to mill laborers, requiring
+one half to one hour daily, get eighty hellers
+to five crowns (16 cents to $1.02) a month.
+Messengers for stores, hotels, etc., get a tip of
+two to ten hellers (.4 to 2 cents) per errand, or,
+if employed regularly, twenty hellers to one
+crown (4 to 20.3 cents) a week."<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41" href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>"The delivery of milk, pastry, newspapers,
+etc., in which many children are employed in
+Vienna and other large cities, does not cause
+frequent absences, but is responsible for tardy
+arrival at school in the morning and for the
+fatigue that reduces attention and prevents
+mental alertness."<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42" href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">NEWSPAPER SELLERS</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>By far the majority of the children in street
+occupations are engaged in the sale or delivery
+of newspapers. The newsboy predominates to
+such an extent that he is taken as a matter
+of course. As Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "For
+more than one generation, it has been almost
+invariably assumed that there must be little
+newsboys." Ever since he became an institution
+of our city life, the public has been pleased
+to regard him admiringly as an energetic salesman
+of penetrating mind and keen sense of
+humor. There seems to be a tacit indorsement
+of the newsboy as such.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinarily there are five classes of newsboys
+to be found in all large cities&mdash;(1) the corner
+boys, (2) those who sell for corner boys on
+salary, (3) others who sell for them on commission,
+(4) those who sell for themselves, and
+(5) those with delivery routes. The bulk of
+the business is handled by the first three of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+classes, which are always associated together
+and found on the busy corners of the downtown
+sections of all our cities. The choice localities
+for the sale of newspapers, namely, the corners
+in the downtown sections where thousands of
+pedestrians are daily passing, come under the
+control of individuals by virtue of long tenure
+or by purchase, and their title to these corners
+is not disputed largely on account of the support
+they receive from the circulation managers of
+the newspapers. In former years the proprietorship
+of the corner was settled by a fight, but
+now it undergoes change of ownership by the
+formal transfer of location, fixtures and goodwill
+in accordance with the most approved legal
+practice.</p>
+
+<p>In Chicago a system of routes has been
+established by the newspapers which send wagons
+out with the different editions published each
+day to supply the men who control the delivery
+and sale of newspapers in the various districts.
+These route men employ boys to deliver for
+them to regular customers and also to sell on
+street corners on a commission basis. In Boston,
+ex-newsboys known as "Canada Points" are
+employed by the publishers at a fixed salary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+to distribute the editions by wholesale among
+the twenty odd places in the city from which
+the street sellers are supplied.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Ages, Earnings and Character of the Work</h3>
+
+<p>The following individual cases will serve
+to illustrate the various forms this business
+takes. One nineteen-year-old boy paid $65
+for his corner in Cincinnati about five years
+ago; he now earns from $4 to $5 a day clear
+and would not sell the location for many times
+its cost. He works there from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to
+6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on week days, starting an hour earlier
+on Saturdays, while on Sundays he delivers the
+morning newspapers over a route to regular
+customers. Two boys of about twelve years of
+age work for him, to one of whom he pays
+25 cents a day and to the other 30 cents a day;
+their duties are to hawk the different editions
+and to dispose of as many copies as possible by
+hopping the street cars and offering the papers
+to pedestrians from 3.45 to 6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> daily on
+week days. If they do not hustle and make a
+large number of sales, they lose their job.</p>
+
+<p>A corner in another part of the city is "owned"
+by a thirteen-year-old boy who earns about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+80 cents a day clear for himself in eight hours,
+and on Saturdays in nine hours. He has two
+boys working for him on commission, to whom
+he pays one cent for every four papers sold;
+they average about 15 cents a day apiece for
+three hours' work. When questioned, these
+commission boys admitted that they could
+make more money if working for themselves,
+but in that case would have to work until all
+the copies they had bought were sold, while on
+the commission plan they did not have to shoulder
+so much responsibility.</p>
+
+<p>Regulations made by the circulation managers
+of newspapers concerning the return of unsold
+copies greatly affect the newsboys' business.
+Naturally these regulations are made with an
+eye to extending the circulation. Corner boys
+are allowed to return only one copy out of
+every ten bought, being reimbursed by the
+office for its cost. Consequently they urge their
+newsboy employees and commission workers
+to put forth every effort to dispose of the supply
+purchased. The independent sellers are never
+permitted to return any unsold copies, except
+in the case of certain energetic boys who can
+be relied upon to work hard in any event. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+are known as "hustlers," and owing to their
+having won the confidence of the circulation
+manager they are granted the special privilege
+of returning at cost all copies they have been
+unable to sell.</p>
+
+<p>In Boston, beginners are often on a commission
+basis; "in this way they secure the advice and
+protection of the more experienced while serving
+their apprenticeship. These <i>strikers</i>, as they
+are called, keep one cent for every four collected;
+few of them earn more than 25 cents a day, while
+many of them earn less than 10."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43" href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>An eleven-year-old Jewish boy who has been
+a newsboy for several years now controls a
+comparatively quiet corner in Cincinnati, where
+he nets from 40 to 50 cents a day, working about
+three hours. This boy's father and mother
+are both living.</p>
+
+<p>Submission to older persons is natural among
+children, and an interesting instance of tyranny
+over small boys by adults was found in the case
+of a newspaper employee who works inside the
+plant and employs several young boys to sell
+newspapers on the streets for him. These boys<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+together earn about $1.30 when working about
+seven hours, but only half of this amount goes
+into their pockets, the other half being paid
+to their "employer." In New York City certain
+busy sections having points of strategic
+value are under the control of men who employ
+small boys to do the real work for a mere pittance,
+usually the price of admission to a moving-picture
+show. However, under certain circumstances,
+these little fellows often display a sturdy
+spirit of independence. An amusing instance
+is innocently recorded by an old wartime report
+of a newsboys' home: "It had been decided
+to give the boys a free dinner on Sundays, on
+condition that they attend the Sunday School;
+but last Sunday they desired the Matron to say
+that they were able and willing to pay for the
+dinner."<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44" href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>Independent newsboys must not stand in
+the territory controlled by another; they must
+select some uncontrolled spot, or else run about
+hither and yon, selling where they can. Under
+the unwritten law of this business a boy who
+chances to sell in another's territory must give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+the corner boy the money and receive a newspaper
+in exchange; this results the same as if
+the corner boy himself had made the sale. The
+earnings of these independent boys range from
+15 to 65 cents daily out of school hours, while
+on Saturdays they make from $1 to $1.50
+working from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></p>
+
+<p>An eleven-year-old lad who has been a newsboy
+for three years, selling on his own account,
+disposes of most of his copies in saloons located
+in the middle of a busy square, earning from
+50 cents to $1.25 a day even when attending
+school. His mother and father are both living.
+Another example of this class is a sixteen-year-old
+boy who devotes all his time to the trade,
+his net income averaging about $7.50 per week.
+His attitude toward regular work is both interesting
+and significant; he hopes to get a better
+job, but says that although he has hunted for
+one, so little is offered for what he can do
+($2 to $3 per week) that it would hardly suffice
+for spending money. Discussing this difference
+between factory wages and street-trading profits,
+an English report says: "Working from 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>
+to 7 or 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, with intervals for gambling,
+newsboys over 14 years old can make from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+10<i>s.</i> to 14<i>s.</i> a week if they have an ordinary
+share of alertness. In a factory or foundry,
+working from 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, a boy earns about
+13<i>s.</i> a week. The comparison needs no comment.
+The excitement of their career tends to make
+them more and more reluctant to work steadily....
+Many newsboys protest that they want
+more permanent work, but they rarely keep it
+when it is found for them."<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45" href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> The life of the
+streets lacks the discipline involved in steady
+work and fixed earnings.</p>
+
+<p>As an example of the route boy there is a
+fourteen-year-old lad in Cincinnati who has a
+list of fifty customers to whom he delivers
+newspapers regularly, earning in this way 25
+cents daily, delivering after school hours. He
+declares that he finds it much easier to work
+on a route than to sell on the corners or at
+random.</p>
+
+<p>The morning papers employ a man as circulation
+manager for the residence districts who
+controls all the corners in those sections. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+a corner becomes vacant, he assigns a youth to
+it. These older boys are not to sell their corners
+nor to dispose of them in any way, nor are they
+allowed to have any one working for them;
+they must "hop" all the street cars passing their
+corners and are expected to put forth every
+effort to accomplish a great number of sales.
+They get their supply of copies at the branch
+office at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, hurrying then to their corners,
+where they remain until nearly noon, averaging
+in this time from $2 to $3 per day clear. Nearly
+all of the afternoon papers sold in the residence
+districts are delivered by route boys; after
+having gone over their routes, some of these
+boys go to the busier localities and sell the
+sporting extra during the baseball season until
+about seven o'clock.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Environment</h3>
+
+<p>Strong emphasis was laid upon the evils of
+street trading by the New York Child Welfare
+Exhibit of 1911, the Committee on Work and
+Wages declaring that "The ordinary newsboy
+is surrounded by influences that are extremely
+bad, because (1) of the desultory nature of his
+work; (2) of the character of street life; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+(3) of the lack of discipline or restraint in this
+work. The occupation is characterized by
+'rush hours,' during which the boy will work
+himself into exhaustion trying to keep pace with
+his trade, and long hours in which there is
+little or nothing to do, during which the boy
+has unlimited opportunities to make such use
+of the street freedom as he sees fit. During
+these light hours newsboys congregate in the
+streets and commit many acts of vandalism.
+They learn all forms of petty theft and usually
+are accomplished in most of the vices of the
+street. In building up their routes, the boys
+often include places of the most degrading and
+detrimental character. On the economic side,
+the loss is due to failure of the occupation to
+furnish any training for industrial careers."<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46" href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>The irregularity of newsboys' meals and the
+questionable character of their food form one
+of the worst features of street work and are a
+real menace to health. Many newsboys are in
+the habit of eating hurriedly at lunch counters
+at intervals during the day and night, while
+some snatch free lunches in saloons. In New<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+York City their diet has been found to consist
+chiefly of "such hostile ingredients as frankfürters,
+mince pies, doughnuts, ham sandwiches,
+cakes and 'sinkers'."<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47" href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> The use of stimulants
+is common, and the demand for them is to be
+expected because of the nervous strain of the
+work. Liquor is not consumed to any appreciable
+extent by street-trading children, but
+coffee is a favorite beverage. In the largest
+cities, where "night gangs" are found, from
+four to six bowls of coffee are usually taken
+every evening. Tobacco is used in great
+quantities and in all its forms; many boys even
+appease their hunger for the time by smoking
+cigarettes, and the smallest "newsies" are
+addicted to the habit. Evidence that this is
+not a recent development among street workers
+is found in a report made nearly a quarter of a
+century ago, which, with reference to newsboys,
+says "many of them soon spend their gains in
+pool rooms, low places of amusement and for
+the poisonous cigarette."<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48" href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>An English report on the street traders of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+Manchester says: "Drunkenness is rare among
+these boys ... they are in many ways attractive;
+but the closer our acquaintance grows
+with them the more overwhelming does this
+propensity to gambling appear. Indeed, it
+may reasonably be said that the whole career
+of the street trader is one long game of chance....
+They tend to become more and more
+unwilling to work hard; they are the creatures
+of accident and lose the power of foresight;
+they never form habits of thrift; and their word
+can be taken only by those who have learnt how
+to interpret it."<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49" href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p>There are tricks in newspaper selling as well
+as in other trades, and children are not slow to
+learn them. A careful observer cannot fail
+to note that certain newsboys seem always to
+be without change. Their patrons are generally
+in a hurry and willingly sacrifice the change
+from a nickel, even priding themselves on their
+unselfishness in thus helping to relieve the supposed
+poverty of the newsboys. As a matter
+of fact, such an act does real harm, for it arouses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+the cupidity of boys and leads them to believe
+that honesty is not the best policy. The temptation
+for newsboys to develop into "short
+change artists" is an ever present one, for the
+bustle of the street creates a most favorable
+condition for the practice of such frauds. Yet
+in spite of the many temptations which assail
+them, numbers of newsboys are scrupulously
+exact in the matter of making change, even under
+the most trying circumstances. Another
+common form of deceit, used to play upon the
+sympathy of passers-by, is practiced after nightfall
+by boys of all ages in offering a solitary newspaper
+for sale and crying in plaintive tone,
+"Please, mister, buy my last paper?" A kind-hearted
+person readily falls a victim to this ruse,
+and as soon as he has passed by, the newsboy
+draws another copy from his hidden supply and
+repeats his importuning. Commenting on these
+features of street trading, Dr. Charles P. Neill,
+United States Commissioner of Labor, has said:
+"Unless the child is cast in the mold of heroic
+virtue, the newsboy trade is a training in either
+knavery or mendicancy. Nowhere else are the
+wits so sharpened to look for the unfair advantage,
+nowhere else is the unfortunate lesson so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+early learned that dishonesty and trickery are
+more profitable than honesty, and that sympathy
+coins more pennies than does industry."<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50" href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Hours</h3>
+
+<p>Work at unseasonable hours is most disastrous
+in its effects upon growing children, and the
+newspaper trade is one that engages the labor
+of boys in our larger cities at all hours of the
+night. This fact is not generally known. A
+prominent social worker recently said: "I
+was astounded to find the other day that my
+newspaper comes to me in Chicago every morning
+because two little boys, one twelve and the
+other thirteen, get it at half-past two at night.
+These little boys, who go to school, carry papers
+around so that we get them in the morning at
+four o'clock all the year around. They are
+working for a man with whom we contract for
+our newspapers. I was quite shocked in St.
+Louis twice this fall (1908) to find a girl five or
+six years of age selling newspapers near the
+railroad station in the worst part of town after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+dark. We hear a great deal of sentimental
+talk about newsboys' societies doing so much
+for newsboys, but they do not seem to care
+anything for work of this kind."<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51" href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> In passing
+it may be remarked that in the city of Toledo
+there is an active association organized for the
+benefit of newsboys, which openly encourages
+street work by boys of from eight to seventeen
+years. The manager insists that such work
+affords the means of alleviating the poverty in
+the families of these boys, but upon inquiry
+it was found that he had never heard of the
+provision for the financial relief of such cases
+of child labor, which is made by the Ohio law,
+and which had been, at the time, most successfully
+administered for three years by the Board
+of Education of his own city.</p>
+
+<p>The Chicago newspapers have their Sunday
+editions distributed on Saturday night, consequently
+the newsboys are up all night so as to
+assure prompt service to patrons. In the absence
+of public opinion in the matter, this abuse flourishes
+unrestricted, and the children's health is
+sacrificed to meet the demand for news. Agents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+of the Chicago Vice Commission reported having
+seen boys from ten to fifteen years of age selling
+morning papers at midnight Saturday in the
+evil districts of the city.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52" href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>The early rising of newsboys to deliver the
+morning week-day editions also contributes to
+the breaking down of their health. The old
+adage is a mockery in their case. There is
+abundant testimony relative to the evil effects
+of such untimely work. "Children who go to
+school and sell papers get up so early in the
+morning that they are so stupid during the day
+they cannot do anything. That was clearly
+demonstrated to me during my experience in
+teaching school."<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53" href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another teacher said: "I have had instances
+in school where children have gone to sleep
+over their tasks because they got up at two or
+three o'clock in the morning to put out city
+lights and to sell papers. In those instances
+we wanted the parents to take the children away
+from their work. Where they would not do it,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+we prosecuted them for contributing to the
+delinquency of their children."<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54" href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+<p>The delivery of newspapers by young boys in
+the strictly residence sections of cities appears
+to be unobjectionable, yet even this simple
+work should be under restriction as to hours,
+because otherwise the boys would continue
+to rise at unseemly hours of the night in order
+to reach the branch offices in time to get the
+newspapers fresh from the press. In fact,
+every phase of street work should be under
+control. Dr. Harold E. Jones, medical inspector
+of schools to the Essex County Council, has
+testified that among the most injurious forms
+of labor performed by boys is the early morning
+delivery of newspapers and milk.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55" href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> In his
+Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, Mr.
+C. W. A. Veditz states, "Delivering milk before
+school in the morning must be condemned, because
+it fatigues the children so that they become,
+to say the least, intellectually less receptive."<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56" href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p>In his article on "The Newsboy at Night in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+Philadelphia,"<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57" href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> Mr. Scott Nearing gives a
+graphic account of conditions in the City of
+Brotherly Love. Although this description was
+written some years ago, local social workers
+find that the same conditions still obtain, as
+there is neither law nor ordinance to bring
+about a change. In this city the closing of
+the theaters at eleven o'clock marks the beginning
+of Saturday night's work. The last
+editions of the evening newspapers are offered
+at this time, often as a cloak for begging. After
+the theater, the restaurant patrons are available
+as customers until midnight. Then the morning
+papers begin to come from the press, and the
+newsboys abandon their begging and gambling
+and rush to the offices for their supplies. A
+load of forty pounds is often carried by the
+smallest newsboys, hurrying along the streets
+in the early morning hours. The cream of the
+business is done at this time, for most of the
+purchasers are more or less intoxicated and
+therefore inclined to be generous with tips and
+indifferent as to change; sometimes a newsboy
+takes in as much money on Saturday night and
+Sunday morning as during the entire remainder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+of the week. In relating his experiences, Mr.
+Nearing says, "On one night we saw fifteen boys
+in a group just as the policeman was chasing
+them out of Chinatown at half-past three
+Sunday morning; the youngest boy was clearly
+not over ten and the oldest was barely sixteen."
+At this hour the officers of the law interfere
+and quell the revels of the district. The open
+gratings in sidewalks through which warm air
+comes from basements, are then sought, and here
+the boys pass the time dozing until dawn, when
+they go abroad again to cry the Sunday papers.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Home Conditions&mdash;Poverty</h3>
+
+<p>One of the reasons why the public is so indulgent
+toward the street worker is that it takes
+for granted that the child is making a manly
+effort to support a widowed mother and several
+starving little brothers and sisters. Mrs. Florence
+Kelley calls this "perverted reasoning"
+and scores the public which "unhesitatingly
+places the burden of the decrepit adult's maintenance
+upon the slender shoulders of the
+child."<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58" href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Poverty has been made an excuse for
+child labor from time immemorial by those
+who profit by the system. Newspapers are not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+an exception to the rule; the newsboys extend
+their circulation and incidentally give them free
+advertising in the streets&mdash;hence they see
+nothing but good in the newsboys' work and
+fight lustily to defend what they claim to be the
+mainstay of the widows. That this popular
+impression and appealing argument are false
+and without justification has been shown by
+students of the problem everywhere. The
+following table gives the family condition of
+Cincinnati newsboys:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Family condition of Cincinnati newsboys">
+ <tr>
+  <td class="leftint">Both parents dead          </td>
+  <td class="right">12</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Father dead               </td>
+  <td class="right">239</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Mother dead                </td>
+  <td class="right">69</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">Both parents living      </td>
+  <td class="right">1432</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="left">  Total                  </td>
+  <td class="right bt">1752</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Through a special inquiry it was found that
+in only 363 cases out of this total were the
+earnings of the children really needed. These
+1752 children, ten to thirteen years of age, were
+licensed from July to December, 1909; their
+distribution as to age was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Licensed Cincinnati newsboys under 14">
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">10       </td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">303</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">11</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">348</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">12</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">564</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="right">13</td>
+  <td class="left">years</td>
+  <td class="right">537</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">Total</td>
+  <td class="right bt">1752</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>Upon investigation of the home conditions of
+several hundred newsboys in New York City it
+was declared that "in the majority of cases parents
+are not dependent on the boys' earnings.
+The poverty plea&mdash;that boys must sell papers to
+help widowed mothers or disabled fathers&mdash;is,
+for the most part, gross exaggeration."<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59" href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>Concerning a study of Chicago newsboys,
+Myron E. Adams says, "A careful investigation
+of the records of the Charity Organization
+Society shows that of the 1000 newsboys investigated,
+the names of but sixteen families are
+found, and of these ... only four received
+direct help, such as coal, clothing or food."<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60" href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Scott Nearing says: "In many cases the
+boys want to go on the streets in order to have
+the pocket money which this life affords, and
+the ignorant or indifferent parents make no
+objections, but take the street life as a matter
+of course. Sometimes, though not nearly as
+often as is generally supposed, there is real need
+for the selling."<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61" href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The British interdepartmental committee
+appointed in 1901 to inquire into the employment
+of school children, denounced the tolerance
+of street trading on the ground of necessity:
+"We think that in framing regulations with regard
+to child labour and school attendance ... the poverty
+of the child or its parents
+ought not to be made a test of the right to
+labour.... We do not think it is needed;
+we think that all children should have liberty
+to work as much and in such ways as is good
+for them and no more."<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62" href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another argument in favor of street trading
+advanced by those who are interested in maintaining
+present conditions, is that it affords a
+splendid training for a business career because
+of the competition that rages among the boys.
+This is doubtless true, as far as it goes, but the
+great difficulty is that street trading leads
+nowhere. It is a blind alley that sooner or
+later leaves its followers helpless against the
+solid wall of skilled labor's competition. An
+occupation that fits a boy for <i>nothing</i> and is
+devoid of <i>prospects</i>, is a curse rather than a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+blessing in this day of specialization. In spite
+of the division of labor so elaborately realized
+to-day, a boy or girl who enters any of the
+regular industries has at least a fighting chance
+for acquiring a trade. If the child is honest,
+capable and diligent he will be promoted to a
+better position in time if misfortune does not
+overtake him. The trapper boy in a coal mine
+is in a fair way to become a miner. The lad who
+works in a machine shop has the opportunity
+to make a machinist of himself. The girl who
+begins as a wrapper in a dry goods shop may
+become a saleswoman, and then possibly a
+buyer for her department. Yet in most states
+children may not enter upon such work until
+they have reached the age of fourteen years,
+while some states prohibit boys under sixteen
+years from being employed in mines or in connection
+with dangerous machinery either in machine
+shops or elsewhere. Bitter experience has taught
+us that these restrictions are right and just,
+and we now have no hesitancy in barring young
+children from such employment, regardless of
+the training it affords. Why, then, do we exempt
+many forms of street work from the operation
+of the law? Why do we allow little children to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+work at any age, both night and day, as newsboys,
+bootblacks and peddlers in the essentially
+dangerous environment of the street? Such
+employment offers but a gloomy future&mdash;the
+useless life of the casual worker. There is no
+better position to which it leads, no chance for the
+discovery and development of ability, no reward
+for good service. It seems incredible that we
+have been so engrossed with throwing safeguards
+about the children in regular industries that we
+have altogether neglected the street worker, for the
+arguments against child labor in factories, mills,
+mines and retail shops apply with even greater
+force to the work of children in our city streets.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Better Substitutes</h3>
+
+<p>There is no reason why newsboys should not
+be replaced as the medium for the sale and
+delivery of newspapers by old men, cripples,
+the tuberculous and those otherwise incapacitated
+for regular work. In London, the <i>Westminster
+Gazette</i>, the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>, the <i>Evening
+Standard</i> and the <i>Globe</i> (all penny papers)
+are sold in the streets by old men; the <i>Westminster
+Gazette</i> pays them a wage of 1<i>s.</i> for selling
+eighteen copies and after having disposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+of this number they are given a commission of
+8<i>d.</i> a quire of twenty-six copies, a few men
+selling from six to eight quires a day. This
+newspaper has followed this method for many
+years, and its general manager declares that it
+is the most satisfactory system that they have
+been able to evolve. Boys have no sense of
+responsibility, while old men cling to their
+posts very faithfully. He admitted that the
+<i>Westminster Gazette</i> employed some boys as
+carriers and that the whole subject lay somewhat
+heavily on his conscience because, "practically
+speaking, these boys have no future ... a
+few of them may become cyclists carrying the
+newspapers ... in a few years their usefulness
+as cyclists has gone ... then they
+simply drift away, we don't know where, but
+we do know that they drift to places like Salvation
+Army Shelters, etc. How they earn their
+living is always one of the mysteries of London....
+But they have learned nothing from us,
+nothing that gives them any usefulness for any
+other occupation.... The great majority
+become casual labourers dependent entirely
+on casual work.... It is a life in which very
+little is gained, although one would suppose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+that the open air would be of great benefit.
+But one must remember the insufficient food
+that these street traders have, and the bad
+conditions of living and the irregular hours.
+Many of these boys, of course, are up all hours
+of the night.... It is quite as bad for a boy
+in the long run to be engaged as a carrier distributor
+as for him to sell newspapers in the
+street. There is no possible argument for the
+system except that one's competitors do it, and
+that so long as they do it we must do the same....
+We get practically all our men from
+Salvation Army and Church Army Shelters.
+There is an abundant supply.... The ordinary
+man whom we employ is over fifty years of
+age and runs up to about seventy years....
+I think if the police would give us every facility
+for introducing kiosks it would be a great improvement
+upon the present system. If boys were
+prohibited from selling newspapers altogether
+on the streets, it would automatically send the
+public to the kiosk; ... the public get into the
+habit of getting the newspapers from the boys."<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63" href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It should be remembered in connection with
+the above statements that the <i>Westminster
+Gazette</i> is a penny paper, and its manager was
+of opinion that the half-penny papers could not
+afford to employ men because they depended
+largely for their circulation upon the persistence
+of newsboys in thrusting copies upon the attention
+of people in the streets; he believed that the
+use of old men would curtail their circulation
+because men are not so active as boys. On the
+other hand, news agents protested against the
+competition of street traders and maintained
+that they alone were fully able to meet the
+demands of the public. The departmental
+committee of 1910 reported: "There can, we
+think, be little doubt that an active child is an
+effective agent in promoting the circulation of
+half-penny papers, and that if the employment
+of children were forbidden, newspapers would
+have to rely upon facilities of a more staid and
+less mobile character. But we see no reason
+to think that purchasers of newspapers need be
+put to any inconvenience, since the news agents
+would be in a position considerably to extend
+their business, and it might reasonably be
+expected that the system of employing old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+men as salesmen would also be developed. It
+appears to us economically unjustifiable to use
+children to their own detriment for work which
+can be done by other means."<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64" href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p>Referring to the great possibilities for good
+involved in confining the sale and delivery of
+newspapers to adults who need outdoor work
+and are unable to provide for themselves in
+other ways, the Secretary of the New York
+Child Labor Committee says: "Where such
+cities as Paris and Berlin do entirely without
+newsboys&mdash;corner stands taking their places&mdash;it
+would seem that the least that can be done
+in American cities is to adopt some adequate
+system of regulation. In this connection, the
+opportunity presented in newspaper selling to
+give work to the aged and handicapped&mdash;who
+otherwise would have to be supported by private
+charity&mdash;should not be overlooked."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65" href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">The Newsboys' Court</h3>
+
+<p>In an effort to control to some extent the tendency
+of newsboys to become delinquent and to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+imbue them with a sense of personal responsibility,
+an interesting experiment in juvenile suffrage and
+jurisprudence has been undertaken in Boston.</p>
+
+<p>During the year 1909, about three hundred
+newsboys were taken before the juvenile court
+of that city charged with violation of the local
+license rules. As the docket of this court was
+crowded, these newsboy cases were necessarily
+delayed, and as a result of this situation the boys
+conceived the idea of establishing a newsboys'
+court which should have jurisdiction in all cases
+of failure to observe the rules governing their
+trade. The following year a petition was presented
+to the Boston School Committee which
+was favorably acted upon by that body, and
+accordingly on the regular election day of that
+year the newsboys cast their ballots to select
+three juvenile judges of the court. These
+three boys, together with two adults appointed
+by the School Committee, compose
+the court. Election of these boy judges is
+held annually, and all licensed newsboys who
+attend the public schools are qualified electors.
+The court is empowered to investigate and
+report its findings with recommendations to
+the School Committee in all cases of infraction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+of the newsboy rules. Under the Massachusetts
+law the School Committee is authorized
+to regulate street trading by children under
+fourteen years of age, hence the newsboys are
+subject to purely local supervision. The supervisor
+of licensed minors, also an appointee of
+the School Committee, can, in his discretion,
+take complaints in his department before the
+newsboys' court instead of the juvenile court.
+The newsboy judges are paid fifty cents for
+their attendance at each official session of the
+court. The charges made before the Trial
+Board, as the Boston newsboys' court is called,
+range from selling without a badge or after
+eight o'clock in the evening or on street cars,
+to bad conduct, irregular school attendance,
+gambling or smoking. The disposition of these
+cases varies from reprimands and warnings to
+probation or suspension of license for a definite
+period, or complete revocation of license.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66" href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Summary</h3>
+
+<p>Although the work of selling newspapers has
+been, to some extent, subdivided and systema<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>tized
+by circulation managers, it has so many
+features highly objectionable for children that
+a radical departure from present methods of
+handling this business should be taken. We
+know that the work of the newsboy lacks the
+oversight and discipline of adults, that it
+exposes the children to the varied physical
+dangers lurking in the streets, that the early
+and late hours cause fatigue, that the opportunities
+for bad companionship are frequent, that
+irregularity of meals and use of stimulants tend
+to weaken their constitutions, that it offers no
+chance for promotion and leads nowhere. We
+know further that the presence of the newsboy
+in our streets cannot be justified on the ground
+of poverty. It has been demonstrated in other
+countries that children are not essential to the
+sale and delivery of newspapers; in fact, it has
+been shown that selling at stands and the use
+of men instead of children in the streets are
+both feasible and satisfactory. Why cannot
+such practices be introduced into the United
+States? There can be but little doubt as to
+the advisability of this step, but the innovation
+will certainly not be made voluntarily by the
+newspapers. The law must force the issue by
+prohibiting street work by children.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">BOOTBLACKS, PEDDLERS AND MARKET CHILDREN</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Bootblacks</h3>
+
+<p>The itinerant bootblack is gradually disappearing
+from our cities, but he is still found
+in Boston, Buffalo, New York City and a few
+other places. He is being supplanted by the
+worker at stands, which are conducted almost
+invariably by Greeks. As a result of this
+change the bootblacking business will soon cease
+to be a street occupation; it is discussed here
+because of the abuses it involves and because
+it is unregulated in many states, owing to its
+omission from the list of employments covered
+by child labor laws.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">The Padrone System</h3>
+
+<p>The New York-New Jersey Committee of
+the North American Civic League for Immigrants
+reports that: "The condition of Greek boys
+and young men in such occupations as pushcart
+peddling, shoe-shining parlors and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+flower trade is one of servitude and peonage.
+It has been found that many boys apparently
+from fourteen to eighteen years of age arrive
+here alone, stating that they are eighteen years
+old, but in reality less than this, and that they
+are going to relatives. They have been found
+working in the shoe-shining parlors seven days
+a week from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and living with the
+'boss' in groups varying from five to twenty-five
+under unsanitary conditions, overcrowding
+and irregularity of meals wholly undesirable
+for young boys. They are isolated from learning
+English or from American contact, and receive
+for their work from $7 to $15 a month and
+board and lodging. The majority of the flower
+peddlers have been unable to obtain permits,
+with the result that the boys who work for
+them are arrested for violating the law. Boys
+who have been in the country from three
+months to a year state they have been arrested
+several times&mdash;their first experience in this
+country&mdash;and are already hardened so that they
+think nothing of paying fines."<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67" href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The bootblack business is the chief industry
+to which the Greek padrone system is applied.
+The United States Immigration Commission
+found<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68" href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> that boys employed as bootblacks live
+in extremely unwholesome quarters. Wherever
+the room is large enough, several beds are
+gathered together with three and sometimes four
+boys sleeping in each bed. In some places the
+boys merely roll themselves up in blankets and
+sleep on the floor. The bootblacking stands are
+opened for business about 6 o'clock in the morning,
+consequently the boys are obliged to rise about an
+hour earlier, and wherever their sleeping quarters
+are located at considerable distance from the
+stands, they have to get up as early as 4.30.
+Arrived at the stands, they remain working until
+9.30 or 10 at night in cities, and on Saturday and
+Sunday nights the closing hour is usually later.
+The boys eat their lunch in the rear of the establishment,
+this meal consisting generally of bread
+and olives or cheese. Supper is eaten after
+the boys reach "home," and after having eaten
+it they retire without removing their clothes.
+Even after their excessively long work day, two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+of the boys are required to wash the dirty rags
+used for polishing the shoes daily so they can
+be used the next day.</p>
+
+<p>These boys are compelled to work every day
+in the year without vacation. The Immigration
+Commission found that they are under constant
+espionage, as at every stand the padrone places
+relatives who both work for him and act as
+spies on the other boys. Their employer
+instructs them to make false statements to
+questions asked by outsiders relative to their
+ages or conditions of work; many padrones also
+censor the letters written by the boys to their
+parents or others and examine all incoming
+mail, so as to forestall any efforts made by
+outsiders to induce the boys to leave for other
+places.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of them cannot read or write
+their own language, and are unable to secure
+any education in this country because of their
+long work hours. According to the Immigration
+Commission their mental development is perceptibly
+arrested by the physical fatigue they
+suffer as a result of their long-sustained work
+without recreation. They receive no good
+advice, nor do they hear anything that would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+tend to elevate them morally. The Commission
+does not hesitate to brand these conditions
+as deplorable; it declares that the ravages on
+the constitutions of these boys laboring in
+shoe-shining establishments under this system
+are appalling. It attributes these effects to
+the following causes: long hours, close confinement
+to their work in poorly ventilated places,
+unsanitary living conditions, unhealthful manner
+of sleeping, excessive stooping required by their
+work, inadequate nourishment due to the
+"economy" of the padrones who furnish the
+food, the microbe-laden dust from shoes, the
+inhaling of injurious chemicals from the polish
+they use, the filthy condition of their bodies
+resulting from their failure to bathe and the
+lack of proper clothing for the winter season.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek Consul General at Chicago, himself
+a physician, in a letter to the Immigration
+Inspector of that city under date of November 16,
+1910, declared that as a result of his experience
+in examining and treating boy bootblacks he
+was convinced that all boys under eighteen years
+of age who labor for a few years in shoe-shining
+establishments, develop serious chronic stomachic
+and hepatic troubles which predispose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+them to pulmonary disease; he further declared
+that because of the conditions under which they
+work the majority of them ultimately contract
+tuberculosis, and that in his opinion it would
+be more humane and infinitely better for young
+Greeks to be denied admission into the United
+States than to be permitted to land if they are
+intended for such employment. Similar statements
+are made by other Greek physicians of
+Chicago.</p>
+
+<p>The importation of Greek boys for use as
+bootblacks in the United States started about
+1895, when the Greeks began to secure their
+monopoly of the industry by taking it away
+from the Italians and the Negroes, confining it,
+however, to stands or booths. Most of the
+early padrones have become financially independent.
+Their success attracted other Greeks
+to this industry, and in a short time almost every
+American city with a population of more than
+10,000 had bootblack stands operated by them.
+Thus the traffic in Greek boys began to flourish.</p>
+
+<p>The Bureau of Immigration helped to have
+a number of padrones indicted and convicted
+for offenses against the conspiracy statute and
+the Immigration Act, and these prosecutions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+made the importers very careful as to their
+manner of procedure. They now bring the
+boys here through the instrumentality of relatives
+in Greece in such a way that the padrones
+are almost beyond the reach of our criminal
+statutes.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases it has been found that on leaving
+Greece for this country the boys are told to
+report to a saloon keeper in Chicago or in some
+other western city, hence they do not know their
+final destination. The saloon keeper has his
+instructions from the padrones and acts as their
+distributing agent. Padrones who operate in
+places distant from ports of entry easily avoid
+detection in this way.</p>
+
+<p>In most cases these padrones derive an income
+from each boy of from $100 to as high as $500
+a year. The Commission explains this as follows:
+The wages paid by the padrones now to
+Greek boys in shoe-shining establishments range
+from $80 to $250 per year, the average wages
+being from $120 to $180 per year. The boys
+are bound by agreement to turn their tips over
+to their padrones: in most cases as soon as the
+tipping patron has departed the boy deposits
+his tip in the register, while in other places tips<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+are put into a separate box to which the padrone
+holds the key. In smaller cities and even in the
+poorest locations each boy's tips may exceed
+the sum of 50 cents per day, while in large
+cities they average higher. The Greek padrone,
+therefore, receives in return from tips alone
+nearly double the amount of wages paid. By
+deducting the wages and the annual boarding
+expenses for each boy&mdash;an expenditure seldom
+exceeding the sum of $40 per year&mdash;there is
+still a sum left to the padrone to pay him for
+the privilege of allowing the boy to work in
+his place. In other words, from the total
+amount of tips&mdash;money that belongs to the
+boy by right&mdash;the padrone is enabled to pay the
+boy's annual wages and still have a respectable
+sum left, all this independently of the legitimate
+profits of his business.</p>
+
+<p>Relatives of the padrones in Greece often pay
+the steamship passage of boys with the understanding
+that they are to go to the United States
+and serve the padrone for one year to reimburse
+him for the passage money advanced. A mortgage
+is placed on the property of the boys'
+father as security, purporting that the father
+is to receive in cash an amount equal to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+wages commonly paid to Greek bootblacks for
+one year in the United States, but as a matter of
+fact a steamship ticket and $12 or $15 in money
+are all that is given. The cash is to serve as
+"show money" to help secure admission to
+this country past the immigration officers at
+the ports of entry. Advertising is systematically
+carried on throughout all the provinces of Greece
+with a view to exciting the interest of the parents
+so that they will send their boys to the United
+States, and no efforts are spared in letting it
+become known that there is a great demand here
+for boy labor at the bootblack stands. The
+padrones themselves even go to Greece every
+two or three years, and while there manage to
+become godfathers to the children of many
+families; this relationship gives them great
+influence, and through it they are able to secure
+many boys for their service.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the prevention of these abuses,
+the report says: "In the investigations conducted
+by the Bureau of Immigration many
+conferences were held with United States
+attorneys in various jurisdictions with the view
+of instituting proceedings against padrones,
+if possible, under the peonage statutes. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+attorneys generally agreed that under the evidence
+submitted to them those laboring in shoe-shining
+establishments are peons, but as the
+elements of indebtedness and physical compulsion
+to work out the indebtedness are missing,
+peonage laws cannot apply.</p>
+
+<p>"Our immigration laws as now on the statute
+books provide specifically for the exclusion of
+boys under sixteen years of age only when not
+accompanied by one or both of their parents.
+This provision cannot apply to those boys that
+come in company with their parents, nor to
+those who have their parents in the United
+States, nor to such as successfully deceive
+immigration officers by posing as the sons of
+immigrants in whose charge they come. If
+held for special inspection at the ports of entry,
+these aliens can only be excluded if it appears
+that they are destined to an occupation unsuited
+to their tender years. In the absence of any
+such evidence, the boards of inquiry generally
+admit. Once landed, it becomes a hard
+matter to trace them and almost impossible
+to secure evidence in the majority of cases, for
+the boys understand that they will be punished
+by deportation. This knowledge makes them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+persistent in withholding any information as
+to the manner of their entry into the United
+States."<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69" href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>Quite recently a young Greek bootblack who
+was working at a stand in an Indianapolis
+office building confessed to a truant officer that
+he was twelve years old, whereupon the chief
+truant officer of the city went to the place, but
+on his arrival the boy had changed his mind
+and declared that he was fourteen years old, and
+every one connected with the stand supported
+the statement. Nevertheless the chief truant
+officer proceeded with the case and found that
+the boy had been in this country only about
+six months, his parents being still in Greece.
+An older brother had a position as a railroad
+porter but did not stay with the little fellow
+even on the few occasions he was in the city.
+The boy lived at the home of the proprietor
+of the stand, whose relationship to him was a
+combination of employer and guardian. This
+man operated four stands in the city, and his
+dozen or more other employees all lived at the
+same place. The chief truant officer charged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+the man with having worked the boy from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>
+to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> seven days in the week, which was
+admitted before the Juvenile Court by the
+defendant, who also volunteered the information
+that the boy worked until 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on holidays
+and on Saturdays. Of course the boy was
+being kept out of school.</p>
+
+<p>In its issue of August 12, 1911, the <i>Survey</i>
+published a letter from a correspondent concerning
+a case of peonage among bootblacks in the
+city of Rochester, N.Y. This particular case
+was of a pale, thin, under-sized Greek lad who
+worked at a large stand in a local office building.
+He explained that he worked every day in the
+week from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, including Sundays,
+and that on Saturdays the hours were lengthened
+to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, adding that he had not
+been absent from his stand one day in four years
+except at one time when he was sick in the
+hospital.</p>
+
+<p>A letter which was written by a Greek in
+Syracuse, N.Y., on May 4, 1911, to the editor
+of the Syracuse <i>Post-Standard</i> was printed in
+the same magazine.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70" href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> This letter recites the
+wrongs of the bootblacks and is reproduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+below because of its value as one of the rare
+protests which come from the victims of the
+system:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Before I came to this country from Greece,
+I heard that this country is free, but I don't
+think so. It is free for the Americans, not for
+the shoe shiners. In this city are too many
+shoe shiners' stands, and the boys which work
+there&mdash;they work fifteen hours a day, and
+Sunday, and almost eighteen on Saturdays.
+They make only from $12 to $18 a month and
+board, but we don't have any good board neither,
+but our patrons give us bread, tea and a piece
+of cheese for dinner, supper, but no breakfast.
+We don't have any time to go to the church,
+not in school, and without them we won't be
+good citizens. They won't let us read newspapers,
+because they are afraid if we learn
+something we will quit, but we can't quit
+because we can't speak English, and we can't
+find another job. Now I don't mean the boys
+working in the barber shops. They make
+$10 to $18 a week, and they don't work as hard
+as we do. We wish to work as they do. We
+want the public and Mr. Mayor to cut the
+hours from fifteen to ten, not Sundays, because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+we want time for school, and weekly work, not
+monthly. I think I wrote enough."</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Peddlers and Market Children</h3>
+
+<p>The licensed peddlers of Boston are under
+orders not to engage little children to sell for
+them with or without compensation. "These
+peddlers have hitherto crowded the markets of
+this city by inviting children to help them in
+the business, frequently for no other compensation
+than the offal of their pushcarts or stands."<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71" href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<p>The peddling of chewing gum is a common
+form of street occupation for children. In
+reality it is merely begging in disguise. The
+Chicago Vice Commission reports that its
+agents found boys under fourteen years of age
+selling gum late at night in the segregated
+districts of the city. At intervals of from two
+to three hours their investigators returned to
+the same neighborhood and found these little
+children still engaged in this very questionable
+form of work. One agent reported having
+seen two little girls of about eleven years in the
+company of a small boy of about eight years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+selling chewing gum in front of a saloon in the
+vice district between nine and ten o'clock at
+night.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72" href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
+
+<p>The following table gives the sex, age, nationality,
+standing in school, orphanage and occupation
+of seventeen children found by one
+person in a single trip through the markets of
+Cincinnati:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Seventeen market children in Cincinnati">
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Boys</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Girls</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Age</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Grade</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Nationality</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Father Living</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Mother Living</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Selling</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Yes</th>
+  <th>No</th>
+  <th>Yes</th>
+  <th>No</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">9</td>
+  <td class="bl">2d</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1 </td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">10</td>
+  <td class="bl">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">10</td>
+  <td class="bl">3d</td>
+  <td class="bl">German</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">10</td>
+  <td class="bl">2d</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">10</td>
+  <td class="bl">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">10</td>
+  <td class="bl">3d</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">11</td>
+  <td class="bl">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">11</td>
+  <td class="bl">3d</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">11</td>
+  <td class="bl">6th</td>
+  <td class="bl">German</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">12</td>
+  <td class="bl">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">12</td>
+  <td class="bl">3d</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">12</td>
+  <td class="bl">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">sassafras</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">12</td>
+  <td class="bl">6th</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">13</td>
+  <td class="bl">5th</td>
+  <td class="bl">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">baskets</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">14</td>
+  <td class="bl">3d</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">sassafras</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">14</td>
+  <td class="bl">8th</td>
+  <td class="bl">American</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl">1</td>
+  <td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br">vegetables</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">14</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">4th</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">Italian</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br bb">fruit</td>
+ </tr>
+
+
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>Of these seventeen children nine were Italians,
+six were Americans, two were Germans. Five
+of the children, all of whom except one were
+Italian, were engaged in selling baskets to the
+passers-by in markets. Six of the children,
+all of whom except one were Italian, were
+selling fruit. Six of the children were selling
+vegetables and herbs, all of them being Americans
+and Germans. The occupational characteristics
+of these different peoples are shown
+by their children, the Italians predominating
+in the sale of fruit, the Germans in the sale
+of the products of their market gardens, the
+Americans, all of whom were boys, in the sale
+of the herbs they had gathered or the vegetables
+cultivated on their home farms.</p>
+
+<p>Of these seventeen children nine were in their
+normal grades at school, while eight were backward
+and none ahead of their proper grades.
+This large percentage of retardation is due principally
+to the lack of time for preparation of
+school lessons on the part of these children, as
+much of their afternoons and evenings is taken
+up either with the work of selling in the markets
+or with the work of assisting with the garden
+duties at home. Of the eight backward chil<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>dren,
+four were Italians and four were Americans.
+One of the backward Italian girls was fourteen
+years of age and had left school three weeks
+prior to the inquiry; she was the oldest of six
+children; her father was dead, and she was working
+for her mother in their fruit store selling
+the fruit from early morning until midnight
+every day in the week except Sunday. As she
+was the oldest child in the family, it is of course
+easily seen that her retardation in school was
+largely due to her having been kept at work in
+the shop during the afternoons and evenings
+while she was still attending school. An American
+boy, who, although twelve years of age, was
+only in the third grade at school, was employed
+by his parents to sell baskets in the market, in
+spite of the fact that his father had a store and
+was fully able to support the child properly.
+This boy was found, as were many other such
+children, selling baskets in the market at eleven
+o'clock at night after having been there since
+early in the morning. A thirteen-year-old
+Italian boy was only in the fifth grade; he was
+selling baskets in one market in the morning
+and in another market during the afternoon and
+evening; both of his parents were living, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+his father had a "city job." There were six
+children in the family, two of whom were older
+and employed. The entire family of eight persons
+occupied two rooms.</p>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that the fathers of twelve
+of the children were living, only five being dead;
+while the mothers of fifteen were living, only two
+being dead. Not a single child was a full orphan.
+In the great majority of cases it was not necessary
+for these children to work so prematurely.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">MESSENGERS, ERRAND AND DELIVERY CHILDREN</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Accustomed to seeing messenger boys engaged
+during the day in the unobjectionable task of
+delivering telegrams to residences and business
+offices, one is likely to regard this service as an
+occupation quite suitable for children and to
+give it no further thought. However, the
+character of the work done by the messenger
+boy changes radically after nine or ten o'clock
+at night. At that hour most legitimate business
+has ceased, and the evil phases of city life begin
+to manifest themselves. From that time on
+until nearly dawn the messenger's work is largely
+in connection with the vicious features of city
+life. The ignorance of the general public as to
+the evil influences surrounding the night messenger
+service is strikingly illustrated by what
+one Indiana boy told an investigator; he declared
+that if his father knew what kind of
+work he was doing, a strap would be laid across
+his back and he would be compelled to abandon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+it. But the father did not know; he thought
+his boy was simply delivering telegrams.</p>
+
+<p>The delivery of telegrams forms but a small
+part of the boy's work at night, because few
+messages are dispatched after business hours.
+Instead, calls are sent to the office for messengers
+to go on errands. The boys wait upon the
+characters of the underworld and perform a
+surprising variety of simple tasks; they carry
+notes to and from the inmates of houses of prostitution
+and their patrons, take lunches, chop
+suey and chile con carne to bawdyhouse women,
+procure liquor after the closing hour, purchase
+opium, cocaine and other drugs, go to drug
+stores for prostitutes to get medicines and articles
+used in their trade, and perform other tasks
+that oblige them to cultivate their acquaintance
+with the worst side of human nature. One
+instance was found in which the boy was required
+to clean up the room of a prostitute and
+to make her bed. The uniform or cap of the
+messenger boy is a badge of secrecy and enables
+him to get liquor at illegal hours or to procure
+opium and other drugs where plain citizens would
+be refused; hence these boys are thrown into
+associations of the lowest kind, night after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+night, and come to regard these evil conditions
+as normal phases of life. Usually the brightest
+boys on the night force become the favorites
+of the prostitutes; the women take a fancy to
+particular boys because of their personal attractiveness
+and show them many favors, so that
+the most promising boys in this work are the
+ones most liable to suffer complete moral
+degradation.</p>
+
+<p>Messenger service not only gives boys the
+opportunity to learn what life is at night in
+"tenderloin" districts, but the character of the
+work actually <i>forces</i> them into contact with the
+vilest conditions and subjects them to the fearful
+influences always exerted by such associations.
+Some believe that this evil could be
+prevented by forbidding the office to allow
+messenger boys to go on such errands, but this
+is not practicable for two reasons: first, because
+an essential feature of the messenger service is
+secrecy&mdash;the office does not inquire into the
+nature of the errand to be performed, and even
+if it did so, a false statement could easily be
+made by the patron over the telephone; and
+second, it would be necessary to send a detective
+along with the boy on each trip to see that he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+observed the rules. Boys are eager to run
+errands for prostitutes for various reasons, one
+being the extra income assured, as these women
+give tips with liberal hand.</p>
+
+<p>Like other street occupations, the messenger
+service is a blind alley; it leads nowhere. A
+very few boys are promoted to the position of
+check boy in the telegraph office, and fewer
+still have an opportunity to learn telegraphy.
+Some of the boys become cab drivers because
+they have familiarized themselves with the city
+streets; others become saloon keepers because
+they have become well acquainted with this
+method of making a livelihood; some are
+attracted by the life of "ease" which opens
+before them and enter into agreement with
+prostitutes, upon whose earnings they subsist;
+others have the courage to get away from these
+influences and secure work as office boys or in
+some other line entirely different from the messenger
+service.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable number of the inmates of state
+reform schools were formerly messenger boys,
+indicating that this service is one of the roads
+to delinquency. As the immoral influences
+surrounding this work are especially active<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+among youths, the age limit for such employment
+at night should be made high enough to prevent
+their being so exposed. New York State was
+first to declare that if this work is to be done at
+night it must be done by men, and has fixed
+the age limit at twenty-one years. The late
+Judge Stubbs, of the Indianapolis Juvenile
+Court, speaking before the Conference of
+Juvenile Court Officers held in that city in November,
+1910, said that messenger boys, and
+newsboys who sell papers in the downtown
+streets, were the boys most frequently charged
+with delinquency before his court, and declared
+that twenty-one years was low enough as an
+age limit for night messenger service.</p>
+
+<p>Other temptations assail the messenger boy
+in his work, and are frequently yielded to. The
+old practice of raising the amount of charges
+on the envelope of a telegram is notorious and
+is still an ever present problem to the companies.
+When a boy has been detected in this petty
+crime and is questioned about it, he too often
+adds to the one misdeed the other equally grievous
+one of lying, whereupon his dismissal
+usually follows.</p>
+
+<p>Under the direction of the writer an investi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>gation
+of the night messenger service was made
+in 1910 in Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana, the
+following cases being typical of the conditions
+found in all cities. In one of the larger towns
+of Indiana, a fourteen-year-old messenger boy
+was interviewed one night by an agent of the
+National Child Labor Committee who had
+called up the telegraph office by telephone
+requesting that a messenger be sent to him.
+Early in the course of conversation, of his own
+volition, the boy referred to houses of prostitution.
+Upon being asked what he knew about
+such places, he replied: "Too much&mdash;I am
+there half the night. You see they call for
+messengers to run errands for them. Sometimes
+I get them drinks, opium, medicines from drug
+stores or anything they want. No matter
+what they ask us to do&mdash;it's our business
+to go ahead and do it." The boy led the agent
+to a disreputable negro district and described
+his activities in this region. "No night passes
+without my making a dollar down here," said
+he. "The niggers are great smokers of opium,
+and I get it for them; they give me a little jar,
+and I have it filled up for them. It costs them
+$1.50, and I usually get the change from $2."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+The agent feigned doubt so as to elicit more
+information, whereupon the boy offered to get
+some opium if he were given a tip. The agent
+gave the boy one dollar and told him he might
+keep the change; in ten minutes he returned
+with a card of opium which was subsequently
+analyzed in a laboratory and found to be the
+kind ordinarily prepared for smoking purposes.
+This experience was repeated again and again
+by agents of the National Child Labor Committee
+in different cities and proved beyond the
+shadow of a doubt that these young boys are
+forced into familiarity with the most degrading
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in
+the same town told the agent that there were
+but few business calls at night, and that nearly
+all of their work was in connection with houses
+of prostitution. This boy spoke of the money
+he received in tips from inmates and patrons
+of these houses, of his receiving liquor and
+cigarettes from them, and remarked, "I do
+not have to do this work, but I like it; this job
+is too good to give up; I'm learning a lot of
+things." This little fellow described some extremely
+revolting scenes of which he had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+witness in these houses, and upon being asked
+whether his manager was aware of the kind of
+places he was called to, he replied, "Sure he
+does, for he gets the message over the telephone,
+then he calls one of the boys and sends him to
+the house."</p>
+
+<p>Another messenger in the same city, who was
+seventeen years old and had been in this service
+for four years, working daily until half past
+two in the morning, said, in talking about the
+use of drugs by prostitutes, "When they are
+so full of dope that they don't know what to
+do, they call up for a messenger, and sometimes
+I have had them send me out to a drug store
+for paris green; they want to kill themselves,
+they are crazy with opium; of course I take
+their money and never show up again." This
+boy also bought a small package of opium for
+the agent. He declared that he knew every
+house of prostitution in the city and was well
+acquainted with their proprietresses. To prove
+this, he wrote out a list of fourteen such places,
+putting down the streets and numbers at once
+from memory. These were subsequently referred
+to persons familiar with the city and
+verified.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is very distressing to read the testimony
+of a fourteen-year-old messenger boy of another
+city who had been thrown by his work so much
+in contact with evil conditions that he had
+come to regard these as normal. Although
+only fourteen years of age, he had lost all faith
+in womankind. In walking through the segregated
+district with the agent, this boy called
+out in advance the number of each house of
+prostitution, thus showing his familiarity with
+the whole region. In his childish, schoolboy
+hand, he wrote on a slip of paper a list of the
+bawdyhouses, putting down very promptly
+from memory the names of the proprietresses,
+the names of the streets and numbers of the
+houses.</p>
+
+<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in
+this city related many disgusting details of his
+experiences in the service at night&mdash;of prostitutes
+smoking, cursing and sprawling on the
+floor dead drunk. He stated that he had never
+smoked before he became a messenger, but that
+when he saw the women using tobacco in all
+the houses, he thought there could be no harm in
+it. "If ladies do it, why shouldn't I? So I
+began, and now I smoke a pack of cigarettes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+a day. I get twenty for a nickel and smoke
+all night. If I didn't, I suppose I'd fall asleep.
+I once lit a cigarette from an opium pipe in
+one of the houses&mdash;but no more opium for
+me." When asked whether his manager knew
+that he was sent to these houses, he replied:
+"Sure he does, he's the one that sends us;
+if we don't go, we get fired. He knows all the
+women, too, because he jokes with them over the
+telephone when they call up for a boy."</p>
+
+<p>A fifteen-year-old night messenger, when
+asked what he did with the money he received
+as tips, replied: "Last week I lost a dollar in a
+crap game, and I go to moving-picture shows
+during the day and buy different things; I
+suppose if my people knew the kind of work I
+was doing, I would get a thick leather strap over
+my back. They have an idea that the messenger
+business is just taking telegrams to reputable
+people. There are very few business calls at
+night at our office; almost all of them come from
+houses of prostitution. This is going to be a
+very busy week with us because a convention
+starts to-morrow, and the delegates will want
+us to take them to the houses."</p>
+
+<p>Another Hoosier messenger was only sixteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+years of age, although he had been in the service
+of one company for four years and had previously
+been discharged from another company
+for having defrauded a patron. This lad was a
+typical boy of the street; his features were
+drawn, black lines were below his eyes, and his
+walk could be described best as a drag. "I
+know every single house of prostitution in this
+city," said he. "I have been in every one.
+I get drinks in most of them, and many a time
+I was drunk for a whole day in some woman's
+room." This boy, having been in the service
+several years, spoke of the ravages dissipation
+had wrought on the women of the underworld.
+He had known many of them when they were
+just starting in their life of shame, and remarked
+their rapid decline. Voluntarily he spoke of
+the venereal diseases from which he had suffered.
+He said that he had been discharged from his
+first job as a messenger for having defrauded
+patrons. To illustrate how the scheme worked,
+he said: "A woman wanted me to carry a
+package to some place and asked me what it
+would cost; I said one dollar, and she said she
+wouldn't pay it because it was too much. I
+told her to speak to the manager and gave her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+the telephone number where my pal was waiting
+for the call. She asked him whether he was
+the manager, and he said, 'Yes'; then she
+asked how much the charge was, and he answered
+one dollar. Then I went on the errand, and we
+split the difference. Somehow the manager got
+wise, and out we went." This boy's conversation
+was a continuous flow of vulgarity. When
+the agent mentioned gambling, the boy drew
+from his pocket two sets of dice and said they
+were "ready at any time to do business. When
+the first of the month comes around, I am
+generally short or ahead $5. I lost $8 once.
+When I have no ready cash, I play on account
+of my salary."</p>
+
+<p>An eighteen-year-old messenger said: "I have
+been in this business here for five years, and a
+night never passes that I don't go to a house of
+prostitution; that's our main business at night.
+They could not afford to have a messenger
+service in this town at night if it were not for
+the red light district. We have to do all their
+work, because they trust us." This boy spoke
+of the venereal diseases other boys in the service
+had, and admitted that he had contracted
+them twice himself.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Another eighteen-year-old messenger boy,
+who has been in the service four years and is
+afflicted with an exceptionally bad venereal
+infection, said among other things, "There are
+lots of messengers who are kept by women.
+The boys work only for appearances. I knew
+two messengers who worked with me who were
+kept by two prostitutes for a year, then they
+gave up the job at the same time and took the
+prostitutes to Chicago, where the women worked
+for them. One of these boys is only about
+nineteen years old now. You don't learn
+anything in the messenger business except to
+knock down (overcharge a patron) and to go
+around with prostitutes and gamblers. It kills
+a fellow. I know, because I went down the line,
+and I'm coming out the wrong end." When
+asked why he didn't quit the job, he replied:
+"You don't suppose I want to work for $3 or
+$4 a week? I'm used to making pretty good
+money and having a good time." He said that
+he made from $40 to $75 a month according to
+the tips he received, and spent it as fast as he
+got it. Most of it went in gambling.</p>
+
+<p>A fourteen-year-old messenger boy in another
+city who works from 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> to 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, in speaking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+of the use of whisky in houses of prostitution,
+said: "We get it for them; the saloons know the
+messengers, and we stand in with them; the
+more a house sends for whisky the better they
+stand in with the saloon keeper. If the proprietress
+gets locked up, she will always be bailed
+out by the saloon keeper, but if she don't buy
+enough stuff from him, he will refuse to do it.
+When a proprietress is put in jail, the cops ring
+up for a messenger from the station house, and
+they send me to the cell where the woman is,
+and she always gives me a note to take to the
+saloon keeper and he goes down and gets her
+out." This boy said his manager knew the kind
+of places he visited, but was not in the office all
+night. During the late hours of the night the
+telegraph operator and the clerk were left in
+charge, and the boy remarked that they had
+told him to try to get a woman into the office
+if he found one on the street, and related instances
+in which this had been done. He was
+paid a salary of $22 a month.</p>
+
+<p>Another fourteen-year-old messenger in this
+town is paid $17 a month salary and makes
+$10 or $12 a month in tips.</p>
+
+<p>A thirteen-year-old messenger in another city,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+after having related some of his experiences in
+the segregated district, said: "I tell you, it's
+mighty dirty work for a boy to be in, but I
+suppose a fellow has to learn these things somehow,
+and I may as well learn them in the messenger
+service as in any other way. I smoke
+perique so I can sleep in the daytime."</p>
+
+<p>A fourteen-year-old messenger in the same
+city, employed from noon to midnight, had
+been in the service only one week when interviewed
+by the agent; among other things he
+said: "All the last week I have been doing nothing
+but go to the red light district. I didn't know
+what this messenger business was until I got
+into it, and I am going to quit just as soon as I
+see a little more of that kind of thing."</p>
+
+<p>In a certain Indiana city there was found a
+"kid line" messenger service, so called because
+the proprietor was a mere boy who was formerly
+in the service of another messenger company.
+He had two day boys, but at night answered the
+calls himself. He was fourteen years old and
+told the agent that he had lived in the "red
+light" district more than at his home on account
+of the number of calls he had to answer there,
+but of course this was exaggeration intended to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+convey the fact that most of his business was
+with that region. When he entered into business
+for himself, he went to all the prostitutes
+in the "red light" district and told them that
+he was commencing on his own account and
+that he wanted them to be his customers. "I
+get a good deal of their business. I get it because
+I know how to treat them. I can get them beer
+on Sunday and can sneak it into their houses.
+I know all the women and can introduce you
+to any of them, and can get you any amount
+of beer or whisky that you want. When I
+was working for the&mdash;&mdash; messenger company
+there was another boy on the force who tried
+to take all the good calls; he divided his tips
+with the manager, so he was sent to all the
+houses where good tips were given. There was
+one prostitute who liked me pretty well and
+gave me ten or fifteen cents for myself every time I
+went to her house. I started to answer a call there
+one night, and the other boy ran after me. We
+got to the place at the same time and had a
+fight in the hall; the men and women in the
+place gathered around us and offered to give us
+two dollars each if we would scrap for them,
+so we started right in, and before I was through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+with him he had two black eyes and his face
+was bleeding, then he pulled out a knife, but
+they took it away from him, and the next day
+I was fired. There is a young girl in one of the
+houses who is a chambermaid and wants me
+to live with her, and maybe I will but I'm
+afraid my mother will get wise."</p>
+
+<p>The fifteen-year-old messenger of another
+office showed the agent the list of about one
+hundred calls sent in the previous night, nearly
+every one of which came from the "red light"
+district.</p>
+
+<p>After weighing such evidence we can readily
+comprehend the justice of the opinion rendered
+by Dr. Charles P. Neill in the following words:
+"The newsboys' service is demoralizing, but
+the messenger service is debauching.... And,
+saddest of all, this service appeals strongly to
+the children. The prurient curiosity of the developing
+boy would itself incline him to like these
+calls to houses of prostitution, but they quickly
+learn also that women who live in these sections
+are more generous with their earnings in the
+way of tips than are the people in the more
+respectable sections of the city.... It can
+be said that all the boys who go into the messen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>ger
+service do not go to the bad, but it can be
+said with equal truth that it ruins children by
+the dozens, and that if any boy comes out of
+this service without having suffered moral shipwreck
+he can thank the mercy of God for it,
+and not the protecting arm of the community
+that stands idly by and makes no attempt to
+save him from temptation."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73" href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1908 Congress passed a child labor law
+for the District of Columbia which provided,
+among other restrictions, that no messenger
+boy under sixteen years should be employed
+between 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>,&mdash;<i>sixteen years</i>, the
+beginning of the period of adolescence, when
+boys have the greatest need of protection from
+the vices running riot in cities!</p>
+
+<p>The Chicago Vice Commission devotes several
+pages of its report to a recital of the experiences
+of messenger boys in connection with their
+work in the segregated districts. One of the
+telegraph companies maintains a branch office
+close to one of these districts, where eight boys
+from fifteen to eighteen years of age are employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+as messengers. These boys are called upon to
+work at all hours of the day and night, their
+tasks being the same as those of the messengers
+in other cities. A number of specific instances
+of the wretched environment into which these
+boys are thrown, are given. One of them who
+works from midnight until 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> was sent by a
+prostitute to a drug store for a package of cocaine
+hydrochloride, for which he paid $5.78, receiving
+$1 from the prostitute as a tip for the service.
+Another messenger was sent out on a similar
+errand by another prostitute two weeks later
+and purchased for her a hypodermic needle
+for a syringe; he was charged $2 for this needle,
+the cost to the druggist being 19 cents. A
+few days later a boy was called by another prostitute
+who confided to him that she had discontinued
+the use of messenger boys for purchasing
+"dope" because she found that they talked
+too much and could not be trusted, adding that
+she now had a newsboy, who sold papers at a
+near-by corner, buy the cocaine for her. A
+woman who lives in an apartment house and is
+the owner and proprietor of houses of prostitution
+in the restricted district, is in the habit
+of sending in an order for cocaine to a druggist,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+who calls a messenger boy to deliver it to her
+residence. This messenger opened one of the
+packages and, suspecting that it was cocaine,
+sniffed a little of it himself. He confessed that
+he had done this quite often since, and it appeared
+that he had derived a good deal of pleasure
+from it. The same messenger is sent about
+three times monthly by a certain man to a Chinaman,
+from whom he buys a package of opium
+for $4. On returning from one of these trips
+he watched the man open the package, take a
+quantity of the stuff, roll it and heat it, but at
+this point the messenger was told to leave the
+room. Another messenger boy has been employed
+at this particular branch office for more
+than three years, although he is now only
+seventeen years old; his earnings average
+about $10 per week, including tips. He is
+of small stature, not mentally bright and at
+present is afflicted with syphilis of three
+months' duration. Another messenger is a
+boy of foreign parentage, only fifteen years of
+age, who said he had recently been called quite
+often to a certain house of prostitution where an
+inmate gave him a box with a note to a druggist;
+the contents cost $1.75, but upon returning to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+the woman he would declare that he had paid
+$2.50, thus obtaining 75 cents on false pretenses,
+and in addition a tip of half a dollar. On one
+of his trips for this prostitute he had opened
+the note and found that it was a requisition for
+cocaine; on returning he placed some of the
+contents upon his tongue, but did not like the
+sensation and never repeated it. He is in the
+habit of picking up discarded cigarettes and
+smoking them. In spite of his age, he knows
+the name of nearly every prostitute in this district
+and can recognize these women at sight;
+he stated that whenever he entered a house of
+prostitution they would nearly always kiss him,
+and at different times he had had sores on his
+lips.</p>
+
+<p>Another boy who was attending high school
+was employed as a messenger in the downtown
+district during Christmas week of 1910. He
+was sent to deliver a message in a house of
+prostitution, and the girl who received it offered
+to cohabit with him free of charge as a Christmas
+present, stating that it was customary to do this
+for messenger boys on Christmas Day.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74" href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A number of other messengers told of similar
+experiences, stating that they were often called
+to houses of prostitution to perform small
+personal services for the inmates. As to regulation
+of the service, a police order was issued
+in Chicago in April, 1910, to the effect that no
+messenger or delivery boy under eighteen years
+was to be allowed in the segregated districts at
+any time.</p>
+
+<p>In arguing against the further restriction
+of the night messenger service, the telegraph
+companies and other interested organizations
+insist that the majority of these boys are working
+to support their widowed mothers or incapacitated
+fathers; a recent government report says,
+in referring to the table of families in which
+there are messengers and errand and office
+boys ten to fourteen years of age, classified by
+percentage of older breadwinners, for Boston,
+Chicago, New York and Washington, "These
+statistics point to the conclusion that the greater
+part of the families now furnishing children
+from ten to thirteen years of age and fourteen
+years for the occupation of messengers and errand
+and office boys are by no means either entirely
+or largely dependent upon the earnings of such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+children for the family support."<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75" href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> The restriction
+advocated does not contemplate the prohibition
+of this work to boys of fourteen years
+and upwards in the <i>daytime</i>; its object is to
+shield the youths from the vile associations
+necessarily connected with this work at <i>night</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Night Service by Men&mdash;Not by Boys</h3>
+
+<p>Mr. Owen R. Lovejoy of the National Child
+Labor Committee, in speaking of the study of
+the night messenger service undertaken by this
+organization, says: "The evidence collected
+justified the committee in cooperating with its
+affiliated organizations to secure legislation, and,
+counting on the <i>moral interest of the public</i>
+to promote the effort, we made the question
+one for practical and immediate decision.
+Results apparently justify the policy chosen.
+A bill was unanimously passed by the legislature
+of New York State [in 1910], excluding any
+person under twenty-one years of age from this
+occupation between ten o'clock at night and
+five o'clock in the morning."</p>
+
+<p>Massachusetts in 1911 forbade the employment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+of messengers under twenty-one years of age
+between the hours of 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, except
+by newspaper offices. Utah fixed the same age
+limit for this work in cities of first and second
+classes between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> New Jersey
+did likewise as to cities of the first class, fixing
+the age limit at eighteen years for smaller
+places, the prohibited hours being from 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
+to 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span></p>
+
+<p>Wisconsin also passed a law in 1911, prohibiting
+the employment of any one under twenty-one
+years of age as a messenger between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
+and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> in cities of the first, second and third
+classes. Ohio, in 1910, fixed the age limit for
+messenger service between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> at
+eighteen years.</p>
+
+<p>Michigan now prohibits the employment of
+messengers under eighteen years between 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
+and 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, as do also New Hampshire, Oregon,
+Tennessee and California.</p>
+
+<p>Other states having the advanced type of
+child labor law prohibit the employment of
+children under fourteen years in the messenger
+service during the day and under sixteen years
+at night. The states of Alabama, Arkansas,
+Florida, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina,
+Texas, Virginia and Wyoming do not yet provide
+any age limit for this work.</p>
+
+<p>The evil effects of the messenger service have
+also been noted in Great Britain. A schoolmaster
+of Edinburgh says, "Insolence, coarse
+intonation, swearing, lying, pilfering and lewdness
+are the chief products of message going
+by boys."<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76" href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p>A London health officer has testified as follows:
+"There is a very large employment of boy
+labour now, boys employed as messengers and
+errand boys, which teaches them nothing useful
+for their future life; and when they have outgrown
+the age at which they can be employed
+in this way, the risk of drifting into the ranks
+of the unskilled labourer is a very large one."<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77" href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p>
+
+<p>"The government post office telegraph messengers
+are not employed unless they have
+passed the seventh standard at school and each
+candidate has to provide a satisfactory certificate
+of health from his own medical attendant.
+A boy of fourteen must also be over four feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+eight inches in height. The minimum starting
+wage in London is seven shillings a week, rising
+by a shilling a week annually to eleven shillings.
+On reaching the age of sixteen the boy has to
+pass a further examination in order to qualify
+for retention. The various <i>private</i> telegraph
+companies offer much the same terms, though in
+some cases they are able to get boys slightly
+cheaper, as the qualifying standard is not such
+a high one. It is only during the rare periods
+when the supply of boy labour is more plentiful
+than usual that the private telegraph companies
+will refuse a boy on account of his size. The
+varied nature of the work they are called upon
+to perform is an undoubted attraction in the
+eyes of many.... That it is bad for them morally
+is less open to doubt. Even when they are
+more actively employed the most that they can
+hope to learn is a very small amount of discipline.
+A more serious point is the future of the boys
+when they cease to be messengers."<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78" href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
+
+<p>"It is well to point out that the commonest
+of these occupations, that of errand boy or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+messenger boy, is seldom a desirable one, quite
+apart from the fact that it generally leads nowhere.
+It lacks almost necessarily what the
+boy most needs&mdash;the compulsory training of
+the habit of disciplined effort."<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79" href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
+
+<p>As Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "The test of
+the work, however, should be not whether boys
+can do it, but what it does to boys."<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80" href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">EFFECTS OF STREET WORK UPON CHILDREN</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>All the evil effects of street work upon children
+observed by students of the problem have
+been here divided into three groups, under the
+headings of physical, moral, and material deterioration.
+It must be understood that this is
+a summary of such effects and that while the
+influences of the street are unquestionably bad,
+any one child exposed to them is not likely to
+suffer to the full extent suggested below. However,
+deterioration in one form or another is
+invariably noted in children who have been
+engaged in street work for any length of time,
+and this is sufficient proof of the undesirability
+of such employment for our boys and girls.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Effects of Street Work on Children">
+<caption><span class="smcap">Effects of Street Work on Children</span></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bb vmiddle" rowspan="3">Material Deterioration</td>
+  <td rowspan="3" class="bb bracket">&#123;</td>
+  <td> Form distaste for regular employment.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Small chance of acquiring a trade.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bb" > Drift into large class of casual workers.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bb vmiddle"  rowspan="6">Physical Deterioration</td>
+  <td  rowspan="6" class="bb bracket" style="font-size:600%;">&#123;</td>
+  <td> Night work.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Excessive fatigue.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Exposure to bad weather.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Irregularity of sleep and meals.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Use of stimulants&mdash;cigarettes, coffee, liquor.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bb" > Disease through contact with vices.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="vmiddle bb"  rowspan="6">Moral Deterioration</td>
+  <td rowspan="6" class="bb bracket" style="font-size:600%;">&#123;</td>
+  <td> Encouragement to truancy.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Independence and defiance of parental control.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Weakness cultivated by formation of bad habits.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Form liking for petty excitements of street.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td> Opportunities to become delinquent.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bb"> Large percentage of recruits to criminal population.</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>These are the insidious influences permeating
+street work and rampant in all our cities. They
+are minimized and even denied by certain ignorant
+or interested parties who base their assertions
+upon the fact that prominent men of to-day
+were once newsboys or bootblacks, and therefore
+jump to the conclusion that their success is
+due to the training received in this way when
+young. The truth is more likely to be that such
+individuals have succeeded, not because of this
+early training, but in spite of it. Boys of
+exceptionally strong character will force them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>selves
+out of such an environment unscathed,
+but the great majority of children have not
+sufficient mental and moral stamina to withstand
+these influences. The minority will take
+care of itself under any circumstances,&mdash;it is
+with the weaker majority that we must deal.
+The problem is an urgent one, but generally
+ignored, for, as Myron E. Adams says, the public
+sees the street worker at his best and neglects
+him at his worst.</p>
+
+<p>The charge that in street work a child has
+small chance of acquiring a suitable trade is
+one of the worst counts in the indictment.
+Street work leads to nothing else; the various
+occupations are so many industrial pitfalls, and
+the children who get into them must sooner or
+later struggle out and begin over again at some
+other line of work, if they would succeed.</p>
+
+<p>"These children (street traders) furnish a
+very large proportion of recruits to the criminal
+population. Those who do not graduate into
+crime form a liking for the petty excitements of
+the street and a distaste for regular employment.
+They lack skill and perseverance, shun the
+monotony of a permanent job, and as they
+grow older either follow itinerant and question<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>able
+trades or become ill-paid and inefficient
+casual laborers. Therefore these young people
+are a source of waste to society rather than of
+profit."<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81" href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p>
+
+<p>The large percentage of former newsboys
+among the inmates of boys' reformatories
+recently induced an active social worker to send
+an inquiry to the superintendents of such
+institutions and to juvenile court judges in
+different parts of the country relative to the
+effect of newspaper selling on schoolboys.
+The statements received in reply are set forth
+in a leaflet which was published in 1910.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82" href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+<p>These officials are practically unanimous in
+condemning street trading by boys, declaring
+that newsboys are generally stupid and almost
+always morally defiled; that the pittance they
+earn is bought at great sacrifice; that the
+spending of their earnings without supervision
+is the worst thing that can befall them; that the
+life leads to gambling, dishonesty and spendthrift<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+habits; that it is a dead-end occupation
+leading to nothing; that it abounds in evil
+temptations; that the boys are comparatively
+idle and see and hear the worst that is to be seen
+and heard on the street; that the work subjects
+boys to bad influences before they are strong
+enough to resist them; that delinquency results
+from their enforced association with all classes
+of boys; and concluding that every possible
+protection should be thrown about the young
+boy. Some of these officers gave due consideration
+to the advantages of street trading, and one
+made the naïve statement that newspaper selling
+was not a bad business for a boy who could
+withstand its temptations.</p>
+
+<p>Although the law of New York State provides
+a modicum of regulation for street trading,
+nevertheless it has not been effective because
+of extremely indifferent enforcement. Like
+almost all other street-trading laws in the United
+States, it places the age limit at the ridiculous
+age of ten years. A movement was started
+recently in Buffalo to remedy the situation, and
+the following statement was published:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"During the past year we have sought to
+discover, not by theorizing, but by uncovering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+the facts, what is the effect of street work on the
+boy. School records of 230 Buffalo newsboys
+were secured. Eighteen per cent were reported
+as truants; 23 per cent stood poor or very poor
+in attendance and deportment. Twenty-eight
+per cent stood poor or very poor in scholarship,
+while only 15 per cent of the other children in
+the same schools failed in their work. An
+investigation at the truant school showed that
+46.6 per cent of the boys there had been engaged
+in the street trades. On the basis of these facts
+and studies made in connection with the schools,
+juvenile courts and reformatories elsewhere,
+we hope to secure legislation raising the age
+below which boys may not engage in the street
+trades to twelve years, and making it illegal
+for boys under fourteen to sell after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
+We are also striving to secure better enforcement
+of this law in Buffalo and other
+cities."<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83" href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p>
+
+<p>This folder also states that circular letters
+were sent to all Buffalo school principals asking
+about the effect on scholarship of the early
+morning delivery of newspapers by their pupils,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+and also to physicians inquiring about the effect
+of such work on physical development. The
+hours for such newspaper delivery were from
+4.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> Eight principals and six
+physicians denounced such work to every one
+who favored it. Referring to the occupational
+history of reformatory inmates, a recent report
+for New York City says: "The parental school
+(school for truants) statistics show that 80 out
+of its 230 inmates were newsboys, while 60 per
+cent of the entire number have been street
+traders. The Catholic Protectorate, full of
+Italians (noted as street traders), gives us a
+record of 469 or 80 per cent out of their 590
+boys interviewed, who have followed the street
+profession, and 295 or 50 per cent had been
+newsboys selling over three months. The New
+York Juvenile Asylum gives us 31 per cent of
+its inmates as newsboys and 60 per cent as
+street traders. The House of Refuge repeats
+the same story: 63 per cent of those committed
+to that institution had been street traders, of
+whom 32 per cent were newsboys. If 63 per cent
+of the House of Refuge inmates have been street
+traders, and if the majority of such have begun
+their so-called criminal careers, which end<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+invariably in the state penitentiary, why do we
+permit children to trade on our streets?"<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84" href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another American writer says: "Whatever
+the cause, the effect on the newsboy is always the
+same. He lives on the streets at night in an
+atmosphere of crime and criminals, and he takes
+in vice and evil with the air he breathes. If he
+grows into manhood and escapes the tuberculosis
+which seizes so many of these boys of
+the street, the things that he has learned as a
+professional newsboy lead in one direction,&mdash;toward
+crime and things criminal. The professional
+newsboy is the embryo criminal."<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85" href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>
+
+<p>The dangers to the morals of children are
+particularly emphasized by those who have given
+this subject any attention. Mr. John Spargo
+says: "Nor is it only in factories that these
+grosser forms of immorality flourish. They are
+even more prevalent among the children of the
+street trades,&mdash;newsboys, bootblacks, messengers
+and the like. The proportion of newsboys who
+suffer from venereal diseases is alarmingly great.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+The superintendent of the John Worthy School
+of Chicago, Mr. Sloan, asserts that 'one third
+of all the newsboys who come to the John
+Worthy School have venereal diseases and that
+10 per cent of the remaining newsboys at present
+in the Bridewell are, according to the physician's
+diagnosis, suffering from similar diseases.' The
+newsboys who come to the school are, according
+to Mr. Sloan, on an average of one third below
+the ordinary standard of physical development,
+a condition which will be readily understood by
+those who know the ways of the newsboys of
+our great cities&mdash;their irregular habits, scant
+feeding, sexual excesses, secret vices, sleeping
+in hallways, basements, stables and quiet
+corners. With such a low physical standard
+the ravages of venereal diseases are tremendously
+increased."<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86" href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p>
+
+<p>The economic aspect of this work is magnified
+by most people beyond its true proportion;
+the earnings of street-working children are not
+needed by their families in most cases, and even
+in those instances where their poverty demands
+such relief it is wrong to purchase it at the price
+paid in evil training and bad effects of every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+kind. Commenting on this point the chief
+truant officer for Indianapolis says: "A large
+number of truants are recruited from that large
+unrestricted class whose members are to be
+found competing with one another on our street
+corners from early until late. The pennies
+which many of them earn are a material aid
+in replenishing the depleted resources of some
+of our homes. Yet, it is a question whether
+such child laborers will not in the future bequeath
+to society an abundant reward of human
+wreckage which may be traced to such traffic
+and its many temptations."<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87" href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
+
+<p>As to the bad judgment of parents in seeking
+the premature earnings of their children, a
+Chicago physician says: "The average newsboy,
+if he works 365 days a year, does not earn over
+a hundred dollars; if he becomes delinquent
+it costs the state at least two hundred dollars
+a year to care for him. When we remember
+that twelve out of every one hundred boys
+between ten and sixteen become delinquent,
+and that over 60 per cent of these boys come
+from street trades, it does not take long for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+business man to figure out that it is rather poor
+economy to let a ten-year-old boy go into at
+least this field of labor.... From an economic
+standpoint the family that sends out
+a ten-year-old boy to sell papers loses a great
+deal more in actual money from the boy's lack
+of future earning capacity than the boy can
+possibly earn by his youthful efforts. In other
+words, this sort of labor from an economic
+standpoint is an absurdity."<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88" href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p>
+
+<p>In its splendid report on street trading, the
+British departmental committee of 1910 stated:
+"We learnt that much of this money, so readily
+made, is spent with equal dispatch. The
+children spend it on sweets and cigarettes, and
+in attending music halls, and in very many cases
+only a portion, if any, of the daily earnings is
+taken home.... In many towns the traders are
+drawn from the poorest of homes, but numerous
+witnesses have emphatically stated that their
+experience leads them to think that cases where
+real benefits accrue to the home are rare."<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89" href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The lack of proper training during childhood
+almost invariably brings about a tragedy in
+the lives of working people. The premature
+employment of children at any kind of labor
+which interferes with their education and their
+training in work for which they are fitted is
+most disastrous in its effects and far outweighs
+in future misery the little income thus secured
+in childhood. A careful student of the working
+class declares: "Many bright and capable men
+and women in this neighborhood [Greenwich
+Village, New York City] would undoubtedly
+have been able to occupy high positions in the
+industrial world if they had not been <i>forced
+into unskilled work when young</i>."<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90" href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p>
+
+<p>With reference to the effects of street trading
+an English writer says: "It is difficult to
+imagine a life which could be worse for a young
+boy. Apart from the moral dangers, it is a
+means of earning a livelihood which perhaps
+more than any other is subject to the most
+violent fluctuations. But the uncertainty of
+the income is a trifling evil by comparison with
+the certainty of the bad moral effects of street<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+trading on boys and youths. The life of the
+street trader is a continual gamble, unredeemed
+by any steady work; it is undisciplined and
+casual, and exposed to all the temptations of
+the street at its worst. The great majority of
+the boys who sell papers drift away into crime
+or idleness or some form of living by their wits."<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91" href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>
+The same writer also declares: "Few things
+could have a worse effect than this street trading
+on those engaged in it. It initiates them into
+the mysteries of the beggar's whine and breeds
+in them the craving for an irregular, undisciplined
+method of life."<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92" href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> And the editor of
+these English studies adds: "It is part of the
+street-bred child's precocity that he acquires
+a too early acquaintance with matters which as
+a child he ought not to know at all. His language
+and conversation often reveal a familiarity
+with vice which would be terrible were it not
+so superficial."<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93" href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p>
+
+<p>Speaking of immorality in the narrow sense<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+of the word, the same writer says: "We do not
+believe that immorality of this kind is universal
+among the boys and girls of the labouring classes,
+nor do we believe that the town youth is any
+worse than his brother and sister of the country.
+Coarseness and impurity are not the distinguishing
+mark of any one class or any one place. We
+question whether comparison of sins and self-indulgence
+would work out at all to the disadvantage
+of the town labouring class as a whole.
+It must be remembered that one commonplace
+factor, the glaring publicity of the street, is all
+on the side of the town youth's virtue. The
+street has its safeguards as well as its dangers."<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94" href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+<p>With reference to the blind alley character
+of street work, another English writer avers:
+"As in London, the labours of the school children
+[in Manchester] are in no wise apprenticeship
+or preparation for their future lives. The
+grocer's little errand boy will be discharged
+when he grows bigger and needs higher wages;
+the chemist's runner is not in training to become
+a chemist. The three farthings an hour on the
+one hand, and the physical, moral and intellectual
+degeneration on the other, are all that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+the little ones here, as elsewhere, get out of toil
+from which many a grown man would shrink."<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95" href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another English student of labor conditions
+declares: "Teachers&mdash;together with magistrates,
+police authorities, ministers of religion
+and social workers&mdash;are practically unanimous
+in condemning street trading as an employment
+of children of school age. In this occupation
+children deteriorate rapidly from the physical,
+mental and moral point of view."<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96" href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>
+
+<p>Still another writer says: "One great evil
+which results from this life of street trading in
+childhood is the fact that it is fatal to industrial
+efficiency in after life."<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97" href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
+
+<p>The testimony of Sir Lauder Brunton, M.D.,
+given in 1904, on the occasion of the inquiry
+into physical deterioration in Great Britain, is to
+the point, in spite of the fact that the committee
+directing the inquiry stated that "The impressions
+gathered from the great majority of the
+witnesses examined do not support the belief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+that there is any general progressive deterioration."<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98" href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>
+Sir Lauder Brunton's testimony was
+as follows: "The causes of deficient physique
+are very numerous ... it is very likely that
+in order to eke out the scanty earnings of the
+father and mother the child is sent, out of school
+hours, to earn a penny or two, and so it comes
+to school wearied out in body by having had to
+work early in the morning, exhausted by not
+having had food, and then is sent to learn.
+Well, it cannot learn."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99" href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> Later the same witness
+testified, "One of the very worst causes [of
+physical deterioration] is that children in actual
+attendance at school, work before and after
+schooltime."<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100" href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<p>In a special inquiry into the physical effects
+of work upon 600 boys of school age made in
+1905 by Dr. Charles J. Thomas, assistant health
+officer to the London County Council's education
+department, it was found that many of the
+children suffered from nervous strain, heart
+disease and deformities as a result of prolonged
+labor. Of the 600 boys, 134 were shop boys,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+63 were milk boys, 87 were newsboys and the
+others were scattered among various employments.
+It was found that work during the
+dinner hour and also the long work-day on
+Saturday were particularly harmful. As to
+fatigue among the newsboys, of those working
+20 hours or less, 60 per cent were affected;
+of those working between 20 and 30 hours,
+70 per cent; while of those working more than
+30 hours per week, 91 per cent showed fatigue.
+As to anæmia, among the newsboys, of those
+working 20 hours or less it appeared among
+only 19 per cent; but of those working 20 to
+30 hours, 30 per cent showed it; while of those
+working over 30 hours per week, 73 per cent were
+afflicted in this way. As to nerve strain, of
+those working 20 hours or less 16 per cent were
+suffering from it; of those working 20 to 30
+hours, 35 per cent; while of those working over
+30 hours, 37 per cent showed nerve strain. As
+to deformities, none were noted among boys
+working less than 20 hours a week, but 10 per
+cent of those working 20 to 30 hours or more
+were found to be afflicted. All elementary
+schoolboys showed deformities to the extent of
+8 per cent, but of those engaged in different kinds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+of work from 20 to 30 hours a week, 21 per cent
+showed deformities. Flatfoot was found to be
+the chief deformity produced by newspaper
+selling, this being caused by the boys' having
+to be on their feet too much.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101" href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p>
+
+<p>One of the most decisive blows delivered
+against street work by children in Great Britain
+was the statement of Thomas Burke of the
+Liverpool City Council, a son of working
+people, who had lived in a crowded city street
+for twenty years, had attended a public elementary
+school until fourteen years of age, where the
+number of child street traders was very large,
+and had become convinced that "work after
+school hours was decidedly injurious to health and
+character." Referring to the material condition
+of his street-trading acquaintances, he said:
+"Almost all the boys sent out to work after school
+hours from the school referred to have failed in
+the battle of life. Not one is a member of any
+of the regular trades, while all who were sent to
+trade in the streets have gone down to the depths
+of social misery if not degradation ... a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+proportion of those who did not work after school
+hours, or frequent the streets as newspaper sellers,
+occupy respectable positions in the city."<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102" href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>Miss Ina Tyler of the St. Louis School of
+Social Economy in a study of St. Louis newsboys
+made in 1910, found that of 50 newsboys
+under 11 years of age, 43 gambled, 42 went to
+cheap shows and 23 used tobacco; while of
+100 newsboys 11 to 16 years of age, 86 gambled,
+92 went to cheap shows and 76 used tobacco.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103" href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the conclusions of the British interdepartmental
+committee of 1901 is the following:
+"Street hawking is not injurious to the health if
+the hours are not long, and the work is not done
+late at night; but its moral effects are far worse
+than the physical, and this employment in the
+center of many large towns makes the streets
+hotbeds for the corruption of children who learn
+to drink, to gamble and to use vile language,
+while girls are exposed to even worse things."<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104" href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p>
+
+<p>The British departmental committee of 1910<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+declared: "In the case of both boys and girls
+the effect of this occupation on future prospects
+cannot be anything but thoroughly bad, except,
+possibly, in casual and exceptional cases. We
+learn that many boys who sell while at school
+manage to obtain other work upon becoming
+fourteen, but for those who remain in the street
+the tendency is to develop into loafers and
+'corner boys.' The period between fourteen
+and sixteen is a critical time in a boy's life.
+Street trading provides him with no training;
+he gets no discipline, he is not occupied the
+whole of his time; for a few years he makes more
+money and makes it more easily than in an
+office or a workshop, and he is exposed to a
+variety of actively evil influences."<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105" href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<p>An important division of the study of street-working
+children concerns their standing in
+the schools. In New York City a few figures
+are available through a study recently made
+there. The distribution of 200 newsboys under
+fourteen years of age among the school grades
+is shown in the following table:<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106" href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Distribution of newsboys among school grades NYC">
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Ages</th>
+  <th colspan="8">Grades</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Special</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Totals</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th> 1</th>
+  <th> 2</th>
+  <th> 3</th>
+  <th> 4</th>
+  <th> 5</th>
+  <th> 6</th>
+  <th> 7</th>
+  <th> 8</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 12</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right">10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 36</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">19</td>
+  <td class="bl right">21</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 62</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">15</td>
+  <td class="bl right">10</td>
+  <td class="bl right">23</td>
+  <td class="bl right">17</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 75</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb center">Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right">10</td>
+  <td class="ball right">22</td>
+  <td class="ball right">48</td>
+  <td class="ball right">41</td>
+  <td class="ball right">36</td>
+  <td class="ball right">25</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 200</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Applying the rule that in order to be normal
+a child must enter the first grade at the age of
+either six or seven years and progress with
+enough regularity to enable him to attend the
+eighth grade at the age of either thirteen or
+fourteen, it is found that of the 177 newsboys
+ten to thirteen years of age inclusive, 118 are
+backward, 57 are normal and 2 are beyond their
+grades. This is shown in the following table:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Retardation of newsboys">
+ <tr>
+  <th> Ages</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Backward</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Normal</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Ahead</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Total</th>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl center"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 6</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 6</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 0</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 12</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl center"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 22</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 11</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 1</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 34</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl center"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 42</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 16</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 1</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 59</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl center"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 48</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 24</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 0</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 72</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl vmiddle center">Totals</td>
+  <td class="bl bt dcright"> 118</td>
+  <td class="bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bt dcright"> 57</td>
+  <td class="bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bt dcright"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bt dcright">177&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="br bt dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td class="bl bb vmiddle center">Percentages</td>
+  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 67</td>
+  <td class="bb dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 32</td>
+  <td class="bb dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bb dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb dcright">100</td>
+  <td class="bb br dcleft">%</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>This table shows that of the 177 newsboys ten
+to thirteen years of age, 67 per cent are backward
+and 32 per cent are normal, while only 1 per
+cent are ahead of their grades. Boys of these
+ages are subject to the restrictions prescribed
+by the state law as to hours, and it is probable
+that the percentage of retardation would have
+been even greater if work at night had not
+been to some extent prevented.</p>
+
+<p>A report of New York City conditions
+made in 1907, before the newsboy law was
+enforced, says: "The shrewd, bright-eyed,
+sharp-witted lad is stupid and sleepy in the
+schoolroom; 295 newsboys compared with
+non-working boys in the same class were found
+to fall below the average in proficiency. They
+were also usually older than their classmates,
+that is, backward in their grades."<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107" href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p>
+
+<p>Referring to Manchester newsboys above
+the age of fourteen years, an English report<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108" href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a>
+says: "They are not stupid, or even markedly
+backward, judged by school standards.... As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+they grow older they sink to a lower level,
+both morally and economically&mdash;in fact,
+little better than loafers, without aspiration,
+and content with the squalor of the common
+lodging-houses in which they live, if only
+they have enough money for their drink
+and their gambling." Concerning the younger
+newsboys the same report continues: "Those
+who are the children of extremely poor, and
+often worthless parents, are often upon the
+streets selling their papers during school
+hours, and their attendance at the schools,
+in spite of prosecution of their parents, is
+so irregular that they make very little progress.
+These boys take to the streets permanently
+for their livelihood; a few of them
+continue, after the age of fourteen, to earn
+their living by selling newspapers, but most
+of them sink into less satisfactory kinds of
+occupation." In connection with these statements
+it should be remembered that they portray
+conditions existing prior to the adoption
+in 1902 of local rules on street trading.
+With reference to the alleged cleverness of
+street Arabs, a British observer draws this
+distinction: "Street-trading children are more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+cunning than other children, but not more intelligent."<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109" href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p>In St. Louis there was no regulation until the
+Missouri law of 1911 was passed; and in 1910
+Miss Ina Tyler, in a study of 106 newsboys of
+that city, found the following conditions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="intext" summary="Conditions of newsboys in St. Louis">
+ <tr>
+  <th class="harmonized">Years </th>
+  <th colspan="4"  class="harmonized">Number below Normal School Grade</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">10</td>
+  <td class="right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="right"> out of</td>
+  <td class="right">16</td>
+  <td class="right">62%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">11</td>
+  <td class="right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="right"> out of</td>
+  <td class="right">16</td>
+  <td class="right">75%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">12</td>
+  <td class="right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="right"> out of</td>
+  <td class="right">28</td>
+  <td class="right">57%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">13</td>
+  <td class="right"> 25</td>
+  <td class="right"> out of</td>
+  <td class="right">33</td>
+  <td class="right">75%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center">14</td>
+  <td class="right"> <span class="u">11</span></td>
+  <td class="right"> out of</td>
+  <td class="right"><span class="u">&nbsp;13</span></td>
+  <td class="right"><span class="u">84%</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="center"></td>
+  <td class="right"> 74</td>
+  <td class="right"> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="right">106</td>
+  <td class="right">70%</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These figures were copied by the writer from
+charts displayed at the child labor exhibit of
+the National Conference of Charities and Correction
+in St. Louis in 1910, but efforts to ascertain
+the method of determining these percentages
+were unavailing. Therefore they cannot be
+compared with the figures in the preceding
+tables, because it is by no means certain that
+the standard ages for normal school standing
+were adopted in the compilation of this table.</p>
+
+<p>In Toledo, Ohio, there is no regulation govern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>ing
+street work by children, although a local
+association makes an effort to look after the
+welfare of newsboys. In October, 1911, the
+writer visited the four public common school
+buildings nearest the business district of this
+city and found 287 children in attendance who
+were regularly engaged in some form of street
+work out of school hours. The great majority
+of them were newsboys. The distribution of
+these children according to age and grade is
+given below:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Working pupils in Toledo">
+ <tr>
+  <th class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
+  <th class="noline" colspan="12">Ages</th>
+  <th  class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc">Grade</th>
+  <th> 5</th>
+  <th> 6</th>
+  <th> 7</th>
+  <th> 8</th>
+  <th> 9</th>
+  <th> 10</th>
+  <th> 11</th>
+  <th> 12</th>
+  <th> 13</th>
+  <th> 14</th>
+  <th> 15</th>
+  <th> 16</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Totals</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 23</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right">12</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 34</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 22</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 51</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 58</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 44</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 37</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 25</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 15</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball center">Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 13</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 24</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 50</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 34</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 40</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 45</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 287</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Adopting the same method for determining
+retardation as in the case of the New York<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+figures, we find that of these 287 street-working
+school children of Toledo, 55 per cent are
+backward, 43 per cent are normal and 2 per cent
+are ahead of their grades. Or, selecting the
+children ten to thirteen years of age, as was
+done with the New York figures, we have the
+following results:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Retardation of Toledo school children">
+<tr>
+  <th> Ages</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Backward</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Normal</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Ahead</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Total</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">25</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 25</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 50</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">16</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 17</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">1</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 34</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">28</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 12</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 40</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl center"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">34</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 11</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 45</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Totals</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">103</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 65</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright">1</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 169</td>
+  <td class="br dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftnarrow">Percentages</td>
+  <td class="bl bb bt dcright">61</td>
+  <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb bt dcright"> 38</td>
+  <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb bt dcright">1</td>
+  <td class="bb bt dcleft">%</td>
+  <td class="bl bb bt dcright"> 100</td>
+  <td class="bb bt br dcleft">%</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>These percentages show that conditions in
+Toledo are only slightly better than in New
+York City. This is surprising because of the
+great difference in the working conditions of
+the two cities, the metropolitan street children
+being subjected to far greater nervous strain
+because of the more congested population and
+heavier street traffic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Retarded Children in Elementary Schools (Toledo), 1910-1911">
+<caption><span class="smcap">Retarded Children in Elementary Schools (Toledo)</span>, 1910-1911</caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w875" span="8" />
+  <col class="w5" span="2" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
+  <th class="noline nosc" colspan="8"><i>Grades</i></th>
+  <th  class="noline" colspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>First</th>
+  <th> Second</th>
+  <th> Third</th>
+  <th> Fourth</th>
+  <th> Fifth</th>
+  <th> Sixth</th>
+  <th> Seventh</th>
+  <th> Eighth</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Total</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Percent Of all Retardations</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 8-9</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 10-11</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 11-12</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 12-13</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 13-14</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 1 year</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 325</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 449</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 500</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 483</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 528</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 507</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 366</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 209</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3,367</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 53.5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 2 years</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 91</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 170</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 215</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 346</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 384</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 324</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 194</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 72</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1,796</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 28.5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 3 years</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 33</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 53</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 101</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 152</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 219</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 119</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 33</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 727</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 11.5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 4 or more years</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 42</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 74</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 131</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 105</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 395</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 6.2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Total retarded</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 465</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 714</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 890</td>
+  <td class="bl right">1112</td>
+  <td class="bl right">1236</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 969</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 596</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 303</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6,285</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Enrollment each grade</td>
+  <td class="bl right">3114</td>
+  <td class="bl right">2680</td>
+  <td class="bl right">2548</td>
+  <td class="bl right">2400</td>
+  <td class="bl right">2209</td>
+  <td class="bl right">1856</td>
+  <td class="bl right">1284</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 901</td>
+  <td class="bl right">16,992</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Per cent each grade</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">14.9</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">26.6</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">34.8</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">46.3</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">55.9</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">52.2</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">46.4</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">33.6</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 36.9</td>
+  <td class="bl br bb right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Retarded Street Workers in four Toledo Common Schools, October, 1911">
+<caption><span class="smcap">Retarded Street Workers in four Toledo Common Schools, October</span>, 1911<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w875" span="8" />
+  <col class="w5" span="2" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="noline">&nbsp;</th>
+  <th class="noline nosc" colspan="8"><i>Grades</i></th>
+  <th  class="noline" colspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>First</th>
+  <th> Second</th>
+  <th> Third</th>
+  <th> Fourth</th>
+  <th> Fifth</th>
+  <th> Sixth</th>
+  <th> Seventh</th>
+  <th> Eighth</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Total</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Percent Of all Retardations</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 8-9</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 7-8</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 10-11</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 11-12</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 12-13</th>
+  <th> Normal Age 13-14</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 1 year</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 22</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 81</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 51.6</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 2 years</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 34</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 21.7</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 3 years</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 17.2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Retarded 4 or more</td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 9.5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Total retarded</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 37</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 31</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 26</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 23</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 157</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Enrollment street workers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 23</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 34</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 51</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 58</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 44</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 37</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 25</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 287</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Per cent</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">39.1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">44.1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">72.5</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">53.4</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 59</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right">62.1</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 52</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 20</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 54.7</td>
+  <td class="bl bb br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>A comparison between the table given in the
+report of the Toledo Board of Education for
+1911 showing the total number of retarded children
+in the elementary schools, and a similar
+table compiled from the figures for the street-trading
+children in four Toledo schools given
+on pages <a href="#Page_154">154</a> and <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, is most significant. The
+retardation among the total number of pupils
+enrolled is to be found on page <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110" href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p>
+
+<p>The corresponding figures for the 287 street-trading
+children in the four schools are to be
+found on page <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>It is especially noteworthy that the percentage
+of retardation among the street workers is
+very much greater than among the total number
+of pupils, in every grade except the eighth,
+while for all the grades it is 17.8 per cent greater.
+This becomes all the more significant when it is
+remembered that the figures for the total enrollment
+include the street workers; hence the
+excess of retardation among the latter makes
+the showing of the former worse than if they
+were excluded, and consequently the comparison
+on page <a href="#Page_155">155</a> does not appear to be as unfavorable
+to the street workers as it is in reality.</p>
+
+<p>On consideration of the figures in the tables<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+on pages <a href="#Page_154">154</a> and <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, the conclusion is inevitable
+that street work greatly promotes the
+retardation of school children. There are, of
+course, other factors which contribute to bring
+about this condition of backwardness, such as
+poverty, malnutrition and mental deficiency, but
+there can be no doubt that the evil effects of
+street work are in large measure responsible for
+the poor showing made in the schools by the
+children who follow such occupations.</p>
+
+<p>The many quotations in this chapter from
+authoritative sources with reference to the harmful
+effects of street work upon children constitute
+a most severe indictment. Students of labor
+conditions, specialists and official committees
+bitterly denounce the practice of permitting
+children to trade in city streets, and cite the
+consequences of such neglect. Material, physical
+and moral deterioration are strikingly apparent
+in most children who have followed street careers
+and been exposed to their bad environment for
+any length of time. We have provided splendid
+facilities for the correction of our delinquent
+children through the medium of juvenile courts,
+state reformatories and the probation system,
+but surely it would be wise to provide at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+same time an ounce of prevention in addition
+to this pound of cure. Social workers have
+returned a true bill against street work by
+children. What will the verdict of the people
+be?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">RELATION OF STREET WORK TO DELINQUENCY</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The most convincing proof so far adduced to
+show that delinquency is a common result of
+street work is set forth in the volume on "Juvenile
+Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111" href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a>
+being part of the Report on the Condition of
+Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+States, prepared under the direction of Dr.
+Charles P. Neill, United States Commissioner
+of Labor, in response to an act of Congress in
+1907 authorizing the study. The object of
+this official inquiry into the subject of juvenile
+delinquency was to discover what connection
+exists between delinquency and occupation or
+non-occupation, giving due consideration to
+other factors such as the character of the child's
+family, its home and environment. This study
+is based upon the records of the juvenile courts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+of Indianapolis, Baltimore, New York, Boston,
+Newark, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, showing
+cases of delinquency of children sixteen years of
+age or younger coming before these courts during
+the year 1907-1908. The total number
+of delinquents included in the study is 4839, of
+whom 2767 had at some time been employed
+and 2072 had never been employed. The entire
+number of offenses recorded for all the delinquents
+was 8797, the working children being
+responsible for 5471 offenses, or 62.2 per cent,
+while the non-working children were responsible
+for 3326 offenses, of 37.8 per cent.
+This shows that most juvenile offenses are committed
+by working children. The ages of the
+children committing the offenses recorded,
+ranged from six to sixteen years, and the report
+adds, "When it is remembered that a majority,
+and presumably a large majority, of all the children
+between these ages are not working, this
+preponderance of offenses among the workers
+assumes impressive proportions."<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112" href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With reference to the character of the offenses
+it was found that the working children inclined
+to the more serious kinds. Recidivists were
+found to be far more numerous among the
+workers than among the non-workers. Summing
+up the results of the discussion to this
+point the report says: "It is found that the
+working children contribute to the ranks of
+delinquency a slightly larger number and a
+much larger proportion than do the non-workers,
+that this excess appears in offenses of every
+kind, whether trivial or serious, and among
+recidivists even more markedly than among
+first offenders."<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113" href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+<p>With reference to the connection between
+recidivism and street work the report says:
+"The proportion of recidivism is also large among
+those who are working while attending school,
+and the numbers here are very much larger
+than one would wish to see. Some part of the
+recidivism here is undoubtedly due to the kind
+of occupations which a child can carry on while
+attending school. Selling newspapers and blacking
+shoes, acting as errand or delivery boy,
+peddling and working about amusement resorts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+account for over two-thirds of these boys (478
+of the 664 are in one or another of these pursuits).
+These are all occupations in which the
+chances of going wrong are numerous, involving
+as they usually do night work, irregular hours,
+dubious or actively harmful associations and
+frequent temptations to dishonesty. In addition,
+something may perhaps be attributed to
+the overstrain due to the attempt to combine
+school and work. When a child of 13, a bootblack,
+is 'often on the street to 12 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>,' or when
+a boy one year older works six hours daily
+outside of school time, 'often at night,' as a
+telegraph messenger, it is evident that his school
+work is not the only thing which is likely to suffer
+from the excessive strain upon the immature
+strength, and from the character of his occupation."<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114" href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p>
+
+<p>While reflecting on the excess of working
+children among the delinquents, one may be
+inclined to attribute this to bad home influences;
+but the report shows that only one-fifth of the
+workers as opposed to nearly one-third of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+non-workers come from distinctly bad homes,
+while from fair and good homes the proportion
+is approximately 76 per cent to 65 per cent.
+Consequently, the working child goes wrong more
+frequently than the non-working child in spite
+of his more favorable home surroundings.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115" href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of the total number of delinquent boys, both
+working and non-working, under twelve years
+of age, 22.4 per cent were workers, while of
+those twelve to thirteen years old, 42.4 per cent
+were workers, and of those fourteen to sixteen
+years old, 80.8 per cent were workers. As
+comparatively few children under twelve years
+are at work, the fact that more than one-fifth
+of the delinquent boys in this age group are
+working children "becomes exceedingly significant."
+Of all children twelve to thirteen
+years of age, the great majority are not employed
+because of the fourteen-year age limit prevailing
+in all the states studied except Maryland;
+hence the larger proportion of working offenders
+cannot be explained by the influences of age.
+The increase of working delinquents above
+fourteen years is to be expected, because so many
+children go to work on reaching that age.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Remembering that the proportionate excess
+of workers varies from two to nine times the
+ratio of non-workers, it is evident that this
+excess cannot be explained by a corresponding
+excess of orphanage, foreign parentage, bad
+home conditions or unfavorable age. As the
+report says, "It seems rather difficult to escape
+the conclusion that being at work has something
+to do with their going wrong."<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116" href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>
+
+<p>The strongest argument against street work
+by children is to be found in the following table<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117" href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a>
+of occupations pursued by the largest number
+of delinquents and giving the percentage of
+total delinquents engaged in each.</p>
+
+<p>As the report says, the following classification
+shows that the largest number of delinquent
+boys were found in those occupations in which
+the nature of the employment does not permit
+of supervision&mdash;namely, newspaper selling,
+errand running, delivery service and messenger
+service. Boys engaged in these occupations,
+together with bootblacks and peddlers, all work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+under conditions "which bring them into
+continual temptations to dishonesty and to
+other offenses."<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118" href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p>
+
+
+<table class="lined w70" summary="Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment">
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w40" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w40" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Boys <br /> Industry or Occupation</th>
+  <th> Per Cent of Total Delinquent Boys</th>
+  <th> Girls <br /> Industry or Occupation</th>
+  <th> Per Cent of Total Delinquent Girls</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 21.83</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Domestic service:</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> &nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Errand boys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 17.80</td>
+  <td class="bl leftindent"> Servant in private house</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 32.18</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Drivers and helpers, wagon</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7.30</td>
+  <td class="bl  leftindent"> In hotel, restaurant or boarding house</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 5.44</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Stores and markets</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4.23</td>
+  <td class="bl  leftindent"> Home workers</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 16.33</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Messengers, telegraph</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2.59</td>
+  <td class="bl left" style="padding-left: 2.5em;"> Total in domestic service</td>
+  <td class="bl bt  br right"> 53.95</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Iron and steel</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.84</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> &nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Textiles, hosiery and knit goods</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.84</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Textiles, hosiery and knit goods</td>
+  <td class="bl  br right"> 12.36</td>
+ </tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.77</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Stores and markets</td>
+  <td class="bl  br right"> 5.44</td>
+ </tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.71</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Clothing makers</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 4.95</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Building trades</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.64</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Candy and confectionery</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 4.45</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Theater</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.57</td>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow"> Laundry</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1.98</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Office boys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1.43</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> &nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Glass</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 1.30</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br bb right"> &nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The offenses with which the boys were charged
+are divided in the report into sixteen classes.
+The messenger service furnishes the largest
+proportionate number of offenders charged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+with "assault and battery" and "immoral
+conduct"; the delivery service those charged
+with "burglary"; bootblacking those charged
+with "craps and gambling," "incorrigibility
+and truancy"; peddling those with "larceny
+and runaway," and "vagrancy or runaway."
+The report calls attention to the greater tendency
+of messengers to immorality, and remarks that
+it is easy to see a connection between bootblacking
+and the offenses in which bootblacks
+lead. The report continues: "It is worthy
+to note that neither the newsboys nor errand
+boys, both following pursuits looked upon with
+disfavor, are found as contributing a <i>leading</i>
+proportion of any one offense. They seem to
+maintain what might be called a high general
+level of delinquency rather than to lead in any
+particular direction, errand boys being found
+in fourteen and newsboys in fifteen of the sixteen
+separate offense groups."<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119" href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of clearly defining the connection
+between occupation and delinquency, and
+determining whether the delinquency inheres<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+in the occupation or in the conditions under
+which it is carried on, there were selected six
+kinds of employments which are generally
+looked upon by social workers as morally unsafe
+for children, and a comparison was made of
+conditions as to the parentage, home surroundings,
+etc., prevailing among the workers in
+these occupations, the working delinquents
+generally, and the whole body of delinquents,
+both working and non-working. Of the delinquent
+boys under twelve years engaged in these
+six groups of employments (delivery and errand
+boys, newsboys and bootblacks, office boys,
+street vendors, telegraph messengers and in
+amusement resorts), nearly three-fourths were
+found to be newsboys and bootblacks. As
+four-fifths of the working delinquents under
+twelve years of age in all occupations are found
+in these six groups, it is evident that this class
+is largely responsible for the employment of
+young boys, and "comparing these figures with
+those for the working delinquents in all occupations
+we find that 58.6 per cent, or nearly three-fifths
+of all the working delinquents up to twelve,
+come from among the newsboys."<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120" href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was found that 54.6 per cent of all the
+working delinquents had both parents living,
+while newsboys and bootblacks, street vendors
+and telegraph messengers were found to be
+more fortunate in this respect than the great
+mass of working delinquents, even surpassing
+the whole body of delinquents, working and
+non-working. As the report says, "One so
+frequently hears of the newsboy who has no
+one but himself to look to that it is rather a
+surprise to find that the orphaned or deserted
+child appears among them only about half as
+often relatively as among the whole group of
+workers."<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121" href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of the delinquent delivery and errand boys,
+78.9 per cent were found to have fair or good
+homes, of the newsboys and bootblacks 75.8
+per cent, of the street vendors 65 per cent, and
+of the telegraph messengers 78.9 per cent, and
+in this connection the report declares, "Certainly
+the predominance of these selected occupations
+among the employments of delinquents cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+be explained by the home conditions of the
+children entering them."<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122" href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>
+
+<p>The findings with respect to the messenger
+service fully corroborate the charges brought
+against it by the National Child Labor Committee.
+The report says: "Turning to the
+messengers, it is seen that they are in every respect
+above the average of favorable conditions.
+Moreover, it is well known that boys taking
+up this work must be bright and quick; there
+is no room in it for the dull and mentally weak.
+Plainly, then, in this case the occupation, not
+the kind of children who enter it, must be
+held responsible for its position among the
+pursuits from which delinquents come ...
+the chief charges brought against it are that
+the irregular work and night employment tend
+to break down health, that the opportunities
+for overcharge and for appropriating packages
+or parts of their contents lead to dishonesty,
+and that the places to which the boy is sent
+familiarize him with all forms of vice and tend
+to lead him into immorality."<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123" href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> Referring again
+to the messenger service, the report says:
+"The unfortunate effects of the inherent condi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>tions
+of the work are, however, manifest. Its
+irregularity, the lack of any supervision during
+a considerable part of the time, the associations
+of the street and of the places to which messengers
+are sent, and the frequency of night work
+with all its demoralizing features, afford an
+explanation of the impatience of restraint, the
+reckless yielding to impulse shown in the
+large percentage of incorrigibility and disorderly
+conduct. A glance at the main table shows
+that the two offenses next in order are assault
+and battery and malicious mischief, both of
+which indicate the same traits. On the whole,
+there seems abundant reason for considering
+that the messenger service deserves its bad
+name."<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124" href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p>
+
+<p>With reference to errand and delivery boys,
+the report finds that as the level of favorable
+conditions keeps so near to the average, it seems
+necessary to attribute the number of delinquents
+furnished by this class more to the conditions
+of the work than to the kind of children
+taking it up.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The occupational influences of amusement
+resorts, street vending and newspaper selling
+"are notoriously bad, but a partial explanation
+of the number of delinquents they furnish is
+unquestionably in the kind of children who enter
+them. It is a case of action and reaction.
+These occupations are easily taken up by immature
+children, with little or no education and
+no preliminary training. Such children are
+least likely to resist evil influences, most likely
+to yield to all that is bad in their environment."<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125" href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p>
+
+<p>Having shown that a connection can be traced
+between certain occupations and the number
+and kind of offenses committed by the children
+working in them, the report next determines
+to what extent a direct connection can be traced
+between occupation and offense. If a working
+child commits an offense, first, during working
+hours, second, in some place to which his work
+calls him, and third, against some person with
+whom his work brings him in contact, a connection
+may be said to exist between the misdemeanor
+and the employment. The report
+insists that either all three of the connection
+elements must be present, or else the offense<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+must be very clearly the outcome of conditions
+related to the work, before a connection can be
+asserted; and it reminds the reader that the
+number of connection cases shown represents
+an understatement, probably to a considerable
+degree, of the real situation. The number of
+boy delinquents in occupations which show more
+than five cases of delinquency chargeable to
+occupation was found to be 308; of these, 100
+were errand or delivery boys, 129 were newsboys,
+16 were drivers or helpers, 13 were street vendors
+and 10 were messengers.</p>
+
+<p>The number of boy delinquents working
+at time of last offense and the number whose
+offenses show a connection with the occupation
+are compared, by occupation, in the following
+table,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126" href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> p. 173.</p>
+
+
+<table class="lined w60"  summary="Juvenile Delinquency and its Relationship to Employment">
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w40" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w10" />
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w20" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Occupation or Industry</th>
+  <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> Boy Delinquents working at Time of Last Offense</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Boy Delinquents whose Offenses show a Connection with Occupation</th></tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Number</th>
+  <th>Per Cent of <br />Boy Delinquents in <br />Occupation Working</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">In amusement resorts</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 40</td>
+  <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127" href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 17.5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Domestic service</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 50</td>
+  <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128" href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 28.0</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Driver or helper</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 107</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 14.9</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Errand or delivery boys</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 261</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 100</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 38.3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Iron and steel workers</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 27</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 25.9</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 38</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 26.3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys and bootblacks</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 346</td>
+  <td class="dcleft"><a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129" href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 129</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 37.2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Street vendors</td>
+  <td class="bl dcright"> 25</td>
+  <td class="dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 52.0</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl bb leftnarrow">Stores and markets</td>
+  <td class="bl bb dcright"> 62</td>
+  <td class="bb dcleft">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bb right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl bb br right"> 19.3</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>"Among the errand and delivery boys the
+percentage (of connection cases) is large and the
+connection close. Larceny accounts for over
+nine-tenths of these cases, the larceny usually
+being from the employer when the boy was sent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+out with goods, though in some cases it was
+from the house to which the boy was sent. It
+will be remembered that in respect to parental
+and home condition, age, etc., the delinquent
+errand boys came very close to the average, and
+their antecedents gave no reason to expect they
+would go wrong so numerously. That fact,
+together with the large proportion of connection
+cases, seems to indicate that the occupation is
+distinctly a dangerous one morally."<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130" href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>As the various forms of immorality are practiced
+in secret, the report truly says that the
+evils which are most associated with a messenger's
+life could hardly appear in these studies.
+"A trace of them is found in the case of one boy
+sentenced for larceny. After his arrest it was
+found that he was a confirmed user of cocaine,
+having acquired the habit in the disreputable
+houses to which his work took him. Perhaps
+something of the same kind is indicated by the
+fact that one of the few cases of drunkenness
+occurring among working delinquents came, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+a connection case, from this small group of
+messengers. For the most part, however, the
+connection offenses (by messengers) were some
+form of dishonesty, usually appropriating parcels
+sent out for delivery, though in some cases
+collecting charges on prepaid packages was
+added to this."<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131" href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
+
+<p>The newsboys almost equal the errand boys
+in their percentage of connection cases, though
+their offenses have a much wider range; in fact,
+the connection cases for newsboys include a
+greater variety of offenses than any other
+occupation studied. Beggary appears for the
+first time, there being two cases, in both of
+which the selling of papers was a mere pretext,
+enabling the boys to approach passers-by.
+Street vendors were found to show the highest
+percentage of connection cases, larceny being
+the leading offense.</p>
+
+<p>The report concludes: "It is a striking fact
+that in spite of the incompleteness of the data,
+a direct connection between the occupation and
+the offense has been found to exist in the cases
+of practically one-fourth of the boys employed
+at the time of their latest offense. It is also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+a striking fact that while the delinquent boys
+working at the time of their latest offense
+were scattered through more than fifty occupations,
+over six-sevenths of the connection
+cases are found among those working in street
+occupations, and that more than three-fifths
+come from two groups of workers&mdash;the errand
+or delivery boys, and the newsboys and bootblacks.
+It is also significant that the connection
+cases form so large a percentage of the total
+cases among the street traders, the messengers,
+and the errand or delivery boys, their proportion
+ranging from over one-fourth to over
+one-half, according to the occupation."<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132" href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p>
+
+<p>In considering the effect of night work upon
+the morals of children, the report says, "The
+messengers and newsboys show both large numbers
+and large percentages of night work, thus
+giving additional ground for the general opinion
+as to the undesirable character of their work";
+and again, "In the following occupations the
+cases of night work are more numerous than they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+should be in proportion to the number ever
+employed in these pursuits: bootblacks, bowling
+alley and pool room, glass, hotel, messengers,
+newsboys and theaters and other amusement
+resorts."<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133" href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p>
+
+<p>More than one-fourth of the working boy
+delinquents were found to be attending day
+school. More than half of these pupils were
+newsboys and bootblacks. It was found that
+the more youthful the worker, the stronger is
+his tendency toward irregular attendance at
+school.</p>
+
+<p>Eighty-three boy delinquents were devoting
+eleven or more hours per day to work, and of
+these, 31 were errand or delivery boys, 7 were
+hucksters or peddlers, 6 were messengers and
+2 were newsboys or bootblacks.</p>
+
+<p>"For both sexes, the workers show a greater
+tendency than the non-workers to go wrong,
+even where home and neighborhood surroundings
+appear favorable, but this tendency is not so
+marked among the girls as among the boys."<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134" href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p>
+
+<p>This report of the government investigation
+furnishes most conclusive evidence as to the
+evil character of street trading in general. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+bears out the description so aptly made by a
+recent writer: "The streets are the proverbial
+schools of vice and crime. If the factory is the
+Scylla, the street is the Charybdis."<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135" href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another American writer has lately declared:
+"A prolific cause of juvenile delinquency is the
+influence of the street trades on the working
+boy. No other form of work has such demoralizing
+consequences.... These boys are
+brought into the juvenile court, and their misdemeanors
+are often so great that reformatory
+treatment is necessary for them. Accordingly
+they represent a large proportion of the boys in
+the different institutions. The demoralization
+produced by the street trades affects others
+than those engaged in such trades, but the latter
+are the chief sufferers; therefore the importance
+of legislation which will shut off this source of
+infection."<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136" href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p>
+
+<p>A Chicago physician took occasion to look
+into the records of the juvenile court of that
+city in 1909, and found that the first 100 boys
+and 25 girls examined that year were representa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>tive
+of the 2500 delinquents brought into the
+court during the preceding year. Not less
+than 57 of these boys had been engaged in street
+work&mdash;43 as newsboys, 12 as errand boys and
+messengers and 2 as peddlers. Only 13 out
+of the entire number had never been employed.
+Sixty of them were physically subnormal; the
+general physical condition of the girls was
+found to be much better than that of the boys
+of the same age, although 40 per cent of the
+girls were suffering from acquired venereal
+disease.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137" href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1910 there were 647 boys
+confined in the Indiana state reformatory,
+which is known as the Indiana Boys' School,
+at Plainfield. Of this number 219, or 33.8 per
+cent, had formerly been engaged in street work.
+To determine the relative delinquency of street
+workers and boys who have never pursued such
+occupations, it would be necessary to compare
+these 219 delinquents with the total number of
+street workers in Indiana and also to compare
+the total number of inmates who had never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+followed street occupations with the total
+number of boys within the same age limits in
+Indiana. A comparison of the two percentages
+would be illuminating, but is impossible because
+it is not known how many street workers there
+are in the state. However, it is safe to assume
+that the number of street-working boys in
+Indiana is much less than one third of the total
+number of boys. If we accept this as true, then
+the figures indicate that street work promotes
+delinquency, because one third of all the delinquents
+in the state reformatory had been so
+engaged. The frequent assertion that, merely
+because a large percentage of the inmates of
+correctional institutions were at some time
+engaged in street work, such employment is
+therefore responsible for their delinquency, cannot
+be accepted alone as proof of the injurious
+character of this class of occupations, as it is
+not known how long each offender was engaged
+in such work, nor are the other causes contributing
+to the delinquency of each boy properly
+considered or even known. This defect is
+avoided in the government's Report on Juvenile
+Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,
+which, with reference to the common practice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+of jumping at conclusions in this way, says,
+"This appears to show that selling newspapers
+is a morally dangerous occupation, but the
+danger cannot be measured, since it is not known
+what proportion of the working children are
+newsboys, or what proportion of the newsboys
+never come to grief."<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138" href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> The following tables
+are of interest as showing in detail the facts as
+to Indiana's delinquent boy street workers, who
+are confined in the state reformatory:&mdash;</p>
+
+<h3 class="smcap">Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</h3>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table A. Distribution among Street Occupations">
+<caption><i><a name="tablea" id="tablea">Table A. </a>Distribution among Street Occupations</i></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Committed for</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Messengers</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Newsboys</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Bootblacks</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Peddlers</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Delivery Boys</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Cab Driver</th>
+  <th rowspan="2">Total</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc"> Day</th>
+  <th class="nosc">Night</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 22</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 88</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 125</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 30</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 40</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 32</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Forgery</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Manslaughter</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 36</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 156</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 219</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table B. Ages when at Work at these Occupations">
+<caption><i><a name="tableb" id="tableb">Table B.</a> Ages when at Work at these Occupations</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w2125" />
+  <col class="w875" span="9" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>Under 10</th>
+  <th> 10</th>
+  <th> 11</th>
+  <th> 12</th>
+  <th> 13</th>
+  <th> 14</th>
+  <th> 15</th>
+  <th> 16</th>
+  <th> Totals</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 36</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 29</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 29</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 28</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 36</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 156</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 12</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab drivers</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 34</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 37</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 31</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 45</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 38</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 28</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 219</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table C. Ages at Time of Commitment">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_C" id="Table_C">Table C.</a> Ages at Time of Commitment</i></caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w45" />
+  <col class="w5" span="11" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th> Committed for</th>
+  <th> Under 9</th>
+  <th> 9</th>
+  <th> 10</th>
+  <th> 11</th>
+  <th> 12</th>
+  <th> 13</th>
+  <th> 14</th>
+  <th> 15</th>
+  <th> 16</th>
+  <th> 17</th>
+  <th> Total</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 24</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 28</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 125</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 40</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 32</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Forgery</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Manslaughter</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 26</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 26</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 40</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 52</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 33</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 219</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table D. Nationality and Orphanage of Street Workers">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_D" id="Table_D">Table D.</a> Nationality and Orphanage of Street Workers</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Occupations</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> American</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Negro</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> German</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Irish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Polish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> French</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Scotch</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Italian</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Jewish</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Father Living</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Mother Living</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc"> Yes</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Yes</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 25</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 30</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 30</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 6</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 69</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 59</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 13</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 107</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 49</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 119</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 37</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab driver</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 110</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 70</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 157</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 62</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 174</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 45</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table E. Hours and Earnings of Street Workers">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_E" id="Table_E">Table E.</a> Hours and Earnings of Street Workers</i> <br /> (In only 91 cases were the hours given, and earnings in only 116 cases.)</caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w20" />
+  <col class="w5" span="7" />
+  <col class="w10" span="4" />
+  <col class="w5" />
+ </colgroup>
+
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="3"> Occupations</th>
+  <th colspan="7"> Hours</th>
+  <th colspan="5" rowspan="2" class="blstrong"> Daily Earnings</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc" colspan="3"> Day</th>
+  <th class="nosc blstrong" colspan="4"> Night</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc"> All</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Morning</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Afternoon</th>
+  <th class="nosc blstrong"> All</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Before midnight</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> After midnight</th>
+  <th class="nosc blstrong"> Totals</th>
+  <th class="nosc blstrong"> Under 50 cents</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> 50-75 cents</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> 75 cents-$1.00</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> $1.25-$1.50</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Totals</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Day messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Night messengers</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 13</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Newsboys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 29</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 56</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 47</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 23</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 78</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Bootblacks</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Peddlers</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 12</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Delivery boys</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br  right"> 5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Cab driver</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="blstrong right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 53</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 91</td>
+  <td class="br bb bt blstrong right"> 55</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 41</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 116</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table F. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_F" id="Table_F">Table F.</a> Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</i></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2">Committed for</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> American</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Negro</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> German</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Irish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Polish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> English</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Jewish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Swedish</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> French</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Mexican</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Italian</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Hungarian</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Totals</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Father Living</th>
+  <th colspan="2"> Mother Living</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th class="nosc">Yes</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> Yes</th>
+  <th class="nosc"> No</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
+  <td class="bl right">156</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 40</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">234</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 168</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 66</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 182</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 52</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 66</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 86</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 62</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 24</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 62</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 24</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility </td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 53</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 75</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 44</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 31</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 50</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 25</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 6</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 11</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 15</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent">Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right">293</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 65</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 23</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 16</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="ball right">428</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 298</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 130</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 323</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 105</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table G. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_G" id="Table_G">Table G.</a> Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910</i></caption>
+ <colgroup>
+  <col class="w40" />
+  <col class="w5" span="12" />
+ </colgroup>
+ <tr>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Committed for</th>
+  <th colspan="11"> Ages at Commitment</th>
+  <th rowspan="2"> Totals</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <th> Under 9</th>
+  <th> 9</th>
+  <th> 10</th>
+  <th> 11</th>
+  <th> 12</th>
+  <th> 13</th>
+  <th> 14</th>
+  <th> 15</th>
+  <th> 16</th>
+  <th> 17</th>
+  <th> Over 17</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Larceny</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 20</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 25</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 33</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 46</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 47</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 28</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 234</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Truancy</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 17</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 86</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Incorrigibility</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 7</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 4</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 9</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 10</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 14</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 8</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 75</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Burglary</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Assault and battery</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 6</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl leftnarrow">Other charges</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 1</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 3</td>
+  <td class="bl right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl br right"> 19</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball leftindent"> Totals</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 19</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 27</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 44</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 51</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 61</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 73</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 66</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 44</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 14</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 2</td>
+  <td class="ball right"> 428</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="Table H. Behavior in Institution">
+<caption><i><a name="Table_H" id="Table_H">Table H.</a> Behavior in Institution</i></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th colspan="3"> Street Workers</th>
+  <th colspan="3"> Non-Street Workers</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">Good</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 39</td>
+  <td class="dcright">or</td>
+  <td class="right"> 18%</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 95 </td>
+  <td class="dcright">or</td>
+  <td class="br right"> 22%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">Average</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 175  </td>
+  <td class="dcright">or</td>
+  <td class="right">80%</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 321 </td>
+  <td class="dcright">or </td>
+  <td class="br right">75%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="bl left">Bad</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 5</td>
+  <td class="dcright"> or</td>
+  <td class="right"> 2%</td>
+  <td class="bl right"> 12</td>
+  <td class="dcright"> or</td>
+  <td class="br right"> 3%</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball left"> Totals</td>
+  <td class="bl bt bb right"> 219</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="bt bb right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="bl bt bb right"> 428</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="bt bb br right">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>By far the largest number of street-working
+delinquents had been newsboys, these being
+followed by messengers, peddlers, bootblacks
+and delivery boys in the order given. From
+a hasty glance at these tables one might conclude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+that street workers are not so liable to become
+delinquent as those who never follow street
+occupations, because of the smaller number of
+the former; but it should be remembered that
+the ratio of street-working inmates to the entire
+number of street-working boys in Indiana is
+much greater than the ratio of the other inmates
+to the whole body of non-street-working children
+in the state.</p>
+
+<p>In comparing Tables <a href="#Table_C">C</a> and <a href="#Table_G">G</a> it is seen that
+the street workers and the non-street workers
+were committed for practically the same offenses,
+and that their distribution according to offense
+does not vary widely. It is significant that a
+much smaller proportion of the street workers
+were committed to the institution under the
+age of ten years, than of the non-street workers,
+indicating that street occupations (which are
+not usually entered upon before the age of ten
+years), if followed for a year or two, contribute
+largely to the promotion of delinquency.</p>
+
+<p>From a comparison of Tables <a href="#Table_D">D</a> and <a href="#Table_F">F</a> it will
+be observed that the prevalence of delinquency
+among the street workers cannot be explained
+on the ground of orphanage, as only 28 per cent
+were fatherless and 21 per cent motherless,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+while of the non-street workers 30 per cent
+were fatherless and 25 per cent were motherless.
+This indicates (1) that street work in the great
+majority of cases is not made necessary by orphanage,
+and (2) that street work causes delinquency
+in spite of good home conditions so far as the
+presence of both parents contributes to the
+making of a good home. Furthermore, it will
+be noted in Table <a href="#Table_E">E</a> that nearly half of the children
+for whom figures on income could be obtained
+earned less than fifty cents per day&mdash;a
+small return on the heavy investment in the
+risk of health and character.</p>
+
+<p>The difference in behavior at the institution
+between the street workers and the others is
+shown in Table <a href="#Table_H">H</a> to be almost negligible, the
+latter making a slightly better showing.</p>
+
+<p>An English writer says: "There is no difficulty
+in understanding how street trading and newspaper
+selling lead to gambling. We are told
+by those who are best able to judge, that of
+the young thieves and prostitutes in the city
+of Manchester, 47 per cent had begun as street
+hawkers. For the younger boys and girls
+such an occupation, especially at night, turns
+the streets into nurseries of crime. The news<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>paper
+sellers are not exposed to quite the same
+dangers, but they are nearly all gamblers.
+They gamble on anything and everything, from
+the horse races reported hour by hour in the
+papers they sell, to the numbers on the passing
+cabs, and they end by gambling with their
+lives."<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139" href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">THE STRUGGLE FOR REGULATION IN THE UNITED
+STATES
+</span></h2>
+
+<p>The economic activities of children in city
+streets, commonly called street trades, are not
+specifically covered by the provisions of child
+labor laws except in the District of Columbia
+and the states of Massachusetts, Missouri,
+New York, Oklahoma, Colorado, Utah, Nevada,
+New Hampshire and Wisconsin. The laws of
+many other states as well as of those mentioned,
+however, prohibit children under fourteen years
+of age from being employed or permitted to
+work in the distribution or transmission of
+merchandise or messages. If newspapers are
+merchandise, then children under fourteen years
+would not be allowed to deliver newspapers under
+the provision just stated. This raises a nice
+question as to what is included in the term
+"merchandise." That there is any distinction
+between newspapers and merchandise is prac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>tically
+denied by the street-trades laws of Utah
+and New Hampshire which provide that children
+under certain ages shall not sell "newspapers,
+magazines, periodicals or <i>other</i> merchandise
+in any street or public place"; the question of
+delivery, however, is left open by these laws.
+The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia,
+in the case of District of Columbia
+<i>vs.</i> Reider, sustained the juvenile court of the
+District in its decision that newspapers are not
+merchandise and consequently that children
+under fourteen years of age engaged in delivering
+newspapers are not affected by the law.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140" href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a>
+The judge of the trial court stated in his opinion,
+"No one will seriously contend that the nature
+of the employment in the case at bar is at all
+harmful to the child." The case at bar was
+the prosecution of a route agent for a morning
+newspaper on account of having employed a
+minor under fourteen years of age to deliver
+newspapers. This opinion is typical of the
+misplaced sympathy so commonly bestowed
+upon these young "merchants" of the street.
+In the case cited, the court permitted itself to
+be drawn aside into an interpretation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+letter of the law instead of viewing the matter
+in the light of its spirit. The purpose of such
+a law is to <i>prevent the labor</i> of children, not to
+distinguish between closely related forms of
+labor. Its object is to afford protection, not
+to provoke discussion of purely technical points.
+The <i>labor</i> of delivering merchandise does not
+differ in any respect from the <i>labor</i> of delivering
+newspapers (the possibly greater weight of
+merchandise does not alter the case, inasmuch as
+it is usually carried about in wagons); and as
+the child labor law of the District of Columbia
+forbids the delivery of merchandise by children
+under fourteen years at any time, it follows that
+the delivery of newspapers by such children
+should not be allowed, because the intent of
+the law is to protect them from the probable
+consequences of such work. Moreover, the
+District of Columbia law prohibits children
+under sixteen years from delivering merchandise
+before six o'clock in the morning; yet, under
+the interpretation given by the juvenile court,
+it is perfectly proper for a child even under the
+age of <i>fourteen</i> years to perform the <i>labor</i> of
+delivery before that hour, provided he handles
+newspapers instead of packages. The incon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>sistency
+of this is only too apparent. The spirit
+of the law is lost sight of in the close interpretation
+of its wording. This is one of the obstacles
+always encountered in the movement for child
+labor reform after prohibitory legislation has
+been enacted.</p>
+
+<p>American legislation on street trading still
+clings persistently and pathetically to the theory
+that uncontrolled labor is much better for
+children than labor under the supervision of
+adults, and consequently authorizes very young
+children to do certain kinds of work in the
+streets on their own responsibility, while forbidding
+them to work at other street occupations
+even under the control of older and more
+experienced persons. This official incongruity
+must ultimately be rescinded and replaced by
+more rational and comprehensive legislation.
+The fallacy of permitting such a distinction on
+the ground that the child is an independent
+"merchant" in the one case and an employee
+in the other, must also be abandoned in favor
+of a more enlightened policy.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Present Laws and Ordinances</h3>
+
+<p>The following table shows all the laws and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+ordinances governing street trading by children
+in existence in the United States in 1911.</p>
+
+<p>The city council of Detroit passed an ordinance
+in 1877 which forbids newsboys and
+bootblacks to ply their trades in the streets
+without a permit from the mayor. No age
+limit is fixed, no distinction is made between
+the sexes and no hours are specified. Applicants
+for the permit are customarily referred
+to the chief truant officer for approval, and as
+a rule permits are not issued to boys under ten
+years of age or to girls. An annual license fee
+of ten cents is charged, and the license holder
+is supplied with a numbered badge which must
+be worn conspicuously. Owing to its manifest
+weakness, this ordinance is of little avail.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed from the following table
+that the common age limit for boys in street
+trading is ten years. When we pause to reflect
+on the import of this, it is hard to realize that
+intelligent American communities actually tolerate
+such an absurdly meager restriction; yet
+the movement for reform has progressed even
+this far in only a very small part of the country&mdash;in
+most places there is no restriction whatever!
+Some day, and that not in the very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+remote future, we shall look back upon the
+authorized exploitation of the present period
+with the same degree of incredulity with which
+we now regard the horrors of child labor in
+England during the early part of the nineteenth
+century.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="State Laws">
+<caption><span class="smcap">State Laws</span></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th>States</th>
+  <th> Age Limit</th>
+  <th> Licenses</th>
+  <th> Hours</th>
+  <th> Enforcement</th>
+  <th> Penalties</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Colorado, 1911</td>
+  <td class="ball">Girls, 10; any work in streets</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
+  <td class="ball">$5-$100 fine for first offense, $100-$200 fine or imprisonment 90 days for 2d offense for employers. $5-$25 fine for parents</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">District of Columbia, 1908</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; Girls, 16; bootblacking, selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-15</td>
+  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br />10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
+  <td class="ball">Left to discretion of juvenile court</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Missouri, 1911</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
+  <td class="ball">Max. fine $100 or max. imprisonment one year, for child</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Nevada, 1911</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 10; selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">Child dealt with as delinquent</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">New Hampshire, 1911</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; publications or other mdse. Boys, 10; girls, 10; bootblacking</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors; truant officers</td>
+  <td class="ball">$5-$200 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days, for employers and parents</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">New York, 1903</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; publications</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13</td>
+  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br />10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td class="ball">Police and truant officers</td>
+  <td class="ball">Dealt with according to law</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Oklahoma, 1909</td>
+  <td class="ball">Girls, 16; publications</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="ball">Commissioner of Labor</td>
+  <td class="ball">$10-$50 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days for child</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td rowspan="2" class="ball">Utah, 1911, 1st &amp; 2d class cities</td>
+  <td class="bl br bt">Boys, 12; girls 16; publications or other mdse. </td>
+  <td class="bl br bt">Boys, 12-15 </td>
+  <td  rowspan="2" class="ball">Not after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td  rowspan="2" class="ball">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td  rowspan="2" class="ball">$25-$200 fine or imprisonment 10-30 days, for employers and parents</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td  class="bl br bb">Boys, 12; girls, 12; bootblacking</td>
+  <td  class="bl br bb">Boys, 12-15 <br /> Girls 12-15</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Wisconsin, 1909, as amended 1911, 1st class cities</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 12; girls, 18; publications. Boys, 14; girls, 18, all others</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 12-15</td>
+  <td class="ball">5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>  <br />6.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, winter  <br />7.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, summer; publications</td>
+  <td class="ball">Factory inspectors</td>
+  <td class="ball">$25-$100 fine or imprisonment 10-60 days for parents permitting, and others employing, child under 16 to peddle without permit. Same for newspapers allowing boys under 16 about office between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> on school days</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Massachusetts, 1902 as amended, 1910</td>
+  <td colspan="4" class="ball">Mayor and aldermen or selectmen may make regulations of bootblacking and sale of newspapers, merchandise, etc; may prohibit such sale or trades; or may require license to be obtained from them. School committees in cities have these powers as to children under 14 years.</td>
+  <td class="ball">Max. fine $10 for child; max. fine $200 or max. imprisonment 6 months for parent allowing, person employing, or any one furnishing articles to, a child to sell</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<table class="lined" summary="City Ordinances">
+<caption><span class="smcap">City Ordinances</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></caption>
+ <tr>
+  <th>Cities</th>
+  <th>Age Limit</th>
+  <th>Licenses</th>
+  <th>Hours</th>
+  <th>Enforcement</th>
+  <th>Penalties</th>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Boston, 1902, by school committee</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 11; girls, 14; bootblacking, selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 11-13</td>
+  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br /> 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, winter <br />9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, summer</td>
+  <td class="ball">Supervisor of licensed minors, police and truant officers</td>
+  <td class="ball">Revocation of license and fine as stated for Massachusetts</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Cincinnati, 1909</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; bootblacking, selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13</td>
+  <td class="ball">6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> <br /> 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td class="ball">Police, truant and probation officers</td>
+  <td class="ball">Fine $1-$5 for child</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Hartford, 1910</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 10; selling anything</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13 Girls, 10-13</td>
+  <td class="ball">Not during school hours or after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td class="ball">&nbsp; 	</td>
+  <td class="ball">Revocation of license by school superintendent</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="ball">Newark, 1904</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10; girls, 16; newspapers 	</td>
+  <td class="ball">Boys, 10-13 	</td>
+  <td class="ball">Not between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> nor after 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span></td>
+  <td class="ball">Police and truant officers</td>
+  <td class="ball">Child placed on probation or committed to Newark City Home at expense of parent</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>In an attempt to minimize the bad effects of
+street trading most of the communities which
+have enacted laws or ordinances on the subject
+provide for the issuance of licenses to boys, and
+in some cases also to girls, in the belief that in
+this way the work of the children can best be
+brought under some degree of control. However,
+this is merely temporizing, although it
+affords an opportunity to gather facts and
+undoubtedly marks a step toward a better
+solution of the problem. This is brought out
+clearly by a recent British report on street
+trading: "Our general impression, gathered in
+towns in which by-laws had been made, was
+that, though in exceptional cases much good
+had resulted from their adoption, on the whole
+this method of dealing with what we have
+come to consider an unquestionable evil, has
+not proved adequate or satisfactory. In many
+instances it has been pointed out to us that a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+system of licensing and badging is but a method
+of legalizing what is indisputably an evil, and
+that a set of by-laws, however rigorously enforced,
+can at best only modify the difficulties
+of the position."<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141" href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p>
+
+<p>The social workers of Chicago, keenly alive
+to the menace of the situation, bewail the lack
+of protection for street workers in the following
+words: "The child labor law and the compulsory
+school law and the juvenile court law form
+the body of protective legislation which has
+been developing in behalf of the children of
+Illinois during the past twenty years. By none
+of the three, however, except in so far as street
+trading by a child under ten is counted an element
+in dependency, is the street-trading child
+safeguarded against parental neglect or greed,
+the vicious sights and sounds of the city street
+and the demoralizing habit of irregular employment."<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142" href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Opposition to Regulation</h3>
+
+<p>The opposition to bringing the street trades
+under some degree of restriction has come, as
+might be expected, from very interested sources.
+In Illinois the newspaper publishers figured
+prominently in the movement to prevent the
+passage of the street-trades measure introduced
+in the legislature of that state at its session of
+1911. This has not always been the case, however,
+as the circulation managers of the five
+leading daily newspapers of St. Louis wrote
+letters to the legislature of Missouri favoring
+the passage of that section of the child labor
+bill of 1911, which provided that boys under
+ten years and girls under sixteen years should
+not sell anything in any street or public place
+within the state. This provision was enacted
+into law, but it is safe to say that if the rational
+age limit of sixteen years for boys had been
+advocated instead of ten years, the newspapers
+would have been most active in opposing this
+section. In Cincinnati the circulation managers
+of the newspapers most affected by the street-trades
+ordinance passed by the City Council
+in 1909 agreed to its provisions before the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+measure was submitted to the Council, and
+consequently it passed without opposition.</p>
+
+<p>In New Haven and Hartford repeated
+attempts have been made to secure regulation
+of street trading by means of city ordinances,
+and at two sessions of the state legislature bills
+have been introduced which provided for such
+restriction, but all these efforts have been persistently
+fought by a leading newspaper of
+Hartford in which city it has always been customary
+to have girls as well as boys selling
+newspapers on the street. In 1910, a city
+ordinance was passed in Hartford providing
+that boys and girls under ten years should be
+prohibited from trading in the streets and that
+between the ages of ten and fourteen years
+they should be licensed and not allowed to sell
+after 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> The newsgirls were not banished
+from the street because it was held that they
+were "a pretty good sort of girl after all," and
+that so long as it could not be proved that they
+were <i>demoralized</i> by the work, they should be
+permitted to go on with it. In other words,
+the city clings to the fine old American policy
+of delaying action until some calamity makes
+it necessary.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The objections offered by interested parties
+to the by-laws drafted by the London County
+Council at a hearing held in 1906, show that the
+law of self preservation operates in England as
+in other quarters of the Earth. News agents,
+employing little boys to deliver newspapers,
+declared that conditions were not bad; that the
+work was healthful; that the wages were a great
+help to poor parents; that they could not
+afford to employ older boys; that the lads
+should be allowed to begin at 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and work
+not more than ten hours a day outside of school
+with a maximum weekly limit of twenty-five
+hours; that to prohibit the delivery of newspapers
+before 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and after 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> would be
+a great injustice to the trade; that boys wouldn't
+stay in bed even if 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> were fixed as the hour
+for beginning work; that such work does not
+interfere with schooling; that the boys are well
+looked after; in short, that the by-laws would
+ruin them and bring starvation to the children.
+One news agent in declaiming against the hours
+fixed for the delivery of newspapers, insisted
+that the restriction would throw boys out of
+employment and send them to trade in the streets
+with their undesirable associations, apparently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+unmindful of the fact that delivery boys themselves
+worked in that environment. The dairymen
+were horrified at the limit placed on hours,
+urging that the little boys in their employ
+should begin to deliver milk at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, as early
+work was beneficial and the wages useful to
+poor parents. Shopkeepers denounced the by-laws
+as too drastic, because they would prevent
+such light work as errand running at noon and
+casual employment in the evening after 7,
+resulting in hardship to both parents and children;
+one acknowledged that if he were prevented
+from employing cheap labor his business
+would suffer; another said that he employed
+a boy at noon and also from 5.30 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>,
+the work being light and the parents satisfied,
+and that the training was good for boys. A
+fruiterer actually declared that the limit of
+eight hours on Saturday would make a boy
+valueless to him; another said he employed a
+boy for one hour in the morning, from 6 to 9
+in the evening, and also on Saturday morning
+and evening, in running errands, and that the
+work was not heavy; another employed boys
+after school from 6 to 9.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, insisting that
+the work was good for them, as it kept them from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+the street and gave them an insight into business
+habits.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143" href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> It should be remembered that all
+this work was performed by the children in
+addition to attending school both morning and
+afternoon.</p>
+
+<p>The testimony given before the British Interdepartmental
+Committee of 1901 by the secretary
+of an association representing many thousand
+retail shopkeepers, would be amusing if
+it were not so sinister. He presented the subject
+of child labor in a most favorable aspect,
+declaring that the wages were needed on account
+of poverty in the families; that the work was
+light and had a <i>very beneficial</i> effect on health
+because it was done in the open air; that
+good meals were given in addition to cash wages
+and were <i>very beneficial</i>; that the effect on the
+boys' character was <i>very beneficial</i>, as the work
+cultivated businesslike habits and kept the
+boys from running the streets, frequently
+affording promotion to the higher grades of
+shopkeeping.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144" href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Another British Committee, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>vestigating
+conditions in Ireland, reported,
+"We found but one witness (a newspaper
+manager of Belfast) to testify that the present
+conditions of selling papers in the street were
+satisfactory and cannot be improved; and that
+instead of tending to demoralize, they have the
+opposite effect."<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145" href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Ways and Means of Regulating Street Work</h3>
+
+<p>As to the control of street trading by children
+there are two methods by which the desired
+end may be approached. First, a mutual agreement
+as to self-imposed restrictions among the
+managers of all the business interests in connection
+with which children work on the streets.
+This method, however, can be dismissed from
+consideration at once on account of its impracticability.
+Street work embraces many different
+kinds of commercial activity, and as one manager
+is the competitor of all others in the same line
+of business and is free to adopt such lawful
+means of placing his wares on the market as
+he sees fit, it would be clearly impossible to
+force any one into such an agreement against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+his will. Moreover, new competitors may enter
+the field at any time who would not be bound
+by the agreement of the others, and consequently
+this would soon be broken by the force of competition
+following the intrusion of these new
+parties.</p>
+
+<p>Second, regulation by constituted legislative
+authority. This is the more feasible method,
+and such regulation may be obtained from either
+of two sources&mdash;the municipality or the state.
+There is a question as to which of the two is
+the better for the purpose. Regulation by the
+state has the advantage of making the provisions
+apply uniformly to all cities within its
+borders and is obtained by no more effort than
+is required to get an ordinance through the
+Council of a single municipality. On the other
+hand, the municipal ordinance has the advantage
+of being secured by residents of the community
+who are intelligently concerned in the local
+problem and who will therefore take an active
+interest in having its provisions enforced.
+However, the good features of both these
+methods are united in the English plan, a modification
+of which has been adopted by Massachusetts.
+According to this plan the state<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+fixes a minimum amount of restriction and
+authorizes local authorities, including boards of
+education, to increase the scope of restriction,
+and provides penalties for violation of the same.</p>
+
+<p>As to the degree of regulation, an ultra-conservative
+measure would prohibit boys under
+ten and girls under sixteen years from selling
+anything at any time in the streets or public
+places of cities, while the age limit for boys is
+raised to fourteen years for night work. The
+issuance of licenses to boys ten to fourteen
+years of age who wish to engage in street trading
+is the usual accompaniment of such restriction,
+and while ordinarily of little avail, it could be
+made of some assistance to truant and probation
+officers in their efforts to enforce the compulsory
+education and delinquency laws. The
+age limit for boys has been advanced to eleven
+years by the School Committee of Boston, and
+to twelve years for newsboys and fourteen years
+for other street workers by the state of Wisconsin.
+But all efforts to secure such regulation should
+be based upon the principle that street trading
+is an undesirable form of labor for children, and
+consequently should be subject to at least the
+same restrictions as other forms of child labor.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Probable Course of Regulation in Future</h3>
+
+<p>American child labor laws usually contain
+a provision to the effect that no child under
+sixteen years shall engage in any employment
+that may be considered dangerous to its life
+or limb or where its health may be injured or
+morals depraved. This is sonorous, but ineffective,&mdash;the
+particular kinds of improper
+work should be specified. In this list of undesirable
+forms of labor, street work should be
+included. Great Britain has had far more
+experience in the matter of regulating the
+work of children than any state of this country,
+and, in the light of all this experience, her departmental
+committee of 1910 has emphatically
+declared that street trading by boys under
+seventeen and girls under eighteen years should
+be absolutely prohibited. This should be our
+ideal in America. Commenting on the banishment
+of young girls from the streets of New
+York City, Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "If the
+law against street selling and peddling by girls
+to the age of sixteen years can be thus effectively
+enforced in a city in which the depths of poverty
+among the immigrants are so frightful as they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+are in New York, there is no reason for assuming
+that it is impossible to prohibit efficiently street
+selling by boys."<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146" href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> Girls under eighteen years
+should never be allowed to go out in the streets
+for commercial purposes, no matter how innocent
+these purposes may be in themselves. One of
+the most important features of the movement
+in America should be the absolute prohibition
+of such work by minors under eighteen years
+at night; this is urged because it is in harmony
+with the provisions of our most advanced child
+labor laws and is fully justified because of the
+evil character of the influences rampant in
+cities after dark, and because such night work
+affords children a constant opportunity to cultivate
+their acquaintance with, if not to know
+for the first time, conditions from which every
+effort should be made to isolate them. For
+night messenger service the age limit should
+be twenty-one years.</p>
+
+<p>The enforcement of such regulation as is
+now provided by the few states and cities which
+have given this subject any attention, is variously
+intrusted to factory inspectors, police, truant
+and probation officers, but in Boston the school<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+committee has delivered this task into the hands
+of one man who is known as the supervisor of
+licensed minors. The Boston plan for enforcement
+seems to have given better results than
+the common system of intrusting the enforcement
+to officers already overburdened with
+other duties, but it is clearly impossible for one
+officer to handle the situation unaided in a large
+city&mdash;the plan would be considerably improved
+by the appointment of several assistants.</p>
+
+<p>"The licensing by the Boston School Committee
+of minors of school age to trade in the
+streets of Boston came about through an act
+of legislature in 1902. The need of supervision
+of minors licensed under this act became very
+apparent, as their numbers increased and their
+street influences reacting on their school life
+became better understood. To meet this need
+a supervisor of licensed minors was appointed
+whose duties are to secure the strict enforcement
+of the law, regulations governing the various
+forms of street work of children of school age,
+also to have general supervision of the details
+of the licensing department."<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147" href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Human nature in children is not in the least
+unlike human nature in adults. Just as we
+need an interstate commerce commission backed
+by the federal government to supervise the
+large business affairs of men, so do we need a
+supervisor of children's commercial activities
+in city streets, clothed with authority by the
+municipal government.</p>
+
+<p>The Boston plan is now being advocated for
+New York City: "In the street trades the Committee
+recommends that the principle of supervision
+of licensed minors, as practised for a
+number of years in Boston, be adopted, and that
+an office be created in the Department of Education
+that shall have supervisory control of all
+minors engaged in street trades. It recommends
+furthermore that the minimum age limit for
+licensing boys be raised from ten to fourteen
+years, and that the legal limit for selling at
+night be reduced from 10 to 8, to correspond
+more nearly with the provisions of labor legislation
+dealing with children in factories."<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148" href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p>
+
+<p>The first attempt to control the situation in
+New York City was intrusted to the police,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+but the results were not satisfactory, as they
+looked upon the matter with indifference.
+Subsequently the truant officers also were
+charged with this duty, and in 1908 four men
+were assigned to give their entire attention to
+this work between 3 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and at
+present eight men are so engaged, but no very
+marked improvement is noticeable. In Rochester
+the enforcement of the state law was
+brought about through the efforts of the women
+of that city; both business women and shoppers
+were asked to consider themselves members
+of a vigilance committee and to notify the
+board of education and the police department
+by telephone whenever any violations of the
+law were observed upon the streets. Within
+five days so many complaints had been received
+that both the superintendent of schools and the
+president of the board of education arranged
+a meeting at which their attention was invited
+to the widespread disregard of the law. As
+a result, steps were taken at once to insure
+enforcement, and finally the board of education
+appointed one truant officer, and the commissioner
+of police detailed a policeman especially
+for the work of reporting violations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to providing an improved method
+of enforcement, efforts have been made in
+Boston to deal more effectively with the difficult
+problem of keeping street traders out of saloons,
+the licensing board having issued an order to
+all holders of liquor licenses to prohibit minors
+from loitering upon the licensed premises, more
+especially newsboys and messenger boys.</p>
+
+<p>The efforts of the school committee to regulate
+street trading in Boston have been further
+supplemented by organizing a Newsboys'
+Republic, which is described as follows: "Perhaps
+the most important result of supervision
+so far has been the gradual introduction of a
+plan for self government among the licensed
+newsboys through the so-called Boston School
+Newsboys' Association. This association is
+pledged to the enforcement of the license rules
+and the suppression of smoking, gambling and
+other street vices, more or less common among
+the street boys of certain neighborhoods. The
+association is run by the boys themselves,
+through officers of their own choosing, consisting
+of one newsboy captain and two lieutenants
+for each school district; also a chief captain
+and general secretary and an executive board<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+of seven elected from the ranks of the captains.
+The general duties of the captains and lieutenants
+are, first, to see that all licensed newsboys
+of their respective school districts live up
+to their license rules, and the principles of the
+association. Secondly, to see that all boys not
+licensed shall not interfere with or in any way
+hurt the business of the licensed newsboys.
+These duties are performed through weekly
+inspections on the street, supplemented by
+monthly inspection at schools, at which time
+branch meetings of all the boys in each district
+are frequently held."<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149" href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br />
+
+<span class="h2sub">DEVELOPMENT OF STREET TRADES REGULATION
+IN EUROPE</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Great Britain</h3>
+
+<p>Attention was called to the problem of
+street trading by children in England for the
+first time, in a comprehensive way, in 1897.
+A few close observers of social conditions noticed
+that the situation was so grave as to demand
+an immediate remedy, and accordingly, upon
+their initiative, an organization was effected
+for the purpose of studying the subject. This
+organization took the form of a private association
+known as the Committee on Wage-Earning
+Children. The committee conferred with the
+officers of the board of education and succeeded
+in arousing their interest to the extent of securing
+a promise for the collection of a return from
+the elementary schools of England and Wales
+concerning the labor of public school pupils,
+their ages, and other relevant information.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+In 1898, the House of Commons ordered this
+inquiry to be made, and in June of that year
+copies of a schedule were sent by the educational
+department to all the public elementary schools
+in England and Wales. Many schoolmasters
+misunderstood the meaning of this schedule
+and failed to report the children of their schools
+who were actually engaged in various forms
+of work outside of school hours. Only about
+half of the schedules were filled and returned,
+but these showed that 144,026 children were
+following some kind of gainful occupation in
+addition to attending school. Many schoolmasters
+reported pitiable cases of child exploitation,
+as, for example, the following: "Boys
+helping milkmen are up at 5 o'clock in the
+morning, whilst those selling papers are about
+the streets to a very late hour at night. During
+lessons many fall off to sleep, and if not asleep
+the effort to keep awake is truly painful both
+to boy and teacher. The educational time, as
+a consequence, is materially wasted."<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150" href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> "These
+are sad cases, viz. one boy (aged eleven, in
+Standard III) works daily, as a grocer's errand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+boy, for 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a week, from 8 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from
+12 to 1.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and from 4.30 to 7.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>
+On Saturday from 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Another
+boy, aged ten in Standard III, works also as a
+grocer's errand boy for 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per week, from
+8.30 to 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 1.30 and from 5 to
+8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and on Saturday from 8.30 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>"
+And all this in addition to twenty-seven and
+one half hours of school every week! A boy
+who works for 56-3/4 hours a week, selling papers,
+is employed as follows: "Monday to Friday,
+from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> to 8.45 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 1 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and
+from 4 to 10 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, and on Saturday from 7 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, to
+10 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, from 12 to 2 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and from 3 to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>"
+"This is a very bad case: called at 2 and
+3 o'clock <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, the boy (aged eight) is so tired
+that he is obliged to go to bed again, and is
+often absent from school, and made to work
+in the evening as well."<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151" href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> Many schoolmasters
+also testified to the need of a remedy; one of
+these wrote on the schedule: "May I be allowed
+to express my gratitude to the education department
+for making this inquiry, and express the
+hope that the department will be able to frame<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+some regulation to meet and relieve the onerous
+conditions under which many of the young
+have to gain education. Without exaggeration
+I can truthfully assert that there are to-day
+in our national and board schools thousands of
+little white slaves."<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152" href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p>
+
+<p>Nothing more came of the movement until
+January, 1901, when the Secretary of State for
+the Home Department appointed an interdepartmental
+committee "to inquire into the
+question of the employment of children during
+school age, and to report what alterations are
+desirable in the laws relating to child labour and
+school attendance and in the administration of
+these laws." After making careful investigation
+this committee declared: "In the case of
+street-trading children very strong powers of
+regulation are required. These children are
+exposed to the worst influences; they enter
+public houses to ply their trade, they are kept
+up late at night and exposed to inclement
+weather, and the precarious nature of their
+trade disinclines them to steady work, and
+encourages them to dissipate their earnings in
+gambling ... there should be power to pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>hibit
+street trading by children; to make regulations
+as to the age and sex of street traders,
+and the days and hours on which they may ply
+their trade; to grant licenses to those permitted
+to trade and to require the wearing of
+badges or uniforms; to forbid street traders to
+enter public houses or to importune or obstruct
+passengers; and generally to control their
+conduct and to cope with the evil in every
+reasonable way."<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153" href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> The committee further reported:
+"Our main recommendation is that the
+overworking of children in those occupations
+which are still unregulated by law should be
+prevented by giving to the county and borough
+councils a power to make labour by-laws; ...
+further we suggest that the gaps that may be
+left by local by-laws should be filled up by a
+general prohibition of night labour by children
+and of labour manifestly injurious to health."<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154" href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a>
+This committee reported that the number of
+children in England and Wales attending school
+and also in paid employment was far greater
+than as reported by the parliamentary return,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+estimating that the total number was no less
+than 300,000 in 1898.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155" href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p>
+
+<p>One of the witnesses before this committee
+was a London truant officer of eighteen years'
+experience, who testified that every month he
+met with hundreds of cases of milk boys who
+"go to work at 5 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and knock off at 8.30 and
+get to school at 9.45. At twelve they return to
+work, and after school at 4.30 they go again
+and wash up. The latest hour they work is
+about 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> I have frequently seen these
+children fast asleep in school. It is a common
+thing to see children of tender age outside the
+different theatres trying to sell newspapers at
+11 o'clock at night. The percentage of cases
+in which this work is necessary is very small;
+it simply means that a little more money is
+spent in the public houses."<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156" href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> The report of
+this committee contains a great mass of testimony
+from persons in many walks of life, nearly
+all of whom declared that street trading by
+children is bad and should be regulated. They
+differentiated between the hawking of articles
+in the streets and their delivery for employers,
+and one of the witnesses from Liverpool testi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>fied
+that the local regulation of street trading
+by children in that city did not apply to bootblacks
+nor to boys who carried parcels because
+they were not selling anything.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157" href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1902, an interdepartmental committee was
+appointed to study the subject in Ireland, and in
+its report stated: "The principal dangers to
+which they [street traders] are exposed are those
+arising from late hours in the streets, truancy,
+insufficient clothing, entering licensed premises
+to find sale for their goods, obstructing, annoying
+or importuning passengers, begging, fighting
+with other children, playing football or other
+games in the streets, using bad language, playing
+pitch and toss (a gambling game), smoking&mdash;all
+of which are matters of common observation,
+and have been testified to by many
+of the witnesses. In our opinion these evils
+can be lessened, if not entirely removed, by the
+simple system of regulation, licenses and badges."<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158" href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p>
+
+<p>The direct result of the reports of these
+committees was the passage by Parliament of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+the Employment of Children Act, 1903. Section
+3 of this act provides, first, that no child under
+eleven years shall engage in street trading;
+second, no child under fourteen years shall be
+employed between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>; third,
+no factory or workshop half-timer shall be
+employed in any other occupation; fourth,
+no child under fourteen years shall handle heavy
+weights likely to result in injury; fifth, no
+child under fourteen years shall engage in any
+injurious employment. Sections 1 and 2 of
+this act give to local authorities power to make
+by-laws regulating the employment of children.
+The provisions of Section 2 concerning street
+trading are in substance as follows: any local
+authority may make by-laws with respect to
+street trading by persons under the age of sixteen
+years and may prohibit such street trading
+subject to age, sex or the holding of a license;
+may regulate the conditions on which such
+licenses may be granted and revoked; may
+determine the days and hours during which
+and the places at which such street trading
+may be carried on; may require such street
+traders to wear badges and may regulate generally
+the conduct of such street traders; pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>vided
+that the right to trade shall not be made
+subject to any conditions having reference to the
+poverty or general bad character of the person
+applying for this right, and provided also that
+the local authority shall have special regard to
+the desirability of preventing the employment
+of girls under sixteen years in streets and public
+places.</p>
+
+<p>Section 2 b of the Prevention of Cruelty to
+Children Act, 1904, imposes a penalty upon
+<i>adults</i> who cause, procure or allow boys under
+fourteen or girls under sixteen to trade in the
+streets between 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span></p>
+
+<p>An official report made in 1907 gives the
+names of all counties, boroughs and urban
+districts in Great Britain which had up to that
+time made by-laws to regulate street trading
+by children. In England and Wales, 2 counties,
+60 cities and boroughs and 4 urban districts
+had done so; in Scotland, 3 burghs and the
+school board districts of 11 burghs and 12
+parishes; and in Ireland, 4 cities and boroughs
+and 1 urban district had made such by-laws.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159" href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By 1910, out of 74 county boroughs in England
+and Wales, not less than 50 had made street-trading
+by-laws, and these included most of the
+larger places; but out of 191 smaller boroughs
+and smaller urban districts only 41 had done so;
+while among 62 administrative counties only 3
+had made by-laws. In addition to these, 4
+county boroughs and 2 of the smaller boroughs
+had made street-trading by-laws under local
+acts.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland, of the 33 county councils empowered
+to make by-laws, not one had done so
+by 1910; while of 56 burghs only 3 had passed
+by-laws; of 979 school boards only 27 had made
+such regulations. Edinburgh passed by-laws
+under a private act.</p>
+
+<p>In Ireland, out of 33 county councils not one
+had made by-laws; of the 43 councils of urban
+districts with a population of over 5000, only 5
+had passed regulations.</p>
+
+<p>In 1909 the Secretary of State for the Home
+Department appointed a departmental committee
+to inquire into the operation of the
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, and to
+consider whether any and what further legislative
+regulation or restriction was required in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+respect of street trading and other employments
+dealt with in that act. This committee confined
+its report, which was submitted in 1910,
+to the subject of street trading; and its great
+contribution to the cause of child welfare is
+its recommendation that street trading should
+be <i>prohibited</i> rather than regulated. The statute
+of 1903 prohibits all work by children under
+the age of eleven years, and its restrictions
+on street employment by children above that
+limit, out of school hours, are prohibitions of
+<i>night</i> work after nine o'clock, consequently a
+child above the age of eleven years who engages
+in street trading is restrained, during the day,
+only by such by-laws as may have been adopted
+by the local authority. The committee found
+that even in communities where by-laws had
+been adopted they were not always observed,
+and also that where no by-laws had been passed
+the minimum statutory restrictions were frequently
+ignored. The report declared that:
+"A considerable amount of street trading is
+still done by children under eleven. Special
+censuses taken in Edinburgh revealed the fact
+that children as young as seven were trading in
+the streets. The great bulk of the evidence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+received in and from Scotland points to the
+conclusion that the Act [of 1903] has been almost
+a dead-letter in that country.... Infringements
+of the Act in Ireland are no less common.
+In Waterford newspapers are sold by children
+of nine years old up to 11 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and later."<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160" href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>
+The issuance of licenses and badges was denounced
+as giving the stamp of official approval
+to what is recognized as an evil, the adoption
+of by-laws resulting merely in a partial improvement
+of conditions even when rigorously enforced.</p>
+
+<p>After having devoted several months to the
+inquiry, during which evidence was gathered
+in London, Manchester, Edinburgh, Glasgow,
+Dublin, Belfast, Birmingham and Liverpool
+in addition to receiving the testimony of witnesses
+from Sheffield, Nottingham, Bolton
+and other centers, the committee made this
+very noteworthy and significant declaration:
+"We have come to the conclusion ... that
+the effect of street trading upon the character
+of those who engage in it is only too frequently
+disastrous. The youthful street trader is ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>posed
+to many of the worst of moral risks;
+he associates with, and acquires the habits of,
+the frequenters of the kerbstone and the gutter.
+If a match seller, he is likely to become a beggar&mdash;if
+a newspaper seller, a gambler; the evidence
+before us was extraordinarily strong as to the
+extent to which begging prevails among the boy
+vendors of evening papers. There was an
+almost equally strong body of testimony to
+the effect that, at any rate in crowded centres
+of population, street trading tends to produce
+a dislike or disability for more regular employment;
+the child finds that for a few years money
+is easily earned without discipline or special
+skill; and the occupation is one which sharpens
+the wits without developing the intelligence.
+It leads to nothing practically, and in no way
+helps him to a future career. There can be no
+doubt that large numbers of those who were
+once street traders drift into vagrancy and crime....
+Much evidence was given to the effect
+that the practice of street trading, even though
+only carried on in the intervals of school attendance,
+tends to produce a restless disposition,
+and a dislike of restraint which makes children
+unwilling to settle down to any regular employ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>ment.
+So far as girls are concerned, there
+must be added to the above evils an unquestionable
+danger to morals in the narrower sense.
+The evidence presented to us on this point
+was unanimous and most emphatic. Again and
+again persons specially qualified to speak, assured
+us that, when a girl took up street trading, she
+almost invariably was taking a first step toward
+a life of immorality. The statement that the
+temptations are great, and the children practically
+defenseless, needs no amplification. An
+occupation entailing such perils is indisputably
+unfit for girls."<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161" href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a></p>
+
+<p>The need for <i>prohibition</i> of street trading was
+realized by this committee, the change being
+urged in the following epoch-making statement:
+"After carefully considering the operation of
+the by-laws adopted since 1903, and comparing
+the present state of affairs with that existing
+before the passing of the act, we have come
+to the conclusion that the difficulties of the
+situation cannot be said to have been met, or
+any substantial contribution to a solution of
+the problem made, by the existing law and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+machinery set up for its enforcement. Regulation,
+however well organized and complete,
+will not turn a wasteful and uneconomic use
+of the energies of children into a system which
+is beneficial to the community. Consequently
+we feel that we have no choice but to recommend
+the complete statutory prohibition of street trading
+either by boys or by girls up to a specific
+age. In the case of boys we feel that it would
+be wise to name an age which would render it
+likely that they would have had full opportunities
+of taking to regular work before they
+could legally trade in the streets. We think
+the most suitable age would be seventeen, which
+gives an interval of three or four years after
+the ordinary time of leaving an elementary
+school.... So far as girls are concerned, we
+feel that the arguments in favor of prohibiting
+trading increase rather than diminish in force
+as the age of the traders advances. The entire
+body of testimony laid before us has forced upon
+us the conclusion that street trading by girls is
+entirely indefensible, and that no system of
+regulation is sufficient to rid the employment
+of its risks and objections. On the other hand,
+we have not been able to discover any trace of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+hardship having resulted in any of those towns
+in which by-laws have prohibited trading by
+girls, or have restricted the ages during which
+trading is permitted. We think that the age of
+prohibition should be higher for girls than for
+boys, and, while we feel that it should, in any
+event, not be less than eighteen, we should be
+willing to see it fixed as high as twenty-one."<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162" href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p>
+
+<p>As to the administration of the law, the committee
+declared that this should be delivered
+into the hands of the education authorities
+who could charge the regular truant officers with
+the work of enforcement or employ special
+officers for the purpose. The placing of responsibility
+upon the parents of child offenders was
+indorsed, but the committee criticised administrators
+because of the small penalties imposed
+as fines, the amounts being easily covered by
+the earnings of the traders, and hence an increase
+of the maximum fine was recommended.</p>
+
+<p>A minority report was submitted by four
+members of this committee who declined to
+support the recommendation of the majority
+that street trading should be immediately and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+universally prohibited in the case of boys up
+to the age of seventeen. These members held
+that the cause of street trading should first
+be removed by organizing employment bureaus
+for children, by giving the children the benefit
+of vocational direction, and by promoting
+industrial education for boys both while attending
+the elementary schools and after.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Liverpool</h3>
+
+<p>As to local efforts to regulate the street-trading
+evil, the first steps were taken in Liverpool.
+In this city the condition of child street
+traders was particularly bad; half of them were
+girls, and the stock in trade was usually newspapers
+and matches&mdash;the children were dirty,
+ragged and running the streets at all hours of
+the night, the apparent trade in newspapers
+and other articles being frequently used to
+cover up much worse things; in fact, many of
+the girls were practically prostitutes. Quite
+a number of these children were nothing more
+or less than beggars, and deliberately appeared
+in ragged clothing for the purpose of exciting
+sympathy. A local association undertook to
+supply them with clothing, but many refused<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+this aid "because it would interfere with their
+trade." Commenting on similar practices
+among the street traders of Dublin, Sir Lambert
+H. Ormsby, M.D., said in 1904: "They sell
+other things besides ... matches principally.
+Of course the selling of matches is merely a
+means of evading being taken up by the police
+for begging. The matches are only humbug;
+they do not want to sell them ... they do it
+for begging purposes."<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163" href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> In 1897 the Liverpool
+Watch Committee appointed a subcommittee
+to consider the question of children trading in
+streets, and this subcommittee reported that:
+"The practice is attended, first, with injury
+to the health of the children; second, with
+interference with the education of such as are
+of school age; third, with danger to the moral
+welfare of the children inasmuch as the practice
+frequently leads to street gambling, begging,
+sleeping out and other undesirable practices,
+and in some cases to crime." They were of
+opinion&mdash;in which the inspector of reformatories
+concurred&mdash;that much of the money earned
+by the children went to indulge the vicious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+and intemperate propensities of parents and
+guardians.</p>
+
+<p>By the Liverpool Corporation Act, 1898,
+Parliament gave the city power to regulate
+street trading by children, and accordingly
+the following provisions were made by the city
+council: (1) no licenses to any child under eleven;
+(2) boys eleven to thirteen and girls eleven
+to fifteen inclusive, to be licensed if not mentally
+or physically deficient, with consent of
+parent or guardian; (3) licenses good one year;
+(4) badges also to be issued; (5) no charge for
+license or badge; (6) licenses may be revoked
+by Watch Committee for cause; (7) no licensed
+child to trade after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, nor unless decently
+clothed, nor without badge, nor in streets
+during school hours unless exempted from school
+attendance, and no licensed child may alter
+or dispose of badge, or enter public houses to
+trade, or importune passengers. These regulations
+took effect May 31, 1899, and marked the
+formal beginning of the movement against
+street trading by children.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901 the Liverpool subcommittee reported
+that it was "of opinion that the application of
+the powers conferred by the Act has had the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+effect of greatly reducing the number of children
+trading in the streets, especially during school
+hours and late in the evenings, and of improving
+the condition, appearance, and behaviour of
+those children who still engage in street trading."
+This subcommittee recommended raising the
+boys' age limit for licenses from fourteen to
+sixteen years, and was inclined to advise the total
+prohibition of street trading by girls.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164" href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">London</h3>
+
+<p>Under the powers conferred on local authorities
+by the Employment of Children Act
+1903, the London County Council framed in
+February, 1905, a set of by-laws, the provisions
+of which seemed quite innocuous. Nevertheless
+a considerable outcry was raised by persons
+whom they would affect, and thereupon the
+Secretary of State withheld his confirmation
+and authorized Mr. Chester Jones to hold an
+inquiry at which complaints could be heard as
+well as arguments in favor of the by-laws. This
+inquiry was held in June and July of 1905,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+and schoolmasters, attendance officers, police
+inspectors, news agents and others testified.
+Mr. Jones held that it was his duty "to endeavour
+to discover where the line should be drawn, and
+that it was not open to argument either that
+child labour should entirely be prohibited or
+that it should be unregulated."<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165" href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a></p>
+
+<p>In his report Mr. Jones took up each by-law
+separately and discussed it, recommending that
+it be either confirmed or rejected in accordance
+with his findings. He also drafted a set of
+by-laws and submitted them with the recommendation
+that they be adopted instead of the
+ones originally passed by the London County
+Council. Referring to these, he says: "An
+important respect in which my suggested by-laws
+differ from the County Council by-laws is in
+differentiating between employment in connection
+with street stalls and other forms of street
+trading. It seemed to be the general opinion
+[of witnesses] that the former employment,
+being under the supervision of some adult
+person, probably the parent, is not so harmful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+in its effects on the morals of the child as the
+latter, and it must be remembered that the
+main objection to street trading was on the
+ground rather of its affecting the morality than
+the health and education of the children."<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166" href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a>
+The regulations drafted by Mr. Jones were not
+even so drastic as those proposed by the London
+County Council, and in recommending milder
+restrictions Mr. Jones says: "A set of by-laws
+should not err upon the side of overstringency,
+nor should they be in advance of public opinion;
+the first, because taking a step more or less in
+the dark might cause hardships impossible to
+avoid, and the second, because any by-laws of
+this sort, being most difficult of enforcement,
+will certainly be evaded unless backed up by
+the weight of public opinion."<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167" href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p>
+
+<p>The County Council, however, did not follow
+Mr. Jones's recommendations in their entirety,
+but adopted a more stringent set of by-laws
+which were put in force in October, 1906.
+In December, 1909, the County Council again
+amended the by-laws, and an inquiry relative to
+these changes was held by Mr. Stanley Owen
+Buckmaster in October, 1910. Mr. Buckmaster<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+recommended a number of changes of minor
+importance which were adopted by the Council,
+and accordingly the new by-laws were adopted
+and took effect on June 3, 1911. This set of
+by-laws will be found in the Appendix, page <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.
+The most significant feature which they present
+is the raising of the age limit for boys to fourteen
+years and for girls to sixteen years without
+exemption. The old by-laws prohibited street
+trading by children under sixteen years between
+the hours of 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span>, and this provision
+was retained in the new by-laws, applying, however,
+only to boys, inasmuch as girls under that
+age are prohibited from trading in the streets
+at any time. These London by-laws on street
+trading are identical with the provisions of the
+most advanced American child labor laws on
+factory employment, and consequently they
+blaze the way for the application of these provisions
+in the United States to street trading as
+well as to employment in factories, mills and
+mines.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Manchester</h3>
+
+<p>Although the British departmental committee
+of 1910 was not favorably impressed by the
+results of regulation as a cure for the evils of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+street trading, nevertheless it gave due credit
+to the city of Manchester for what had been
+accomplished there under the license system.
+Referring to this city, the report says: "In
+Manchester such good results as can be arrived
+at by the method of regulation were, perhaps,
+more apparent than anywhere else. In that
+city the entire evidence testified to the fact that
+the regulation of street trading is very highly
+organized; a special staff of selected, plain-clothes
+officers, giving their whole time to the
+work, knowing the traders personally, visiting
+the homes, advising the parents, clothing the
+children and apparently exerting a most beneficial
+influence. All that can be done through
+the instrument of regulation seems to be done
+there, the various authorities working together
+to that end."<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168" href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p>
+
+<p>An English writer says that regulation in
+Manchester "has greatly improved the conditions
+of the newspaper boys and others who earned
+their living by hawking goods in the streets.
+It is something to the good at any rate that a
+boy should be compelled to be decently dressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+and so avoid the obvious temptation of appealing
+to the sympathies of the public by the
+picturesque raggedness of his clothing. At the
+same time one cannot help feeling that halfway
+legislation of this sort is only playing with the
+problem and that the only really satisfactory
+law would be one which prohibited street trading
+by children altogether."<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169" href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">New South Wales</h3>
+
+<p>The British Colony of New South Wales has
+adopted some mild restrictions under the Employment
+of Children Act, 1903, and the president
+of the State Children Relief Board for New
+South Wales states in his report for the year
+ending April 5, 1910, that "the Board is not
+favorably impressed with the principle of street
+trading by juveniles, realizing that even under
+the most careful administration children, when
+once licensed to engage in street trading, are
+exposed to great temptations."</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Canada</h3>
+
+<p>The province of Manitoba, Canada, forbids
+children under twelve years from trading in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+streets at any time; licenses are issued to boys
+twelve to sixteen years old, who are not allowed
+to sell after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> Some boys have been denied
+licenses because of their poor school record,
+others because of lack of proof as to age, others
+on account of not being physically qualified,
+and still others because there was no need
+for their earning money in this way. The
+licensed boys are kept under supervision; their
+attendance at school is watched; and if they
+persist in selling after 9 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span> or disobey instructions,
+their licenses are revoked.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170" href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">Germany</h3>
+
+<p>The Industrial Code of Germany prohibits
+children under fourteen years from offering
+goods for sale on public roads, streets or places,
+and peddling them from house to house. In
+localities in which such sale or peddling is
+customary, the local police authorities may
+permit it for certain periods of time not exceeding
+a total of four weeks in any calendar year.
+"Under this provision there was considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+street trading, especially in the larger cities.
+In Berlin, for instance, during the weeks preceding
+Christmas, numerous children under fourteen
+were thus employed. Protests against the
+practice were made by the Consumers' League
+and similar organizations, and resulted in the
+passage of a police regulation, for its restriction;
+and in 1909 a further step was taken by providing
+that no exceptions of this sort be thereafter
+permitted, so that now the employment of
+children under fourteen years of age in street
+trading is absolutely forbidden in Berlin."<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171" href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Industrial Code forbids children under
+twelve years to deliver goods or perform other
+errands except for their own parents. Children
+over twelve years may so engage for not more
+than three hours daily between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>,
+but not before morning school nor during the
+noon recess nor until one hour after school has
+closed in the afternoon; on Sundays and holidays
+such children may do this work only for
+two hours between 8 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.M.</span> and 1 <span class="smcap lowercase">P.M.</span>, but not
+during the principal church service or the
+half hour preceding it. Such children must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+first obtain the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Arbeitskarte</i></span> from the local police
+authority, which is issued upon request of the
+child's legal representative. Employers must
+notify the police authority in advance of the
+employment of such children.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="italic">France</h3>
+
+<p>The labor of children in France is regulated
+by the law of November 2, 1892, as amended
+by the act of March 30, 1900. This law
+applies to factories, workshops, mines and
+quarries, exempting home industries, agricultural
+work and purely mercantile establishments.<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172" href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a>
+The work of children in city streets is not
+even mentioned. New legislation has recently
+been proposed to regulate the employment of
+minors under 18 years of age and of women in
+the sale of merchandise from stands and tables
+on sidewalks outside of bazaars and large stores.
+According to its provisions, the work of such
+persons would be prohibited for more than two
+hours at a time and for more than six hours a
+day, while seats and heating facilities would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+have to be supplied the same as for employees
+inside the large establishments.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173" href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Paris, newspapers are sold almost exclusively
+at kiosks on street corners, presided over
+by middle-aged women.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CONCLUSION" id="CONCLUSION"></a>CONCLUSION</h2>
+
+
+<p>Many years ago Macaulay declared, "Intense
+labor, beginning too early in life, continued too
+long every day, stunting the growth of the mind,
+leaving no time for healthful exercise, no time
+for intellectual culture, must impair all those
+high qualities that have made our country great.
+Your overworked boys will become a feeble and
+ignoble race of men, the parents of a more feeble
+progeny; nor will it be long before the deterioration
+of the laborer will injuriously affect those
+very interests to which his physical and moral
+interests have been sacrificed. If ever we are
+forced to yield the foremost place among commercial
+nations, we shall yield it to some people
+preëminently vigorous in body and in mind."
+To-day these words seem to us a veritable prophecy&mdash;but
+we must not forget that they apply
+to America no less than to England. If our
+civilization is to continue and to improve with
+time, every child must have a proper opportunity
+to grow under conditions as nearly normal as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+possible; we must secure to the children their
+birthright&mdash;the right to play and to dream, the
+right to healthful sleep, the right to education
+and training, the right to grow into manhood
+and into womanhood with cleanness and
+strength both of body and of mind, the right of
+a chance to become useful citizens of the future.
+Eternal vigilance is the price of protection for
+childhood, and while "Women and children first"
+is a rigid law of the sea, "Children first" is
+the fundamental law both of Nature and civilization.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</a></h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Wisconsin Statutes, Section 1728 p., Laws of 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment
+of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Minutes
+of Evidence, Q. 71. Cf. also Great Britain&mdash;Employment
+of Children Act, 1903, Section 13.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>The Newsboy</i>, Pittsburgh, April, 1909.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Great Britain&mdash;Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, pp. 18, 19.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia,"
+<i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> "The Child in the City," Handbook of Chicago Child
+Welfare Exhibit, 1911, p. 25.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> "A Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City
+Streets," a folder issued by Chicago Board of Education and
+a committee representing local organizations, 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee, p. 8.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
+Work," 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>The Survey</i>, April 22, 1911, p. 138.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England)," edited by
+E. J. Urwick, 1904, p. 296.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment
+of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, Vol. II, Population,
+Part II, p. 506.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, Special Reports,
+Occupations, 1904, pp. xxiv, cxxxiii.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. xxiii, cxxxiii.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Twelfth Census of United States, 1900, Vol. VII, p. cxxv.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Instructions to Enumerators, Thirteenth Census of
+the United States, pp. 32-34.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> These tables were copied from charts displayed at the
+Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, May, 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> "The Child in the City," Handbook of the Child Welfare
+Exhibit, Chicago, May 11-25, 1911, p. 25.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 25.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission
+of Chicago, 1911, pp. 241-242.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
+Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+representing local organizations, 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
+Work," 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the
+Greek Padrone System in the United States, 1911, p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> A more detailed presentation of this matter will be found
+in <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapter IV</a>.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Immigration Commission's Report, p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House
+of Commons Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 17.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28" href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 21.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29" href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 17.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30" href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House
+of Commons Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 25.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31" href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 8.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32" href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33" href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 10.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34" href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 18.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35" href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36" href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, p. 178.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37" href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Report of President of State Children Relief Board of
+New South Wales for year ending April 5, 1910, pp. 39-40.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38" href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Vierteljahrshefte des Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amts</span>,
+1900, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Heft</span> III, p. 97. See also Great Britain, Report of
+Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of School
+Children, 1901, App. 3, p. 294.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39" href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 84.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40" href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 56.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41" href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 63.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42" href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 65.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43" href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>The Hustler</i>, organ of Boston Newsboys' Club, February,
+1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44" href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Report of the Newsboys' Home Association of Washington,
+D.C., 1863-1864, p. 7.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45" href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys
+Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by E. T. Campagnac
+and C. E. B. Russell; Great Britain, Report of
+Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of School
+Children, 1901, App. 45, pp. 456-457.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46" href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Handbook of New York Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911,
+p. 33.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47" href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," <i>The Newsboy</i>, leaflet of New
+York Child Labor Committee, 1907.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48" href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Report of Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington,
+D.C., 1889, p. 10.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49" href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys
+Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac
+and Russell, 1901.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50" href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Child Labor at the National Capital, an address delivered
+in Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of National
+Child Labor Committee.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51" href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Mary E. McDowell, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor
+Committee, pp. 6-7.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52" href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago" by the Vice Commission of
+Chicago, 1911, p. 242.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53" href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Miss Todd, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee,
+p. 12.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54" href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> National Child Labor Committee, Pamphlet 114, p. 12.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55" href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken Before
+Departmental Committee on Employment of Children Act,
+1903, 1910, Q. 9724.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56" href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 46.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57" href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58" href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 12.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59" href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," <i>The Newsboy</i>, leaflet of
+New York Child Labor Committee, 1907.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60" href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> "Children in American Street Trades," 1905, Pamphlet 14
+of National Child Labor Committee.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61" href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> <i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62" href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 23.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63" href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken before Departmental
+Committee on Employment of Children Act,
+1903, 1910, Q. 1837 <i>et seq.</i>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64" href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65" href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> George A. Hall, "The Newsboy," in Proceedings of
+Seventh Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
+1911, p. 102.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66" href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> School Document, No. 14, 1910, Boston Public Schools,
+pp. 42-44.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67" href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Report of New York-New Jersey Committee of the
+North American Civic League for Immigrants, December,
+1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68" href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the
+Greek Padrone System in United States, 1911, p. 10.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69" href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Abstract of Report on Greek Padrone System in United
+States, by Immigration Commission, 1911, p. 22.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70" href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> <i>Survey</i>, Vol. XXVI, p. 591.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71" href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> School Document, No. 10, 1910, Boston Public Schools,
+p. 133.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72" href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of
+Chicago, 1911, p. 242.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73" href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> "Child Labor at the National Capital," an address delivered
+in Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of
+National Child Labor Committee.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74" href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission
+of Chicago, 1911, p. 244.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75" href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Bulletin 69 of Bureau of Census, "Child Labor in the
+United States," 1907, p. 170.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76" href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," p. 179.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77" href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 10,440.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78" href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy
+Life in Our Cities," edited by E. J. Urwick (England), 1904,
+p. 121.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79" href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities" (England),
+1904, p. 305.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80" href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 15.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81" href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Victor S. Clark, "Women and Child Wage Earners in
+Great Britain," Bulletin 80, United States Bureau of Labor,
+p. 28.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82" href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> "Newsboy Life&mdash;What Superintendents of Reformatories
+and Others think about its Effects," Leaflet No. 32 of National
+Child Labor Committee, 1910.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83" href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> "Buffalo Child Labor Problems," folder issued by New
+York Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 3.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84" href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
+Work," 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85" href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia,"
+<i>Charities and The Commons</i>, February 2, 1906.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86" href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> John Spargo, "Bitter Cry of the Children," 1906, p. 184.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87" href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> James L. Fieser, "Causes of Truancy," Indiana Bulletin
+of Charities and Correction, June, 1910, p. 227.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88" href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile
+Court," Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee, 1909.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89" href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910,
+p. 12.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90" href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Mrs. Louise B. More, "Wage-Earners' Budgets," 1907,
+p. 148.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91" href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy
+Life in Our Cities (England)," edited by E. J. Urwick, 1904,
+p. 131.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92" href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 135.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93" href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities," 1904,
+p. 307.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94" href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 309.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95" href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, pp.
+179-180.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96" href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Constance Smith, Report on the Employment of Children
+in the United Kingdom, 1909, p. 11.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97" href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Margaret Alden, M.D., "Child Life and Labour," 1908,
+p. 118.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98" href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. I, paragraph 68.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99" href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Vol. II, Q. 2453.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100" href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Vol. II, Q. 2479.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101" href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence taken before Departmental
+Committee on Employment of Children Act,
+1903, 1910, Q. 9503 <i>et seq.</i>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102" href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 39, p. 418.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103" href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Copied from Charts in Child Labor Exhibit at National
+Conference of Charities and Correction, St. Louis, May, 1910.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104" href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 11.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105" href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, p. 12.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106" href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their
+Work," 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107" href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> "Child Labor on the Street," leaflet of New York Child
+Labor Committee, <i>The Newsboy</i>, 1907.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108" href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys
+Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac
+and Russell, 1901.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109" href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment
+of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Q. 3862.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110" href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Report of the Board of Education of the Toledo City
+School District, 1910-1911, p. 141.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111" href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112" href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 39.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113" href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 42.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114" href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 44.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115" href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 59.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116" href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 62.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117" href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 69.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118" href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 71.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119" href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 73.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120" href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 84.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121" href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 86.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122" href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 87.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123" href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 90.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124" href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 91.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125" href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 92.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126" href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 105.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127" href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> Includes 17 in bowling alleys and pool rooms and 23 in
+theaters and other places of amusement.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128" href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Includes 2 in boarding houses, 26 home workers (precise
+character of work not specified), 10 in restaurants, and 12 in
+private families.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129" href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Includes 26 bootblacks and 320 newsboys.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130" href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 106.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131" href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. 106-107.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132" href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage
+Earners in the United States, Senate Document No. 645,
+61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 108.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133" href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, pp. 116-117.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134" href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 134.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135" href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> Davis Wasgatt Clark, "American Child and Moloch of
+To-day," 1907, p. 40.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136" href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> George B. Mangold, "Child Problems," 1910, p. 232.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137" href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile
+Court," Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee,
+1909.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138" href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child
+Wage Earners in the United States, 1911, p. 22.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139" href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England),"
+1904, p. 304.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140" href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Bulletin 81, United States Bureau of Labor, p. 416.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141" href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+the Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910,
+p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142" href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
+Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+representing local organizations, 1911.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143" href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Report on Bylaws made by London County Council
+under Employment of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones,
+1906, pp. 24-27.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144" href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 33, p. 403.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145" href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment
+of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146" href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> "Street Trades," in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting
+of National Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 108.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147" href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools,
+pp. 34-35.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148" href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Committee on Work and Wages, Handbook of New
+York Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911, p. 33.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149" href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools,
+p. 36.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150" href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House
+of Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, p. 14.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151" href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House
+of Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, pp. 26-27.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152" href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153" href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, pp. 20-21.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154" href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 24.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155" href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156" href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, Q. 1123.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157" href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, Q. 7203.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158" href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on the Employment of Children during School Age in Ireland,
+1902, p. 6.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159" href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> Great Britain, Return of Local Authorities which have
+made By-laws under the Employment of Children Act,
+1903, 1907.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160" href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 7.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161" href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 11.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162" href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163" href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 12757-12759.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164" href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee
+on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 37, pp. 415-416.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165" href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Report on the By-laws made by the London County
+Council under the Employment of Children Act, 1903, by
+Chester Jones, 1906, p. 5.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166" href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 16.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167" href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, p. 15.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168" href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on
+Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 9.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169" href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of
+Boy Life in our Cities," 1904, p. 131.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170" href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> "Citizens in the Making," Annual Report of Superintendent
+of Neglected Children for Province of Manitoba,
+Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171" href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> C. W. A. Veditz, "Child Labor Legislation in Europe," in
+Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 242.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172" href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Henry Ferrette, "<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Manuel de législation industrielle</span>,"
+1909, p. 149.
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+ <a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173" href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 14th Year, No.
+106, p. 566.
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></h2>
+
+
+<h3>BOOKS</h3>
+
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+<span class="smcap">Adams, Myron E.</span>, <i>Children in American Street
+Trades</i>, in Proceedings of First Annual Meeting
+of National Child Labor Committee, 1905, pp.
+25-46.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; <i>Municipal Regulations of Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings
+of National Conference of Charities and
+Correction, 1904, Vol. XXXI, pp. 294-300.
+</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Alden, Margaret</span>, <i>Child Life and Labour</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Britton, James A.</span>, <i>Child Labor and the Juvenile
+Court</i>, in Proceedings of Fifth Annual Meeting of
+National Child Labor Committee, 1909, p. 111.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Brown, Emma E.</span>, <i>Child Toilers of Boston Streets</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Buffalo Child Labor Problems</i>, folder issued by
+New York Child Labor Committee, 1911.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Campagnac and Russell</span>, <i>Education, Earnings and
+Social Condition of Boys Engaged in Street
+Trading in Manchester</i>, Board of Education
+Special Reports on Educational Subjects, 1902,
+Vol. VIII, pp. 653-670.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor in Germany Outside of Factories</i>, in
+Report of United States Commissioner of Education,
+1900-1901, Vol. I, pp. 54-80.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor on the Street&mdash;The Newsboy</i>, leaflet
+of New York Child Labor Committee, 1907.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Child Labor in the United States</i>, Bulletin 69 of
+Bureau of Census, 1907.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clark, Davis W.</span>, <i>American Child and Moloch of
+To-day</i>, 1907, p. 40.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clark, Victor S.</span>, <i>Woman and Child Wage Earners
+in Great Britain</i>, in Bulletin 80 of United States
+Bureau of Labor, January, 1909.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Cloete, J. G.</span>, <i>The Boy and his Work</i>, in <i>Studies of
+Boy Life in Our Cities</i>, edited by E. J. Urwick,
+1904, pp. 129-133.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Clopper, Edward N.</span>, <i>Children on the Streets of
+Cincinnati</i>, in Proceedings of Fourth Annual
+Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
+1908, pp. 113-123.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; <i>Child Labor in Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings of
+Sixth Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
+Committee, 1910, pp. 137-144.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Conant, Richard K.</span>, <i>Street Trades and Reformatories</i>,
+in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting
+of National Child Labor Committee, 1911,
+pp. 105-107.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Employment of Children Act</i>, 1903, Great Britain,
+in J. N. Larned's <i>History for Ready Reference</i>,
+1910, Vol. VII, p. 87.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Davis, Philip</span>, <i>Child Life on the Street</i>, National
+Conference of Charities and Correction, 1909.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Fieser, James L.</span>, <i>Causes of Truancy</i>, in Indiana
+Bulletin of Charities and Correction, June,
+1910, p. 227.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Fleisher, Alexander</span>, <i>The Newsboys of Milwaukee</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>in Fifteenth Biennial Report, Part III, of Wisconsin
+Bureau of Labor, 1911-1912, pp. 61-96.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Gibbs, S. P.</span>, <i>Problem of Boy Work</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Great Britain</span>, Elementary Schools (Children Working
+for Wages), Parliament Sessional Papers
+1899, Vol. 75.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+Employment of School Children, 1901.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+Employment of Children during School Age in
+Ireland, 1902.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+Physical Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 2453-2479,
+10,440, 12,757.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Partial
+Exemption from School Attendance.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Departmental Committee on Employment
+of Children Act, 1903, 1910.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report on By-laws made by London County
+Council under Employment of Children Act,
+1903, by Chester Jones, 1906.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; Report of Education Committee of London
+County Council, March 21, 1911, pp. 690-696.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Report of President of State Children Relief Board
+of New South Wales for year ending April 5,
+1910, pp. 39-40.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Citizens in the Making, Annual Report of Superintendent
+of Neglected Children for Province
+of Manitoba, Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Greek Padrone System in United States</i>, Abstract
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>of Immigration Commission's Report on,
+1911.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Gunckel, J. E.</span>, <i>Boyville</i>, 1905.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Hall, George A.</span>, <i>The Newsboy</i>, in Proceedings of
+Seventh Annual Meeting of National Child
+Labor Committee, 1911, pp. 100-102.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Henderson, Charles R.</span>, <i>Street Trading of Children</i>,
+in his <i>Preventive Agencies and Methods</i>, 1910,
+Vol. III, pp. 97-100.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment</i>,
+Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of
+Woman and Child Wage Earners in United
+States, Senate Document 645, 61st Congress, 2d
+Session.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Kelley, Florence</span>, <i>Children in Street Trades</i> and
+<i>Telegraph and Messenger Boys</i>, in her <i>Some
+Ethical Gains through Legislation</i>, 1905, pp.
+11-26.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">&mdash;&mdash; <i>Street Trades</i>, in Proceedings of Seventh Annual
+Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
+1911, pp. 108-110.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Mangold, George B.</span>, <i>Child Problems</i>, 1910, p. 232.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Neill, Charles P.</span>, <i>Child Labor at the National
+Capital</i>, in Proceedings of Second Annual Meeting
+of National Child Labor Committee, 1905,
+pp. 17-20.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>New York Child Welfare Exhibit, Handbook of</i>,
+1911, p. 33.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboys' Home Association of Washington, D.C.,
+Report of</i>, 1863-1864.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboy Law</i>, in Handbook of Child Labor Legislation,
+1908, National Consumers' League,
+p. 63.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington,
+D.C.</i>, 1889.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Newsboy Life&mdash;What Superintendents of Reformatories
+and Others Think about its Effects</i>, Leaflet
+32 of National Child Labor Committee, 1910.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">North American Civic League for Immigrants,
+Report of New York-New Jersey Committee,
+December, 1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Peacock, Robert</span>, <i>Employment of Children with
+Special Reference to Street Trading</i>, in Proceedings
+of Third International Congress for Welfare
+and Protection of Children, 1902, pp. 191-202.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City
+Streets</i>, a folder issued by Chicago Board of
+Education and a committee representing local
+organizations, 1911.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Problems of Street Trading</i>, in Proceedings of Fifth
+Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee,
+1909, pp. 230-240.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>Saving the Barren Years</i>, in The Child in the
+City, Handbook of Chicago Child Welfare
+Exhibit, 1911, pp. 25-27.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 14, 1910, Boston Public
+Schools, pp. 41-44.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 10, 1910, Boston Public
+Schools, pp. 132-138.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public
+Schools, pp. 34-37.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Scott, Leroy</span>, <i>The Voice of the Street</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Sherard, Robert H.</span>, <i>Child Slaves of Britain</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Smith, Constance</span>, <i>Report on Employment of Children
+in United Kingdom</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><i>The Social Evil in Chicago</i>, Report of Chicago Vice
+Commission, 1911, pp. 241-245.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Spargo, John</span>, <i>Street Trades</i> in his <i>Bitter Cry of the
+Children</i>, 1906, pp. 184-188, 258-259.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Stelzle, Charles</span>, <i>The Boy of the Street</i>, New York,
+1904, pp. 7, 41.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Urwick, E. J.</span>, editor of <i>Studies of Boy Life in Our
+Cities</i> (England), 1904.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Veditz, C. W. A.</span>, <i>Child Labor Legislation in Europe</i>,
+Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor,
+July, 1910.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Watson, Elizabeth C.</span>, <i>New York Newsboys and
+their Work</i>, 1911.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Whitin, E. S.</span>, <i>Child Labor: Street Trades</i>, in his
+<i>Factory Legislation in Maine</i>, 1908, pp. 137-138.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Williams, M.</span>, <i>The Street Boy: Who He is and
+What to do with Him</i>, National Conference of
+Charities and Correction, 1903.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography"><span class="smcap">Williamson, E. E.</span>, <i>The Street Arab</i>, in Proceedings
+of National Conference of Charities and Correction,
+1898, Vol. XXV, pp. 358-361.</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h3>MAGAZINE ARTICLES</h3>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Child Labor, by Florence Kelley, <i>Twentieth Century</i>,
+1911, Vol. V, pp. 30-34.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Child Laborers of the Street&mdash;The New York
+Bills, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp.
+205-206.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Child Labor and the Night Messenger Service, by
+Owen R. Lovejoy, <i>The Survey</i>, Vol. XXIV, pp.
+311-317.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Child Street Trades in London, <i>Charities and Commons</i>,
+1903, Vol. X, pp. 149-150.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Children as Wage Earners&mdash;Street Sellers, <i>Fortnightly
+Review</i>, 1903, Vol. LXXIX, pp. 921-922.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Committee on Wage-earning Children&mdash;Third
+Annual Report, <i>Economic Review</i>, 1904, Vol.
+XIV, pp. 208-211.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Convalescent Men for Newsboys, <i>The Survey</i>, 1910,
+Vol. XXV, p. 809.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Enforcing the Newsboy Law in New York and
+Newark, by J. K. Paulding, <i>Charities and Commons</i>,
+1905, Vol. XIV, pp. 836-837.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Ethics of the Newsboy, by A. Saxby, <i>Western</i>,
+Vol. CLVIII, pp. 575-578.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Greek Bootblack, by Leola Benedict Terhune,
+<i>The Survey</i>, 1911, Vol. XXVI, pp. 852-854.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Greek Boy Who Shines Shoes, <i>The Survey</i>, 1911,
+Vol. XXVI, p. 591.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Hartford Regulates Child Street Trades, <i>The Survey</i>,
+1910, Vol. XXV, p. 511.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Industrial Democracy: A Newsboys' Labor Union
+and What It Thinks of a College Education,
+by R. W. Bruère, <i>Outlook</i>, 1906, Vol. LXXXIV,
+pp. 878-883.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">John E. Gunckel of Toledo: the Newsboys' Evangelist,
+by A. E. Winship, <i>World To-day</i>, 1908,
+Vol. XV, pp. 1169-1173.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">De Kid Wot Works at Night, by William Hard,
+<i>Everybody's</i>, 1908, Vol. XVIII, pp. 25-37.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Milwaukee Regulates Its Street Trades&mdash;Other
+Wisconsin Child Labor Advances, <i>Survey</i>, 1909,
+Vol. XXII, p. 589.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">New Jersey Children in Street Trades by E. B.
+Butler, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol. XVII,
+pp. 1062-1064.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">New Rules for Street Trades in Boston, with a
+Comparison of Regulations in Liverpool, <i>Charities
+and Commons</i>, 1909, Vol. XXI, pp. 953-954.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">New York's Newsboy Lodging House, <i>Charities and
+Commons</i>, 1908, Vol. XXI, pp. 147-148.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">New York's Newsboys Licensed, <i>Charities and Commons</i>,
+1903, Vol. XI, pp. 188-189.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia, by Scott
+Nearing, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol.
+XVII, pp. 778-784.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Newsboy Breadwinner Story, <i>Charities and
+Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. XI, pp. 482, 568.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Newsboy Wanderers are Tramps in the Making, by
+Ernest Poole, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903,
+Vol. X, pp. 160-162.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Newsboys Elect Their Own Judge, <i>Survey</i>, 1910, Vol.
+XXV, p. 312.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Night Messenger Service, by Owen R. Lovejoy,
+<i>Survey</i>, Vol. XXV, p. 504.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Press and its Newsboys, by John Ihlder,
+<i>World To-day</i>, 1907, Vol. XIII, pp. 737-739.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Sale of Goods on Sidewalks (in France), Daily Consular
+and Trade Reports, 14th Year, No. 106, p. 566.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">School Children as Wage Earners, by E. F. Hogg,
+<i>Nineteenth Century</i>, 1897, Vol. XLII, pp. 235-244.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">School Children as Wage Earners&mdash;Street Trading
+in Liverpool, by J. E. Gorst, <i>Nineteenth Century</i>,
+1899, Vol. XLVI, p. 16.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Street Children, by Benjamin Waugh, <i>Contemporary
+Review</i>, 1888, Vol. LIII, pp. 825-835.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Street Labor and Juvenile Delinquency, by Josephine
+C. Goldmark, <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, 1904,
+Vol. XIX, pp. 417-438.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Street Trades and Delinquency, <i>Survey</i>, 1911, Vol.
+XXVI, p. 285.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">The Street-trading Children of Liverpool, by
+Thomas Burke, <i>Contemporary Review</i>, 1900, Vol.
+LXXVIII, pp. 720-726.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Street Trading by Children (Bradford, England),
+Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 14th Year,
+No. 89, p. 246.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Two O'clock Sunday Morning, by Scott Nearing,
+<i>The Independent</i>, 1912, Vol. LXXII, No. 3297,
+pp. 288-289.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">A Western Newspaper and its Newsboys, by W. B.
+Forbush, <i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1907, Vol.
+XIX, pp. 798-802.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">Waifs of the Street, by Ernest Poole, <i>McClure's</i>,
+Vol. XXI, pp. 40-48.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">What Boston Has Done in Regulating the Street
+Trades for Children, by Pauline Goldmark,
+<i>Charities and Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 159-160.</div>
+
+<div class="bibliography">What of the Newsboy of the Second Cities? Investigations
+carried on in Buffalo, <i>Charities and
+Commons</i>, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 368-371.</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES">APPENDICES</a></h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p>
+<h3>APPENDIX A <br />
+
+LAWS</h3>
+
+<p>The law of Wisconsin relative to street trading,
+as amended in 1911, is given below in its entirety,
+because it is the most advanced law of its kind in
+the United States.</p>
+
+
+<h4 class="italic">Wisconsin</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 p. The term "street trade," as
+used in this act, shall mean any business or occupation
+in which any street, alley, court, square or
+other public place is used for the sale, display or
+offering for sale of any articles, goods or merchandise.
+No boy under the age of twelve years, and
+no girl under the age of eighteen years, shall in any
+city of the first class distribute, sell or expose or
+offer for sale newspapers, magazines or periodicals
+in any street or public place.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 q. No boy under fourteen years of
+age, shall, in any city of the first class, work at any
+time, or be employed or permitted to work at any
+time, as a bootblack or in any other street trade,
+or shall sell or offer any goods or merchandise for
+sale or distribute hand bills or circulars or any
+other articles, except newspapers, magazines or
+periodicals as hereinafter provided.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 r. No girl under eighteen years of
+age shall, in any city of the first class, work at any
+time, or be employed or permitted to work at any
+time, as a bootblack or at any other street trades or in
+the sale or distribution of hand bills or circulars or
+any other articles upon the street or from house to
+house.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 s. No boy under sixteen years of
+age shall, in any city of the first class, distribute,
+sell or expose or offer for sale any newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals in any street or public
+place or work as a bootblack, or in any other street
+or public trade or sell or offer for sale or distribute
+any hand bills or other articles, unless he complies
+with all the legal requirements concerning school
+attendance, and unless a permit and badge, as
+hereinafter provided, shall have been issued to him
+by the state factory inspector. No such permit
+and badge shall be issued until the officer issuing
+the same shall have received an application in
+writing therefor, signed by the parent or guardian
+or other person having the custody of the child,
+desiring such permit and badge, and until such
+officer shall have received, examined and placed on
+file the written statement of the principal or chief
+executive officer of the public, private or parochial
+school, which the said child is attending, stating
+that such child is an attendant at such school with
+the grade such child shall have attained, and provided
+that no such permit and badge shall be issued,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+unless such officer issuing it is satisfied that such
+child is mentally and physically able to do such
+work besides his regular school work as required
+by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 t. Before any such permit is issued,
+the state factory inspector shall demand and be
+furnished with proof of such child's age by the production
+of a verified baptismal certificate or a duly
+attested birth certificate, or, in case such certificates
+cannot be secured, by the record of age stated in
+the first school enrollment of such child. Whenever
+it appears that a permit was obtained by wrong
+or false statements as to any child's age, the officer
+who granted such permit shall forthwith revoke the
+same. After having received, examined and placed
+on file such papers, the officer shall issue to the
+child a permit and badge. The principal or chief
+executive officer of schools, in which children under
+fourteen years of age are pupils, shall keep a complete
+list of all children in their school to whom a
+permit and badge has been issued, as herein provided.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 u. Such permit shall state the place
+and date of birth of the child, the name and address
+of its parents, guardian, custodian or next friend,
+as the case may be, and describe the color of hair
+and eyes, the height and weight and any distinguishing
+facial marks of such child, and shall further
+state that the papers required by the preceding
+section have been duly examined and filed; and
+that the child named in such permit has appeared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+before the officer issuing the permit. The badge
+furnished by the officer issuing the permit shall
+bear on its face a number corresponding to the
+number of the permit, and the name of the child.
+Every such permit, and every such badge on its
+reverse side, shall be signed in the presence of the
+officer issuing the same by the child in whose name
+it is issued. Provided, that in case of carrier boys
+working on salary for newspaper publishers delivering
+papers, a card of identification shall be issued
+to such carriers by the factory inspector, which
+they shall carry on their person, and exhibit to any
+officer authorized under this act, who may accost
+them for a disclosure of their right to serve as such
+carriers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 v. The badge provided for herein
+shall be such as the state factory inspector shall
+designate, and shall be worn conspicuously in sight
+at all times in such position as may be designated
+by the said factory inspector by such child while
+so working. No child to whom such permit and
+badge or identification card are issued shall transfer
+the same to any other person.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 w. No boy under fourteen years of
+age shall, in any city of the first class, sell, expose
+or offer for sale any newspapers, magazines or
+periodicals after the hour of six-thirty o'clock in the
+evening, between the first day of October and the
+first day of April, nor after seven-thirty o'clock in
+the evening between the first day of April and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+first day of October, or before five o'clock in the
+morning; and no child under sixteen years of age
+shall distribute, sell, expose or offer for sale any
+newspapers, magazines or periodicals or shall work
+as a bootblack or in any street or public trades or
+distribute hand bills or shall be employed or permitted
+to work in the distribution or sale or exposing
+or offering for sale of any newspapers, magazines
+or periodicals or as a bootblack or in other street
+or public trades or in the distribution of hand bills
+during the hours when the public schools of the
+city where such child shall reside are in session.
+Provided, that any boy between the ages of fourteen
+and sixteen years, who is complying and shall
+continue to comply with all the legal requirements
+concerning school attendance, and who is mentally
+and physically able to do such delivery besides his
+regular school work, shall be authorized to deliver
+newspapers between the hours of four and six in the
+morning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 x. The commissioner of labor or
+any factory inspector acting under his direction
+shall enforce the provisions of this law, and he is
+hereby vested with all powers requisite therefor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 y. The permit of any child, who
+in any city of the first class distributes, sells or
+offers for sale any newspapers, magazines or periodicals
+in any street or public place or works as a
+bootblack or in any other street trade, or sells or
+offers for sale or distributes any hand bills or other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+articles in violation of the provisions of this act, or
+who becomes delinquent or fails to comply with all
+the legal requirements concerning school attendances
+shall forthwith be revoked for a period of six
+months and his badge taken from said child. The
+refusal of any child to surrender such permit, and
+the distribution, sale or offering for sale of newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals or any goods or
+merchandise, or the working by such child as a
+bootblack or in any other street or public trade, or
+in distributing hand bills or other articles, after
+notice, by any officer authorized to grant permits
+under this law of the revocation of such permit and
+a demand for the return of the badge, shall be
+deemed a violation of this act. The permit of said
+child may also be revoked by the officer who issued
+such permit, and the badge taken from such child,
+upon the complaint of any police officer or other
+attendance officer or probation officer of a juvenile
+court, and such child shall surrender his permit
+and badge upon the demand of any police officer,
+truancy or other attendance officer or probation
+officer of a juvenile court or other officer charged
+with the duty of enforcing this act. In case of a
+second violation of this act by any child, he shall be
+brought before the juvenile court, if there shall be
+any juvenile court in the city where such child
+resides, or, if not, before any court or magistrate
+having jurisdiction of offenses committed by minors
+and be dealt with according to law.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 z. Any parent or other person who
+employs a minor under the age of sixteen years in
+peddling without a license or who, having the care
+or custody of such minor, suffers or permits the
+child to engage in such employment, or to violate
+sections 1728 p to 1728 za, inclusive, shall be punished
+by a fine not to exceed one hundred dollars nor less
+than twenty-five dollars, or by commitment to the
+county jail for not more than sixty days or less
+than ten days.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1728 za. Providing that no badge shall
+be issued for a boy selling papers between the ages
+of twelve and sixteen years by the state factory
+inspector, except upon certificate of the principal of
+either public, parochial or other private school
+attended by said boy, stating and setting forth that
+said boy is a regular attendant upon said school.
+No boy under the age of sixteen years shall be permitted
+by any newspaper publisher or printer or
+persons having for sale newspapers or periodicals of
+any character, to loiter or remain around any salesroom,
+assembly room, circulation room or office for
+the sale of newspapers, between the hours of nine
+in the forenoon and three in the afternoon, on days
+when school is in session. Any newspaper publisher,
+printer, circulation agent or seller of newspapers
+shall upon conviction for permitting newsboys to
+loiter or hang around any assembly room, circulation
+room, salesroom or office where papers are
+distributed or sold, shall be punished by a fine not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+to exceed one hundred dollars nor less than twenty-five
+dollars, or by commitment to the county jail
+for not more than sixty days or less than ten days.</p>
+
+
+<h4 class="italic">London, England</h4>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By-laws adopted by the London County Council
+and put in Force on June 3, 1911</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">By-laws 1-9 concern the employment of children
+generally.</p>
+
+<p>10. No girl under the age of 16 years shall be
+employed in or carry on street trading.</p>
+
+<p>11. No boy under the age of 14 years shall be
+employed in or carry on street trading.</p>
+
+<p>12. No boy under the age of 16 years shall be
+employed in or carry on street trading before 6 in
+the morning or after 9 in the evening.</p>
+
+<p>13. No boy under the age of 16 years shall at any
+time be employed in or carry on street trading unless</p>
+
+<p>(1) He is exempt from school attendance, and</p>
+
+<p>(2) He first procures a badge from the London
+County Council, which he shall wear whilst engaged
+in street trading on the upper part of the right arm
+in such a manner as to be conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>The badge shall be deemed to be a license to
+trade, and may be withheld or withdrawn for such
+period as the London County Council think fit in
+any of the following cases&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) If the boy has, after the issue of the badge to
+him, been convicted of any offense.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) If it is proved to the satisfaction of the London
+County Council that the boy has used his
+badge for the purpose of begging or receiving alms,
+or for any immoral purpose, or for the purpose of
+imposition, or for any other improper purpose.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) If the boy fails to notify the London County
+Council within one week of any change in his place
+of residence.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) If the boy commits a breach of any of the
+conditions under which such badge is issued; such
+conditions to be stated on such badge or delivered to
+the boy in writing.</p>
+
+<p>14. A boy to whom a badge has been issued by
+the London County Council shall in no way alter,
+lend, sell, pawn, transfer, or otherwise dispose of,
+or wilfully deface, or injure such badge, which shall
+remain the property of the London County Council,
+and he shall, on receiving notice in writing from the
+London County Council (which may be served by
+post) that the badge has been withdrawn, deliver
+up the same forthwith to the London County
+Council.</p>
+
+<p>15. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged
+in street trading, shall not enter any premises
+used for public entertainment or licensed for the
+sale of intoxicating liquor for consumption on the
+premises for the purpose of trading.</p>
+
+<p>16. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged
+in street trading, shall not annoy any person
+by importuning.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>17. Nothing in these by-laws contained shall restrict
+the employment of children in the occupations
+specified in section 3 (<i>a</i>) of the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Children Act, 1904, further than such
+employment is already restricted by statute.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>APPENDIX B<br />
+
+TWO TYPES OF NEWSBOY BADGES.</h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/fz267_1.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn267_1.jpg" alt="Badge used in Cincinnati." title="Badge used in Cincinnati." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/fz267_2.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn267_2.jpg" alt="Badge used in Boston." title="Badge used in Boston." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>APPENDIX C<br />
+
+CARDS FOR INVESTIGATIONS</h3>
+
+<p>The cards used in the inquiries into the newsboy
+situations of Philadelphia and Milwaukee are reproduced
+here, in the hope that they will be of use
+in furnishing suggestions to any organization or
+individual who contemplates making such an investigation
+elsewhere. It will be observed that
+these cards are practically confined to questions
+affecting newsboys only, and would have to be considerably
+amplified, if intended for use in a general
+study of street work by children.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Cards used by Boston School Committee for Issuance of Licenses</h4>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/fz269.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn269.jpg" alt="Application for a License" title="Application for a License" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a href="images/fz270.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn270.jpg" alt="Card with personal data of license holder and License Rules, to be returned to school for file" title="Card with personal data of license holder and License Rules, to be returned to school for file" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>Form of Application for License used in Hartford, Conn.</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a href="images/fz271.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn271.jpg" alt="Application for a Street-Sales Permit" title="Application for a Street-Sales Permit" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of
+a Badge in Province of Manitoba, Canada.</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a href="images/fz272.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn272.jpg" alt="Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of a Newsboy Badge in Manitoba, Canada" title="Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of a Newsboy Badge in Manitoba, Canada" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Sample of Card used in Investigation of Street Trades in Philadelphia</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/fz273.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn273.jpg" alt="Philadelphia Investigation Card" title="Philadelphia Investigation Card" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Sample of Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee</h4>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a href="images/fz274.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn274.jpg" alt="Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee" title="Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a href="images/fz275.jpg">
+<img src="images/thn275.jpg" alt="Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card" title="Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2>
+
+<ul class="not">
+<li>Addams, Jane, on Illinois child labor law, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Age limit (<i>see</i> Laws and Ordinances), <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Austria, investigation of 1907, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Begging, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berlin regulations, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bootblacks, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+  <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+  <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_194">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+  <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+  <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+  <li>Padrone System, report by Immigration Commission, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.
+     <ul class="not mless">
+     <li>Report by North American Civic League for Immigrants, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+     </ul>
+  </li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+<li>Boston, license statistics, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Boston Newsboys' Court, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boston Newsboys' Republic, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Buffalo conditions, report on, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Canada, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chicago statistics of local studies, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chicago Vice Commission's report, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Chicago, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+ <li>New York, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Cincinnati, license statistics, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Market children, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+ <li>Newsboy conditions, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+ <li class="break">Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+
+<li>Delinquency, relation to street work, report of Dr. Charles P. Neill, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Chicago juvenile court records, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+ <li>Connection between occupation and offense, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+ <li>Records of Indiana Boys' School, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+<li>Delivery Service, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Detroit, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Edinburgh, conditions in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Effects of street work, classified, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>In Buffalo, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+ <li>In physical deterioration, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+ <li>Opinions of superintendents of reformatories, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+<li>Employment distinguished from independent work, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Enforcement of regulations, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Errand running, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li class="break">Delinquency, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li class="break">France, regulations, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Germany, inquiry of 1898, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Girls as newspaper sellers, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Great Britain, Departmental Committee of 1910, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Employment of Children Act, 1903, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+ <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1901, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+ <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1902 on Ireland, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+ <li>Interdepartmental Committee of 1904 on Physical Deterioration, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+ <li class="break">Parliamentary return of 1899, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+
+<li>Hartford, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Housing problem's relation to street trading, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Illinois, effort to regulate street trading, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Immigration Commission, report on Padrone System, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Ireland, report of Interdepartmental Committee of 1902, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="break">Kelley, Florence, on street trading, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Laws, table of state, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Licenses for street work required, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li>License statistics, of Boston, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Of Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+ <li>Of New York, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Liverpool, conditions, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>London County Council bylaws, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Lovejoy, Owen R., on messenger service, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Manchester regulations, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Market children, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+ <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+ <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+ <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+ <li>Nationalities, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+ <li>Orphanage, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+ <li>Retardation, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Merchandise, distinction between newspapers and, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Messenger boys, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Ages, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+ <li>Character of work, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+ <li>Chicago Vice Commission's report, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+ <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+ <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+ <li>Earnings, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+ <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+ <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+ <li>Investigation in Ohio Valley, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+ <li>Lack of prospects, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+ <li>Poverty as excuse for work, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+ <li class="break">Use of men instead of boys, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-<a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Nationality of street workers, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>Nearing, Scott, conditions in Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Neill, Charles P., on newsboys' work, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>On messenger service, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+ <li>Report on Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Newark, regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li>New York, report of newsboy investigation, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Child Welfare Exhibit, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+ <li>Regulations of street work, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+<li>Newsboys, ages, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Associations, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+ <li>Character of work, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+ <li>Classified, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+ <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+ <li>Diseases, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+ <li>Earnings compared with factory wages, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+ <li>Environment, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+ <li>Home conditions, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+ <li>Hours, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+ <li>Irregularity of meals, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+ <li>Orphanage, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+ <li>Retardation, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+ <li>Substitutes, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+ <li>Tricks of the trade, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Newsboys' Court of Boston, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newsboys' Republic of Boston, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>New South Wales, license statistics, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Regulations, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Newspapers, as merchandise, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Attitude toward regulation, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Night work, of messengers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li class="break">Of newsboys, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li class="break">Ordinances, table of city, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Padrone System, report, of Immigration Commission, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>North American Civic League for Immigrants, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Peddlers, findings of Chicago Vice Commission, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Cincinnati statistics, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+ <li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+ <li>Immigration Commission's report, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Philadelphia conditions, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Playgrounds, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Poverty as an excuse for street work, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prohibition, of night work, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li class="break">Of street work by children, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+
+<li>Regulation, by municipality or state, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Degree of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+ <li>In future, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+ <li>Unsatisfactory, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Retardation in school of street workers, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Rochester, method of enforcement, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>St. Louis statistics, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+<li>School, as social center, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Retardation of street workers, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Scotland, conditions, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spargo, John, on effects of street work, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Statistics, of U.S. Census, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Austria, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+ <li>Boston, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+ <li>Chicago, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+ <li>Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+ <li>Germany, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+ <li>Great Britain, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+ <li>New York, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Street as a social agent, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Street employments, distinction between, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Street occupations, of minor importance, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Classified, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+ <li>Contrasted with regular work, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Street trading defined, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.
+ <ul class="not mless">
+ <li>Neglected in legislation, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+ </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li class="break">Street trading problem related to other problems, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="break">Toledo, retardation of street workers, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Vagrants, Chicago report on, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="break">Vice Commission of Chicago, report, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Wisconsin, law, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<p class="center">The following pages contain advertisements of a
+few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="bookadintro1">NOTABLE WORKS BY MISS JANE ADDAMS</p>
+
+
+<p class="bookadhead">A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net; by mail, $1.10</i></p>
+
+<p>It is almost unnecessary to call attention to the importance of a new
+book by Jane Addams. As a servant of the public good Miss Addams,
+both through her work at Hull-House and through her writings, has made
+for herself a name all over the world. She does not view things from a
+standpoint of destructive criticism, but rather from that of constructive, her
+aim being always to better the conditions in the particular field which she is
+considering. In "A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil," she considers
+sanely and frankly questions which civilized society has always had confronting
+it and in all probability always will. Something of her attitude of
+mind and of her purpose in writing this book as well as a glimpse of the
+character of the volume may be seen from the following paragraph taken
+from her preface:</p>
+
+<p>"'A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil' was written, not from the
+point of view of the expert, but because of my own need for a counter-knowledge
+to a bewildering mass of information which came to me through
+the Juvenile Protective Association of Chicago. The reports which its
+twenty field officers daily brought to its main office adjoining Hull-House
+became to me a revelation of the dangers incident to city conditions and of
+the allurements which are designedly placed around many young girls in
+order to draw them into an evil life."</p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"Miss Addams's volume is painful reading, but we heartily wish that it
+might be read and pondered by every man and woman who to-day, in smug
+complacency, treat with indifference and contempt the great struggle for
+social purity."&mdash;<i>The Nation.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"As an educational weapon, incalculably valuable. A torch with which
+every thinking citizen should be armed for a crusade against the dark-covered
+evil at which it is aimed."&mdash;<i>The Continent.</i></p>
+
+
+<p  class="bookadhead">The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>12mo, cloth, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p>
+
+<p>A protest against the practice of every large city of
+turning over to commercialism practically all the provisions
+for public recreation, leaving it possible for private greed
+to starve or demoralize the nature of youth.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"Few persons in this country are better qualified to
+speak with authority on any subject connected with the
+betterment of the poor than is Jane Addams."&mdash;<i>New York Herald.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The book should be in the hands of every preacher
+and laborer for humanity. I wish that parents might make
+it a text-book."&mdash;Rev. <span class="smcap">Madison C. Peter</span> in <i>The New
+Orleans Daily News</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"It is brimming full of the mother sentiment of love and
+yearning, and also shows such sanity, such breadth and
+tolerance of mind, and such philosophic penetration into
+the inner meanings of outward phenomena as to make it a
+book which no one who cares seriously about its subject
+can afford to miss."&mdash;<i>New York Times.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="bookadhead">Newer Ideals of Peace</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"A clean and consistent setting forth of the utility of labor as against the
+waste of war, and an exposition of the alteration of standards that must ensue
+when labor and the spirit of militarism are relegated to their right places in
+the minds of men.... Back of it lies illimitable sympathy, immeasurable
+pity, a spirit as free as that of St. Francis, a sense of social order and fitness
+that Marcus Aurelius might have found similar to his own."&mdash;<i>Chicago Tribune.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">The editor of <i>Collier's</i> writes: "To us it seems the most comprehensive
+talk yet given about how to help humanity in America to-day."</p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"It is given to but few people to have the rare combination of power of
+insight and of interpretation possessed by Miss Addams. The present book
+shows the same fresh virile thought, and the happy expression which has
+characterized her work.... There is nothing of namby-pamby sentimentalism
+in Miss Addams's idea of the peace movement. The volume
+is most inspiring and deserves wide recognition."&mdash;<i>Annals of the American Academy.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"No brief summary can do justice to Miss Addams's grasp of the facts,
+her insight into their meaning, her incisive estimate of the strength and
+weakness alike of practical politicians and spasmodic reformers, her sensible
+suggestions as to woman's place in our municipal housekeeping, her buoyant
+yet practical optimism."&mdash;<i>Examiner.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="bookadhead">Democracy and Social Ethics</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Half leather, ix + 281 pages, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The result of actual experience in hand-to-hand contact with social
+problems.... No more truthful description, for example, of the 'boss'
+as he thrives to-day in our great cities has ever been written than is contained
+in Miss Addams's chapter on 'Political Reform.' ... The same
+thing may be said of the book in regard to the presentation of social and
+economic facts."&mdash;<i>Review of Reviews.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The book is startling, stimulating, and intelligent."&mdash;<i>Philadelphia Ledger.</i></p>
+
+
+<p  class="bookadhead">Twenty Years at Hull-House</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Ill., dec. cloth, 8vo, $2.50 net; by mail, $2.68</i></p>
+
+<p>Jane Addams's work at Hull-House is known throughout
+the civilized world. In the present volume she tells
+of her endeavors and of their success&mdash;of the beginning of
+Hull-House, of its growth and its present influence. For
+every one at all interested in the improvement of our cities,
+in the moral education of those who are forced to spend
+much of their time on the streets or in cheap places of
+amusement&mdash;"Twenty Years at Hull-House" is a volume
+of more than ordinary interest and value.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The personality of Jane Addams is one of the finest achievements
+of that idea of democracy, service, and freedom for which
+America means to stand before the world."&mdash;<i>N. Y. Times.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The story of the beginnings of this remarkable undertaking
+(Hull-House), the problems that were faced and conquered in
+the early days, the unsuspected resources that were developed
+among the crowded city population of foreign birth, and the
+efforts continuously made for the betterment of labor legislation
+in the State of Illinois, are all set forth with simplicity and
+directness. On the whole it is a wonderful record of accomplishment,
+full of suggestion to social reformers the world over."&mdash;<i>Review of Reviews.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"Who reads this book lightly misses a great opportunity."&mdash;<i>Bellman.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bookadsmall">"The story is one of singular interest and has a strange affinity
+with the stories of other great moral and spiritual leaders of
+humanity."&mdash;<i>Bookman.</i></p>
+
+
+<div>
+<div class="bookadhead">On City Government<br /></div>
+<div class="bookadsubt">The American City</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By DELOS F. WILCOX, Ph.D.</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">"In the 'American City' Dr. Wilcox ... has written a book that every
+thoughtful citizen should read. The problems of the street, the tenement,
+public utilities, civic education, the three deadly vices, municipal revenue
+and municipal debt, with all their related and subsidiary problems, are
+clearly and fully considered."&mdash;<i>Pittsburgh Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>6 + 423 pages, 12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net. Citizens' Library</i></p>
+
+
+<div>
+<div class="bookadhead">Great American Cities<br /></div>
+<div class="bookadsubt">Their Problems and Their Government</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By DELOS F. WILCOX, Chief of the Bureau of Franchises, of
+the Public Service Commission for the first District, New York</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">A detailed account of present conditions in the half-dozen largest cities
+of the country, including Chicago.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Half leather, 12mo, $1.25 net</i></p>
+
+
+
+<div>
+<div class="bookadhead">On Industrial Legislation<br /></div>
+<div class="bookadsubt">Some Ethical Gains through Legislation</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By <span class="smcap">Mrs.</span> FLORENCE KELLEY</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">The book has grown out of the author's experience as Chief Inspector of
+Factories in Illinois from 1893 to 1897, as Secretary of the National
+Consumers' League from 1899 till now, and chiefly as a resident at
+Hull-House, and later at the Nurses' Settlement, New York.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, leather back, 341 pages, 12mo, $1.25 net. Citizens' Library</i></p>
+
+<div>
+<div class="bookadhead">On Charitable Effort<br /></div>
+<div class="bookadsubt">How to Help</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY CONYNGTON, of the Department of Commerce and
+Labor, Washington</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">Not only is the professional charity worker often in need of advice as to
+the best methods of investigation, administration, etc., but the non-professional
+worker, with his zeal unrestrained by special training, is even
+more emphatically in need of such guidance as this sound and competent
+book gives.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>New edition, cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="bookadhead">The Development of Thrift</p>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY W. BROWN, Secretary of the Henry Watson Children's
+Aid Society, Baltimore</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">"An excellent little Manual, a study of various agencies, their scope and
+their educating influences for thrift. It abounds in suggestions of
+value."&mdash;<i>Chicago Inter-Ocean.</i></p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p>
+
+
+<p  class="bookadhead">Friendly Visiting among the Poor</p>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By MARY E. RICHMOND, General Secretary of the Charity
+Organization Society of Baltimore</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2">"A small book full of inspiration, yet intensely practical."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Charles Richmond Henderson.</span></p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 16mo, $1.00 net</i></p>
+
+<p  class="bookadhead">
+The Care of Destitute, Neglected, and
+Delinquent Children</p>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By HOMER FOLKS, Ex-Commissioner of Public Charities, New
+York City</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2"><span class="smcap">Contents.</span>&mdash;Conditions prevalent at the opening of the Nineteenth
+Century; Public Care of Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Private Charities
+for Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Removal of Children from Almshouse;
+The State School and Placing Out System; The County Children's Home
+System; The System of Public Support in Private Institutions; The
+Boarding Out and Placing Out System; Laws and Societies for the
+Rescue of Neglected Children; Private Charities for Destitute and Neglected
+Children, 1875-1900; Delinquent Children; Present Tendencies.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p>
+
+
+<p  class="bookadhead">Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy</p>
+
+<p class="bookadauthor">By JOSEPH LEE, Vice-President of the Massachusetts Civic
+League</p>
+
+<p class="bookad2"><span class="smcap">Contents.</span>&mdash;Essence and Limitations of the Subject; Before 1860;
+Savings and Loans; The Home; Health and Building Laws, Model
+Tenements; The Setting of the Home; Vacation Schools; Playgrounds
+for Small Children; Baths and Gymnasiums; Playgrounds for Big Boys;
+Model Playgrounds; Outings; Boys' Clubs; Industrial Training; For
+Grown People; Conclusion.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net</i></p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<div>
+<p class="bookadintro1">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</p>
+<p class="center"> <span class="bad1">Publishers</span>  <span class="bad2">64-66 Fifth Avenue</span>  <span class="bad2">New York</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="tn spaced">
+<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Notes - Part II</b></p>
+
+<p>  The following changes have been made to the text:</p>
+
+<ul>
+ <li>In the table introduced as "Street traders and street employees may be    classified by occupation as follows:&mdash;" Newspaper sellers was written     as one word once.</li>
+
+ <li>In the table detailing the occupation of children in Germany,     introduced as "Seven divisions of these children were made     according to occupation ..." the word Austragedienste was wrongly     hyphenated.</li>
+
+ <li>In the TABLE E. HOURS AND EARNINGS OF STREET WORKERS a header     "OCCUPATIONS" was missing (compared to TABLE D before), and was added.</li>
+
+ <li>In Footnote [172] the title of Mr. Ferrette's work was misspelled as     "Manuel de Lègislation Industrielle", and was changed to "Manuel de     législation industrielle" in accordance with its original title.</li>
+
+ <li>In the Index entry "Great Britain ... Interdepartmental Committee of 1902 on Ireland ..." the reference to page 294 was changed to page 204. </li>
+</ul>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Child Labor in City Streets, by 
+Edward Nicholas Clopper
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+Project Gutenberg's Child Labor in City Streets, by Edward Nicholas Clopper
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Child Labor in City Streets
+
+Author: Edward Nicholas Clopper
+
+Release Date: December 9, 2013 [EBook #44396]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Heike Leichsenring and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                      CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS
+
+
+
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                      NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO
+                         DALLAS . SAN FRANCISCO
+
+                        MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
+                       LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA
+                               MELBOURNE
+
+                   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+                                TORONTO
+
+
+
+
+                              CHILD LABOR
+                            IN CITY STREETS
+
+                                   BY
+
+                        EDWARD N. CLOPPER, PH.D.
+
+              SECRETARY OF NATIONAL CHILD LABOR COMMITTEE
+                         FOR MISSISSIPPI VALLEY
+
+
+
+
+                                New York
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                                  1913
+
+                         _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT, 1912,
+                       BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1912. Reprinted
+January, 1913.
+
+
+                             NORWOOD PRESS
+                 J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+                         Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Text originally marked up as bold is surrounded by =, text in italics by
+_, text in different font with ~. All footnotes can be found after the
+chapter "Conclusion", before the Bibliography. Obvious printer's errors
+have been remedied, a list of all other changes can be found at the end
+of the document.
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+This volume is devoted to the discussion of a neglected form of child
+labor. Just why the newsboy, bootblack and peddler should have been
+ignored in the general movement for child welfare is hard to
+understand. Perhaps it is due to "the illusion of the near." Street
+workers have always been far more conspicuous than any other child
+laborers, and it seems that this very proximity has been their
+misfortune. If we could have focused our attention upon them as we did
+upon children in factories, they would have been banished from the
+streets long ago. But they were too close to us. We could not get a
+comprehensive view and saw only what we happened to want at the
+moment--their paltry little stock in trade. Now that we are getting a
+broader sense of social responsibility, we are beginning to realize
+how blind and inconsiderate we have been in our treatment of them.
+
+The first five chapters of the book review present conditions and
+discuss causes, the next two deal with effects, and the final ones are
+concerned with the remedy. The scope has been made as broad as
+possible. All forms of street work that engage any considerable number
+of children have been described at length, and opinions and findings
+of others have been freely quoted. I have attempted to show the bad
+results of the policy of _laissez-faire_ as applied to this problem.
+Simply because these little boys and girls have been ministering to
+its wants, the public has given them scarcely a passing thought. It
+has been so convenient to have a newspaper or a shoe brush thrust at
+one, it has not occurred to us that, for the sake of the children,
+such work would better be done by other means. Although good examples
+have been set by European cities, we have not introduced any
+innovations to clear the streets of working children.
+
+The free rein at present given to child labor in our city streets is
+productive of nothing but harmful results, and it is high time that a
+determined stand was taken for the rights of children so exposed. A
+few feeble efforts at regulation have been made in some parts of this
+country, but this is an evil that requires prohibition rather than
+regulation. There is no valid reason why just as efficient service in
+streets could not be rendered by adults. Certainly it would be far
+more suitable and humane to reserve such work for old men and women
+who need outdoor life and are physically unable to earn their living
+in other ways. We could buy our newspaper from a crippled adult at a
+stand just as easily as we get it now from an urchin who shivers on
+the street corner. It is only a question of habit, and we ought to be
+glad of the change for the good of all concerned.
+
+                                                             E. N. C.
+
+    Cincinnati, 1912.
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                           PAGE
+
+     I. THE PROBLEM OF THE STREET-WORKING CHILD--PUBLIC
+         APATHY--RELATION TO OTHER PROBLEMS                            1
+
+    II. EXTENT TO WHICH CHILDREN ENGAGE IN STREET ACTIVITIES IN
+         AMERICA AND EUROPE                                           24
+
+   III. NEWSPAPER SELLERS                                             52
+
+    IV. BOOTBLACKS, PEDDLERS AND MARKET CHILDREN                      83
+
+     V. MESSENGERS, ERRAND AND DELIVERY CHILDREN                     101
+
+    VI. EFFECTS OF STREET WORK UPON CHILDREN                         128
+
+   VII. RELATION OF STREET WORK TO DELINQUENCY                       159
+
+  VIII. THE STRUGGLE FOR REGULATION IN THE UNITED STATES             189
+
+    IX. DEVELOPMENT OF STREET TRADES REGULATION IN EUROPE            214
+
+  CONCLUSION                                                         243
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                       245
+
+  APPENDICES                                                         255
+
+  INDEX                                                              277
+
+
+
+
+                      CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+THE PROBLEM OF THE STREET-WORKING CHILD--PUBLIC APATHY--RELATION TO
+OTHER PROBLEMS
+
+
+The efforts which have so far been made in the United States to solve
+the child labor problem have been directed almost exclusively toward
+improvement of conditions in mines and manufacturing and mercantile
+establishments. This singling out of one phase of the problem for
+correction was due to the uneducated state of public opinion which
+made necessary a long and determined campaign along one line, vividly
+portraying the wrongs of children in this one form of exploitation,
+before general interest could be aroused. Within very recent years
+this campaign has met with signal success, and many states have
+granted a goodly measure of protection to the children of their
+working classes as far as the factory, the store and the mine are
+concerned. The time has now come for attention to be directed toward
+the premature employment of children in work other than that connected
+with mining and manufacturing, for there are other phases of this
+problem which involve large numbers of children and which, up to the
+present, have received but little thought from students of labor
+conditions. The three most important of these other phases are the
+employment of children in agricultural work, in home industries and in
+street occupations. This volume will deal with the last-named
+phase--with the economic activities of children in the streets and
+public places of our cities, their effects and the remedies they
+demand.
+
+The street occupations in which children commonly engage are:
+newspaper selling, peddling, bootblacking, messenger service, delivery
+service, running errands and the tending of market stands. The first
+three are known as street "trades," owing to the popular fallacy that
+the children who follow them are little "merchants," and are therefore
+entitled to the dignity of separate classification. Careful usage
+would confine this term to newsboys, peddlers and bootblacks who work
+independently of any employer. Many children are employed by other
+persons to sell newspapers, peddle goods and polish shoes, and such
+children technically are street traders no more than those who run
+errands, carry messages or deliver parcels. Consequently the term
+"street trades" is limited in its application, and by no means
+embraces all the economic activities of children in our streets and
+public places.
+
+Wisconsin has written into her laws a definition of street trading,
+declaring that it is "any business or occupation in which any street,
+alley, court, square or other public place is used for the sale,
+display or offering for sale of any articles, goods or merchandise."[1]
+This covers neither bootblacking nor the delivery of newspapers.
+
+In Great Britain the expression "street trading" has been officially
+defined as including: "the hawking of newspapers, matches, flowers,
+and other articles; playing, singing, or performing for profit; plying
+for hire in carrying luggage or messages; shoe blacking, or any other
+like occupations carried on in streets or public places."[2]
+
+Street traders and street employees may be classified by occupation as
+follows:--
+
+  STREET TRADERS              STREET EMPLOYEES
+  (WORKING FOR THEMSELVES)    (WORKING FOR OTHERS)
+
+  Newspaper sellers           Newspaper sellers (on salary)
+                              Peddlers (on salary)
+  Peddlers                    Bootblacks (in stands)
+                              Market stand tenders
+  Bootblacks (on street)      Messengers
+                              Errand children
+                              Delivery children
+
+This classification is based upon the well-known economic distinction
+between profits and wages. It is unfortunate that this distinction has
+been applied to juvenile street workers, for it has operated to the
+great disadvantage of the "traders." This class has been practically
+ignored in the general movement for child welfare, on the ground that
+these little laborers were in business for themselves, and therefore
+should not be disturbed. Recently the conviction has been dawning
+upon observant people that, in the case of young children at least,
+the effects of work on an independent basis, particularly in city
+streets, are just as bad and perhaps even worse than work under the
+direction of employers. The mute appeal of the street-working child
+for protection has at last reached the heart of the welfare movement,
+and the first feeble efforts in his behalf are now being put forth,
+regardless of whether he toils for profits or for wages.
+
+This alleged distinction between street trading and street employment
+should be clearly understood, as any movement designed to remedy
+present conditions must be sufficiently comprehensive to avoid the
+great mistake of protecting one class and ignoring the other. On the
+one hand there is said to be an army of little independent "merchants"
+conducting business affairs of their own, while on the other there is
+an array of juvenile employees performing the tasks set them by their
+masters. For purposes of regulation this distinction is hairsplitting,
+narrow-minded and unjust, as it has been made to defeat in part the
+beneficent aim of the great campaign for child welfare, but
+nevertheless it must be reckoned with. Children under fourteen years
+of age at work in factories and mines are often properly called
+"slaves," and their plight is regarded with pity coupled with a
+clarion cry for their emancipation. But tiny workers in the streets
+are referred to approvingly as "little merchants" and are freely
+patronized even by the avowed friends of children, who thereby
+contribute their moral support toward continuing these conditions and
+maintaining this absurd fiction of our merchant babyhood. As an
+instance of this remarkable attitude, there was proudly printed in the
+Pittsburgh _Gazette-Times_ of April 11, 1910, the picture of a
+four-year-old child who had been a newsboy in an Ohio town since the
+age of _thirty months_, and this was described as a most worthy
+achievement!
+
+That the term "child labor," whose meaning has so long been popularly
+restricted to the employment of children in factories, mills, mines
+and stores, is properly applicable to the activities of children in
+all kinds of work for profit, is now virtually recognized by a few
+states which prohibit employment of children under fourteen years of
+age "in any gainful occupation." But unfortunately the courts have
+rigidly construed the word "employ" to mean the purchasing of the
+services of one person by another, hence newsboys, peddlers,
+bootblacks and others who work on their own account, do not enjoy the
+protection of such a statute because they are not "employed." Under
+this interpretation a fatal loophole is afforded through which
+thousands of boys and girls escape the spirit of the law which seeks
+to prevent their _labor_ rather than their mere employment. It is for
+this reason that, in states having otherwise excellent provisions for
+the conservation of childhood, we see little children freely
+exploiting themselves on city streets. This situation has been calmly
+accepted without protest by the general public, for, while the people
+condemn child labor in factories, they tolerate and even approve of it
+on the street. They labor under the delusion that merely because a few
+of our successful business men were newsboys in the past, these little
+"merchants" of the street are receiving valuable training in business
+methods and will later develop into leaders in the affairs of men. A
+glaring example of this attitude was given by a monthly magazine[3]
+which fondly referred to newsboys as "the enterprising young merchants
+from whose ranks will be recruited the coming statesmen, soldiers,
+financiers, merchants and manufacturers of our land."
+
+It is extremely unfortunate that this narrow conception has prevailed,
+as it raises the tremendous obstacle of popular prejudice which must
+be broken down before these child street workers can receive their
+share of justice at the hands of the law. The only fair and logical
+method of approach toward a solution of the child labor problem in all
+its phases is to take high ground and view the subject broadly in the
+light of what is for the best interests of children in general.
+
+The state recognizes the need of an intelligent citizenship and
+accordingly provides a system of public schools, requiring the
+attendance of all children up to the age of fourteen years. In order
+that nothing shall interfere with the operation of this plan for
+general education, the state forbids the employment of children of
+school age. In respect of both these mandates, the state has really
+assumed the guardianship of the child; it has accepted the principle
+that the child is the ward of the state and has based its action on
+this principle. A guardian should be ever mindful of the welfare of
+his wards, and so, to be consistent, the state should carefully shield
+its children from all forms of exploitation as well as from other
+abuses.
+
+However, in the matter of the regulation of child labor, a curious
+anomaly has arisen--no one may employ a child under fourteen years in
+a _factory_ for even one hour a day without being liable to
+prosecution for disobeying the law of the state, because such work
+might interfere with the child's growth and education; all of which is
+right and indorsed by public opinion, but--merely because a child is
+working independently of any employer, he is allowed to sell
+newspapers, peddle chewing gum and black boots for any number of
+hours, providing he attends school during school hours! Could anything
+be more inconsistent? To this extent the state, as a guardian, has
+neglected the welfare of its ward.
+
+This lack of consideration for street workers was emphasized in a
+British government report a number of years ago. Referring to the
+statutory provisions for preventing overwork by children in
+factories, workshops and mines, the report declared: "But the labour
+of children for wages outside these cases is totally unregulated,
+although many of them work longer than the factory hours allowed for
+children of the same age, and are at the same time undergoing
+compulsory educational training, which makes a considerable demand on
+their energies. We think this is inconsistent. In the interests of
+their health and education, it seems only reasonable that remedies
+which have proved so valuable in the case of factory children should
+in some form be extended to cover the whole field of child labour."[4]
+
+To insure a good yield, a field requires cultivation as well as
+planting; to effect a cure, a patient requires nursing as well as
+prescription. So with the aim of the state--to insure a strong,
+intelligent citizenship, its children must be cared for, as well as
+provided with schools. If a patient is not nursed while the physician
+is absent, his treatment is of little avail; if children are not
+protected out of school hours, the purpose of the school is
+defeated. No manufacturer would allow his machinery to run, unwatched,
+outside regular work hours, for he knows how disastrous would be the
+consequences; yet this is precisely what the state is doing by
+ignoring the activities of children in our city streets--the delicate
+machinery of their minds and bodies is allowed to run wild out of
+schools hours, and the state seems to think nothing will happen! These
+thoughts impel us to the conclusion that the state must watch over the
+child at least until he has reached the age limit for school
+attendance, and in the matter of labor regulation its care must not be
+confined to the prevention of one form of exploitation while other
+forms, equally injurious, are permitted to flourish unchecked.
+
+Legislation regulating street trading by children in this country is
+now in the stage corresponding to that of the English factory acts in
+the early part of the nineteenth century,--the first meager
+restrictions are being tried. Several of the street occupations, viz.
+messenger service, delivery service and errand running, are ordinarily
+included among those prohibited to children under fourteen years by
+state child labor laws, because to engage in such work children have
+to be employed by other persons. These occupations are covered by the
+provision common to such laws which forbids employment of such
+children "in the distribution or transmission of merchandise or
+messages." The street "trades" of newspaper selling, peddling and
+bootblacking are, as yet, almost untouched by legislation in the
+United States, for there exist only a very few state laws and city
+ordinances relative to this matter, and these of the most primitive
+kind. The public does not yet realize the injustice of permitting
+young children to engage, uncontrolled, in the various street-trading
+activities. It was slow to appreciate the dangers involved in the
+unrestricted employment of children in factories, mills and mines, but
+when the awakening finally came, the demand for reform was insistent.
+This gradual development of a sentiment favoring regulation
+characterizes also the problem of street employment; the present stage
+is that of calm indifference, ruffled only by occasional misgivings.
+Even this is an encouraging sign, inasmuch as the factory agitation
+passed through the same experience, and emerged triumphant,
+crystallized in statute form.
+
+It is hard to understand how the public conscience can reconcile
+itself to the chasm between the age limit of fourteen years for
+messenger service and freedom from all restraint in newspaper
+selling--both essentially street occupations. Child labor laws are
+framed in accordance with public sentiment, hence the people by
+legislative omission practically indorse street trading by little
+children while condemning their employment in other kinds of work.
+Thus the state virtually assumes the untenable position that it is
+right to allow a child of tender years to labor in the streets as a
+newsboy without any oversight or care whatever, and that it is wrong
+for him to work in the same field as a messenger, or an errand boy, or
+a delivery boy, although such occupations are subject to some degree
+of supervision by older persons. In other words, it is held that
+little children are capable of self-control in some street
+occupations, but not able to withstand the dangers of other similar
+street work, even under the control of adults! After having described
+the conditions prevailing in Philadelphia among newsboys, Mr. Scott
+Nearing says: "There are many causes leading up to this condition.
+Beneath all others lies the fundamental one--the lack of public
+sentiment in favor of protecting these children. Closely allied to
+this is another almost equally strong--the lack of public knowledge of
+the true state of affairs."[5]
+
+The Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit pointed out the fact that street
+trades are quite untouched by child labor legislation in the city and
+also in the state, declaring that in Illinois a boy or girl too young
+to be permitted to do any other work may haunt the newspaper offices,
+the five-cent shows, the theaters and saloons, selling chewing gum and
+newspapers at all hours of the night.[6]
+
+Among the arguments advanced in support of the unsuccessful effort to
+secure legislation on street trading in Illinois in 1911 was the
+following: "Each boy or girl street trader is a merchant in his or her
+own right, and therefore before the law is not considered a wage
+earner, although there is merely a fine-spun distinction between the
+child who secures _wages_ as the result of his work and one who
+obtains his reward in the form of _profits_. The effect on the child
+of work performed under unsuitable conditions, at unsuitable hours and
+demanding the exercise of his faculties in unchildish ways, is in no
+wise determined by the form in which his earnings are calculated. That
+the results of street trading are wholly bad in the case of both boys
+and girls is universally recognized."[7] Miss Jane Addams has deplored
+this situation in a public statement: "A newsboy is a merchant and
+does not come within the child labor regulations of Illinois. The city
+of Chicago is a little careless, if not recreant, toward the children
+who are not reached by the operation of the state law."[8]
+
+Even in the few localities where regulation of street trading has been
+attempted, the delusion that there is some essential difference
+between child labor in factories and child labor in streets persists
+in the legislation itself. The latter form of exploitation is assumed
+to merit a wider latitude for its activity, hence it is hedged about
+by much less stringent rules. Attention is invited to this
+inconsistency by the report of a recent investigation in New York
+City: "We have in New York 4148 children between 14 and 16 years
+employed in factories with their daily hours of labor limited from 8
+A.M. to 5 P.M., while in mercantile establishments there are 1645 more
+of similar age limit, none of whom can work before 8 in the morning or
+after 7 in the evening. But on the streets of New York City we have
+approximately 4500 boys licensed (to say nothing of the little fellows
+too young to be licensed) to sell newspapers. That means 4500
+legalized to work at this particular trade from 6 o'clock in the
+morning until 10 o'clock in the evening (save during the school year,
+when they are supposed to attend school from 9 A.M. to 3 P.M.) any day
+and every day, seven days to the week if they so desire to do."[9]
+
+
+                    _Broader Aspects of the Problem_
+
+Let us consider the matter from another point of view and discuss the
+opportunities for constructive work rather than confine our attention
+to the need of the merely negative remedy of restrictive legislation.
+
+The street is painted as a black monster by some social workers, who
+can discern nothing but evil in it. Nevertheless the street is closely
+woven into the life of every city dweller, for his contact with it is
+daily and continuous. If it is all evil, it ought to be abolished; as
+this is impossible, we must study it to see what it really is and what
+needs to be done with it. It is the medium by which people are brought
+into closer touch with one another, where they meet and converse,
+where they pass in transit, where they rub elbows with all the
+elements making up their little world, where they absorb the
+principles of democracy,--for the street is a great leveler.
+
+Dr. Delos F. Wilcox, in speaking to the subject "What is Philadelphia
+Doing to Protect Her Citizens in the Street?" recently said: "The
+street is the symbol of democracy, of equal opportunity, the channel
+of the common life, the thing that makes the city.... I fancy that the
+civic renaissance which must surely come, ... will never get very far
+until we have awakened to a realization of the dignity of the
+street--the common street where the city's children play, through
+which the milk wagon drives, where the young men are educated, along
+which the currents of the city's life flow unceasingly."[10]
+
+An English writer has expressed a similar thought: "We have spoken of
+the street as a dangerous environment from which we would gladly
+rescue the children if we could, and so it undoubtedly is in so far as
+it supplants the influence of the home, tends to nullify that of the
+school and lets the boys and girls run wild just when they most need
+to be tamed.... It is, in fact, so strange a mixture of good and evil,
+so complex an influence in the growth of boy and girl, of youth and
+man, among our great city population, that it is necessary to attempt
+to analyze it a little more exactly. It is for the majority the medium
+in which the social conscience is formed, and through which it makes
+its power felt. In it the all-powerful agents of progress, example,
+imitation, the spread of ideas and the discussion of good and evil are
+incessantly at work."[11]
+
+It is only natural that such a general agency for communication should
+have been abused. Its popularity alone would inevitably lead to such a
+result, with no restrictions imposed upon street intercourse. The very
+popularity of the games of billiards, pool and cards and of dancing
+led to their abuse and consequent disrepute in the eyes of many
+persons who were blinded to their intrinsic worth as diversions, by
+the abuses to which they were subjected. The marked success attending
+the proper use of all these amusements in social settlements and
+parish houses stimulates the imagination as to what might be
+accomplished with the street if its abuses also were eliminated.
+
+It is of course absurd to pass judgment summarily upon the street, for
+the street can exert no influence of itself; the evil issues from its
+abuse by those who frequent it, and it is this abuse that should be
+suppressed. This immediately raises the question as to what
+constitutes this abuse. We must bear in mind that the real purpose of
+the street is to serve as a means of communication, a passageway for
+the transit of passengers and commerce. It was never intended for a
+playground, nor a field for child labor, nor a resort for idlers, nor
+a depository for garbage, nor a place for beggars to mulct the public.
+These fungous growths from civic neglect ought to be cut away. "A
+place for everything and everything in its place" would be an
+efficacious even if old-fashioned remedy: playgrounds for the
+children, workshops for the idlers, reduction plants for the garbage
+and asylums for the beggars. With these reforms effected and carefully
+maintained, the street would soon become much more wholesome and
+attractive.
+
+These considerations have been advanced to indicate the intimate
+relation which exists between the problem of the child street worker
+and many other problems with which social workers are now struggling.
+Child labor in city streets must be abolished, but at the same time
+cooperation with other movements is necessary before a satisfactory
+solution of the problem can be assured.
+
+For example, it would be a short-sighted policy to prohibit young
+children from selling goods in home market stands without reporting to
+the housing authorities cases in which large families live in one or
+two filthy rooms, displaying and selling their wares in the doorway
+and from the window. Our Italian citizens are not committing race
+suicide, but in spite of their numerous progeny they crowd together in
+extremely limited space, combining their home life with the customary
+business of selling fruit. Their young children assist in tending the
+stands on market days and nights or sit on the sidewalk selling
+baskets to passers-by; at closing time their goods are often stored in
+the same room that serves for sleeping quarters, cots being brought
+out from some dark hiding place. In such circumstances the mere
+prevention of child labor is not sufficient--the housing conditions
+also should be remedied so as to give the children a more suitable
+place in which to play, study and sleep, a better home in which to use
+their leisure.
+
+Again, a movement to prohibit street work by children should give
+impetus to that which seeks to make the public school a social center,
+and especially to that for public vacation schools. Many of the homes
+of city children very largely lack the element of attractiveness which
+is so essential in holding children under the influence of their
+parents, and this want must be filled as far as possible by making
+the school an instrument not merely for instruction, but also for the
+entertainment and socializing of the entire neighborhood.
+
+Again, the regulating of street trading should be undertaken jointly
+with the movement to supply adequate playground facilities.
+Playgrounds are not a municipal luxury, but a necessary. Children must
+have some suitable place for recreation. It is not a function of the
+street to furnish the space for play, and as children cannot and
+should not be kept at home all the time, it follows that ground must
+be set apart for the purpose. On these points a British report says:
+"We have no doubt that insanitary homes and immoral surroundings, with
+the want of any open spaces where the children could enjoy healthy
+exercise and recreation, are strong factors in determining towards
+evil courses in the cases of the children of the poor."[12] The need
+for more playgrounds in Chicago was partially supplied by having one
+block in a congested district closed to traffic during August, 1911,
+so that children could play there without risking their lives, from
+eight in the morning to eight in the evening. In providing this
+emergency playground, Chicago has set an example that will undoubtedly
+be imitated by other cities.
+
+In this way the abolition of child labor in city streets would result
+in benefit not only to the children, but to the entire community as
+well. It would promote a general civic awakening that would make each
+town and city a better place to live in, a better home for our
+citizens of the future.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER II
+
+EXTENT TO WHICH CHILDREN ENGAGE IN STREET ACTIVITIES IN AMERICA AND
+EUROPE
+
+
+There are no reliable figures either official or unofficial showing
+the number of children engaged in street activities in any city of the
+United States or in the country at large. The figures given by the
+United States Census of 1900 are so inadequate that they can hardly
+mislead any one endowed with ordinary powers of observation. It
+solemnly declares that in that year there was a grand total of 6904
+newspaper carriers and newsboys, both adults and children, in the
+entire United States, of whom 69 were females.[13] In all probability
+there was a greater number at that time in some of our larger cities
+alone. In the group called "other persons in trade and transportation"
+only 3557 children ten to fifteen years of age are reported, although
+this group embraces nine specified occupations, of which that of the
+newsboy is only one. Besides these, many other occupations (in which
+63 per cent of the total number of persons reported are engaged) are
+not specified.[14] Consequently the number of newsboys ten to fifteen
+years old reported by the enumerators for the entire country must have
+been ridiculously small.
+
+Again, the total number of bootblacks ten years of age and upwards in
+the country was reported as 8230, they being included in the group
+called "other domestic and personal service." Only 2953 children ten
+to fifteen years of age were reported in this group, which includes
+five specified occupations, of which that of the bootblacks is only
+one, and many others (in which 67 per cent of the total number of
+persons reported are engaged) which are not specified.[15]
+
+The inadequacy of these figures to convey any idea whatsoever as to
+the extent of child labor in street occupations in this country is
+painfully apparent; they are quoted here merely to show the poverty
+of statistics on this subject. Their inaccuracy is practically
+conceded by the report itself in the following words: "The limitations
+connected with the taking of a great national census preclude proper
+care upon the question of child employment. There is great uncertainty
+as to the accuracy of a mass of information of this character taken by
+enumerators and special agents, who either do not appreciate the
+importance of the investigation or find it impracticable to devote the
+time to the inquiry necessary to secure good results."[16]
+
+There is reason to hope for more reliable data from the 1910 census;
+but unfortunately the figures will probably not be available until
+1913. The enumerators employed by the Federal government for the
+Census of 1910, were instructed to make an entry in the occupation
+column of the population schedule for every person enumerated, giving
+the exact occupation if employed, writing the word "none" if
+unemployed, or the words "own income" if living upon an independent
+income. It was stated positively that the occupation followed by a
+child of any age was just as important for census purposes as the
+occupation followed by a man, and that it should never be taken for
+granted without inquiry that a child had no occupation.[17]
+
+However, upon inquiry by enumerators at the time of the census taking
+as to the occupation of children, many parents undoubtedly replied in
+the negative, even though their children may have been devoting
+several hours daily outside of school to street work, under the
+impression that this was not an occupation. Consequently it is safe to
+assume that the figures for street-working children in the United
+States according to the Census of 1910 when published will be under
+the true number. Nevertheless, they can hardly fail to reflect
+conditions far better than did the figures for 1900.
+
+
+                               _Chicago_
+
+It is only from the reports of occasional and very limited local
+investigations that material as to the actual state of affairs can be
+obtained. Social workers of Chicago had a bill introduced into the
+Illinois legislature at its session of 1911, providing that boys
+under ten years and girls under sixteen years should be prohibited
+from selling anything in city streets, and some material was gathered
+to be used in support of this measure. In connection with what has
+already been said in Chapter I, it is interesting to note that
+although the provisions of this bill were very mild, and strong
+efforts were put forth by social workers to secure its passage, it was
+not allowed to become a law largely because of the absence of public
+opinion and partly because of the opposition by newspaper publishers
+and others who were afraid that their interests might suffer through
+the granting of protection to such little children.
+
+In one of the schools of Chicago, pupils were found to be trading in
+the streets in addition to attending school in the following
+percentages:--
+
+  65 per cent of 5th grade children
+  35 per cent of 4th grade children
+  15 per cent of 2d grade children
+  12 per cent of 1st grade children
+  (Figures for 3d grade were not given.)
+
+All of these children were attending school twenty-five hours a week,
+and many cases of excessive work out of school hours were found. Some
+allowance should be made for possible exaggeration on the part of
+these children, but nevertheless it is certain that many of them were
+working to an injurious extent. The hours given were as follows:--
+
+  1 boy over 50 hours
+  4 boys over 40 hours
+  5 boys over 35 hours
+  7 boys over 30 hours
+  18 boys over 20 hours
+
+Their average earnings per week were found to be as follows:[18]--
+
+  5th grade children      $1.18
+  4th grade children        .85
+  3d grade children         .60
+  2d grade children         .43
+  1st grade children        .36
+
+In referring to the weekly income of the children from this source,
+the Handbook of the Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit declared that it was
+"a pitiable sum to compensate for the physical weariness and moral
+risk attending street trades in a large city. School reports show that
+street trades, when carried on by young children, lead to truancy,
+low vitality, dullness and the breaking down of parental control.
+Since the children are on the streets at all hours, careless habits
+are developed which often lead to moral ruin to both boys and
+girls."[19]
+
+An instance was related wherein the teacher of a fifth grade in a
+Chicago school asked those of her pupils who worked for money to raise
+their hands. In the class of 38 pupils, 26 acknowledged that they were
+little breadwinners! One boy said he worked ten hours a day besides
+attending school; others had less striking records, spending from
+twenty to forty hours a week selling chewing gum and newspapers,
+blacking boots and pursuing the various other street occupations which
+the Illinois law leaves open to children of all ages.[20]
+
+Referring to the economic and home conditions surrounding young
+children in Chicago and the many phases of danger to their moral
+well-being, the Vice Commission of that city reported that its agents
+had found small boys selling newspapers in segregated districts and
+that one night an investigator had counted twenty newsboys from eleven
+years upwards so engaged at midnight and after. Besides these
+newsboys, many little boys and girls were found peddling chewing gum
+near disorderly saloons where prostitutes were soliciting. Numerous
+examples of employment in vicious environment are cited, principally
+of the peddling of newspapers and chewing gum by young children at all
+hours of the night in the "red light" districts, about saloons and
+museums of anatomy. Even in the rear rooms of saloons, boys were seen
+offering their wares and heard to join in obscene conversation with
+the patrons of these resorts.[21]
+
+A folder published in Chicago by the advocates of street-trade
+regulation calls attention to these conditions, and states, with
+regard to little newsgirls who sell papers in the vice regions: "It is
+not surprising if some of them, becoming so familiar with the
+practices of the district, take up the profession of the neighborhood.
+The Juvenile Protective Association reports one little girl who
+entered the life of a professional prostitute at the age of fourteen,
+after having sold newspapers for years in the district."[22]
+
+Another element of this problem, seldom considered, is described also
+in this folder--the vagrants, who constitute a large and growing class
+deserving the attention of both city and citizen. "Three classes of
+persons, who add little to the general circulation, while detracting
+much from the tone of the business and working a real injury to
+themselves, are engaged in selling newspapers; these are the small
+boy, the semi-vagrant boy, and the young girl. The business of selling
+newspapers in Chicago is so systematized that the 'vagrant' cannot
+prosper, and yet the 'vagrant' is in our midst. He can be found on
+State Street at 11 o'clock on a Saturday night with one newspaper
+under his arm--not attempting to sell it, but using it as a bait to
+beg from the passers-by. He can be found in the _American_ news alley,
+sometimes fifty, sometimes a hundred strong, sleeping on bags, under
+boxes, or on the floor of the newspaper restaurant. With this boy,
+and with all those who are obviously too young to be permitted to
+engage in street trading, it is our duty to deal if we are to preserve
+the attitude the American city takes toward the dependent child."
+
+
+              NATIONALITIES OF BOSTON CHILD STREET TRADERS
+
+  ====================================+======+==========
+           PLACE OF BIRTH             |NUMBER|PERCENTAGE
+  ------------------------------------+------+----------
+          { Boston             1,556  |      |
+  America { Elsewhere in Mass.   171  | 1860 |   70.
+          { Other states         133  |      |
+  Russia                              |  473 |   17.5
+  Italy                               |  161 |    6.
+  Other foreign countries             |  162 |    6.
+  Not given                           |    8 |     .5
+                                      |----- | ------
+                                      | 2664 |  100.0
+  ====================================+======+==========
+
+
+                                _Boston_
+
+In Boston, during the year 1910, there were issued to newsboys,
+peddlers and bootblacks from eleven to thirteen years of age
+inclusive, 2664 licenses. Of these nearly all (2525) were issued to
+newsboys, while 114 were issued to bootblacks and 25 to peddlers. Of
+these license holders 904 were eleven years old, 900 were twelve
+years old, and 860 were thirteen years old. It is interesting to note
+that nearly three fourths of these children were born in the United
+States; the table on page 33 shows their distribution among
+nationalities.
+
+
+                            _New York City_
+
+The actual number of children engaged in street activities at any
+given time is less than the number of licenses issued during the year,
+inasmuch as not all such children persist in pursuing this work, many
+of them working only a few weeks, while a few never enter upon the
+tasks which they have been licensed to perform. This is borne out by
+the experience of investigators in New York City; the report of a
+study made there recently says: "We are told by the department of
+education issuing newsboy badges that 4500 boys have these badges, yet
+when we secured the addresses of some of these from their application
+cards ... we found that not 30 per cent of the 100 cases investigated
+lived at listed addresses. Many such were bogus numbers, open lots,
+factories, wharves, and in some cases the middle of East River would
+wash over the house number given. When we did find a correct address,
+the children so located in six cases out of ten were not following the
+trade. In some instances they never sold papers, obtaining badges
+simply because other boys were applying for them, and after receiving
+a badge tucked it away in a drawer or maybe sold it or gave it
+away."[23]
+
+
+                              _Cincinnati_
+
+In Cincinnati from June to December, 1909, 1951 boys from ten to
+thirteen years of age were licensed to sell newspapers, this number
+being about 15 per cent of the total number of boys of these ages in
+the city. Their distribution according to age was as follows:--
+
+  10 years         424
+  11 years         466
+  12 years         539
+  13 years         522
+                  ----
+      Total       1951
+
+The Cincinnati figures do not include bootblacks, peddlers or market
+children, as no licenses were issued for such occupations, although
+they are specifically covered by the municipal ordinance regulating
+street trades.
+
+The above data were available only because there has been some attempt
+in Boston, New York and Cincinnati to restrict the employment of
+children in street occupations; as in the great majority of cities and
+states there is absolutely no regulation of this kind, there are of
+course no figures to indicate conditions.
+
+
+                          _The Padrone System_
+
+In almost every city of the United States having a population of more
+than 10,000, there is to be found the padrone system, which is
+operated principally in the interests of the bootblacking business
+which the Greeks control. The peddling of flowers, fruit and
+vegetables in Chicago and New York is partly subject to the same
+methods. The labor supply furnished by this system for peddling and
+bootblacking consists generally of children from twelve to seventeen
+years of age.[24]
+
+The Immigration Commission states in its report that there are several
+thousand shoe-shining establishments in the United States operated by
+Greeks who employ boys as bootblacks, and that with few exceptions
+they are under the padrone system.[25] A few boys under sixteen years
+of age are employed under the Greek padrone system as flower vendors,
+and these are found chiefly in New York City. They are hired by
+florists to sell flowers in the streets and public places--largely old
+stock that cannot be handled in the shops. These boys usually live in
+good quarters, are well fed and receive their board and from $50 to
+$100 a year in wages. When not engaged in peddling, they deliver
+flowers ordered at the shops. The boys employed by the padrones to
+peddle candy, fruit and vegetables usually live in basements or in
+filthy rooms; here they are crowded two, three and sometimes four in
+one bed, with windows shut tight so as to avoid catching cold. The
+fruit and vegetables still on hand are stored for the night in these
+bedrooms and in the kitchen. In each peddling company there are
+usually three or four wagons and from four to eight boys.[26]
+
+
+                       _Minor Street Occupations_
+
+There are a few so-called street trades in which a relatively small
+number of children are engaged which so far have not been mentioned in
+this volume. These are the leading of blind persons and the
+accompanying of beggars in general, little children being found
+valuable for such work because they help to excite the sympathy of
+passers-by. A few children also are employed as lamplighters to go
+about towns lighting street lamps in the evening and extinguishing
+them in the early morning. A class of street boys who have as yet
+received no name in this country, but in England are called "touts,"
+haunt the neighborhood of railroad depots and lie in wait for
+passengers with hand baggage, offering to carry it to the train for a
+small fee.
+
+Some children are used as singers or performers upon musical
+instruments, but this is in reality only another form of begging. The
+writer found one instance of a young boy who was employed by the
+public library of one of our large cities to gather up overdue books
+about the city and to collect the fines imposed for failure to return
+the same. Very frequently in the course of his work this boy had to
+enter houses of prostitution, as the inmates are steady patrons of the
+public library, reading light literature, and are quite negligent in
+the matter of returning the books within the prescribed time.
+Immediately upon the librarian's learning of the situation, he was
+relieved of this duty, and a man was detailed to perform the task.
+Such special occupations as these do not constitute a real factor in
+the problem because of the small number of children involved, and
+hence they are omitted from consideration.
+
+
+                     _Conditions in Great Britain_
+
+Turning to Europe we find much more information on this subject. In
+Great Britain the House of Commons in 1898 ordered an inquiry to be
+made into the extent of child labor among public school pupils, and
+the education department sent schedules to the 20,022 public
+elementary schools in England and Wales for the purpose of determining
+the facts. A little more than half of the schools returned the
+schedules blank, stating that no children were employed; this
+introduced a large element of error into the return, as many of the
+schoolmasters misunderstood the meaning of the schedules, and
+consequently quite a number of children who should have been included
+were omitted from the total. The 9433 schedules which were filled and
+returned showed that 144,026 children (about three fourths boys and
+one fourth girls) were in attendance full time at the public
+elementary schools of England and Wales and known to be employed for
+profit outside of school hours.
+
+The ages of these children reported as employed were as follows:[27]--
+
+  Under 7 years       131
+   7 years          1,120
+   8 years          4,211
+   9 years         11,027
+  10 years         22,131
+  11 years         36,775
+  12 years         47,471
+  13 years         18,556
+  14 and over       1,787
+  Not given           817
+                  -------
+    Total         144,026
+
+The standards or school grades in which these working children were
+enrolled and the total enrollment for the year ended August 31, 1898,
+were as follows:[28]--
+
+  ==========================+============
+                            |  TOTAL
+      WORKING CHILDREN      | ENROLLMENT
+  --------------------------+-----------
+  No Standard           329 |
+  1st standard        3,890 | 2,875,088
+  2d standard        11,686 |   723,582
+  3d standard        24,624 |   679,096
+  4th standard       36,907 |   590,850
+  5th standard       37,315 |   421,728
+  6th standard       21,975 |   212,546
+  7th standard        6,382 |    66,442
+  Ex-7 standard         382 |     7,534
+  Not stated            536 |
+                    ------- | ---------
+      Total         144,026 | 5,576,866
+  ==========================+============
+
+The occupations followed by these children were divided into three
+main groups, and each of these groups was further divided into three
+classes. These divisions and the number of children in each were as
+follows:[29]--
+
+  =======================+=======================+=========================
+                         |                       |  DOMESTIC EMPLOYMENT,
+    PIECEWORK, CHIEFLY   |  TIME-WORK, CHIEFLY   |  GIRLS ONLY, WITH ONE
+           BOYS          |         BOYS          |    OR TWO EXCEPTIONS
+  -----------------------+-----------------------+-------------------------
+  Selling                | In shops or           | Minding babies   11,585
+  newspapers      15,182 | running               |
+                         | errands for           | Other housework,
+  Hawking goods    2,435 | shopkeepers    76,173 | including
+                         |                       | laundry work,
+  Sports, taking         | Agricultural          | etc.              9,254
+  dinners,               | occupations     6,115 |
+  knocking-up,           |                       | Needlework and
+  etc.             8,627 | Boot and knife        | like occupations  4,019
+                         | cleaning, etc.        |
+                         | (house boys)   10,636 |
+  =======================+=======================+=========================
+
+The return revealed a surprising variety of occupations followed by
+these children--about 200 different kinds in all.
+
+  HOURS PER WEEK     NUMBER OF CHILDREN
+      Under 10             39,355
+      10-20                60,268
+      21-30                27,008
+      31-40                 9,778
+      41-50                 2,390
+      51-60                   576
+      61-70                   142
+      71-80                    59
+      Over 81                  16
+      Not stated            4,434
+                          -------
+          Total           144,026
+
+The number of hours per week devoted by these children to the various
+employments will be found in the above table; it should be remembered
+that these hours were given to work in addition to the time spent at
+school.[30]
+
+It was recognized that the figures given by this parliamentary return
+did not represent the real situation, but nevertheless its revelations
+were sufficiently startling to show the need of further investigation.
+Accordingly in 1901 there was appointed an interdepartmental committee
+which after careful study reported that the figures in the
+parliamentary return were well within the actual numbers, but that the
+facts it contained were substantially correct.[31] This committee
+estimated the total number of children who were both in attendance at
+school and in paid employments in England and Wales at 300,000;[32] it
+declared that cases of excessive employment were "sufficiently
+numerous to leave no doubt that a substantial number of children are
+being worked to an injurious extent."[33]
+
+Referring to the amount of time devoted by the children to gainful
+employment outside of school, the committee reported, "On a review of
+the evidence we consider it is proved that in England and Wales a
+substantial number of children, amounting probably to 50,000, are
+being worked more than twenty hours a week in addition to twenty-seven
+and one-half hours at school, that a considerable proportion of this
+number are being worked to thirty or forty and some even to fifty
+hours a week, and that the effect of this work is in many cases
+detrimental to their health, their morals and their education, besides
+being often so unremitting as to deprive them of all reasonable
+opportunity for recreation. For an evil so serious, existing on so
+large a scale, we think that some remedy ought to be found."[34] The
+committee estimated the total number of children selling newspapers
+and in street hawking at 25,000.[35]
+
+With reference to conditions in Edinburgh, an English writer says, "Of
+the 1406 children employed out of school hours in Edinburgh, 307 are
+ten years of age or under. Four of them are six years old, and eleven
+are seven years of age. We hear of boys working seventeen hours (from
+7 A.M. to 12 P.M.) on Saturday. For children to work twelve, thirteen
+and fourteen hours on Saturday is quite common. The average wage seems
+to be three farthings an hour, but one hears of children who are paid
+one shilling and sixpence for thirty-eight hours of toil."[36]
+
+In New South Wales boys are permitted to trade on the streets at the
+age of ten years, and up to fourteen years may engage in such work
+between the hours of 7 A.M. and 7 P.M. except while the schools are in
+session; after they are fourteen years old they may trade between 6
+A.M. and 10 P.M. Such children are licensed, and during the six months
+ending March 31, 1910, 714 licenses were issued, 72 per cent of them
+being to children under fourteen years of age; 92 per cent of these
+children were engaged in hawking newspapers, the others being
+scattered through such occupations as peddling flowers, fruit and
+vegetables, fish, fancy goods, matches, bottles, pies and milk.[37]
+
+
+                        _Conditions in Germany_
+
+In December, 1897, the German Imperial Chancellor, referring to the
+incomplete census returns as to child labor, requested the
+governments to furnish him with information as to the total number of
+children under fourteen employed in labor other than factory labor,
+agricultural employment and domestic service, and the kinds of work
+done. In this circular he said: "But, above all, where the kind of
+occupation is unsuitable for children, where the work continues too
+long, where it takes place at unseasonable times and in unsuitable
+places, child labor gives rise to serious consideration; in such cases
+it is not only dangerous to the health and morality of the children,
+but school discipline is impaired and compulsory education becomes
+illusory. For children cannot possibly give the necessary attention to
+their lessons when they are tired out and when they have been working
+hard in unhealthful rooms until late at night. I need only instance
+employment in skittle alleys late in the evening, in the delivery of
+newspapers in the early morning and the employment of children in many
+branches of home industry. The most recent researches undertaken in
+different localities show that the employment of children in labor
+demands earnest attention in the interests of the rising
+generation."[38]
+
+Inquiries extending over almost the whole German Empire were
+accordingly made by the different states from January to April, 1898.
+It was found that 544,283 children under fourteen years were employed
+in labor other than factory labor, agricultural employment and
+domestic service. This was 6.53 per cent of the total number of
+children of school age (8,334,919).
+
+With regard to the effects of such work, this German report says: "As
+the children who carry around small wares, sell flowers, etc., go from
+one inn to another, they are exposed to evil influences, and are
+liable to contract at an early age, bad habits of smoking, lying,
+drinking.... The delivery of newspapers is a particularly great strain
+on the children, as it occupies them both before and after school
+hours."
+
+Seven divisions of these children were made according to occupation,
+four of them relating to street work. Under the heading _Handel_ were
+included children in many kinds of work, among them hawking fruit,
+milk, bread, brooms, flowers, newspapers, etc.; under _Austragedienste_
+were included only the delivery and carrying around of bread, milk,
+vegetables, beer, papers, books, advertisements, circulars, bills,
+coals, wood, boots and shoes, washing, clothes, etc.; under
+_Gewoehnliche Laufdienste_ were included only errand boys and
+messengers; under _Sonstige gewerbliche Thaetigkeit_ were included,
+among other occupations, blacking boots, leading the blind, street
+singers and players, etc.
+
+========================+========+========+=========+=========+============
+                        |        |        | SEX NOT |         |
+                        |  BOYS  | GIRLS  | STATED  |  TOTAL  | PERCENTAGE
+------------------------+--------+--------+---------+---------+------------
+Handel (retail trade)   |  7,507 |  4,540 |   5,576 |  17,623 |    3.31
+                        |        |        |         |         |
+Austragedienste         |        |        |         |         |
+(delivery service)      | 67,188 | 36,966 |  31,676 | 135,830 |   25.52
+                        |        |        |         |         |
+Gewoehnliche Laufdienste |        |        |         |         |
+(general  messenger     |        |        |         |         |
+service)                | 23,321 |  2,134 |  10,454 |  35,909 |    6.75
+                        |        |        |         |         |
+Sonstige  gewerbliche   |        |        |         |         |
+Thaetigkeit (other forms |        |        |         |         |
+of labor)               |  6,281 |  2,387 |   3,119 |  11,787 |    2.21
+========================+========+========+=========+=========+============
+
+
+                        _Conditions in Austria_
+
+The Austrian Ministry of Commerce began an investigation of actual
+conditions in Austria late in 1907 in response to the agitation for a
+new law that would regulate child labor not only in factories, but
+also in home industries, in commerce, and even in agriculture. In his
+Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, Mr. C. W. A. Veditz
+refers to the findings of this investigation in a number of the
+provinces. In Bohemia, of 676 children in trade and transportation,
+but still attending school, 169 were engaged in peddling and
+huckstering; in delivering goods and going errands 1554 children were
+employed, being generally hired to deliver bread, milk, meats,
+groceries, newspapers, books, telegrams, circulars--in fact, all
+manner of goods.[39] In the province of Upper Austria children are
+paid from two to seven crowns (40.6 cents to $1.42) a month for
+delivering newspapers daily, while in the duchy of Salzburg the pay
+varies from twenty to fifty hellers (4 to 10 cents) a day for
+delivering bread or newspapers.
+
+In the province of Lower Austria, "referring now to the other main
+occupations in which school children are employed outside of industry
+proper, the report [of the investigation] shows that ... those
+working in trade and transportation usually help wait on customers in
+their parents' stores; a number, however, sell flowers, shoe laces,
+etc., or huckster bread, butter and eggs, or carry passengers' baggage
+to and from railway stations. Most of those put down as delivering
+goods are engaged in delivering bread, milk, newspapers and
+washing."[40] Children who sell flowers, bread or cigars in Vienna
+earn one to two crowns (20.3 to 40.6 cents) a day during the week, and
+on Sundays as much as three crowns (60.9) cents. "The children
+employed [in Lower Austria] to deliver goods and run errands are also
+usually employed by non-relatives and receive wages in money. Those
+who deliver milk, and who work one half to one hour a day, generally
+receive twenty hellers to one crown (4 to 20.3 cents) weekly; in
+exceptional cases two crowns (40.6 cents), and in some instances only
+food and old clothes. For delivering bread and pastry, wages are
+reported as thirty hellers (6 cents) a week and some meals, or fifty
+hellers to two crowns (10 to 40.6 cents) a week without meals; in
+exceptional cases, 10 per cent of the receipts. For delivering
+papers, which requires one to two hours a day, children receive two to
+ten crowns (40.6 cents to $2.03) a month. For delivering of washing,
+thirty hellers (6 cents) for a two-hours' trip, or sixty hellers to
+two crowns (12 to 40.6 cents) a week. Children who carry dinner to
+mill laborers, requiring one half to one hour daily, get eighty
+hellers to five crowns (16 cents to $1.02) a month. Messengers for
+stores, hotels, etc., get a tip of two to ten hellers (.4 to 2 cents)
+per errand, or, if employed regularly, twenty hellers to one crown (4
+to 20.3 cents) a week."[41]
+
+"The delivery of milk, pastry, newspapers, etc., in which many
+children are employed in Vienna and other large cities, does not cause
+frequent absences, but is responsible for tardy arrival at school in
+the morning and for the fatigue that reduces attention and prevents
+mental alertness."[42]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+NEWSPAPER SELLERS
+
+
+By far the majority of the children in street occupations are engaged
+in the sale or delivery of newspapers. The newsboy predominates to
+such an extent that he is taken as a matter of course. As Mrs.
+Florence Kelley says, "For more than one generation, it has been
+almost invariably assumed that there must be little newsboys." Ever
+since he became an institution of our city life, the public has been
+pleased to regard him admiringly as an energetic salesman of
+penetrating mind and keen sense of humor. There seems to be a tacit
+indorsement of the newsboy as such.
+
+Ordinarily there are five classes of newsboys to be found in all large
+cities--(1) the corner boys, (2) those who sell for corner boys on
+salary, (3) others who sell for them on commission, (4) those who sell
+for themselves, and (5) those with delivery routes. The bulk of the
+business is handled by the first three of these classes, which are
+always associated together and found on the busy corners of the
+downtown sections of all our cities. The choice localities for the
+sale of newspapers, namely, the corners in the downtown sections where
+thousands of pedestrians are daily passing, come under the control of
+individuals by virtue of long tenure or by purchase, and their title
+to these corners is not disputed largely on account of the support
+they receive from the circulation managers of the newspapers. In
+former years the proprietorship of the corner was settled by a fight,
+but now it undergoes change of ownership by the formal transfer of
+location, fixtures and goodwill in accordance with the most approved
+legal practice.
+
+In Chicago a system of routes has been established by the newspapers
+which send wagons out with the different editions published each day
+to supply the men who control the delivery and sale of newspapers in
+the various districts. These route men employ boys to deliver for them
+to regular customers and also to sell on street corners on a
+commission basis. In Boston, ex-newsboys known as "Canada Points" are
+employed by the publishers at a fixed salary to distribute the
+editions by wholesale among the twenty odd places in the city from
+which the street sellers are supplied.
+
+
+               _Ages, Earnings and Character of the Work_
+
+The following individual cases will serve to illustrate the various
+forms this business takes. One nineteen-year-old boy paid $65 for his
+corner in Cincinnati about five years ago; he now earns from $4 to $5
+a day clear and would not sell the location for many times its cost.
+He works there from 11 A.M. to 6.30 P.M. on week days, starting an
+hour earlier on Saturdays, while on Sundays he delivers the morning
+newspapers over a route to regular customers. Two boys of about twelve
+years of age work for him, to one of whom he pays 25 cents a day and
+to the other 30 cents a day; their duties are to hawk the different
+editions and to dispose of as many copies as possible by hopping the
+street cars and offering the papers to pedestrians from 3.45 to 6.30
+P.M. daily on week days. If they do not hustle and make a large number
+of sales, they lose their job.
+
+A corner in another part of the city is "owned" by a thirteen-year-old
+boy who earns about 80 cents a day clear for himself in eight hours,
+and on Saturdays in nine hours. He has two boys working for him on
+commission, to whom he pays one cent for every four papers sold; they
+average about 15 cents a day apiece for three hours' work. When
+questioned, these commission boys admitted that they could make more
+money if working for themselves, but in that case would have to work
+until all the copies they had bought were sold, while on the
+commission plan they did not have to shoulder so much responsibility.
+
+Regulations made by the circulation managers of newspapers concerning
+the return of unsold copies greatly affect the newsboys' business.
+Naturally these regulations are made with an eye to extending the
+circulation. Corner boys are allowed to return only one copy out of
+every ten bought, being reimbursed by the office for its cost.
+Consequently they urge their newsboy employees and commission workers
+to put forth every effort to dispose of the supply purchased. The
+independent sellers are never permitted to return any unsold copies,
+except in the case of certain energetic boys who can be relied upon to
+work hard in any event. These are known as "hustlers," and owing to
+their having won the confidence of the circulation manager they are
+granted the special privilege of returning at cost all copies they
+have been unable to sell.
+
+In Boston, beginners are often on a commission basis; "in this way
+they secure the advice and protection of the more experienced while
+serving their apprenticeship. These _strikers_, as they are called,
+keep one cent for every four collected; few of them earn more than 25
+cents a day, while many of them earn less than 10."[43]
+
+An eleven-year-old Jewish boy who has been a newsboy for several years
+now controls a comparatively quiet corner in Cincinnati, where he nets
+from 40 to 50 cents a day, working about three hours. This boy's
+father and mother are both living.
+
+Submission to older persons is natural among children, and an
+interesting instance of tyranny over small boys by adults was found in
+the case of a newspaper employee who works inside the plant and
+employs several young boys to sell newspapers on the streets for him.
+These boys together earn about $1.30 when working about seven hours,
+but only half of this amount goes into their pockets, the other half
+being paid to their "employer." In New York City certain busy sections
+having points of strategic value are under the control of men who
+employ small boys to do the real work for a mere pittance, usually the
+price of admission to a moving-picture show. However, under certain
+circumstances, these little fellows often display a sturdy spirit of
+independence. An amusing instance is innocently recorded by an old
+wartime report of a newsboys' home: "It had been decided to give the
+boys a free dinner on Sundays, on condition that they attend the
+Sunday School; but last Sunday they desired the Matron to say that
+they were able and willing to pay for the dinner."[44]
+
+Independent newsboys must not stand in the territory controlled by
+another; they must select some uncontrolled spot, or else run about
+hither and yon, selling where they can. Under the unwritten law of
+this business a boy who chances to sell in another's territory must
+give the corner boy the money and receive a newspaper in exchange;
+this results the same as if the corner boy himself had made the sale.
+The earnings of these independent boys range from 15 to 65 cents daily
+out of school hours, while on Saturdays they make from $1 to $1.50
+working from 11 A.M. to 6.30 P.M.
+
+An eleven-year-old lad who has been a newsboy for three years, selling
+on his own account, disposes of most of his copies in saloons located
+in the middle of a busy square, earning from 50 cents to $1.25 a day
+even when attending school. His mother and father are both living.
+Another example of this class is a sixteen-year-old boy who devotes
+all his time to the trade, his net income averaging about $7.50 per
+week. His attitude toward regular work is both interesting and
+significant; he hopes to get a better job, but says that although he
+has hunted for one, so little is offered for what he can do ($2 to $3
+per week) that it would hardly suffice for spending money. Discussing
+this difference between factory wages and street-trading profits, an
+English report says: "Working from 11 A.M. to 7 or 8 P.M., with
+intervals for gambling, newsboys over 14 years old can make from
+10_s._ to 14_s._ a week if they have an ordinary share of alertness.
+In a factory or foundry, working from 6 A.M. to 6 P.M., a boy earns
+about 13_s._ a week. The comparison needs no comment. The excitement
+of their career tends to make them more and more reluctant to work
+steadily.... Many newsboys protest that they want more permanent work,
+but they rarely keep it when it is found for them."[45] The life of
+the streets lacks the discipline involved in steady work and fixed
+earnings.
+
+As an example of the route boy there is a fourteen-year-old lad in
+Cincinnati who has a list of fifty customers to whom he delivers
+newspapers regularly, earning in this way 25 cents daily, delivering
+after school hours. He declares that he finds it much easier to work
+on a route than to sell on the corners or at random.
+
+The morning papers employ a man as circulation manager for the
+residence districts who controls all the corners in those sections.
+When a corner becomes vacant, he assigns a youth to it. These older
+boys are not to sell their corners nor to dispose of them in any way,
+nor are they allowed to have any one working for them; they must "hop"
+all the street cars passing their corners and are expected to put
+forth every effort to accomplish a great number of sales. They get
+their supply of copies at the branch office at 5 A.M., hurrying then
+to their corners, where they remain until nearly noon, averaging in
+this time from $2 to $3 per day clear. Nearly all of the afternoon
+papers sold in the residence districts are delivered by route boys;
+after having gone over their routes, some of these boys go to the
+busier localities and sell the sporting extra during the baseball
+season until about seven o'clock.
+
+
+                             _Environment_
+
+Strong emphasis was laid upon the evils of street trading by the New
+York Child Welfare Exhibit of 1911, the Committee on Work and Wages
+declaring that "The ordinary newsboy is surrounded by influences that
+are extremely bad, because (1) of the desultory nature of his work;
+(2) of the character of street life; and (3) of the lack of
+discipline or restraint in this work. The occupation is characterized
+by 'rush hours,' during which the boy will work himself into
+exhaustion trying to keep pace with his trade, and long hours in which
+there is little or nothing to do, during which the boy has unlimited
+opportunities to make such use of the street freedom as he sees fit.
+During these light hours newsboys congregate in the streets and commit
+many acts of vandalism. They learn all forms of petty theft and
+usually are accomplished in most of the vices of the street. In
+building up their routes, the boys often include places of the most
+degrading and detrimental character. On the economic side, the loss is
+due to failure of the occupation to furnish any training for
+industrial careers."[46]
+
+The irregularity of newsboys' meals and the questionable character of
+their food form one of the worst features of street work and are a
+real menace to health. Many newsboys are in the habit of eating
+hurriedly at lunch counters at intervals during the day and night,
+while some snatch free lunches in saloons. In New York City their
+diet has been found to consist chiefly of "such hostile ingredients as
+frankfuerters, mince pies, doughnuts, ham sandwiches, cakes and
+'sinkers'."[47] The use of stimulants is common, and the demand for
+them is to be expected because of the nervous strain of the work.
+Liquor is not consumed to any appreciable extent by street-trading
+children, but coffee is a favorite beverage. In the largest cities,
+where "night gangs" are found, from four to six bowls of coffee are
+usually taken every evening. Tobacco is used in great quantities and
+in all its forms; many boys even appease their hunger for the time by
+smoking cigarettes, and the smallest "newsies" are addicted to the
+habit. Evidence that this is not a recent development among street
+workers is found in a report made nearly a quarter of a century ago,
+which, with reference to newsboys, says "many of them soon spend their
+gains in pool rooms, low places of amusement and for the poisonous
+cigarette."[48]
+
+An English report on the street traders of Manchester says:
+"Drunkenness is rare among these boys ... they are in many ways
+attractive; but the closer our acquaintance grows with them the more
+overwhelming does this propensity to gambling appear. Indeed, it may
+reasonably be said that the whole career of the street trader is one
+long game of chance.... They tend to become more and more unwilling to
+work hard; they are the creatures of accident and lose the power of
+foresight; they never form habits of thrift; and their word can be
+taken only by those who have learnt how to interpret it."[49]
+
+There are tricks in newspaper selling as well as in other trades, and
+children are not slow to learn them. A careful observer cannot fail to
+note that certain newsboys seem always to be without change. Their
+patrons are generally in a hurry and willingly sacrifice the change
+from a nickel, even priding themselves on their unselfishness in thus
+helping to relieve the supposed poverty of the newsboys. As a matter
+of fact, such an act does real harm, for it arouses the cupidity of
+boys and leads them to believe that honesty is not the best policy.
+The temptation for newsboys to develop into "short change artists" is
+an ever present one, for the bustle of the street creates a most
+favorable condition for the practice of such frauds. Yet in spite of
+the many temptations which assail them, numbers of newsboys are
+scrupulously exact in the matter of making change, even under the most
+trying circumstances. Another common form of deceit, used to play upon
+the sympathy of passers-by, is practiced after nightfall by boys of
+all ages in offering a solitary newspaper for sale and crying in
+plaintive tone, "Please, mister, buy my last paper?" A kind-hearted
+person readily falls a victim to this ruse, and as soon as he has
+passed by, the newsboy draws another copy from his hidden supply and
+repeats his importuning. Commenting on these features of street
+trading, Dr. Charles P. Neill, United States Commissioner of Labor,
+has said: "Unless the child is cast in the mold of heroic virtue, the
+newsboy trade is a training in either knavery or mendicancy. Nowhere
+else are the wits so sharpened to look for the unfair advantage,
+nowhere else is the unfortunate lesson so early learned that
+dishonesty and trickery are more profitable than honesty, and that
+sympathy coins more pennies than does industry."[50]
+
+
+                                _Hours_
+
+Work at unseasonable hours is most disastrous in its effects upon
+growing children, and the newspaper trade is one that engages the
+labor of boys in our larger cities at all hours of the night. This
+fact is not generally known. A prominent social worker recently said:
+"I was astounded to find the other day that my newspaper comes to me
+in Chicago every morning because two little boys, one twelve and the
+other thirteen, get it at half-past two at night. These little boys,
+who go to school, carry papers around so that we get them in the
+morning at four o'clock all the year around. They are working for a
+man with whom we contract for our newspapers. I was quite shocked in
+St. Louis twice this fall (1908) to find a girl five or six years of
+age selling newspapers near the railroad station in the worst part of
+town after dark. We hear a great deal of sentimental talk about
+newsboys' societies doing so much for newsboys, but they do not seem
+to care anything for work of this kind."[51] In passing it may be
+remarked that in the city of Toledo there is an active association
+organized for the benefit of newsboys, which openly encourages street
+work by boys of from eight to seventeen years. The manager insists
+that such work affords the means of alleviating the poverty in the
+families of these boys, but upon inquiry it was found that he had
+never heard of the provision for the financial relief of such cases of
+child labor, which is made by the Ohio law, and which had been, at the
+time, most successfully administered for three years by the Board of
+Education of his own city.
+
+The Chicago newspapers have their Sunday editions distributed on
+Saturday night, consequently the newsboys are up all night so as to
+assure prompt service to patrons. In the absence of public opinion in
+the matter, this abuse flourishes unrestricted, and the children's
+health is sacrificed to meet the demand for news. Agents of the
+Chicago Vice Commission reported having seen boys from ten to fifteen
+years of age selling morning papers at midnight Saturday in the evil
+districts of the city.[52]
+
+The early rising of newsboys to deliver the morning week-day editions
+also contributes to the breaking down of their health. The old adage
+is a mockery in their case. There is abundant testimony relative to
+the evil effects of such untimely work. "Children who go to school and
+sell papers get up so early in the morning that they are so stupid
+during the day they cannot do anything. That was clearly demonstrated
+to me during my experience in teaching school."[53]
+
+Another teacher said: "I have had instances in school where children
+have gone to sleep over their tasks because they got up at two or
+three o'clock in the morning to put out city lights and to sell
+papers. In those instances we wanted the parents to take the children
+away from their work. Where they would not do it, we prosecuted them
+for contributing to the delinquency of their children."[54]
+
+The delivery of newspapers by young boys in the strictly residence
+sections of cities appears to be unobjectionable, yet even this simple
+work should be under restriction as to hours, because otherwise the
+boys would continue to rise at unseemly hours of the night in order to
+reach the branch offices in time to get the newspapers fresh from the
+press. In fact, every phase of street work should be under control.
+Dr. Harold E. Jones, medical inspector of schools to the Essex County
+Council, has testified that among the most injurious forms of labor
+performed by boys is the early morning delivery of newspapers and
+milk.[55] In his Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, Mr. C.
+W. A. Veditz states, "Delivering milk before school in the morning
+must be condemned, because it fatigues the children so that they
+become, to say the least, intellectually less receptive."[56]
+
+In his article on "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia,"[57] Mr.
+Scott Nearing gives a graphic account of conditions in the City of
+Brotherly Love. Although this description was written some years ago,
+local social workers find that the same conditions still obtain, as
+there is neither law nor ordinance to bring about a change. In this
+city the closing of the theaters at eleven o'clock marks the beginning
+of Saturday night's work. The last editions of the evening newspapers
+are offered at this time, often as a cloak for begging. After the
+theater, the restaurant patrons are available as customers until
+midnight. Then the morning papers begin to come from the press, and
+the newsboys abandon their begging and gambling and rush to the
+offices for their supplies. A load of forty pounds is often carried by
+the smallest newsboys, hurrying along the streets in the early morning
+hours. The cream of the business is done at this time, for most of the
+purchasers are more or less intoxicated and therefore inclined to be
+generous with tips and indifferent as to change; sometimes a newsboy
+takes in as much money on Saturday night and Sunday morning as during
+the entire remainder of the week. In relating his experiences, Mr.
+Nearing says, "On one night we saw fifteen boys in a group just as the
+policeman was chasing them out of Chinatown at half-past three Sunday
+morning; the youngest boy was clearly not over ten and the oldest was
+barely sixteen." At this hour the officers of the law interfere and
+quell the revels of the district. The open gratings in sidewalks
+through which warm air comes from basements, are then sought, and here
+the boys pass the time dozing until dawn, when they go abroad again to
+cry the Sunday papers.
+
+
+                       _Home Conditions--Poverty_
+
+One of the reasons why the public is so indulgent toward the street
+worker is that it takes for granted that the child is making a manly
+effort to support a widowed mother and several starving little
+brothers and sisters. Mrs. Florence Kelley calls this "perverted
+reasoning" and scores the public which "unhesitatingly places the
+burden of the decrepit adult's maintenance upon the slender shoulders
+of the child."[58] Poverty has been made an excuse for child labor
+from time immemorial by those who profit by the system. Newspapers are
+not an exception to the rule; the newsboys extend their circulation
+and incidentally give them free advertising in the streets--hence they
+see nothing but good in the newsboys' work and fight lustily to defend
+what they claim to be the mainstay of the widows. That this popular
+impression and appealing argument are false and without justification
+has been shown by students of the problem everywhere. The following
+table gives the family condition of Cincinnati newsboys:--
+
+  Both parents dead          12
+  Father dead               239
+  Mother dead                69
+  Both parents living      1432
+                           ----
+    Total                  1752
+
+Through a special inquiry it was found that in only 363 cases out of
+this total were the earnings of the children really needed. These 1752
+children, ten to thirteen years of age, were licensed from July to
+December, 1909; their distribution as to age was as follows:--
+
+  10 years      303
+  11 years      348
+  12 years      564
+  13 years      537
+               ----
+    Total      1752
+
+Upon investigation of the home conditions of several hundred newsboys
+in New York City it was declared that "in the majority of cases
+parents are not dependent on the boys' earnings. The poverty
+plea--that boys must sell papers to help widowed mothers or disabled
+fathers--is, for the most part, gross exaggeration."[59]
+
+Concerning a study of Chicago newsboys, Myron E. Adams says, "A
+careful investigation of the records of the Charity Organization
+Society shows that of the 1000 newsboys investigated, the names of but
+sixteen families are found, and of these ... only four received direct
+help, such as coal, clothing or food."[60]
+
+Mr. Scott Nearing says: "In many cases the boys want to go on the
+streets in order to have the pocket money which this life affords, and
+the ignorant or indifferent parents make no objections, but take the
+street life as a matter of course. Sometimes, though not nearly as
+often as is generally supposed, there is real need for the
+selling."[61]
+
+The British interdepartmental committee appointed in 1901 to inquire
+into the employment of school children, denounced the tolerance of
+street trading on the ground of necessity: "We think that in framing
+regulations with regard to child labour and school attendance ... the
+poverty of the child or its parents ought not to be made a test of the
+right to labour.... We do not think it is needed; we think that all
+children should have liberty to work as much and in such ways as is
+good for them and no more."[62]
+
+Another argument in favor of street trading advanced by those who are
+interested in maintaining present conditions, is that it affords a
+splendid training for a business career because of the competition
+that rages among the boys. This is doubtless true, as far as it goes,
+but the great difficulty is that street trading leads nowhere. It is a
+blind alley that sooner or later leaves its followers helpless against
+the solid wall of skilled labor's competition. An occupation that fits
+a boy for _nothing_ and is devoid of _prospects_, is a curse rather
+than a blessing in this day of specialization. In spite of the
+division of labor so elaborately realized to-day, a boy or girl who
+enters any of the regular industries has at least a fighting chance
+for acquiring a trade. If the child is honest, capable and diligent he
+will be promoted to a better position in time if misfortune does not
+overtake him. The trapper boy in a coal mine is in a fair way to
+become a miner. The lad who works in a machine shop has the
+opportunity to make a machinist of himself. The girl who begins as a
+wrapper in a dry goods shop may become a saleswoman, and then possibly
+a buyer for her department. Yet in most states children may not enter
+upon such work until they have reached the age of fourteen years,
+while some states prohibit boys under sixteen years from being
+employed in mines or in connection with dangerous machinery either in
+machine shops or elsewhere. Bitter experience has taught us that these
+restrictions are right and just, and we now have no hesitancy in
+barring young children from such employment, regardless of the
+training it affords. Why, then, do we exempt many forms of street work
+from the operation of the law? Why do we allow little children to
+work at any age, both night and day, as newsboys, bootblacks and
+peddlers in the essentially dangerous environment of the street? Such
+employment offers but a gloomy future--the useless life of the casual
+worker. There is no better position to which it leads, no chance for
+the discovery and development of ability, no reward for good service.
+It seems incredible that we have been so engrossed with throwing
+safeguards about the children in regular industries that we have
+altogether neglected the street worker, for the arguments against
+child labor in factories, mills, mines and retail shops apply with
+even greater force to the work of children in our city streets.
+
+
+                          _Better Substitutes_
+
+There is no reason why newsboys should not be replaced as the medium
+for the sale and delivery of newspapers by old men, cripples, the
+tuberculous and those otherwise incapacitated for regular work. In
+London, the _Westminster Gazette_, the _Pall Mall Gazette_, the
+_Evening Standard_ and the _Globe_ (all penny papers) are sold in the
+streets by old men; the _Westminster Gazette_ pays them a wage of
+1_s._ for selling eighteen copies and after having disposed of this
+number they are given a commission of 8_d._ a quire of twenty-six
+copies, a few men selling from six to eight quires a day. This
+newspaper has followed this method for many years, and its general
+manager declares that it is the most satisfactory system that they
+have been able to evolve. Boys have no sense of responsibility, while
+old men cling to their posts very faithfully. He admitted that the
+_Westminster Gazette_ employed some boys as carriers and that the
+whole subject lay somewhat heavily on his conscience because,
+"practically speaking, these boys have no future ... a few of them may
+become cyclists carrying the newspapers ... in a few years their
+usefulness as cyclists has gone ... then they simply drift away, we
+don't know where, but we do know that they drift to places like
+Salvation Army Shelters, etc. How they earn their living is always one
+of the mysteries of London.... But they have learned nothing from us,
+nothing that gives them any usefulness for any other occupation....
+The great majority become casual labourers dependent entirely on
+casual work.... It is a life in which very little is gained, although
+one would suppose that the open air would be of great benefit. But
+one must remember the insufficient food that these street traders
+have, and the bad conditions of living and the irregular hours. Many
+of these boys, of course, are up all hours of the night.... It is
+quite as bad for a boy in the long run to be engaged as a carrier
+distributor as for him to sell newspapers in the street. There is no
+possible argument for the system except that one's competitors do it,
+and that so long as they do it we must do the same.... We get
+practically all our men from Salvation Army and Church Army Shelters.
+There is an abundant supply.... The ordinary man whom we employ is
+over fifty years of age and runs up to about seventy years.... I think
+if the police would give us every facility for introducing kiosks it
+would be a great improvement upon the present system. If boys were
+prohibited from selling newspapers altogether on the streets, it would
+automatically send the public to the kiosk; ... the public get into
+the habit of getting the newspapers from the boys."[63]
+
+It should be remembered in connection with the above statements that
+the _Westminster Gazette_ is a penny paper, and its manager was of
+opinion that the half-penny papers could not afford to employ men
+because they depended largely for their circulation upon the
+persistence of newsboys in thrusting copies upon the attention of
+people in the streets; he believed that the use of old men would
+curtail their circulation because men are not so active as boys. On
+the other hand, news agents protested against the competition of
+street traders and maintained that they alone were fully able to meet
+the demands of the public. The departmental committee of 1910
+reported: "There can, we think, be little doubt that an active child
+is an effective agent in promoting the circulation of half-penny
+papers, and that if the employment of children were forbidden,
+newspapers would have to rely upon facilities of a more staid and less
+mobile character. But we see no reason to think that purchasers of
+newspapers need be put to any inconvenience, since the news agents
+would be in a position considerably to extend their business, and it
+might reasonably be expected that the system of employing old men as
+salesmen would also be developed. It appears to us economically
+unjustifiable to use children to their own detriment for work which
+can be done by other means."[64]
+
+Referring to the great possibilities for good involved in confining
+the sale and delivery of newspapers to adults who need outdoor work
+and are unable to provide for themselves in other ways, the Secretary
+of the New York Child Labor Committee says: "Where such cities as
+Paris and Berlin do entirely without newsboys--corner stands taking
+their places--it would seem that the least that can be done in
+American cities is to adopt some adequate system of regulation. In
+this connection, the opportunity presented in newspaper selling to
+give work to the aged and handicapped--who otherwise would have to be
+supported by private charity--should not be overlooked."[65]
+
+
+                         _The Newsboys' Court_
+
+In an effort to control to some extent the tendency of newsboys to
+become delinquent and to imbue them with a sense of personal
+responsibility, an interesting experiment in juvenile suffrage and
+jurisprudence has been undertaken in Boston.
+
+During the year 1909, about three hundred newsboys were taken before
+the juvenile court of that city charged with violation of the local
+license rules. As the docket of this court was crowded, these newsboy
+cases were necessarily delayed, and as a result of this situation the
+boys conceived the idea of establishing a newsboys' court which should
+have jurisdiction in all cases of failure to observe the rules
+governing their trade. The following year a petition was presented to
+the Boston School Committee which was favorably acted upon by that
+body, and accordingly on the regular election day of that year the
+newsboys cast their ballots to select three juvenile judges of the
+court. These three boys, together with two adults appointed by the
+School Committee, compose the court. Election of these boy judges is
+held annually, and all licensed newsboys who attend the public schools
+are qualified electors. The court is empowered to investigate and
+report its findings with recommendations to the School Committee in
+all cases of infraction of the newsboy rules. Under the Massachusetts
+law the School Committee is authorized to regulate street trading by
+children under fourteen years of age, hence the newsboys are subject
+to purely local supervision. The supervisor of licensed minors, also
+an appointee of the School Committee, can, in his discretion, take
+complaints in his department before the newsboys' court instead of the
+juvenile court. The newsboy judges are paid fifty cents for their
+attendance at each official session of the court. The charges made
+before the Trial Board, as the Boston newsboys' court is called, range
+from selling without a badge or after eight o'clock in the evening or
+on street cars, to bad conduct, irregular school attendance, gambling
+or smoking. The disposition of these cases varies from reprimands and
+warnings to probation or suspension of license for a definite period,
+or complete revocation of license.[66]
+
+
+                               _Summary_
+
+Although the work of selling newspapers has been, to some extent,
+subdivided and systematized by circulation managers, it has so many
+features highly objectionable for children that a radical departure
+from present methods of handling this business should be taken. We
+know that the work of the newsboy lacks the oversight and discipline
+of adults, that it exposes the children to the varied physical dangers
+lurking in the streets, that the early and late hours cause fatigue,
+that the opportunities for bad companionship are frequent, that
+irregularity of meals and use of stimulants tend to weaken their
+constitutions, that it offers no chance for promotion and leads
+nowhere. We know further that the presence of the newsboy in our
+streets cannot be justified on the ground of poverty. It has been
+demonstrated in other countries that children are not essential to the
+sale and delivery of newspapers; in fact, it has been shown that
+selling at stands and the use of men instead of children in the
+streets are both feasible and satisfactory. Why cannot such practices
+be introduced into the United States? There can be but little doubt as
+to the advisability of this step, but the innovation will certainly
+not be made voluntarily by the newspapers. The law must force the
+issue by prohibiting street work by children.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+BOOTBLACKS, PEDDLERS AND MARKET CHILDREN
+
+
+                              _Bootblacks_
+
+The itinerant bootblack is gradually disappearing from our cities, but
+he is still found in Boston, Buffalo, New York City and a few other
+places. He is being supplanted by the worker at stands, which are
+conducted almost invariably by Greeks. As a result of this change the
+bootblacking business will soon cease to be a street occupation; it is
+discussed here because of the abuses it involves and because it is
+unregulated in many states, owing to its omission from the list of
+employments covered by child labor laws.
+
+
+                          _The Padrone System_
+
+The New York-New Jersey Committee of the North American Civic League
+for Immigrants reports that: "The condition of Greek boys and young
+men in such occupations as pushcart peddling, shoe-shining parlors and
+the flower trade is one of servitude and peonage. It has been found
+that many boys apparently from fourteen to eighteen years of age
+arrive here alone, stating that they are eighteen years old, but in
+reality less than this, and that they are going to relatives. They
+have been found working in the shoe-shining parlors seven days a week
+from 7 A.M. to 9 P.M. and living with the 'boss' in groups varying
+from five to twenty-five under unsanitary conditions, overcrowding and
+irregularity of meals wholly undesirable for young boys. They are
+isolated from learning English or from American contact, and receive
+for their work from $7 to $15 a month and board and lodging. The
+majority of the flower peddlers have been unable to obtain permits,
+with the result that the boys who work for them are arrested for
+violating the law. Boys who have been in the country from three months
+to a year state they have been arrested several times--their first
+experience in this country--and are already hardened so that they
+think nothing of paying fines."[67]
+
+The bootblack business is the chief industry to which the Greek
+padrone system is applied. The United States Immigration Commission
+found[68] that boys employed as bootblacks live in extremely
+unwholesome quarters. Wherever the room is large enough, several beds
+are gathered together with three and sometimes four boys sleeping in
+each bed. In some places the boys merely roll themselves up in
+blankets and sleep on the floor. The bootblacking stands are opened
+for business about 6 o'clock in the morning, consequently the boys are
+obliged to rise about an hour earlier, and wherever their sleeping
+quarters are located at considerable distance from the stands, they
+have to get up as early as 4.30. Arrived at the stands, they remain
+working until 9.30 or 10 at night in cities, and on Saturday and
+Sunday nights the closing hour is usually later. The boys eat their
+lunch in the rear of the establishment, this meal consisting generally
+of bread and olives or cheese. Supper is eaten after the boys reach
+"home," and after having eaten it they retire without removing their
+clothes. Even after their excessively long work day, two of the boys
+are required to wash the dirty rags used for polishing the shoes daily
+so they can be used the next day.
+
+These boys are compelled to work every day in the year without
+vacation. The Immigration Commission found that they are under
+constant espionage, as at every stand the padrone places relatives who
+both work for him and act as spies on the other boys. Their employer
+instructs them to make false statements to questions asked by
+outsiders relative to their ages or conditions of work; many padrones
+also censor the letters written by the boys to their parents or others
+and examine all incoming mail, so as to forestall any efforts made by
+outsiders to induce the boys to leave for other places.
+
+The majority of them cannot read or write their own language, and are
+unable to secure any education in this country because of their long
+work hours. According to the Immigration Commission their mental
+development is perceptibly arrested by the physical fatigue they
+suffer as a result of their long-sustained work without recreation.
+They receive no good advice, nor do they hear anything that would
+tend to elevate them morally. The Commission does not hesitate to
+brand these conditions as deplorable; it declares that the ravages on
+the constitutions of these boys laboring in shoe-shining
+establishments under this system are appalling. It attributes these
+effects to the following causes: long hours, close confinement to
+their work in poorly ventilated places, unsanitary living conditions,
+unhealthful manner of sleeping, excessive stooping required by their
+work, inadequate nourishment due to the "economy" of the padrones who
+furnish the food, the microbe-laden dust from shoes, the inhaling of
+injurious chemicals from the polish they use, the filthy condition of
+their bodies resulting from their failure to bathe and the lack of
+proper clothing for the winter season.
+
+The Greek Consul General at Chicago, himself a physician, in a letter
+to the Immigration Inspector of that city under date of November 16,
+1910, declared that as a result of his experience in examining and
+treating boy bootblacks he was convinced that all boys under eighteen
+years of age who labor for a few years in shoe-shining establishments,
+develop serious chronic stomachic and hepatic troubles which
+predispose them to pulmonary disease; he further declared that
+because of the conditions under which they work the majority of them
+ultimately contract tuberculosis, and that in his opinion it would be
+more humane and infinitely better for young Greeks to be denied
+admission into the United States than to be permitted to land if they
+are intended for such employment. Similar statements are made by other
+Greek physicians of Chicago.
+
+The importation of Greek boys for use as bootblacks in the United
+States started about 1895, when the Greeks began to secure their
+monopoly of the industry by taking it away from the Italians and the
+Negroes, confining it, however, to stands or booths. Most of the early
+padrones have become financially independent. Their success attracted
+other Greeks to this industry, and in a short time almost every
+American city with a population of more than 10,000 had bootblack
+stands operated by them. Thus the traffic in Greek boys began to
+flourish.
+
+The Bureau of Immigration helped to have a number of padrones indicted
+and convicted for offenses against the conspiracy statute and the
+Immigration Act, and these prosecutions made the importers very
+careful as to their manner of procedure. They now bring the boys here
+through the instrumentality of relatives in Greece in such a way that
+the padrones are almost beyond the reach of our criminal statutes.
+
+In some cases it has been found that on leaving Greece for this
+country the boys are told to report to a saloon keeper in Chicago or
+in some other western city, hence they do not know their final
+destination. The saloon keeper has his instructions from the padrones
+and acts as their distributing agent. Padrones who operate in places
+distant from ports of entry easily avoid detection in this way.
+
+In most cases these padrones derive an income from each boy of from
+$100 to as high as $500 a year. The Commission explains this as
+follows: The wages paid by the padrones now to Greek boys in
+shoe-shining establishments range from $80 to $250 per year, the
+average wages being from $120 to $180 per year. The boys are bound by
+agreement to turn their tips over to their padrones: in most cases as
+soon as the tipping patron has departed the boy deposits his tip in
+the register, while in other places tips are put into a separate box
+to which the padrone holds the key. In smaller cities and even in the
+poorest locations each boy's tips may exceed the sum of 50 cents per
+day, while in large cities they average higher. The Greek padrone,
+therefore, receives in return from tips alone nearly double the amount
+of wages paid. By deducting the wages and the annual boarding expenses
+for each boy--an expenditure seldom exceeding the sum of $40 per
+year--there is still a sum left to the padrone to pay him for the
+privilege of allowing the boy to work in his place. In other words,
+from the total amount of tips--money that belongs to the boy by
+right--the padrone is enabled to pay the boy's annual wages and still
+have a respectable sum left, all this independently of the legitimate
+profits of his business.
+
+Relatives of the padrones in Greece often pay the steamship passage of
+boys with the understanding that they are to go to the United States
+and serve the padrone for one year to reimburse him for the passage
+money advanced. A mortgage is placed on the property of the boys'
+father as security, purporting that the father is to receive in cash
+an amount equal to the wages commonly paid to Greek bootblacks for
+one year in the United States, but as a matter of fact a steamship
+ticket and $12 or $15 in money are all that is given. The cash is to
+serve as "show money" to help secure admission to this country past
+the immigration officers at the ports of entry. Advertising is
+systematically carried on throughout all the provinces of Greece with
+a view to exciting the interest of the parents so that they will send
+their boys to the United States, and no efforts are spared in letting
+it become known that there is a great demand here for boy labor at the
+bootblack stands. The padrones themselves even go to Greece every two
+or three years, and while there manage to become godfathers to the
+children of many families; this relationship gives them great
+influence, and through it they are able to secure many boys for their
+service.
+
+Concerning the prevention of these abuses, the report says: "In the
+investigations conducted by the Bureau of Immigration many conferences
+were held with United States attorneys in various jurisdictions with
+the view of instituting proceedings against padrones, if possible,
+under the peonage statutes. The attorneys generally agreed that under
+the evidence submitted to them those laboring in shoe-shining
+establishments are peons, but as the elements of indebtedness and
+physical compulsion to work out the indebtedness are missing, peonage
+laws cannot apply.
+
+"Our immigration laws as now on the statute books provide specifically
+for the exclusion of boys under sixteen years of age only when not
+accompanied by one or both of their parents. This provision cannot
+apply to those boys that come in company with their parents, nor to
+those who have their parents in the United States, nor to such as
+successfully deceive immigration officers by posing as the sons of
+immigrants in whose charge they come. If held for special inspection
+at the ports of entry, these aliens can only be excluded if it appears
+that they are destined to an occupation unsuited to their tender
+years. In the absence of any such evidence, the boards of inquiry
+generally admit. Once landed, it becomes a hard matter to trace them
+and almost impossible to secure evidence in the majority of cases, for
+the boys understand that they will be punished by deportation. This
+knowledge makes them persistent in withholding any information as to
+the manner of their entry into the United States."[69]
+
+Quite recently a young Greek bootblack who was working at a stand in
+an Indianapolis office building confessed to a truant officer that he
+was twelve years old, whereupon the chief truant officer of the city
+went to the place, but on his arrival the boy had changed his mind and
+declared that he was fourteen years old, and every one connected with
+the stand supported the statement. Nevertheless the chief truant
+officer proceeded with the case and found that the boy had been in
+this country only about six months, his parents being still in Greece.
+An older brother had a position as a railroad porter but did not stay
+with the little fellow even on the few occasions he was in the city.
+The boy lived at the home of the proprietor of the stand, whose
+relationship to him was a combination of employer and guardian. This
+man operated four stands in the city, and his dozen or more other
+employees all lived at the same place. The chief truant officer
+charged the man with having worked the boy from 7 A.M. to 9 P.M.
+seven days in the week, which was admitted before the Juvenile Court
+by the defendant, who also volunteered the information that the boy
+worked until 11 P.M. on holidays and on Saturdays. Of course the boy
+was being kept out of school.
+
+In its issue of August 12, 1911, the _Survey_ published a letter from
+a correspondent concerning a case of peonage among bootblacks in the
+city of Rochester, N.Y. This particular case was of a pale, thin,
+under-sized Greek lad who worked at a large stand in a local office
+building. He explained that he worked every day in the week from 7
+A.M. to 9 P.M., including Sundays, and that on Saturdays the hours
+were lengthened to 11 P.M., adding that he had not been absent from
+his stand one day in four years except at one time when he was sick in
+the hospital.
+
+A letter which was written by a Greek in Syracuse, N.Y., on May 4,
+1911, to the editor of the Syracuse _Post-Standard_ was printed in the
+same magazine.[70] This letter recites the wrongs of the bootblacks
+and is reproduced below because of its value as one of the rare
+protests which come from the victims of the system:--
+
+"Before I came to this country from Greece, I heard that this country
+is free, but I don't think so. It is free for the Americans, not for
+the shoe shiners. In this city are too many shoe shiners' stands, and
+the boys which work there--they work fifteen hours a day, and Sunday,
+and almost eighteen on Saturdays. They make only from $12 to $18 a
+month and board, but we don't have any good board neither, but our
+patrons give us bread, tea and a piece of cheese for dinner, supper,
+but no breakfast. We don't have any time to go to the church, not in
+school, and without them we won't be good citizens. They won't let us
+read newspapers, because they are afraid if we learn something we will
+quit, but we can't quit because we can't speak English, and we can't
+find another job. Now I don't mean the boys working in the barber
+shops. They make $10 to $18 a week, and they don't work as hard as we
+do. We wish to work as they do. We want the public and Mr. Mayor to
+cut the hours from fifteen to ten, not Sundays, because we want time
+for school, and weekly work, not monthly. I think I wrote enough."
+
+
+                     _Peddlers and Market Children_
+
+The licensed peddlers of Boston are under orders not to engage little
+children to sell for them with or without compensation. "These
+peddlers have hitherto crowded the markets of this city by inviting
+children to help them in the business, frequently for no other
+compensation than the offal of their pushcarts or stands."[71]
+
+The peddling of chewing gum is a common form of street occupation for
+children. In reality it is merely begging in disguise. The Chicago
+Vice Commission reports that its agents found boys under fourteen
+years of age selling gum late at night in the segregated districts of
+the city. At intervals of from two to three hours their investigators
+returned to the same neighborhood and found these little children
+still engaged in this very questionable form of work. One agent
+reported having seen two little girls of about eleven years in the
+company of a small boy of about eight years selling chewing gum in
+front of a saloon in the vice district between nine and ten o'clock at
+night.[72]
+
+The following table gives the sex, age, nationality, standing in
+school, orphanage and occupation of seventeen children found by one
+person in a single trip through the markets of Cincinnati:--
+
+  ====+=====+====+=====+===========+==========+==========+==============
+      |     |    |     |           |  FATHER  | MOTHER   |
+      |     |    |     |           |  LIVING  | LIVING   |
+      |     |    |     |           +-----+----+-----+----+--------------
+  BOYS|GIRLS|AGE |GRADE|NATIONALITY| YES | NO | YES | NO | SELLING
+  ----+-----+----+-----+-----------+-----+----+-----+----+--------------
+   1  |     |  9 | 2d  |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | baskets
+   1  |     | 10 | 4th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | fruit
+   1  |     | 10 | 3d  |  German   |     |  1 |  1  |    | vegetables
+   1  |     | 10 | 2d  |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | fruit
+      |  1  | 10 | 4th |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | fruit
+      |  1  | 10 | 3d  |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | baskets
+   1  |     | 11 | 4th |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | fruit
+   1  |     | 11 | 3d  |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | baskets
+      |  1  | 11 | 6th |  German   |  1  |    |     | 1  | vegetables
+   1  |     | 12 | 4th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | vegetables
+   1  |     | 12 | 3d  |  American |  1  |    |     | 1  | baskets
+   1  |     | 12 | 4th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | sassafras
+   1  |     | 12 | 6th |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | fruit
+   1  |     | 13 | 5th |  Italian  |  1  |    |  1  |    | baskets
+   1  |     | 14 | 3d  |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | sassafras
+   1  |     | 14 | 8th |  American |  1  |    |  1  |    | vegetables
+      |  1  | 14 | 4th |  Italian  |     |  1 |  1  |    | fruit
+  ====+=====+====+=====+===========+=====+====+=====+====+==============
+
+Of these seventeen children nine were Italians, six were Americans,
+two were Germans. Five of the children, all of whom except one were
+Italian, were engaged in selling baskets to the passers-by in markets.
+Six of the children, all of whom except one were Italian, were selling
+fruit. Six of the children were selling vegetables and herbs, all of
+them being Americans and Germans. The occupational characteristics of
+these different peoples are shown by their children, the Italians
+predominating in the sale of fruit, the Germans in the sale of the
+products of their market gardens, the Americans, all of whom were
+boys, in the sale of the herbs they had gathered or the vegetables
+cultivated on their home farms.
+
+Of these seventeen children nine were in their normal grades at
+school, while eight were backward and none ahead of their proper
+grades. This large percentage of retardation is due principally to the
+lack of time for preparation of school lessons on the part of these
+children, as much of their afternoons and evenings is taken up either
+with the work of selling in the markets or with the work of assisting
+with the garden duties at home. Of the eight backward children, four
+were Italians and four were Americans. One of the backward Italian
+girls was fourteen years of age and had left school three weeks prior
+to the inquiry; she was the oldest of six children; her father was
+dead, and she was working for her mother in their fruit store selling
+the fruit from early morning until midnight every day in the week
+except Sunday. As she was the oldest child in the family, it is of
+course easily seen that her retardation in school was largely due to
+her having been kept at work in the shop during the afternoons and
+evenings while she was still attending school. An American boy, who,
+although twelve years of age, was only in the third grade at school,
+was employed by his parents to sell baskets in the market, in spite of
+the fact that his father had a store and was fully able to support the
+child properly. This boy was found, as were many other such children,
+selling baskets in the market at eleven o'clock at night after having
+been there since early in the morning. A thirteen-year-old Italian boy
+was only in the fifth grade; he was selling baskets in one market in
+the morning and in another market during the afternoon and evening;
+both of his parents were living, and his father had a "city job."
+There were six children in the family, two of whom were older and
+employed. The entire family of eight persons occupied two rooms.
+
+It is noteworthy that the fathers of twelve of the children were
+living, only five being dead; while the mothers of fifteen were
+living, only two being dead. Not a single child was a full orphan. In
+the great majority of cases it was not necessary for these children to
+work so prematurely.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+MESSENGERS, ERRAND AND DELIVERY CHILDREN
+
+
+Accustomed to seeing messenger boys engaged during the day in the
+unobjectionable task of delivering telegrams to residences and
+business offices, one is likely to regard this service as an
+occupation quite suitable for children and to give it no further
+thought. However, the character of the work done by the messenger boy
+changes radically after nine or ten o'clock at night. At that hour
+most legitimate business has ceased, and the evil phases of city life
+begin to manifest themselves. From that time on until nearly dawn the
+messenger's work is largely in connection with the vicious features of
+city life. The ignorance of the general public as to the evil
+influences surrounding the night messenger service is strikingly
+illustrated by what one Indiana boy told an investigator; he declared
+that if his father knew what kind of work he was doing, a strap would
+be laid across his back and he would be compelled to abandon it. But
+the father did not know; he thought his boy was simply delivering
+telegrams.
+
+The delivery of telegrams forms but a small part of the boy's work at
+night, because few messages are dispatched after business hours.
+Instead, calls are sent to the office for messengers to go on errands.
+The boys wait upon the characters of the underworld and perform a
+surprising variety of simple tasks; they carry notes to and from the
+inmates of houses of prostitution and their patrons, take lunches,
+chop suey and chile con carne to bawdyhouse women, procure liquor
+after the closing hour, purchase opium, cocaine and other drugs, go to
+drug stores for prostitutes to get medicines and articles used in
+their trade, and perform other tasks that oblige them to cultivate
+their acquaintance with the worst side of human nature. One instance
+was found in which the boy was required to clean up the room of a
+prostitute and to make her bed. The uniform or cap of the messenger
+boy is a badge of secrecy and enables him to get liquor at illegal
+hours or to procure opium and other drugs where plain citizens would
+be refused; hence these boys are thrown into associations of the
+lowest kind, night after night, and come to regard these evil
+conditions as normal phases of life. Usually the brightest boys on the
+night force become the favorites of the prostitutes; the women take a
+fancy to particular boys because of their personal attractiveness and
+show them many favors, so that the most promising boys in this work
+are the ones most liable to suffer complete moral degradation.
+
+Messenger service not only gives boys the opportunity to learn what
+life is at night in "tenderloin" districts, but the character of the
+work actually _forces_ them into contact with the vilest conditions
+and subjects them to the fearful influences always exerted by such
+associations. Some believe that this evil could be prevented by
+forbidding the office to allow messenger boys to go on such errands,
+but this is not practicable for two reasons: first, because an
+essential feature of the messenger service is secrecy--the office does
+not inquire into the nature of the errand to be performed, and even if
+it did so, a false statement could easily be made by the patron over
+the telephone; and second, it would be necessary to send a detective
+along with the boy on each trip to see that he observed the rules.
+Boys are eager to run errands for prostitutes for various reasons, one
+being the extra income assured, as these women give tips with liberal
+hand.
+
+Like other street occupations, the messenger service is a blind alley;
+it leads nowhere. A very few boys are promoted to the position of
+check boy in the telegraph office, and fewer still have an opportunity
+to learn telegraphy. Some of the boys become cab drivers because they
+have familiarized themselves with the city streets; others become
+saloon keepers because they have become well acquainted with this
+method of making a livelihood; some are attracted by the life of
+"ease" which opens before them and enter into agreement with
+prostitutes, upon whose earnings they subsist; others have the courage
+to get away from these influences and secure work as office boys or in
+some other line entirely different from the messenger service.
+
+A considerable number of the inmates of state reform schools were
+formerly messenger boys, indicating that this service is one of the
+roads to delinquency. As the immoral influences surrounding this work
+are especially active among youths, the age limit for such employment
+at night should be made high enough to prevent their being so exposed.
+New York State was first to declare that if this work is to be done at
+night it must be done by men, and has fixed the age limit at
+twenty-one years. The late Judge Stubbs, of the Indianapolis Juvenile
+Court, speaking before the Conference of Juvenile Court Officers held
+in that city in November, 1910, said that messenger boys, and newsboys
+who sell papers in the downtown streets, were the boys most frequently
+charged with delinquency before his court, and declared that
+twenty-one years was low enough as an age limit for night messenger
+service.
+
+Other temptations assail the messenger boy in his work, and are
+frequently yielded to. The old practice of raising the amount of
+charges on the envelope of a telegram is notorious and is still an
+ever present problem to the companies. When a boy has been detected in
+this petty crime and is questioned about it, he too often adds to the
+one misdeed the other equally grievous one of lying, whereupon his
+dismissal usually follows.
+
+Under the direction of the writer an investigation of the night
+messenger service was made in 1910 in Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana, the
+following cases being typical of the conditions found in all cities.
+In one of the larger towns of Indiana, a fourteen-year-old messenger
+boy was interviewed one night by an agent of the National Child Labor
+Committee who had called up the telegraph office by telephone
+requesting that a messenger be sent to him. Early in the course of
+conversation, of his own volition, the boy referred to houses of
+prostitution. Upon being asked what he knew about such places, he
+replied: "Too much--I am there half the night. You see they call for
+messengers to run errands for them. Sometimes I get them drinks,
+opium, medicines from drug stores or anything they want. No matter
+what they ask us to do--it's our business to go ahead and do it." The
+boy led the agent to a disreputable negro district and described his
+activities in this region. "No night passes without my making a dollar
+down here," said he. "The niggers are great smokers of opium, and I
+get it for them; they give me a little jar, and I have it filled up
+for them. It costs them $1.50, and I usually get the change from $2."
+The agent feigned doubt so as to elicit more information, whereupon
+the boy offered to get some opium if he were given a tip. The agent
+gave the boy one dollar and told him he might keep the change; in ten
+minutes he returned with a card of opium which was subsequently
+analyzed in a laboratory and found to be the kind ordinarily prepared
+for smoking purposes. This experience was repeated again and again by
+agents of the National Child Labor Committee in different cities and
+proved beyond the shadow of a doubt that these young boys are forced
+into familiarity with the most degrading conditions.
+
+Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in the same town told the
+agent that there were but few business calls at night, and that nearly
+all of their work was in connection with houses of prostitution. This
+boy spoke of the money he received in tips from inmates and patrons of
+these houses, of his receiving liquor and cigarettes from them, and
+remarked, "I do not have to do this work, but I like it; this job is
+too good to give up; I'm learning a lot of things." This little fellow
+described some extremely revolting scenes of which he had been
+witness in these houses, and upon being asked whether his manager was
+aware of the kind of places he was called to, he replied, "Sure he
+does, for he gets the message over the telephone, then he calls one of
+the boys and sends him to the house."
+
+Another messenger in the same city, who was seventeen years old and
+had been in this service for four years, working daily until half past
+two in the morning, said, in talking about the use of drugs by
+prostitutes, "When they are so full of dope that they don't know what
+to do, they call up for a messenger, and sometimes I have had them
+send me out to a drug store for paris green; they want to kill
+themselves, they are crazy with opium; of course I take their money
+and never show up again." This boy also bought a small package of
+opium for the agent. He declared that he knew every house of
+prostitution in the city and was well acquainted with their
+proprietresses. To prove this, he wrote out a list of fourteen such
+places, putting down the streets and numbers at once from memory.
+These were subsequently referred to persons familiar with the city and
+verified.
+
+It is very distressing to read the testimony of a fourteen-year-old
+messenger boy of another city who had been thrown by his work so much
+in contact with evil conditions that he had come to regard these as
+normal. Although only fourteen years of age, he had lost all faith in
+womankind. In walking through the segregated district with the agent,
+this boy called out in advance the number of each house of
+prostitution, thus showing his familiarity with the whole region. In
+his childish, schoolboy hand, he wrote on a slip of paper a list of
+the bawdyhouses, putting down very promptly from memory the names of
+the proprietresses, the names of the streets and numbers of the
+houses.
+
+Another fourteen-year-old messenger boy in this city related many
+disgusting details of his experiences in the service at night--of
+prostitutes smoking, cursing and sprawling on the floor dead drunk. He
+stated that he had never smoked before he became a messenger, but that
+when he saw the women using tobacco in all the houses, he thought
+there could be no harm in it. "If ladies do it, why shouldn't I? So I
+began, and now I smoke a pack of cigarettes a day. I get twenty for a
+nickel and smoke all night. If I didn't, I suppose I'd fall asleep. I
+once lit a cigarette from an opium pipe in one of the houses--but no
+more opium for me." When asked whether his manager knew that he was
+sent to these houses, he replied: "Sure he does, he's the one that
+sends us; if we don't go, we get fired. He knows all the women, too,
+because he jokes with them over the telephone when they call up for a
+boy."
+
+A fifteen-year-old night messenger, when asked what he did with the
+money he received as tips, replied: "Last week I lost a dollar in a
+crap game, and I go to moving-picture shows during the day and buy
+different things; I suppose if my people knew the kind of work I was
+doing, I would get a thick leather strap over my back. They have an
+idea that the messenger business is just taking telegrams to reputable
+people. There are very few business calls at night at our office;
+almost all of them come from houses of prostitution. This is going to
+be a very busy week with us because a convention starts to-morrow, and
+the delegates will want us to take them to the houses."
+
+Another Hoosier messenger was only sixteen years of age, although he
+had been in the service of one company for four years and had
+previously been discharged from another company for having defrauded a
+patron. This lad was a typical boy of the street; his features were
+drawn, black lines were below his eyes, and his walk could be
+described best as a drag. "I know every single house of prostitution
+in this city," said he. "I have been in every one. I get drinks in
+most of them, and many a time I was drunk for a whole day in some
+woman's room." This boy, having been in the service several years,
+spoke of the ravages dissipation had wrought on the women of the
+underworld. He had known many of them when they were just starting in
+their life of shame, and remarked their rapid decline. Voluntarily he
+spoke of the venereal diseases from which he had suffered. He said
+that he had been discharged from his first job as a messenger for
+having defrauded patrons. To illustrate how the scheme worked, he
+said: "A woman wanted me to carry a package to some place and asked me
+what it would cost; I said one dollar, and she said she wouldn't pay
+it because it was too much. I told her to speak to the manager and
+gave her the telephone number where my pal was waiting for the call.
+She asked him whether he was the manager, and he said, 'Yes'; then she
+asked how much the charge was, and he answered one dollar. Then I went
+on the errand, and we split the difference. Somehow the manager got
+wise, and out we went." This boy's conversation was a continuous flow
+of vulgarity. When the agent mentioned gambling, the boy drew from his
+pocket two sets of dice and said they were "ready at any time to do
+business. When the first of the month comes around, I am generally
+short or ahead $5. I lost $8 once. When I have no ready cash, I play
+on account of my salary."
+
+An eighteen-year-old messenger said: "I have been in this business
+here for five years, and a night never passes that I don't go to a
+house of prostitution; that's our main business at night. They could
+not afford to have a messenger service in this town at night if it
+were not for the red light district. We have to do all their work,
+because they trust us." This boy spoke of the venereal diseases other
+boys in the service had, and admitted that he had contracted them
+twice himself.
+
+Another eighteen-year-old messenger boy, who has been in the service
+four years and is afflicted with an exceptionally bad venereal
+infection, said among other things, "There are lots of messengers who
+are kept by women. The boys work only for appearances. I knew two
+messengers who worked with me who were kept by two prostitutes for a
+year, then they gave up the job at the same time and took the
+prostitutes to Chicago, where the women worked for them. One of these
+boys is only about nineteen years old now. You don't learn anything in
+the messenger business except to knock down (overcharge a patron) and
+to go around with prostitutes and gamblers. It kills a fellow. I know,
+because I went down the line, and I'm coming out the wrong end." When
+asked why he didn't quit the job, he replied: "You don't suppose I
+want to work for $3 or $4 a week? I'm used to making pretty good money
+and having a good time." He said that he made from $40 to $75 a month
+according to the tips he received, and spent it as fast as he got it.
+Most of it went in gambling.
+
+A fourteen-year-old messenger boy in another city who works from 6
+P.M. to 7 A.M., in speaking of the use of whisky in houses of
+prostitution, said: "We get it for them; the saloons know the
+messengers, and we stand in with them; the more a house sends for
+whisky the better they stand in with the saloon keeper. If the
+proprietress gets locked up, she will always be bailed out by the
+saloon keeper, but if she don't buy enough stuff from him, he will
+refuse to do it. When a proprietress is put in jail, the cops ring up
+for a messenger from the station house, and they send me to the cell
+where the woman is, and she always gives me a note to take to the
+saloon keeper and he goes down and gets her out." This boy said his
+manager knew the kind of places he visited, but was not in the office
+all night. During the late hours of the night the telegraph operator
+and the clerk were left in charge, and the boy remarked that they had
+told him to try to get a woman into the office if he found one on the
+street, and related instances in which this had been done. He was paid
+a salary of $22 a month.
+
+Another fourteen-year-old messenger in this town is paid $17 a month
+salary and makes $10 or $12 a month in tips.
+
+A thirteen-year-old messenger in another city, after having related
+some of his experiences in the segregated district, said: "I tell you,
+it's mighty dirty work for a boy to be in, but I suppose a fellow has
+to learn these things somehow, and I may as well learn them in the
+messenger service as in any other way. I smoke perique so I can sleep
+in the daytime."
+
+A fourteen-year-old messenger in the same city, employed from noon to
+midnight, had been in the service only one week when interviewed by
+the agent; among other things he said: "All the last week I have been
+doing nothing but go to the red light district. I didn't know what
+this messenger business was until I got into it, and I am going to
+quit just as soon as I see a little more of that kind of thing."
+
+In a certain Indiana city there was found a "kid line" messenger
+service, so called because the proprietor was a mere boy who was
+formerly in the service of another messenger company. He had two day
+boys, but at night answered the calls himself. He was fourteen years
+old and told the agent that he had lived in the "red light" district
+more than at his home on account of the number of calls he had to
+answer there, but of course this was exaggeration intended to convey
+the fact that most of his business was with that region. When he
+entered into business for himself, he went to all the prostitutes in
+the "red light" district and told them that he was commencing on his
+own account and that he wanted them to be his customers. "I get a good
+deal of their business. I get it because I know how to treat them. I
+can get them beer on Sunday and can sneak it into their houses. I know
+all the women and can introduce you to any of them, and can get you
+any amount of beer or whisky that you want. When I was working for
+the---- messenger company there was another boy on the force who tried
+to take all the good calls; he divided his tips with the manager, so
+he was sent to all the houses where good tips were given. There was
+one prostitute who liked me pretty well and gave me ten or fifteen
+cents for myself every time I went to her house. I started to answer a
+call there one night, and the other boy ran after me. We got to the
+place at the same time and had a fight in the hall; the men and women
+in the place gathered around us and offered to give us two dollars
+each if we would scrap for them, so we started right in, and before I
+was through with him he had two black eyes and his face was bleeding,
+then he pulled out a knife, but they took it away from him, and the
+next day I was fired. There is a young girl in one of the houses who
+is a chambermaid and wants me to live with her, and maybe I will but
+I'm afraid my mother will get wise."
+
+The fifteen-year-old messenger of another office showed the agent the
+list of about one hundred calls sent in the previous night, nearly
+every one of which came from the "red light" district.
+
+After weighing such evidence we can readily comprehend the justice of
+the opinion rendered by Dr. Charles P. Neill in the following words:
+"The newsboys' service is demoralizing, but the messenger service is
+debauching.... And, saddest of all, this service appeals strongly to
+the children. The prurient curiosity of the developing boy would
+itself incline him to like these calls to houses of prostitution, but
+they quickly learn also that women who live in these sections are more
+generous with their earnings in the way of tips than are the people in
+the more respectable sections of the city.... It can be said that all
+the boys who go into the messenger service do not go to the bad, but
+it can be said with equal truth that it ruins children by the dozens,
+and that if any boy comes out of this service without having suffered
+moral shipwreck he can thank the mercy of God for it, and not the
+protecting arm of the community that stands idly by and makes no
+attempt to save him from temptation."[73]
+
+In 1908 Congress passed a child labor law for the District of Columbia
+which provided, among other restrictions, that no messenger boy under
+sixteen years should be employed between 7 P.M. and 6 A.M.,--_sixteen
+years_, the beginning of the period of adolescence, when boys have the
+greatest need of protection from the vices running riot in cities!
+
+The Chicago Vice Commission devotes several pages of its report to a
+recital of the experiences of messenger boys in connection with their
+work in the segregated districts. One of the telegraph companies
+maintains a branch office close to one of these districts, where eight
+boys from fifteen to eighteen years of age are employed as
+messengers. These boys are called upon to work at all hours of the day
+and night, their tasks being the same as those of the messengers in
+other cities. A number of specific instances of the wretched
+environment into which these boys are thrown, are given. One of them
+who works from midnight until 10 A.M. was sent by a prostitute to a
+drug store for a package of cocaine hydrochloride, for which he paid
+$5.78, receiving $1 from the prostitute as a tip for the service.
+Another messenger was sent out on a similar errand by another
+prostitute two weeks later and purchased for her a hypodermic needle
+for a syringe; he was charged $2 for this needle, the cost to the
+druggist being 19 cents. A few days later a boy was called by another
+prostitute who confided to him that she had discontinued the use of
+messenger boys for purchasing "dope" because she found that they
+talked too much and could not be trusted, adding that she now had a
+newsboy, who sold papers at a near-by corner, buy the cocaine for her.
+A woman who lives in an apartment house and is the owner and
+proprietor of houses of prostitution in the restricted district, is in
+the habit of sending in an order for cocaine to a druggist, who calls
+a messenger boy to deliver it to her residence. This messenger opened
+one of the packages and, suspecting that it was cocaine, sniffed a
+little of it himself. He confessed that he had done this quite often
+since, and it appeared that he had derived a good deal of pleasure
+from it. The same messenger is sent about three times monthly by a
+certain man to a Chinaman, from whom he buys a package of opium for
+$4. On returning from one of these trips he watched the man open the
+package, take a quantity of the stuff, roll it and heat it, but at
+this point the messenger was told to leave the room. Another messenger
+boy has been employed at this particular branch office for more than
+three years, although he is now only seventeen years old; his earnings
+average about $10 per week, including tips. He is of small stature,
+not mentally bright and at present is afflicted with syphilis of three
+months' duration. Another messenger is a boy of foreign parentage,
+only fifteen years of age, who said he had recently been called quite
+often to a certain house of prostitution where an inmate gave him a
+box with a note to a druggist; the contents cost $1.75, but upon
+returning to the woman he would declare that he had paid $2.50, thus
+obtaining 75 cents on false pretenses, and in addition a tip of half a
+dollar. On one of his trips for this prostitute he had opened the note
+and found that it was a requisition for cocaine; on returning he
+placed some of the contents upon his tongue, but did not like the
+sensation and never repeated it. He is in the habit of picking up
+discarded cigarettes and smoking them. In spite of his age, he knows
+the name of nearly every prostitute in this district and can recognize
+these women at sight; he stated that whenever he entered a house of
+prostitution they would nearly always kiss him, and at different times
+he had had sores on his lips.
+
+Another boy who was attending high school was employed as a messenger
+in the downtown district during Christmas week of 1910. He was sent to
+deliver a message in a house of prostitution, and the girl who
+received it offered to cohabit with him free of charge as a Christmas
+present, stating that it was customary to do this for messenger boys
+on Christmas Day.[74]
+
+A number of other messengers told of similar experiences, stating that
+they were often called to houses of prostitution to perform small
+personal services for the inmates. As to regulation of the service, a
+police order was issued in Chicago in April, 1910, to the effect that
+no messenger or delivery boy under eighteen years was to be allowed in
+the segregated districts at any time.
+
+In arguing against the further restriction of the night messenger
+service, the telegraph companies and other interested organizations
+insist that the majority of these boys are working to support their
+widowed mothers or incapacitated fathers; a recent government report
+says, in referring to the table of families in which there are
+messengers and errand and office boys ten to fourteen years of age,
+classified by percentage of older breadwinners, for Boston, Chicago,
+New York and Washington, "These statistics point to the conclusion
+that the greater part of the families now furnishing children from ten
+to thirteen years of age and fourteen years for the occupation of
+messengers and errand and office boys are by no means either entirely
+or largely dependent upon the earnings of such children for the
+family support."[75] The restriction advocated does not contemplate
+the prohibition of this work to boys of fourteen years and upwards in
+the _daytime_; its object is to shield the youths from the vile
+associations necessarily connected with this work at _night_.
+
+
+                  _Night Service by Men--Not by Boys_
+
+Mr. Owen R. Lovejoy of the National Child Labor Committee, in speaking
+of the study of the night messenger service undertaken by this
+organization, says: "The evidence collected justified the committee in
+cooperating with its affiliated organizations to secure legislation,
+and, counting on the _moral interest of the public_ to promote the
+effort, we made the question one for practical and immediate decision.
+Results apparently justify the policy chosen. A bill was unanimously
+passed by the legislature of New York State [in 1910], excluding any
+person under twenty-one years of age from this occupation between ten
+o'clock at night and five o'clock in the morning."
+
+Massachusetts in 1911 forbade the employment of messengers under
+twenty-one years of age between the hours of 10 P.M. and 5 A.M.,
+except by newspaper offices. Utah fixed the same age limit for this
+work in cities of first and second classes between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M.
+New Jersey did likewise as to cities of the first class, fixing the
+age limit at eighteen years for smaller places, the prohibited hours
+being from 10 P.M. to 5 A.M.
+
+Wisconsin also passed a law in 1911, prohibiting the employment of any
+one under twenty-one years of age as a messenger between 8 P.M. and 6
+A.M. in cities of the first, second and third classes. Ohio, in 1910,
+fixed the age limit for messenger service between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M. at
+eighteen years.
+
+Michigan now prohibits the employment of messengers under eighteen
+years between 10 P.M. and 5 A.M., as do also New Hampshire, Oregon,
+Tennessee and California.
+
+Other states having the advanced type of child labor law prohibit the
+employment of children under fourteen years in the messenger service
+during the day and under sixteen years at night. The states of
+Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico, North
+Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia and Wyoming do
+not yet provide any age limit for this work.
+
+The evil effects of the messenger service have also been noted in
+Great Britain. A schoolmaster of Edinburgh says, "Insolence, coarse
+intonation, swearing, lying, pilfering and lewdness are the chief
+products of message going by boys."[76]
+
+A London health officer has testified as follows: "There is a very
+large employment of boy labour now, boys employed as messengers and
+errand boys, which teaches them nothing useful for their future life;
+and when they have outgrown the age at which they can be employed in
+this way, the risk of drifting into the ranks of the unskilled
+labourer is a very large one."[77]
+
+"The government post office telegraph messengers are not employed
+unless they have passed the seventh standard at school and each
+candidate has to provide a satisfactory certificate of health from his
+own medical attendant. A boy of fourteen must also be over four feet
+eight inches in height. The minimum starting wage in London is seven
+shillings a week, rising by a shilling a week annually to eleven
+shillings. On reaching the age of sixteen the boy has to pass a
+further examination in order to qualify for retention. The various
+_private_ telegraph companies offer much the same terms, though in
+some cases they are able to get boys slightly cheaper, as the
+qualifying standard is not such a high one. It is only during the rare
+periods when the supply of boy labour is more plentiful than usual
+that the private telegraph companies will refuse a boy on account of
+his size. The varied nature of the work they are called upon to
+perform is an undoubted attraction in the eyes of many.... That it is
+bad for them morally is less open to doubt. Even when they are more
+actively employed the most that they can hope to learn is a very small
+amount of discipline. A more serious point is the future of the boys
+when they cease to be messengers."[78]
+
+"It is well to point out that the commonest of these occupations, that
+of errand boy or messenger boy, is seldom a desirable one, quite
+apart from the fact that it generally leads nowhere. It lacks almost
+necessarily what the boy most needs--the compulsory training of the
+habit of disciplined effort."[79]
+
+As Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "The test of the work, however, should
+be not whether boys can do it, but what it does to boys."[80]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VI
+
+EFFECTS OF STREET WORK UPON CHILDREN
+
+
+All the evil effects of street work upon children observed by students
+of the problem have been here divided into three groups, under the
+headings of physical, moral, and material deterioration. It must be
+understood that this is a summary of such effects and that while the
+influences of the street are unquestionably bad, any one child exposed
+to them is not likely to suffer to the full extent suggested below.
+However, deterioration in one form or another is invariably noted in
+children who have been engaged in street work for any length of time,
+and this is sufficient proof of the undesirability of such employment
+for our boys and girls.
+
+
+                   EFFECTS OF STREET WORK ON CHILDREN
+
+  Material        { Form distaste for regular employment.
+  Deterioration   { Small chance of acquiring a trade.
+                  { Drift into large class of casual workers.
+
+                  { Night work.
+                  { Excessive fatigue.
+                  { Exposure to bad weather.
+  Physical        { Irregularity of sleep and meals.
+  Deterioration   { Use of stimulants--cigarettes, coffee, liquor.
+                  { Disease through contact with vices.
+
+                  { Encouragement to truancy.
+                  { Independence and defiance of parental control.
+  Moral           { Weakness cultivated by formation of bad habits.
+  Deterioration   { Form liking for petty excitements of street.
+                  { Opportunities to become delinquent.
+                  { Large percentage of recruits to criminal population.
+
+These are the insidious influences permeating street work and rampant
+in all our cities. They are minimized and even denied by certain
+ignorant or interested parties who base their assertions upon the fact
+that prominent men of to-day were once newsboys or bootblacks, and
+therefore jump to the conclusion that their success is due to the
+training received in this way when young. The truth is more likely to
+be that such individuals have succeeded, not because of this early
+training, but in spite of it. Boys of exceptionally strong character
+will force themselves out of such an environment unscathed, but the
+great majority of children have not sufficient mental and moral
+stamina to withstand these influences. The minority will take care of
+itself under any circumstances,--it is with the weaker majority that
+we must deal. The problem is an urgent one, but generally ignored,
+for, as Myron E. Adams says, the public sees the street worker at his
+best and neglects him at his worst.
+
+The charge that in street work a child has small chance of acquiring a
+suitable trade is one of the worst counts in the indictment. Street
+work leads to nothing else; the various occupations are so many
+industrial pitfalls, and the children who get into them must sooner or
+later struggle out and begin over again at some other line of work, if
+they would succeed.
+
+"These children (street traders) furnish a very large proportion of
+recruits to the criminal population. Those who do not graduate into
+crime form a liking for the petty excitements of the street and a
+distaste for regular employment. They lack skill and perseverance,
+shun the monotony of a permanent job, and as they grow older either
+follow itinerant and questionable trades or become ill-paid and
+inefficient casual laborers. Therefore these young people are a source
+of waste to society rather than of profit."[81]
+
+The large percentage of former newsboys among the inmates of boys'
+reformatories recently induced an active social worker to send an
+inquiry to the superintendents of such institutions and to juvenile
+court judges in different parts of the country relative to the effect
+of newspaper selling on schoolboys. The statements received in reply
+are set forth in a leaflet which was published in 1910.[82]
+
+These officials are practically unanimous in condemning street trading
+by boys, declaring that newsboys are generally stupid and almost
+always morally defiled; that the pittance they earn is bought at great
+sacrifice; that the spending of their earnings without supervision is
+the worst thing that can befall them; that the life leads to gambling,
+dishonesty and spendthrift habits; that it is a dead-end occupation
+leading to nothing; that it abounds in evil temptations; that the boys
+are comparatively idle and see and hear the worst that is to be seen
+and heard on the street; that the work subjects boys to bad influences
+before they are strong enough to resist them; that delinquency results
+from their enforced association with all classes of boys; and
+concluding that every possible protection should be thrown about the
+young boy. Some of these officers gave due consideration to the
+advantages of street trading, and one made the naive statement that
+newspaper selling was not a bad business for a boy who could withstand
+its temptations.
+
+Although the law of New York State provides a modicum of regulation
+for street trading, nevertheless it has not been effective because of
+extremely indifferent enforcement. Like almost all other
+street-trading laws in the United States, it places the age limit at
+the ridiculous age of ten years. A movement was started recently in
+Buffalo to remedy the situation, and the following statement was
+published:--
+
+"During the past year we have sought to discover, not by theorizing,
+but by uncovering the facts, what is the effect of street work on the
+boy. School records of 230 Buffalo newsboys were secured. Eighteen per
+cent were reported as truants; 23 per cent stood poor or very poor in
+attendance and deportment. Twenty-eight per cent stood poor or very
+poor in scholarship, while only 15 per cent of the other children in
+the same schools failed in their work. An investigation at the truant
+school showed that 46.6 per cent of the boys there had been engaged in
+the street trades. On the basis of these facts and studies made in
+connection with the schools, juvenile courts and reformatories
+elsewhere, we hope to secure legislation raising the age below which
+boys may not engage in the street trades to twelve years, and making
+it illegal for boys under fourteen to sell after 8 P.M. We are also
+striving to secure better enforcement of this law in Buffalo and other
+cities."[83]
+
+This folder also states that circular letters were sent to all Buffalo
+school principals asking about the effect on scholarship of the early
+morning delivery of newspapers by their pupils, and also to
+physicians inquiring about the effect of such work on physical
+development. The hours for such newspaper delivery were from 4.30 A.M.
+to 7 A.M. Eight principals and six physicians denounced such work to
+every one who favored it. Referring to the occupational history of
+reformatory inmates, a recent report for New York City says: "The
+parental school (school for truants) statistics show that 80 out of
+its 230 inmates were newsboys, while 60 per cent of the entire number
+have been street traders. The Catholic Protectorate, full of Italians
+(noted as street traders), gives us a record of 469 or 80 per cent out
+of their 590 boys interviewed, who have followed the street
+profession, and 295 or 50 per cent had been newsboys selling over
+three months. The New York Juvenile Asylum gives us 31 per cent of its
+inmates as newsboys and 60 per cent as street traders. The House of
+Refuge repeats the same story: 63 per cent of those committed to that
+institution had been street traders, of whom 32 per cent were
+newsboys. If 63 per cent of the House of Refuge inmates have been
+street traders, and if the majority of such have begun their so-called
+criminal careers, which end invariably in the state penitentiary, why
+do we permit children to trade on our streets?"[84]
+
+Another American writer says: "Whatever the cause, the effect on the
+newsboy is always the same. He lives on the streets at night in an
+atmosphere of crime and criminals, and he takes in vice and evil with
+the air he breathes. If he grows into manhood and escapes the
+tuberculosis which seizes so many of these boys of the street, the
+things that he has learned as a professional newsboy lead in one
+direction,--toward crime and things criminal. The professional newsboy
+is the embryo criminal."[85]
+
+The dangers to the morals of children are particularly emphasized by
+those who have given this subject any attention. Mr. John Spargo says:
+"Nor is it only in factories that these grosser forms of immorality
+flourish. They are even more prevalent among the children of the
+street trades,--newsboys, bootblacks, messengers and the like. The
+proportion of newsboys who suffer from venereal diseases is alarmingly
+great. The superintendent of the John Worthy School of Chicago, Mr.
+Sloan, asserts that 'one third of all the newsboys who come to the
+John Worthy School have venereal diseases and that 10 per cent of the
+remaining newsboys at present in the Bridewell are, according to the
+physician's diagnosis, suffering from similar diseases.' The newsboys
+who come to the school are, according to Mr. Sloan, on an average of
+one third below the ordinary standard of physical development, a
+condition which will be readily understood by those who know the ways
+of the newsboys of our great cities--their irregular habits, scant
+feeding, sexual excesses, secret vices, sleeping in hallways,
+basements, stables and quiet corners. With such a low physical
+standard the ravages of venereal diseases are tremendously
+increased."[86]
+
+The economic aspect of this work is magnified by most people beyond
+its true proportion; the earnings of street-working children are not
+needed by their families in most cases, and even in those instances
+where their poverty demands such relief it is wrong to purchase it at
+the price paid in evil training and bad effects of every kind.
+Commenting on this point the chief truant officer for Indianapolis
+says: "A large number of truants are recruited from that large
+unrestricted class whose members are to be found competing with one
+another on our street corners from early until late. The pennies which
+many of them earn are a material aid in replenishing the depleted
+resources of some of our homes. Yet, it is a question whether such
+child laborers will not in the future bequeath to society an abundant
+reward of human wreckage which may be traced to such traffic and its
+many temptations."[87]
+
+As to the bad judgment of parents in seeking the premature earnings of
+their children, a Chicago physician says: "The average newsboy, if he
+works 365 days a year, does not earn over a hundred dollars; if he
+becomes delinquent it costs the state at least two hundred dollars a
+year to care for him. When we remember that twelve out of every one
+hundred boys between ten and sixteen become delinquent, and that over
+60 per cent of these boys come from street trades, it does not take
+long for a business man to figure out that it is rather poor economy
+to let a ten-year-old boy go into at least this field of labor....
+From an economic standpoint the family that sends out a ten-year-old
+boy to sell papers loses a great deal more in actual money from the
+boy's lack of future earning capacity than the boy can possibly earn
+by his youthful efforts. In other words, this sort of labor from an
+economic standpoint is an absurdity."[88]
+
+In its splendid report on street trading, the British departmental
+committee of 1910 stated: "We learnt that much of this money, so
+readily made, is spent with equal dispatch. The children spend it on
+sweets and cigarettes, and in attending music halls, and in very many
+cases only a portion, if any, of the daily earnings is taken home....
+In many towns the traders are drawn from the poorest of homes, but
+numerous witnesses have emphatically stated that their experience
+leads them to think that cases where real benefits accrue to the home
+are rare."[89]
+
+The lack of proper training during childhood almost invariably brings
+about a tragedy in the lives of working people. The premature
+employment of children at any kind of labor which interferes with
+their education and their training in work for which they are fitted
+is most disastrous in its effects and far outweighs in future misery
+the little income thus secured in childhood. A careful student of the
+working class declares: "Many bright and capable men and women in this
+neighborhood [Greenwich Village, New York City] would undoubtedly have
+been able to occupy high positions in the industrial world if they had
+not been _forced into unskilled work when young_."[90]
+
+With reference to the effects of street trading an English writer
+says: "It is difficult to imagine a life which could be worse for a
+young boy. Apart from the moral dangers, it is a means of earning a
+livelihood which perhaps more than any other is subject to the most
+violent fluctuations. But the uncertainty of the income is a trifling
+evil by comparison with the certainty of the bad moral effects of
+street trading on boys and youths. The life of the street trader is a
+continual gamble, unredeemed by any steady work; it is undisciplined
+and casual, and exposed to all the temptations of the street at its
+worst. The great majority of the boys who sell papers drift away into
+crime or idleness or some form of living by their wits."[91] The same
+writer also declares: "Few things could have a worse effect than this
+street trading on those engaged in it. It initiates them into the
+mysteries of the beggar's whine and breeds in them the craving for an
+irregular, undisciplined method of life."[92] And the editor of these
+English studies adds: "It is part of the street-bred child's precocity
+that he acquires a too early acquaintance with matters which as a
+child he ought not to know at all. His language and conversation often
+reveal a familiarity with vice which would be terrible were it not so
+superficial."[93]
+
+Speaking of immorality in the narrow sense of the word, the same
+writer says: "We do not believe that immorality of this kind is
+universal among the boys and girls of the labouring classes, nor do we
+believe that the town youth is any worse than his brother and sister
+of the country. Coarseness and impurity are not the distinguishing
+mark of any one class or any one place. We question whether comparison
+of sins and self-indulgence would work out at all to the disadvantage
+of the town labouring class as a whole. It must be remembered that one
+commonplace factor, the glaring publicity of the street, is all on the
+side of the town youth's virtue. The street has its safeguards as well
+as its dangers."[94]
+
+With reference to the blind alley character of street work, another
+English writer avers: "As in London, the labours of the school
+children [in Manchester] are in no wise apprenticeship or preparation
+for their future lives. The grocer's little errand boy will be
+discharged when he grows bigger and needs higher wages; the chemist's
+runner is not in training to become a chemist. The three farthings an
+hour on the one hand, and the physical, moral and intellectual
+degeneration on the other, are all that the little ones here, as
+elsewhere, get out of toil from which many a grown man would
+shrink."[95]
+
+Another English student of labor conditions declares:
+"Teachers--together with magistrates, police authorities, ministers of
+religion and social workers--are practically unanimous in condemning
+street trading as an employment of children of school age. In this
+occupation children deteriorate rapidly from the physical, mental and
+moral point of view."[96]
+
+Still another writer says: "One great evil which results from this
+life of street trading in childhood is the fact that it is fatal to
+industrial efficiency in after life."[97]
+
+The testimony of Sir Lauder Brunton, M.D., given in 1904, on the
+occasion of the inquiry into physical deterioration in Great Britain,
+is to the point, in spite of the fact that the committee directing the
+inquiry stated that "The impressions gathered from the great majority
+of the witnesses examined do not support the belief that there is any
+general progressive deterioration."[98] Sir Lauder Brunton's testimony
+was as follows: "The causes of deficient physique are very numerous
+... it is very likely that in order to eke out the scanty earnings of
+the father and mother the child is sent, out of school hours, to earn
+a penny or two, and so it comes to school wearied out in body by
+having had to work early in the morning, exhausted by not having had
+food, and then is sent to learn. Well, it cannot learn."[99] Later the
+same witness testified, "One of the very worst causes [of physical
+deterioration] is that children in actual attendance at school, work
+before and after schooltime."[100]
+
+In a special inquiry into the physical effects of work upon 600 boys
+of school age made in 1905 by Dr. Charles J. Thomas, assistant health
+officer to the London County Council's education department, it was
+found that many of the children suffered from nervous strain, heart
+disease and deformities as a result of prolonged labor. Of the 600
+boys, 134 were shop boys, 63 were milk boys, 87 were newsboys and the
+others were scattered among various employments. It was found that
+work during the dinner hour and also the long work-day on Saturday
+were particularly harmful. As to fatigue among the newsboys, of those
+working 20 hours or less, 60 per cent were affected; of those working
+between 20 and 30 hours, 70 per cent; while of those working more than
+30 hours per week, 91 per cent showed fatigue. As to anaemia, among the
+newsboys, of those working 20 hours or less it appeared among only 19
+per cent; but of those working 20 to 30 hours, 30 per cent showed it;
+while of those working over 30 hours per week, 73 per cent were
+afflicted in this way. As to nerve strain, of those working 20 hours
+or less 16 per cent were suffering from it; of those working 20 to 30
+hours, 35 per cent; while of those working over 30 hours, 37 per cent
+showed nerve strain. As to deformities, none were noted among boys
+working less than 20 hours a week, but 10 per cent of those working 20
+to 30 hours or more were found to be afflicted. All elementary
+schoolboys showed deformities to the extent of 8 per cent, but of
+those engaged in different kinds of work from 20 to 30 hours a week,
+21 per cent showed deformities. Flatfoot was found to be the chief
+deformity produced by newspaper selling, this being caused by the
+boys' having to be on their feet too much.[101]
+
+One of the most decisive blows delivered against street work by
+children in Great Britain was the statement of Thomas Burke of the
+Liverpool City Council, a son of working people, who had lived in a
+crowded city street for twenty years, had attended a public elementary
+school until fourteen years of age, where the number of child street
+traders was very large, and had become convinced that "work after
+school hours was decidedly injurious to health and character."
+Referring to the material condition of his street-trading
+acquaintances, he said: "Almost all the boys sent out to work after
+school hours from the school referred to have failed in the battle of
+life. Not one is a member of any of the regular trades, while all who
+were sent to trade in the streets have gone down to the depths of
+social misery if not degradation ... a great proportion of those who
+did not work after school hours, or frequent the streets as newspaper
+sellers, occupy respectable positions in the city."[102]
+
+Miss Ina Tyler of the St. Louis School of Social Economy in a study of
+St. Louis newsboys made in 1910, found that of 50 newsboys under 11
+years of age, 43 gambled, 42 went to cheap shows and 23 used tobacco;
+while of 100 newsboys 11 to 16 years of age, 86 gambled, 92 went to
+cheap shows and 76 used tobacco.[103]
+
+Among the conclusions of the British interdepartmental committee of
+1901 is the following: "Street hawking is not injurious to the health
+if the hours are not long, and the work is not done late at night; but
+its moral effects are far worse than the physical, and this employment
+in the center of many large towns makes the streets hotbeds for the
+corruption of children who learn to drink, to gamble and to use vile
+language, while girls are exposed to even worse things."[104]
+
+The British departmental committee of 1910 declared: "In the case of
+both boys and girls the effect of this occupation on future prospects
+cannot be anything but thoroughly bad, except, possibly, in casual and
+exceptional cases. We learn that many boys who sell while at school
+manage to obtain other work upon becoming fourteen, but for those who
+remain in the street the tendency is to develop into loafers and
+'corner boys.' The period between fourteen and sixteen is a critical
+time in a boy's life. Street trading provides him with no training; he
+gets no discipline, he is not occupied the whole of his time; for a
+few years he makes more money and makes it more easily than in an
+office or a workshop, and he is exposed to a variety of actively evil
+influences."[105]
+
+An important division of the study of street-working children concerns
+their standing in the schools. In New York City a few figures are
+available through a study recently made there. The distribution of 200
+newsboys under fourteen years of age among the school grades is shown
+in the following table:[106]--
+
+  ========================================================
+        |            GRADES             |         |
+   AGES +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ SPECIAL |TOTALS
+        | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |         |
+  ------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---------+-------
+      7 | 2 |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |         |   2
+      8 |   | 3 | 2 |   |   |   |   |   |         |   5
+      9 |   | 1 | 6 | 1 |   |   |   |   |         |   8
+     10 |   |   | 6 | 3 | 3 |   |   |   |         |  12
+     11 |   | 5 | 7 |10 | 7 | 4 | 1 |   |    2    |  36
+     12 |   | 1 | 1 |19 |21 | 9 | 7 | 1 |    3    |  62
+     13 |   |   |   |15 |10 |23 |17 | 7 |    3    |  75
+        +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---------+-------
+  Totals| 2 |10 |22 |48 |41 |36 |25 | 8 |    8    | 200
+  ========================================================
+
+Applying the rule that in order to be normal a child must enter the
+first grade at the age of either six or seven years and progress with
+enough regularity to enable him to attend the eighth grade at the age
+of either thirteen or fourteen, it is found that of the 177 newsboys
+ten to thirteen years of age inclusive, 118 are backward, 57 are
+normal and 2 are beyond their grades. This is shown in the following
+table:--
+
+  ==============================================
+     AGES    |BACKWARD | NORMAL | AHEAD | TOTAL
+  -----------+---------+--------+-------+-------
+       10    |    6    |    6   |   0   |  12
+       11    |   22    |   11   |   1   |  34
+       12    |   42    |   16   |   1   |  59
+       13    |   48    |   24   |   0   |  72
+             +---------+--------+-------+-------
+  Totals     |  118    |   57   |   2   | 177
+  Percentages|  67%    |   32%  |   1%  | 100%
+  ===============================================
+
+This table shows that of the 177 newsboys ten to thirteen years of
+age, 67 per cent are backward and 32 per cent are normal, while only 1
+per cent are ahead of their grades. Boys of these ages are subject to
+the restrictions prescribed by the state law as to hours, and it is
+probable that the percentage of retardation would have been even
+greater if work at night had not been to some extent prevented.
+
+A report of New York City conditions made in 1907, before the newsboy
+law was enforced, says: "The shrewd, bright-eyed, sharp-witted lad is
+stupid and sleepy in the schoolroom; 295 newsboys compared with
+non-working boys in the same class were found to fall below the
+average in proficiency. They were also usually older than their
+classmates, that is, backward in their grades."[107]
+
+Referring to Manchester newsboys above the age of fourteen years, an
+English report[108] says: "They are not stupid, or even markedly
+backward, judged by school standards.... As they grow older they sink
+to a lower level, both morally and economically--in fact, little
+better than loafers, without aspiration, and content with the squalor
+of the common lodging-houses in which they live, if only they have
+enough money for their drink and their gambling." Concerning the
+younger newsboys the same report continues: "Those who are the
+children of extremely poor, and often worthless parents, are often
+upon the streets selling their papers during school hours, and their
+attendance at the schools, in spite of prosecution of their parents,
+is so irregular that they make very little progress. These boys take
+to the streets permanently for their livelihood; a few of them
+continue, after the age of fourteen, to earn their living by selling
+newspapers, but most of them sink into less satisfactory kinds of
+occupation." In connection with these statements it should be
+remembered that they portray conditions existing prior to the adoption
+in 1902 of local rules on street trading. With reference to the
+alleged cleverness of street Arabs, a British observer draws this
+distinction: "Street-trading children are more cunning than other
+children, but not more intelligent."[109]
+
+In St. Louis there was no regulation until the Missouri law of 1911
+was passed; and in 1910 Miss Ina Tyler, in a study of 106 newsboys of
+that city, found the following conditions:--
+
+                           NUMBER BELOW NORMAL
+  YEARS                      SCHOOL GRADE
+
+  10                       10  out of  16  62%
+  11                       12  out of  16  75%
+  12                       16  out of  28  57%
+  13                       25  out of  33  75%
+  14                       11  out of  13  84%
+                           --         ---  ---
+                           74         106  70%
+
+These figures were copied by the writer from charts displayed at the
+child labor exhibit of the National Conference of Charities and
+Correction in St. Louis in 1910, but efforts to ascertain the method
+of determining these percentages were unavailing. Therefore they
+cannot be compared with the figures in the preceding tables, because
+it is by no means certain that the standard ages for normal school
+standing were adopted in the compilation of this table.
+
+In Toledo, Ohio, there is no regulation governing street work by
+children, although a local association makes an effort to look after
+the welfare of newsboys. In October, 1911, the writer visited the four
+public common school buildings nearest the business district of this
+city and found 287 children in attendance who were regularly engaged
+in some form of street work out of school hours. The great majority of
+them were newsboys. The distribution of these children according to
+age and grade is given below:--
+
+                                  AGES
+  =====================================================================
+  Grade | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | Totals
+  ------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------
+    1   | 1 | 8 | 5 | 4 | 4 |  1 |    |    |    |    |    |    |  23
+    2   |   |   | 7 |12 | 8 |  2 |  3 |    |  2 |    |    |    |  34
+    3   |   |   | 1 | 5 | 8 | 22 |  4 |  7 |  3 |  1 |    |    |  51
+    4   |   |   |   | 3 | 7 | 17 |  9 | 11 |  6 |  2 |  1 |  2 |  58
+    5   |   |   |   |   |   |  8 | 10 | 10 |  7 |  5 |  4 |    |  44
+    6   |   |   |   |   |   |    |  7 |  7 | 16 |  3 |  4 |    |  37
+    7   |   |   |   |   |   |    |  1 |  5 |  6 |  9 |  3 |  1 |  25
+    8   |   |   |   |   |   |    |    |    |  5 |  7 |  3 |    |  15
+  ------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------
+  Totals| 1 | 8 | 13| 24| 27| 50 | 34 | 40 | 45 | 27 | 15 |  3 | 287
+  =====================================================================
+
+Adopting the same method for determining retardation as in the case of
+the New York figures, we find that of these 287 street-working school
+children of Toledo, 55 per cent are backward, 43 per cent are normal
+and 2 per cent are ahead of their grades. Or, selecting the children
+ten to thirteen years of age, as was done with the New York figures,
+we have the following results:--
+
+  =========================================================
+    AGES     |   BACKWARD  |  NORMAL  |   AHEAD  |  TOTAL
+  -----------+-------------+----------+----------+---------
+     10      |      25     |    25    |          |    50
+     11      |      16     |    17    |     1    |    34
+     12      |      28     |    12    |          |    40
+     13      |      34     |    11    |          |    45
+   Totals    |     103     |    65    |     1    |   169
+  -----------+-------------+----------+----------+---------
+  Percentages|      61%    |    38%   |     1%   |   100%
+  =========================================================
+
+These percentages show that conditions in Toledo are only slightly
+better than in New York City. This is surprising because of the great
+difference in the working conditions of the two cities, the
+metropolitan street children being subjected to far greater nervous
+strain because of the more congested population and heavier street
+traffic.
+
+
+      RETARDED CHILDREN IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (TOLEDO), 1910-1911
+
+             _Grades_
+
+               |    FIRST
+             +-+--------------
+             | |NORMAL AGE 6-7
+             |
+             |      |   SECOND
+             |    +-+--------------
+             |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |
+             |    |      |    THIRD
+             |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 8-9
+             |    |    |
+             |    |    |      |    FOURTH
+             |    |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |      |     FIFTH
+             |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 10-11
+             |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |      |     SIXTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 11-12
+             |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |      |    SEVENTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 12-13
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |     EIGHTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 13-14
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |PER CENT OF
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |ALL RETARDATIONS
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     +-----+----------
+             V    V    V    V    V    V    V    V           V
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+======
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    TOTAL
+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------+------
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+1 year    | 325| 449| 500| 483| 528| 507| 366| 209| 3,367| 53.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+2 years   |  91| 170| 215| 346| 384| 324| 194|  72| 1,796| 28.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+3 years   |  33|  53| 101| 152| 219| 119|  33|  17|   727| 11.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+4 or more |  16|  42|  74| 131| 105|  19|   3|   5|   395|  6.2
+years     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Total     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+retarded  | 465| 714| 890|1112|1236| 969| 596| 303| 6,285|
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Enrollment|    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+each grade|3114|2680|2548|2400|2209|1856|1284| 901|16,992|
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Per cent  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+each grade|14.9|26.6|34.8|46.3|55.9|52.2|46.4|33.6|  36.9|
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+=======
+
+
+  RETARDED STREET WORKERS IN FOUR TOLEDO COMMON SCHOOLS, OCTOBER, 1911
+
+             _Grades_
+
+               |    FIRST
+             +-+--------------
+             | |NORMAL AGE 6-7
+             |
+             |      |   SECOND
+             |    +-+--------------
+             |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |
+             |    |      |    THIRD
+             |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 8-9
+             |    |    |
+             |    |    |      |    FOURTH
+             |    |    |    +-+--------------
+             |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 7-8
+             |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |      |     FIFTH
+             |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 10-11
+             |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |      |     SIXTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 11-12
+             |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |      |    SEVENTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 12-13
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |     EIGHTH
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    +-+----------------
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | |NORMAL AGE 13-14
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |PER CENT OF
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     |ALL RETARDATIONS
+             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |     +-----+----------
+             V    V    V    V    V    V    V    V           V
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+======
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |TOTAL |
+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------+------
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+1 year    |   4|   8|  22|   9|  10|  16|   9|   3|    81| 51.6
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+2 years   |   4|   2|   4|  11|   7|   3|   3|    |    34| 21.7
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+3 years   |   1|   3|   7|   6|   5|   4|   1|    |    27| 17.2
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Retarded  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+4 or more |    |   2|   4|   5|   4|    |    |    |    15|  9.5
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Total     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+retarded  |   9|  15|  37|  31|  26|  23|  13|   3|   157|
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Enrollment|  23|  34|  51|  58|  44|  37|  25|  15|   287|
+street    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+workers   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |      |
+Per cent  |39.1|44.1|72.5|53.4|  59|62.1|  52|  20|  54.7|
+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======+=======
+
+A comparison between the table given in the report of the Toledo Board
+of Education for 1911 showing the total number of retarded children in
+the elementary schools, and a similar table compiled from the figures
+for the street-trading children in four Toledo schools given on pages
+154 and 155, is most significant. The retardation among the total
+number of pupils enrolled is to be found on page 154.[110]
+
+The corresponding figures for the 287 street-trading children in the
+four schools are to be found on page 155.
+
+It is especially noteworthy that the percentage of retardation among
+the street workers is very much greater than among the total number of
+pupils, in every grade except the eighth, while for all the grades it
+is 17.8 per cent greater. This becomes all the more significant when
+it is remembered that the figures for the total enrollment include the
+street workers; hence the excess of retardation among the latter makes
+the showing of the former worse than if they were excluded, and
+consequently the comparison on page 155 does not appear to be as
+unfavorable to the street workers as it is in reality.
+
+On consideration of the figures in the tables on pages 154 and 155,
+the conclusion is inevitable that street work greatly promotes the
+retardation of school children. There are, of course, other factors
+which contribute to bring about this condition of backwardness, such
+as poverty, malnutrition and mental deficiency, but there can be no
+doubt that the evil effects of street work are in large measure
+responsible for the poor showing made in the schools by the children
+who follow such occupations.
+
+The many quotations in this chapter from authoritative sources with
+reference to the harmful effects of street work upon children
+constitute a most severe indictment. Students of labor conditions,
+specialists and official committees bitterly denounce the practice of
+permitting children to trade in city streets, and cite the
+consequences of such neglect. Material, physical and moral
+deterioration are strikingly apparent in most children who have
+followed street careers and been exposed to their bad environment for
+any length of time. We have provided splendid facilities for the
+correction of our delinquent children through the medium of juvenile
+courts, state reformatories and the probation system, but surely it
+would be wise to provide at the same time an ounce of prevention in
+addition to this pound of cure. Social workers have returned a true
+bill against street work by children. What will the verdict of the
+people be?
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+RELATION OF STREET WORK TO DELINQUENCY
+
+
+The most convincing proof so far adduced to show that delinquency is a
+common result of street work is set forth in the volume on "Juvenile
+Delinquency and its Relation to Employment,"[111] being part of the
+Report on the Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+States, prepared under the direction of Dr. Charles P. Neill, United
+States Commissioner of Labor, in response to an act of Congress in
+1907 authorizing the study. The object of this official inquiry into
+the subject of juvenile delinquency was to discover what connection
+exists between delinquency and occupation or non-occupation, giving
+due consideration to other factors such as the character of the
+child's family, its home and environment. This study is based upon the
+records of the juvenile courts of Indianapolis, Baltimore, New York,
+Boston, Newark, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, showing cases of
+delinquency of children sixteen years of age or younger coming before
+these courts during the year 1907-1908. The total number of
+delinquents included in the study is 4839, of whom 2767 had at some
+time been employed and 2072 had never been employed. The entire number
+of offenses recorded for all the delinquents was 8797, the working
+children being responsible for 5471 offenses, or 62.2 per cent, while
+the non-working children were responsible for 3326 offenses, of 37.8
+per cent. This shows that most juvenile offenses are committed by
+working children. The ages of the children committing the offenses
+recorded, ranged from six to sixteen years, and the report adds, "When
+it is remembered that a majority, and presumably a large majority, of
+all the children between these ages are not working, this
+preponderance of offenses among the workers assumes impressive
+proportions."[112]
+
+With reference to the character of the offenses it was found that the
+working children inclined to the more serious kinds. Recidivists were
+found to be far more numerous among the workers than among the
+non-workers. Summing up the results of the discussion to this point
+the report says: "It is found that the working children contribute to
+the ranks of delinquency a slightly larger number and a much larger
+proportion than do the non-workers, that this excess appears in
+offenses of every kind, whether trivial or serious, and among
+recidivists even more markedly than among first offenders."[113]
+
+With reference to the connection between recidivism and street work
+the report says: "The proportion of recidivism is also large among
+those who are working while attending school, and the numbers here are
+very much larger than one would wish to see. Some part of the
+recidivism here is undoubtedly due to the kind of occupations which a
+child can carry on while attending school. Selling newspapers and
+blacking shoes, acting as errand or delivery boy, peddling and working
+about amusement resorts account for over two-thirds of these boys
+(478 of the 664 are in one or another of these pursuits). These are
+all occupations in which the chances of going wrong are numerous,
+involving as they usually do night work, irregular hours, dubious or
+actively harmful associations and frequent temptations to dishonesty.
+In addition, something may perhaps be attributed to the overstrain due
+to the attempt to combine school and work. When a child of 13, a
+bootblack, is 'often on the street to 12 P.M.,' or when a boy one year
+older works six hours daily outside of school time, 'often at night,'
+as a telegraph messenger, it is evident that his school work is not
+the only thing which is likely to suffer from the excessive strain
+upon the immature strength, and from the character of his
+occupation."[114]
+
+While reflecting on the excess of working children among the
+delinquents, one may be inclined to attribute this to bad home
+influences; but the report shows that only one-fifth of the workers as
+opposed to nearly one-third of the non-workers come from distinctly
+bad homes, while from fair and good homes the proportion is
+approximately 76 per cent to 65 per cent. Consequently, the working
+child goes wrong more frequently than the non-working child in spite
+of his more favorable home surroundings.[115]
+
+Of the total number of delinquent boys, both working and non-working,
+under twelve years of age, 22.4 per cent were workers, while of those
+twelve to thirteen years old, 42.4 per cent were workers, and of those
+fourteen to sixteen years old, 80.8 per cent were workers. As
+comparatively few children under twelve years are at work, the fact
+that more than one-fifth of the delinquent boys in this age group are
+working children "becomes exceedingly significant." Of all children
+twelve to thirteen years of age, the great majority are not employed
+because of the fourteen-year age limit prevailing in all the states
+studied except Maryland; hence the larger proportion of working
+offenders cannot be explained by the influences of age. The increase
+of working delinquents above fourteen years is to be expected, because
+so many children go to work on reaching that age.
+
+Remembering that the proportionate excess of workers varies from two
+to nine times the ratio of non-workers, it is evident that this excess
+cannot be explained by a corresponding excess of orphanage, foreign
+parentage, bad home conditions or unfavorable age. As the report says,
+"It seems rather difficult to escape the conclusion that being at work
+has something to do with their going wrong."[116]
+
+The strongest argument against street work by children is to be found
+in the following table[117] of occupations pursued by the largest
+number of delinquents and giving the percentage of total delinquents
+engaged in each.
+
+As the report says, the following classification shows that the
+largest number of delinquent boys were found in those occupations in
+which the nature of the employment does not permit of supervision--namely,
+newspaper selling, errand running, delivery service and messenger
+service. Boys engaged in these occupations, together with bootblacks
+and peddlers, all work under conditions "which bring them into
+continual temptations to dishonesty and to other offenses."[118]
+
+====================================================================
+                       | PER CENT |                      |PER CENT
+        BOYS           |   OF     |        GIRLS         |   OF
+                       |  TOTAL   |                      |  TOTAL
+Industry or Occupation |DELINQUENT|Industry or Occupation|DELINQUENT
+                       |  BOYS    |                      |  GIRLS
+-----------------------+----------+----------------------+----------
+Newsboys               |   21.83  | Domestic service:    |
+Errand boys            |   17.80  |  Servant in private  |
+Drivers and helpers,   |          |    house             |  32.18
+   wagon               |    7.30  | In hotel, restaurant |
+Stores and markets     |    4.23  |    or boarding house |   5.44
+Messengers, telegraph  |    2.59  | Home workers         |  16.33
+Iron and steel         |          |    Total in domestic |----------
+Iron and steel         |    1.84  |         service      |  53.95
+Textiles, hosiery and  |          |                      |
+  knit goods           |    1.84  | Textiles, hosiery and|
+Bootblacks             |    1.77  |   knit goods         |  12.36
+Peddlers               |    1.71  | Stores and markets   |   5.44
+Building trades        |    1.64  | Clothing makers      |   4.95
+Theater                |    1.57  | Candy and            |
+Office boys            |    1.43  |   confectionery      |   4.45
+Glass                  |    1.30  |  Laundry             |   1.98
+====================================================================
+
+The offenses with which the boys were charged are divided in the
+report into sixteen classes. The messenger service furnishes the
+largest proportionate number of offenders charged with "assault and
+battery" and "immoral conduct"; the delivery service those charged
+with "burglary"; bootblacking those charged with "craps and gambling,"
+"incorrigibility and truancy"; peddling those with "larceny and
+runaway," and "vagrancy or runaway." The report calls attention to the
+greater tendency of messengers to immorality, and remarks that it is
+easy to see a connection between bootblacking and the offenses in
+which bootblacks lead. The report continues: "It is worthy to note
+that neither the newsboys nor errand boys, both following pursuits
+looked upon with disfavor, are found as contributing a _leading_
+proportion of any one offense. They seem to maintain what might be
+called a high general level of delinquency rather than to lead in any
+particular direction, errand boys being found in fourteen and newsboys
+in fifteen of the sixteen separate offense groups."[119]
+
+For the purpose of clearly defining the connection between occupation
+and delinquency, and determining whether the delinquency inheres in
+the occupation or in the conditions under which it is carried on,
+there were selected six kinds of employments which are generally
+looked upon by social workers as morally unsafe for children, and a
+comparison was made of conditions as to the parentage, home
+surroundings, etc., prevailing among the workers in these occupations,
+the working delinquents generally, and the whole body of delinquents,
+both working and non-working. Of the delinquent boys under twelve
+years engaged in these six groups of employments (delivery and errand
+boys, newsboys and bootblacks, office boys, street vendors, telegraph
+messengers and in amusement resorts), nearly three-fourths were found
+to be newsboys and bootblacks. As four-fifths of the working
+delinquents under twelve years of age in all occupations are found in
+these six groups, it is evident that this class is largely responsible
+for the employment of young boys, and "comparing these figures with
+those for the working delinquents in all occupations we find that 58.6
+per cent, or nearly three-fifths of all the working delinquents up to
+twelve, come from among the newsboys."[120]
+
+It was found that 54.6 per cent of all the working delinquents had
+both parents living, while newsboys and bootblacks, street vendors and
+telegraph messengers were found to be more fortunate in this respect
+than the great mass of working delinquents, even surpassing the whole
+body of delinquents, working and non-working. As the report says, "One
+so frequently hears of the newsboy who has no one but himself to look
+to that it is rather a surprise to find that the orphaned or deserted
+child appears among them only about half as often relatively as among
+the whole group of workers."[121]
+
+Of the delinquent delivery and errand boys, 78.9 per cent were found
+to have fair or good homes, of the newsboys and bootblacks 75.8 per
+cent, of the street vendors 65 per cent, and of the telegraph
+messengers 78.9 per cent, and in this connection the report declares,
+"Certainly the predominance of these selected occupations among the
+employments of delinquents cannot be explained by the home conditions
+of the children entering them."[122]
+
+The findings with respect to the messenger service fully corroborate
+the charges brought against it by the National Child Labor Committee.
+The report says: "Turning to the messengers, it is seen that they are
+in every respect above the average of favorable conditions. Moreover,
+it is well known that boys taking up this work must be bright and
+quick; there is no room in it for the dull and mentally weak. Plainly,
+then, in this case the occupation, not the kind of children who enter
+it, must be held responsible for its position among the pursuits from
+which delinquents come ... the chief charges brought against it are
+that the irregular work and night employment tend to break down
+health, that the opportunities for overcharge and for appropriating
+packages or parts of their contents lead to dishonesty, and that the
+places to which the boy is sent familiarize him with all forms of vice
+and tend to lead him into immorality."[123] Referring again to the
+messenger service, the report says: "The unfortunate effects of the
+inherent conditions of the work are, however, manifest. Its
+irregularity, the lack of any supervision during a considerable part
+of the time, the associations of the street and of the places to which
+messengers are sent, and the frequency of night work with all its
+demoralizing features, afford an explanation of the impatience of
+restraint, the reckless yielding to impulse shown in the large
+percentage of incorrigibility and disorderly conduct. A glance at the
+main table shows that the two offenses next in order are assault and
+battery and malicious mischief, both of which indicate the same
+traits. On the whole, there seems abundant reason for considering that
+the messenger service deserves its bad name."[124]
+
+With reference to errand and delivery boys, the report finds that as
+the level of favorable conditions keeps so near to the average, it
+seems necessary to attribute the number of delinquents furnished by
+this class more to the conditions of the work than to the kind of
+children taking it up.
+
+The occupational influences of amusement resorts, street vending and
+newspaper selling "are notoriously bad, but a partial explanation of
+the number of delinquents they furnish is unquestionably in the kind
+of children who enter them. It is a case of action and reaction. These
+occupations are easily taken up by immature children, with little or
+no education and no preliminary training. Such children are least
+likely to resist evil influences, most likely to yield to all that is
+bad in their environment."[125]
+
+Having shown that a connection can be traced between certain
+occupations and the number and kind of offenses committed by the
+children working in them, the report next determines to what extent a
+direct connection can be traced between occupation and offense. If a
+working child commits an offense, first, during working hours, second,
+in some place to which his work calls him, and third, against some
+person with whom his work brings him in contact, a connection may be
+said to exist between the misdemeanor and the employment. The report
+insists that either all three of the connection elements must be
+present, or else the offense must be very clearly the outcome of
+conditions related to the work, before a connection can be asserted;
+and it reminds the reader that the number of connection cases shown
+represents an understatement, probably to a considerable degree, of
+the real situation. The number of boy delinquents in occupations which
+show more than five cases of delinquency chargeable to occupation was
+found to be 308; of these, 100 were errand or delivery boys, 129 were
+newsboys, 16 were drivers or helpers, 13 were street vendors and 10
+were messengers.
+
+The number of boy delinquents working at time of last offense and the
+number whose offenses show a connection with the occupation are
+compared, by occupation, in the following table,[126] p. 173.
+
+"Among the errand and delivery boys the percentage (of connection
+cases) is large and the connection close. Larceny accounts for over
+nine-tenths of these cases, the larceny usually being from the
+employer when the boy was sent out with goods, though in some cases
+it was from the house to which the boy was sent. It will be remembered
+that in respect to parental and home condition, age, etc., the
+delinquent errand boys came very close to the average, and their
+antecedents gave no reason to expect they would go wrong so
+numerously. That fact, together with the large proportion of
+connection cases, seems to indicate that the occupation is distinctly
+a dangerous one morally."[130]
+
+  ========================+=============+========================
+                          |             | BOY DELINQUENTS WHOSE
+                          |             |    OFFENSES SHOW A
+                          |     BOY     |    CONNECTION WITH
+                          | DELINQUENTS |       OCCUPATION
+                          | WORKING AT  +--------+---------------
+   OCCUPATION OR INDUSTRY |   TIME OF   |        |   Per Cent
+                          |    LAST     |        |    of Boy
+                          |   OFFENSE   | Number |  Delinquents
+                          |             |        | in Occupation
+                          |             |        |    Working
+  ------------------------+-------------+--------+---------------
+  In amusement resorts    |     40[127] |    7   |     17.5
+  Domestic service        |     50[128] |   14   |     28.0
+  Driver or helper        |    107      |   16   |     14.9
+  Errand or delivery boys |    261      |  100   |     38.3
+  Iron and steel workers  |     27      |    7   |     25.9
+  Messengers              |     38      |   10   |     26.3
+  Newsboys and bootblacks |    346[129] |  129   |     37.2
+  Street vendors          |     25      |   13   |     52.0
+  Stores and markets      |     62      |   12   |     19.3
+  ========================+=============+========+===============
+
+As the various forms of immorality are practiced in secret, the report
+truly says that the evils which are most associated with a messenger's
+life could hardly appear in these studies. "A trace of them is found
+in the case of one boy sentenced for larceny. After his arrest it was
+found that he was a confirmed user of cocaine, having acquired the
+habit in the disreputable houses to which his work took him. Perhaps
+something of the same kind is indicated by the fact that one of the
+few cases of drunkenness occurring among working delinquents came, as
+a connection case, from this small group of messengers. For the most
+part, however, the connection offenses (by messengers) were some form
+of dishonesty, usually appropriating parcels sent out for delivery,
+though in some cases collecting charges on prepaid packages was added
+to this."[131]
+
+The newsboys almost equal the errand boys in their percentage of
+connection cases, though their offenses have a much wider range; in
+fact, the connection cases for newsboys include a greater variety of
+offenses than any other occupation studied. Beggary appears for the
+first time, there being two cases, in both of which the selling of
+papers was a mere pretext, enabling the boys to approach passers-by.
+Street vendors were found to show the highest percentage of connection
+cases, larceny being the leading offense.
+
+The report concludes: "It is a striking fact that in spite of the
+incompleteness of the data, a direct connection between the occupation
+and the offense has been found to exist in the cases of practically
+one-fourth of the boys employed at the time of their latest offense.
+It is also a striking fact that while the delinquent boys working at
+the time of their latest offense were scattered through more than
+fifty occupations, over six-sevenths of the connection cases are found
+among those working in street occupations, and that more than
+three-fifths come from two groups of workers--the errand or delivery
+boys, and the newsboys and bootblacks. It is also significant that the
+connection cases form so large a percentage of the total cases among
+the street traders, the messengers, and the errand or delivery boys,
+their proportion ranging from over one-fourth to over one-half,
+according to the occupation."[132]
+
+In considering the effect of night work upon the morals of children,
+the report says, "The messengers and newsboys show both large numbers
+and large percentages of night work, thus giving additional ground for
+the general opinion as to the undesirable character of their work";
+and again, "In the following occupations the cases of night work are
+more numerous than they should be in proportion to the number ever
+employed in these pursuits: bootblacks, bowling alley and pool room,
+glass, hotel, messengers, newsboys and theaters and other amusement
+resorts."[133]
+
+More than one-fourth of the working boy delinquents were found to be
+attending day school. More than half of these pupils were newsboys and
+bootblacks. It was found that the more youthful the worker, the
+stronger is his tendency toward irregular attendance at school.
+
+Eighty-three boy delinquents were devoting eleven or more hours per
+day to work, and of these, 31 were errand or delivery boys, 7 were
+hucksters or peddlers, 6 were messengers and 2 were newsboys or
+bootblacks.
+
+"For both sexes, the workers show a greater tendency than the
+non-workers to go wrong, even where home and neighborhood surroundings
+appear favorable, but this tendency is not so marked among the girls
+as among the boys."[134]
+
+This report of the government investigation furnishes most conclusive
+evidence as to the evil character of street trading in general. It
+bears out the description so aptly made by a recent writer: "The
+streets are the proverbial schools of vice and crime. If the factory
+is the Scylla, the street is the Charybdis."[135]
+
+Another American writer has lately declared: "A prolific cause of
+juvenile delinquency is the influence of the street trades on the
+working boy. No other form of work has such demoralizing
+consequences.... These boys are brought into the juvenile court, and
+their misdemeanors are often so great that reformatory treatment is
+necessary for them. Accordingly they represent a large proportion of
+the boys in the different institutions. The demoralization produced by
+the street trades affects others than those engaged in such trades,
+but the latter are the chief sufferers; therefore the importance of
+legislation which will shut off this source of infection."[136]
+
+A Chicago physician took occasion to look into the records of the
+juvenile court of that city in 1909, and found that the first 100 boys
+and 25 girls examined that year were representative of the 2500
+delinquents brought into the court during the preceding year. Not less
+than 57 of these boys had been engaged in street work--43 as newsboys,
+12 as errand boys and messengers and 2 as peddlers. Only 13 out of the
+entire number had never been employed. Sixty of them were physically
+subnormal; the general physical condition of the girls was found to be
+much better than that of the boys of the same age, although 40 per
+cent of the girls were suffering from acquired venereal disease.[137]
+
+In the autumn of 1910 there were 647 boys confined in the Indiana
+state reformatory, which is known as the Indiana Boys' School, at
+Plainfield. Of this number 219, or 33.8 per cent, had formerly been
+engaged in street work. To determine the relative delinquency of
+street workers and boys who have never pursued such occupations, it
+would be necessary to compare these 219 delinquents with the total
+number of street workers in Indiana and also to compare the total
+number of inmates who had never followed street occupations with the
+total number of boys within the same age limits in Indiana. A
+comparison of the two percentages would be illuminating, but is
+impossible because it is not known how many street workers there are
+in the state. However, it is safe to assume that the number of
+street-working boys in Indiana is much less than one third of the
+total number of boys. If we accept this as true, then the figures
+indicate that street work promotes delinquency, because one third of
+all the delinquents in the state reformatory had been so engaged. The
+frequent assertion that, merely because a large percentage of the
+inmates of correctional institutions were at some time engaged in
+street work, such employment is therefore responsible for their
+delinquency, cannot be accepted alone as proof of the injurious
+character of this class of occupations, as it is not known how long
+each offender was engaged in such work, nor are the other causes
+contributing to the delinquency of each boy properly considered or
+even known. This defect is avoided in the government's Report on
+Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, which, with
+reference to the common practice of jumping at conclusions in this
+way, says, "This appears to show that selling newspapers is a morally
+dangerous occupation, but the danger cannot be measured, since it is
+not known what proportion of the working children are newsboys, or
+what proportion of the newsboys never come to grief."[138] The
+following tables are of interest as showing in detail the facts as to
+Indiana's delinquent boy street workers, who are confined in the state
+reformatory:--
+
+
+              STREET WORKERS IN INDIANA BOYS' SCHOOL, 1910
+
+            _Table A. Distribution among Street Occupations_
+
+  ==============+============+=====+======+=====+========+======+=====
+  COMMITTED FOR | MESSENGERS |NEWS-|BOOT- |PEDD-|DELIVERY|CAB   |TOTAL
+                |            |BOYS |BLACKS|LERS |BOYS    |DRIVER|
+                +-----+------+     |      |     |        |      |
+                | Day |Night |     |      |     |        |      |
+  --------------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+--------+------+-----
+  Larceny       |  3  |  22  |  88 |   3  |  6  |   3    |      | 125
+  Incorrigi-    |     |      |     |      |     |        |      |
+     bility     |     |   5  |  30 |   1  |  3  |        |   1  |  40
+  Truancy       |     |   2  |  27 |      |  3  |        |      |  32
+  Assault       |     |      |     |      |     |        |      |
+  and battery   |     |   2  |   5 |   1  |     |        |      |   8
+  Burglary      |     |   1  |     |      |     |   2    |      |   3
+  Forgery       |     |   2  |     |      |     |        |      |   2
+  Manslaughter  |     |      |   1 |      |     |        |      |   1
+  Other charges |  1  |   2  |   5 |      |     |        |      |   8
+  --------------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+--------+------+-----
+  Totals        |  4  |  36  | 156 |   5  |  12 |    5   |   1  | 219
+  ==============+=====+======+=====+======+=====+========+======+=====
+
+
+           _Table B. Ages when at Work at these Occupations_
+
+  ==================+=======+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+========
+                    | UNDER |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+                    |   10  | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | TOTALS
+  ------------------+-------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------
+  Day messengers    |       |    |    |  1 |  1 |  2 |    |    |    4
+  Night messengers  |    1  |  2 |  2 |  5 | 12 | 11 |  3 |    |   36
+  Newsboys          |   29  | 29 | 28 | 36 | 19 | 14 |  1 |    |  156
+  Bootblacks        |    3  |    |  1 |    |  1 |    |    |    |    5
+  Peddlers          |    1  |  4 |    |  2 |  3 |  1 |    |  1 |   12
+  Delivery boys     |       |  2 |    |  1 |  1 |    |    |  1 |    5
+  Cab drivers       |       |    |    |    |  1 |    |    |    |    1
+  ------------------+-------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------
+    Totals          |   34  | 37 | 31 | 45 | 38 | 28 |  4 |  2 |  219
+  ==================+=======+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+========
+
+
+                 _Table C. Ages at Time of Commitment_
+
+================+=======+===+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======
+                | UNDER |   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+ COMMITTED FOR  |   9   | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | Total
+----------------+-------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------
+Larceny         |   1   | 2 |  8 | 16 | 16 | 24 | 28 | 19 | 10 |  1 |  125
+Incorrigibility |       | 1 |  4 |  4 |  2 |  7 |  7 |  7 |  8 |    |   40
+Truancy         |       | 2 |  3 |  6 |  4 |  7 |  6 |  3 |  1 |    |   32
+Assault and     |       |   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  battery       |       |   |    |    |  1 |  1 |  5 |  1 |    |    |    8
+Burglary        |       |   |    |    |    |    |  2 |    |    |  1 |    3
+Forgery         |       |   |    |    |    |    |  1 |  1 |    |    |    2
+Manslaughter    |       |   |    |    |    |    |  1 |    |    |    |    1
+Other charges   |       |   |    |    |  3 |  1 |  2 |  2 |    |    |    8
+----------------+-------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------
+  Totals        |   1   | 5 | 15 | 26 | 26 | 40 | 52 | 33 | 19 |  2 |  219
+================+=======+===+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+======
+
+
+         _Table D. Nationality and Orphanage of Street Workers_
+
+                                                         OCCUPATIONS
+                  +--------------------------------------- Day messengers
+                  |     +--------------------------------- Night messengers
+                  |     |     +--------------------------- Newsboys
+                  |     |     |     +--------------------- Bootblacks
+                  |     |     |     |     +--------------- Peddlers
+                  |     |     |     |     |     +--------- Delivery boys
+                  |     |     |     |     |     |     +--- Cab driver
+                  |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+                  V     V     V     V     V     V     V    Totals
+===============+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+AMERICAN       |   3 |  25 |  69 |   4 |   6 |   2 |   1 |  110
+NEGRO          |     |   5 |  59 |   1 |   2 |   3 |     |   70
+GERMAN         |     |   3 |  13 |     |   1 |     |     |   17
+IRISH          |     |   1 |   8 |     |   1 |     |     |   10
+POLISH         |   1 |   1 |   3 |     |   1 |     |     |    6
+FRENCH         |     |     |   2 |     |   1 |     |     |    3
+SCOTCH         |     |   1 |     |     |     |     |     |    1
+ITALIAN        |     |     |   1 |     |     |     |     |    1
+JEWISH         |     |     |   1 |     |     |     |     |    1
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+FATHER   | Yes |   4 |  30 | 107 |   5 |   7 |   4 |     |  157
+  LIVING | No  |     |   6 |  49 |     |   5 |   1 |   1 |   62
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+MOTHER   | Yes |   3 |  30 | 119 |   5 |  11 |   5 |   1 |  174
+  LIVING | No  |   1 |   6 |  37 |     |   1 |     |     |   45
+=========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+
+
+            _Table E. Hours and Earnings of Street Workers_
+
+(In only 91 cases were the hours given, and earnings in only 116
+cases.)
+
+                                                       OCCUPATIONS
+                       +-------------------------------- Day messengers
+                       |    +--------------------------- Night messengers
+                       |    |    +---------------------- Newsboys
+                       |    |    |    +----------------- Bootblacks
+                       |    |    |    |    +------------ Peddlers
+                       |    |    |    |    |    +------- Delivery boys
+                       |    |    |    |    |    |    +-- Cab driver
+                       |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+                       V    V    V    V    V    V    V   Totals
+====================+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+=======
+HOURS               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  Day               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+    All             |  3 |    | 29 |  5 | 11 |  5 |    |   53
+    Morning         |    |    | 10 |    |    |    |    |   10
+    Afternoon       |    |    | 11 |    |    |    |    |   11
+--------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------
+  Night             |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+    All             |    |  6 |  1 |    |    |    |    |    7
+    Before midnight |    |  2 |  4 |    |  1 |    |  1 |    8
+    After midnight  |    |  1 |  1 |    |    |    |    |    2
+      Totals        |  3 |  9 | 56 |  5 | 12 |  5 |  1 |   91
+====================+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+=======
+DAILY EARNINGS      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  Under 50 cents    |  1 |    | 47 |  1 |  6 |    |    |   55
+  50-75 cents       |  1 |  8 | 23 |  3 |  3 |  3 |    |   41
+  75 cents-$1.00    |  1 |  4 |  5 |    |  3 |  2 |  1 |   16
+  $1.25-$1.50       |    |  1 |  3 |    |    |    |    |    4
+    Totals          |  3 | 13 | 78 |  4 | 12 |  5 |  1 |  116
+====================+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+=======
+
+
+      _Table F. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910_
+
+                                                   COMMITTED FOR
+                  +--------------------------------- Larceny
+                  |     +--------------------------- Truancy
+                  |     |     +--------------------- Incorrigibility
+                  |     |     |     +--------------- Burglary
+                  |     |     |     |     +--------- Assault and battery
+                  |     |     |     |     |     +--- Other charges
+                  |     |     |     |     |     |
+                  V     V     V     V     V     V    Totals
+===============+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+AMERICAN       | 156 |  66 |  53 |   5 |   2 |  11 |  293
+NEGRO          |  40 |  10 |   7 |   1 |   2 |   5 |   65
+GERMAN         |  12 |   4 |   4 |     |   1 |   2 |   23
+IRISH          |   7 |   3 |   5 |     |   1 |   1 |   17
+POLISH         |  10 |   3 |   3 |     |     |     |   16
+ENGLISH        |   3 |     |   1 |   1 |     |     |    5
+JEWISH         |   1 |     |   1 |     |     |     |    2
+SWEDISH        |     |     |   1 |     |     |     |    1
+FRENCH         |   2 |     |     |     |     |     |    2
+MEXICAN        |   1 |     |     |     |     |     |    1
+ITALIAN        |   1 |     |     |   1 |     |     |    2
+HUNGARIAN      |   1 |     |     |     |     |     |    1
+---------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+TOTALS         | 234 |  86 |  75 |   8 |   6 |  19 |  428
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+FATHER   | Yes | 168 |  62 |  44 |   6 |   3 |  15 |  298
+  LIVING | No  |  66 |  24 |  31 |   2 |   3 |   4 |  130
+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+MOTHER   | Yes | 182 |  62 |  50 |   7 |   5 |  17 |  323
+  LIVING | No  |  52 |  24 |  25 |   1 |   1 |   2 |  105
+=========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+
+
+      _Table G. Non-Street Workers in Indiana Boys' School, 1910_
+
+                                               COMMITTED FOR
+              +--------------------------------- Larceny
+              |     +--------------------------- Truancy
+              |     |     +--------------------- Incorrigibility
+              |     |     |     +--------------- Burglary
+              |     |     |     |     +--------- Assault and battery
+              |     |     |     |     |     +--- Other charges
+ AGES AT      |     |     |     |     |     |
+COMMITMENT    V     V     V     V     V     V    Totals
+===========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+ UNDER   9 |   9 |   7 |   1 |     |     |   2 |   19
+         9 |   7 |  10 |   7 |     |     |   3 |   27
+        10 |  10 |  10 |   4 |   1 |     |   2 |   27
+        11 |  20 |  10 |   9 |   2 |     |   3 |   44
+        12 |  25 |  17 |   8 |     |     |   1 |   51
+        13 |  33 |  14 |  10 |   2 |   1 |   1 |   61
+        14 |  46 |  10 |  14 |   1 |   1 |   1 |   73
+        15 |  47 |   5 |   8 |   1 |   2 |   3 |   66
+        16 |  28 |   3 |  12 |     |   1 |     |   44
+        17 |   9 |     |   2 |     |     |   3 |   14
+ OVER   17 |     |     |     |   1 |   1 |     |    2
+-----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+  TOTALS   | 234 |  86 |  75 |   8 |   6 |  19 |  428
+===========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======
+
+
+                   _Table H. Behavior in Institution_
+
+  =========+================+====================
+           | STREET WORKERS | NON-STREET WORKERS
+  ---------+----------------+--------------------
+  Good     |    39 or 18%   |      95 or 22%
+  Average  |   175 or 80%   |     321 or 75%
+  Bad      |     5 or  2%   |      12 or  3%
+  ---------+----------------+--------------------
+    Totals |   219          |     428
+  =========+================+====================
+
+By far the largest number of street-working delinquents had been
+newsboys, these being followed by messengers, peddlers, bootblacks and
+delivery boys in the order given. From a hasty glance at these tables
+one might conclude that street workers are not so liable to become
+delinquent as those who never follow street occupations, because of
+the smaller number of the former; but it should be remembered that the
+ratio of street-working inmates to the entire number of street-working
+boys in Indiana is much greater than the ratio of the other inmates to
+the whole body of non-street-working children in the state.
+
+In comparing Tables C and G it is seen that the street workers and the
+non-street workers were committed for practically the same offenses,
+and that their distribution according to offense does not vary widely.
+It is significant that a much smaller proportion of the street workers
+were committed to the institution under the age of ten years, than of
+the non-street workers, indicating that street occupations (which are
+not usually entered upon before the age of ten years), if followed for
+a year or two, contribute largely to the promotion of delinquency.
+
+From a comparison of Tables D and F it will be observed that the
+prevalence of delinquency among the street workers cannot be explained
+on the ground of orphanage, as only 28 per cent were fatherless and 21
+per cent motherless, while of the non-street workers 30 per cent were
+fatherless and 25 per cent were motherless. This indicates (1) that
+street work in the great majority of cases is not made necessary by
+orphanage, and (2) that street work causes delinquency in spite of
+good home conditions so far as the presence of both parents
+contributes to the making of a good home. Furthermore, it will be
+noted in Table E that nearly half of the children for whom figures on
+income could be obtained earned less than fifty cents per day--a small
+return on the heavy investment in the risk of health and character.
+
+The difference in behavior at the institution between the street
+workers and the others is shown in Table H to be almost negligible,
+the latter making a slightly better showing.
+
+An English writer says: "There is no difficulty in understanding how
+street trading and newspaper selling lead to gambling. We are told by
+those who are best able to judge, that of the young thieves and
+prostitutes in the city of Manchester, 47 per cent had begun as street
+hawkers. For the younger boys and girls such an occupation, especially
+at night, turns the streets into nurseries of crime. The newspaper
+sellers are not exposed to quite the same dangers, but they are nearly
+all gamblers. They gamble on anything and everything, from the horse
+races reported hour by hour in the papers they sell, to the numbers on
+the passing cabs, and they end by gambling with their lives."[139]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE STRUGGLE FOR REGULATION IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+The economic activities of children in city streets, commonly called
+street trades, are not specifically covered by the provisions of child
+labor laws except in the District of Columbia and the states of
+Massachusetts, Missouri, New York, Oklahoma, Colorado, Utah, Nevada,
+New Hampshire and Wisconsin. The laws of many other states as well as
+of those mentioned, however, prohibit children under fourteen years of
+age from being employed or permitted to work in the distribution or
+transmission of merchandise or messages. If newspapers are
+merchandise, then children under fourteen years would not be allowed
+to deliver newspapers under the provision just stated. This raises a
+nice question as to what is included in the term "merchandise." That
+there is any distinction between newspapers and merchandise is
+practically denied by the street-trades laws of Utah and New
+Hampshire which provide that children under certain ages shall not
+sell "newspapers, magazines, periodicals or _other_ merchandise in any
+street or public place"; the question of delivery, however, is left
+open by these laws. The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia,
+in the case of District of Columbia _vs._ Reider, sustained the
+juvenile court of the District in its decision that newspapers are not
+merchandise and consequently that children under fourteen years of age
+engaged in delivering newspapers are not affected by the law.[140] The
+judge of the trial court stated in his opinion, "No one will seriously
+contend that the nature of the employment in the case at bar is at all
+harmful to the child." The case at bar was the prosecution of a route
+agent for a morning newspaper on account of having employed a minor
+under fourteen years of age to deliver newspapers. This opinion is
+typical of the misplaced sympathy so commonly bestowed upon these
+young "merchants" of the street. In the case cited, the court
+permitted itself to be drawn aside into an interpretation of the
+letter of the law instead of viewing the matter in the light of its
+spirit. The purpose of such a law is to _prevent the labor_ of
+children, not to distinguish between closely related forms of labor.
+Its object is to afford protection, not to provoke discussion of
+purely technical points. The _labor_ of delivering merchandise does
+not differ in any respect from the _labor_ of delivering newspapers
+(the possibly greater weight of merchandise does not alter the case,
+inasmuch as it is usually carried about in wagons); and as the child
+labor law of the District of Columbia forbids the delivery of
+merchandise by children under fourteen years at any time, it follows
+that the delivery of newspapers by such children should not be
+allowed, because the intent of the law is to protect them from the
+probable consequences of such work. Moreover, the District of Columbia
+law prohibits children under sixteen years from delivering merchandise
+before six o'clock in the morning; yet, under the interpretation given
+by the juvenile court, it is perfectly proper for a child even under
+the age of _fourteen_ years to perform the _labor_ of delivery before
+that hour, provided he handles newspapers instead of packages. The
+inconsistency of this is only too apparent. The spirit of the law is
+lost sight of in the close interpretation of its wording. This is one
+of the obstacles always encountered in the movement for child labor
+reform after prohibitory legislation has been enacted.
+
+American legislation on street trading still clings persistently and
+pathetically to the theory that uncontrolled labor is much better for
+children than labor under the supervision of adults, and consequently
+authorizes very young children to do certain kinds of work in the
+streets on their own responsibility, while forbidding them to work at
+other street occupations even under the control of older and more
+experienced persons. This official incongruity must ultimately be
+rescinded and replaced by more rational and comprehensive legislation.
+The fallacy of permitting such a distinction on the ground that the
+child is an independent "merchant" in the one case and an employee in
+the other, must also be abandoned in favor of a more enlightened
+policy.
+
+
+                     _Present Laws and Ordinances_
+
+The following table shows all the laws and ordinances governing
+street trading by children in existence in the United States in 1911.
+
+The city council of Detroit passed an ordinance in 1877 which forbids
+newsboys and bootblacks to ply their trades in the streets without a
+permit from the mayor. No age limit is fixed, no distinction is made
+between the sexes and no hours are specified. Applicants for the
+permit are customarily referred to the chief truant officer for
+approval, and as a rule permits are not issued to boys under ten years
+of age or to girls. An annual license fee of ten cents is charged, and
+the license holder is supplied with a numbered badge which must be
+worn conspicuously. Owing to its manifest weakness, this ordinance is
+of little avail.
+
+It will be observed from the following table that the common age limit
+for boys in street trading is ten years. When we pause to reflect on
+the import of this, it is hard to realize that intelligent American
+communities actually tolerate such an absurdly meager restriction; yet
+the movement for reform has progressed even this far in only a very
+small part of the country--in most places there is no restriction
+whatever! Some day, and that not in the very remote future, we shall
+look back upon the authorized exploitation of the present period with
+the same degree of incredulity with which we now regard the horrors of
+child labor in England during the early part of the nineteenth
+century.
+
+
+                                STATE LAWS
+
+============+===========+==========+=======+=============+=================
+   STATES   | AGE LIMIT | LICENSES | HOURS | ENFORCEMENT |    PENALTIES
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Colorado,   |Girls, 10; |          |       |Factory      |$5-$100 fine for
+1911        |any work   |          |       |inspectors   |first offense,
+            |in streets |          |       |             |$100-$200 fine or
+            |           |          |       |             |imprisonment 90
+            |           |          |       |             |days for 2d
+            |           |          |       |             |offense for
+            |           |          |       |             |employers. $5-$25
+            |           |          |       |             |fine for parents
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+District of |Boys, 10;  |Boys,     |6 A.M. |Factory      |Left to
+Columbia,   |Girls, 16; |10-15     |10 P.M.|inspectors   |discretion of
+1908        |bootblack- |          |       |             |juvenile court
+            |ing,       |          |       |             |
+            |selling    |          |       |             |
+            |anything   |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Missouri,   |Boys, 10;  |          |       |Factory      |Max. fine $100 or
+1911        |girls, 16; |          |       |inspectors   |max. imprisonment
+            |selling    |          |       |             |one year, for
+            |anything   |          |       |             |child
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Nevada, 1911|Boys, 10;  |          |       |             |Child dealt with
+            |girls, 10; |          |       |             |as delinquent
+            |selling    |          |       |             |
+            |anything   |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+New Hamp-   |Boys, 10;  |          |       |Factory      |$5-$200 fine or
+shire, 1911 |girls, 16; |          |       |inspectors;  |imprisonment
+            |publica-   |          |       |truant       |10-30 days, for
+            |tions or   |          |       |officers     |employers and
+            |other mdse.|          |       |             |parents
+            |Boys, 10;  |          |       |             |
+            |girls, 10; |          |       |             |
+            |bootblack- |          |       |             |
+            |ing        |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+New York,   |Boys, 10;  |Boys,     |6 A.M. |Police and   |Dealt with accor-
+1903        |girls, 16; |10-13     |10 P.M.|truant       |ding to law
+            |publica-   |          |       |officers     |
+            |tions      |          |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Oklahoma,   |Girls, 16; |          |       |Commissioner |$10-$50 fine or
+1909        |publica-   |          |       |of Labor     |imprisonment
+            |tions      |          |       |             |10-30 days for
+            |           |          |       |             |child
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Utah, 1911, |Boys, 12;  |Boys,     |Not    |             |$25-$200 fine or
+1st& 2d     |girls 16;  |12-15     |after  |             |imprisonment
+class       |publica-   |          |9 P.M. |             |10-30 days, for
+cities      |tions or   |          |       |             |employers and
+            |other mdse.|          |       |             |parents
+            |Boys, 12;  |Boys,     |       |             |
+            |girls, 12; |12-15     |       |             |
+            |bootblack- |Girls,    |       |             |
+            |ing        |12-15     |       |             |
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Wisconsin,  |Boys, 12;  |Boys,     |5 A.M. |Factory      |$25-$100 fine or
+1909, as    |girls, 18; |12-15     |6.30   |inspectors   |imprisonment 10-
+amended     |publica-   |          | P.M., |             |60 days for pa-
+1911, 1st   |tions.     |          |winter |             |rents permitting,
+class       |Boys, 14;  |          |7.30   |             |and others em-
+cities      |girls, 18, |          | P.M., |             |ploying, child
+            |all others |          |summer;|             |under 16 to
+            |           |          |publi- |             |peddle without
+            |           |          |cations|             |permit. Same for
+            |           |          |       |             |newspapers allow-
+            |           |          |       |             |ing boys under
+            |           |          |       |             |16 about office
+            |           |          |       |             |between 9 A.M.
+            |           |          |       |             |and 3 P.M. on
+            |           |          |       |             |school days
+------------+-----------+----------+-------+-------------+-----------------
+Massachu-   |Mayor and aldermen or selectmen may make re-|Max. fine $10 for
+setts, 1902 |gulations of bootblacking and sale of news- |child; max. fine
+as amended, |papers, merchandise, etc; may prohibit such |$200 or max.
+1910        |sale or trades; or may require license to be|imprisonment 6
+            |obtained from them. School committees in    |months for parent
+            |cities have these powers as to children     |allowing, person
+            |under 14 years.                             |employing, or
+            |                                            |any one furnish-
+            |                                            |ing articles to,
+            |                                            |a child to sell
+============+============================================+=================
+
+
+                             CITY ORDINANCES
+
+==========+===============+==========+=========+=============+=============
+  CITIES  |   AGE LIMIT   | LICENSES |  HOURS  | ENFORCEMENT | PENALTIES
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Boston,   | Boys, 11;     | Boys,    | 6 A.M.  | Supervisor  |Revocation
+1902, by  | girls, 14;    | 11-13    | 8 P.M., | of licensed |of license
+school    | bootblacking, |          | winter  | minors,     |and fine as
+committee | selling       |          | 9 P.M., | police and  |stated for
+          | anything      |          | summer  | truant      |Massachusetts
+          |               |          |         | officers    |
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Cincin-   | Boys, 10;     | Boys,    | 6 A.M.  | Police,     |Fine $1-$5
+nati, 1909| girls, 16;    | 10-13    | 8 P.M.  | truant and  |for child
+          | bootblacking, |          |         | probation   |
+          | selling       |          |         | officers    |
+          | anything      |          |         |             |
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Hartford, | Boys, 10;     | Boys,    | Not     |             |Revocation
+1910      | girls, 10;    | 10-13    | during  |             |of license
+          | selling       | Girls,   | school  |             |by school
+          | anything      | 10-13    | hours   |             |superinten-
+          |               |          | or      |             |dent
+          |               |          | after 8 |             |
+          |               |          | P.M.    |             |
+----------+---------------+----------+---------+-------------+-------------
+Newark,   | Boys, 10;     | Boys,    | Not     | Police and  |Child placed
+1904      | girls, 16;    | 10-13    | between | truant      |on probation
+          | newspapers    |          | 9 A.M.  | officers    |or committed
+          |               |          | and 3   |             |to Newark
+          |               |          | P.M.    |             |City Home at
+          |               |          | nor     |             |expense of
+          |               |          | after   |             |parent
+          |               |          | 10 P.M. |             |
+==========+===============+==========+=========+=============+=============
+
+In an attempt to minimize the bad effects of street trading most of
+the communities which have enacted laws or ordinances on the subject
+provide for the issuance of licenses to boys, and in some cases also
+to girls, in the belief that in this way the work of the children can
+best be brought under some degree of control. However, this is merely
+temporizing, although it affords an opportunity to gather facts and
+undoubtedly marks a step toward a better solution of the problem. This
+is brought out clearly by a recent British report on street trading:
+"Our general impression, gathered in towns in which by-laws had been
+made, was that, though in exceptional cases much good had resulted
+from their adoption, on the whole this method of dealing with what we
+have come to consider an unquestionable evil, has not proved adequate
+or satisfactory. In many instances it has been pointed out to us that
+a system of licensing and badging is but a method of legalizing what
+is indisputably an evil, and that a set of by-laws, however rigorously
+enforced, can at best only modify the difficulties of the
+position."[141]
+
+The social workers of Chicago, keenly alive to the menace of the
+situation, bewail the lack of protection for street workers in the
+following words: "The child labor law and the compulsory school law
+and the juvenile court law form the body of protective legislation
+which has been developing in behalf of the children of Illinois during
+the past twenty years. By none of the three, however, except in so far
+as street trading by a child under ten is counted an element in
+dependency, is the street-trading child safeguarded against parental
+neglect or greed, the vicious sights and sounds of the city street and
+the demoralizing habit of irregular employment."[142]
+
+
+                       _Opposition to Regulation_
+
+The opposition to bringing the street trades under some degree of
+restriction has come, as might be expected, from very interested
+sources. In Illinois the newspaper publishers figured prominently in
+the movement to prevent the passage of the street-trades measure
+introduced in the legislature of that state at its session of 1911.
+This has not always been the case, however, as the circulation
+managers of the five leading daily newspapers of St. Louis wrote
+letters to the legislature of Missouri favoring the passage of that
+section of the child labor bill of 1911, which provided that boys
+under ten years and girls under sixteen years should not sell anything
+in any street or public place within the state. This provision was
+enacted into law, but it is safe to say that if the rational age limit
+of sixteen years for boys had been advocated instead of ten years, the
+newspapers would have been most active in opposing this section. In
+Cincinnati the circulation managers of the newspapers most affected by
+the street-trades ordinance passed by the City Council in 1909 agreed
+to its provisions before the measure was submitted to the Council,
+and consequently it passed without opposition.
+
+In New Haven and Hartford repeated attempts have been made to secure
+regulation of street trading by means of city ordinances, and at two
+sessions of the state legislature bills have been introduced which
+provided for such restriction, but all these efforts have been
+persistently fought by a leading newspaper of Hartford in which city
+it has always been customary to have girls as well as boys selling
+newspapers on the street. In 1910, a city ordinance was passed in
+Hartford providing that boys and girls under ten years should be
+prohibited from trading in the streets and that between the ages of
+ten and fourteen years they should be licensed and not allowed to sell
+after 8 P.M. The newsgirls were not banished from the street because
+it was held that they were "a pretty good sort of girl after all," and
+that so long as it could not be proved that they were _demoralized_ by
+the work, they should be permitted to go on with it. In other words,
+the city clings to the fine old American policy of delaying action
+until some calamity makes it necessary.
+
+The objections offered by interested parties to the by-laws drafted by
+the London County Council at a hearing held in 1906, show that the law
+of self preservation operates in England as in other quarters of the
+Earth. News agents, employing little boys to deliver newspapers,
+declared that conditions were not bad; that the work was healthful;
+that the wages were a great help to poor parents; that they could not
+afford to employ older boys; that the lads should be allowed to begin
+at 6 A.M. and work not more than ten hours a day outside of school
+with a maximum weekly limit of twenty-five hours; that to prohibit the
+delivery of newspapers before 7 A.M. and after 7 P.M. would be a great
+injustice to the trade; that boys wouldn't stay in bed even if 7 A.M.
+were fixed as the hour for beginning work; that such work does not
+interfere with schooling; that the boys are well looked after; in
+short, that the by-laws would ruin them and bring starvation to the
+children. One news agent in declaiming against the hours fixed for the
+delivery of newspapers, insisted that the restriction would throw boys
+out of employment and send them to trade in the streets with their
+undesirable associations, apparently unmindful of the fact that
+delivery boys themselves worked in that environment. The dairymen were
+horrified at the limit placed on hours, urging that the little boys in
+their employ should begin to deliver milk at 5 A.M., as early work was
+beneficial and the wages useful to poor parents. Shopkeepers denounced
+the by-laws as too drastic, because they would prevent such light work
+as errand running at noon and casual employment in the evening after
+7, resulting in hardship to both parents and children; one
+acknowledged that if he were prevented from employing cheap labor his
+business would suffer; another said that he employed a boy at noon and
+also from 5.30 to 9 P.M., the work being light and the parents
+satisfied, and that the training was good for boys. A fruiterer
+actually declared that the limit of eight hours on Saturday would make
+a boy valueless to him; another said he employed a boy for one hour in
+the morning, from 6 to 9 in the evening, and also on Saturday morning
+and evening, in running errands, and that the work was not heavy;
+another employed boys after school from 6 to 9.30 P.M., insisting that
+the work was good for them, as it kept them from the street and gave
+them an insight into business habits.[143] It should be remembered
+that all this work was performed by the children in addition to
+attending school both morning and afternoon.
+
+The testimony given before the British Interdepartmental Committee of
+1901 by the secretary of an association representing many thousand
+retail shopkeepers, would be amusing if it were not so sinister. He
+presented the subject of child labor in a most favorable aspect,
+declaring that the wages were needed on account of poverty in the
+families; that the work was light and had a _very beneficial_ effect
+on health because it was done in the open air; that good meals were
+given in addition to cash wages and were _very beneficial_; that the
+effect on the boys' character was _very beneficial_, as the work
+cultivated businesslike habits and kept the boys from running the
+streets, frequently affording promotion to the higher grades of
+shopkeeping.[144] Another British Committee, investigating conditions
+in Ireland, reported, "We found but one witness (a newspaper manager
+of Belfast) to testify that the present conditions of selling papers
+in the street were satisfactory and cannot be improved; and that
+instead of tending to demoralize, they have the opposite effect."[145]
+
+
+               _Ways and Means of Regulating Street Work_
+
+As to the control of street trading by children there are two methods
+by which the desired end may be approached. First, a mutual agreement
+as to self-imposed restrictions among the managers of all the business
+interests in connection with which children work on the streets. This
+method, however, can be dismissed from consideration at once on
+account of its impracticability. Street work embraces many different
+kinds of commercial activity, and as one manager is the competitor of
+all others in the same line of business and is free to adopt such
+lawful means of placing his wares on the market as he sees fit, it
+would be clearly impossible to force any one into such an agreement
+against his will. Moreover, new competitors may enter the field at
+any time who would not be bound by the agreement of the others, and
+consequently this would soon be broken by the force of competition
+following the intrusion of these new parties.
+
+Second, regulation by constituted legislative authority. This is the
+more feasible method, and such regulation may be obtained from either
+of two sources--the municipality or the state. There is a question as
+to which of the two is the better for the purpose. Regulation by the
+state has the advantage of making the provisions apply uniformly to
+all cities within its borders and is obtained by no more effort than
+is required to get an ordinance through the Council of a single
+municipality. On the other hand, the municipal ordinance has the
+advantage of being secured by residents of the community who are
+intelligently concerned in the local problem and who will therefore
+take an active interest in having its provisions enforced. However,
+the good features of both these methods are united in the English
+plan, a modification of which has been adopted by Massachusetts.
+According to this plan the state fixes a minimum amount of
+restriction and authorizes local authorities, including boards of
+education, to increase the scope of restriction, and provides
+penalties for violation of the same.
+
+As to the degree of regulation, an ultra-conservative measure would
+prohibit boys under ten and girls under sixteen years from selling
+anything at any time in the streets or public places of cities, while
+the age limit for boys is raised to fourteen years for night work. The
+issuance of licenses to boys ten to fourteen years of age who wish to
+engage in street trading is the usual accompaniment of such
+restriction, and while ordinarily of little avail, it could be made of
+some assistance to truant and probation officers in their efforts to
+enforce the compulsory education and delinquency laws. The age limit
+for boys has been advanced to eleven years by the School Committee of
+Boston, and to twelve years for newsboys and fourteen years for other
+street workers by the state of Wisconsin. But all efforts to secure
+such regulation should be based upon the principle that street trading
+is an undesirable form of labor for children, and consequently should
+be subject to at least the same restrictions as other forms of child
+labor.
+
+
+               _Probable Course of Regulation in Future_
+
+American child labor laws usually contain a provision to the effect
+that no child under sixteen years shall engage in any employment that
+may be considered dangerous to its life or limb or where its health
+may be injured or morals depraved. This is sonorous, but
+ineffective,--the particular kinds of improper work should be
+specified. In this list of undesirable forms of labor, street work
+should be included. Great Britain has had far more experience in the
+matter of regulating the work of children than any state of this
+country, and, in the light of all this experience, her departmental
+committee of 1910 has emphatically declared that street trading by
+boys under seventeen and girls under eighteen years should be
+absolutely prohibited. This should be our ideal in America. Commenting
+on the banishment of young girls from the streets of New York City,
+Mrs. Florence Kelley says, "If the law against street selling and
+peddling by girls to the age of sixteen years can be thus effectively
+enforced in a city in which the depths of poverty among the immigrants
+are so frightful as they are in New York, there is no reason for
+assuming that it is impossible to prohibit efficiently street selling
+by boys."[146] Girls under eighteen years should never be allowed to
+go out in the streets for commercial purposes, no matter how innocent
+these purposes may be in themselves. One of the most important
+features of the movement in America should be the absolute prohibition
+of such work by minors under eighteen years at night; this is urged
+because it is in harmony with the provisions of our most advanced
+child labor laws and is fully justified because of the evil character
+of the influences rampant in cities after dark, and because such night
+work affords children a constant opportunity to cultivate their
+acquaintance with, if not to know for the first time, conditions from
+which every effort should be made to isolate them. For night messenger
+service the age limit should be twenty-one years.
+
+The enforcement of such regulation as is now provided by the few
+states and cities which have given this subject any attention, is
+variously intrusted to factory inspectors, police, truant and
+probation officers, but in Boston the school committee has delivered
+this task into the hands of one man who is known as the supervisor of
+licensed minors. The Boston plan for enforcement seems to have given
+better results than the common system of intrusting the enforcement to
+officers already overburdened with other duties, but it is clearly
+impossible for one officer to handle the situation unaided in a large
+city--the plan would be considerably improved by the appointment of
+several assistants.
+
+"The licensing by the Boston School Committee of minors of school age
+to trade in the streets of Boston came about through an act of
+legislature in 1902. The need of supervision of minors licensed under
+this act became very apparent, as their numbers increased and their
+street influences reacting on their school life became better
+understood. To meet this need a supervisor of licensed minors was
+appointed whose duties are to secure the strict enforcement of the
+law, regulations governing the various forms of street work of
+children of school age, also to have general supervision of the
+details of the licensing department."[147]
+
+Human nature in children is not in the least unlike human nature in
+adults. Just as we need an interstate commerce commission backed by
+the federal government to supervise the large business affairs of men,
+so do we need a supervisor of children's commercial activities in city
+streets, clothed with authority by the municipal government.
+
+The Boston plan is now being advocated for New York City: "In the
+street trades the Committee recommends that the principle of
+supervision of licensed minors, as practised for a number of years in
+Boston, be adopted, and that an office be created in the Department of
+Education that shall have supervisory control of all minors engaged in
+street trades. It recommends furthermore that the minimum age limit
+for licensing boys be raised from ten to fourteen years, and that the
+legal limit for selling at night be reduced from 10 to 8, to
+correspond more nearly with the provisions of labor legislation
+dealing with children in factories."[148]
+
+The first attempt to control the situation in New York City was
+intrusted to the police, but the results were not satisfactory, as
+they looked upon the matter with indifference. Subsequently the truant
+officers also were charged with this duty, and in 1908 four men were
+assigned to give their entire attention to this work between 3 P.M.
+and 11 P.M., and at present eight men are so engaged, but no very
+marked improvement is noticeable. In Rochester the enforcement of the
+state law was brought about through the efforts of the women of that
+city; both business women and shoppers were asked to consider
+themselves members of a vigilance committee and to notify the board of
+education and the police department by telephone whenever any
+violations of the law were observed upon the streets. Within five days
+so many complaints had been received that both the superintendent of
+schools and the president of the board of education arranged a meeting
+at which their attention was invited to the widespread disregard of
+the law. As a result, steps were taken at once to insure enforcement,
+and finally the board of education appointed one truant officer, and
+the commissioner of police detailed a policeman especially for the
+work of reporting violations.
+
+In addition to providing an improved method of enforcement, efforts
+have been made in Boston to deal more effectively with the difficult
+problem of keeping street traders out of saloons, the licensing board
+having issued an order to all holders of liquor licenses to prohibit
+minors from loitering upon the licensed premises, more especially
+newsboys and messenger boys.
+
+The efforts of the school committee to regulate street trading in
+Boston have been further supplemented by organizing a Newsboys'
+Republic, which is described as follows: "Perhaps the most important
+result of supervision so far has been the gradual introduction of a
+plan for self government among the licensed newsboys through the
+so-called Boston School Newsboys' Association. This association is
+pledged to the enforcement of the license rules and the suppression of
+smoking, gambling and other street vices, more or less common among
+the street boys of certain neighborhoods. The association is run by
+the boys themselves, through officers of their own choosing,
+consisting of one newsboy captain and two lieutenants for each school
+district; also a chief captain and general secretary and an executive
+board of seven elected from the ranks of the captains. The general
+duties of the captains and lieutenants are, first, to see that all
+licensed newsboys of their respective school districts live up to
+their license rules, and the principles of the association. Secondly,
+to see that all boys not licensed shall not interfere with or in any
+way hurt the business of the licensed newsboys. These duties are
+performed through weekly inspections on the street, supplemented by
+monthly inspection at schools, at which time branch meetings of all
+the boys in each district are frequently held."[149]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IX
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF STREET TRADES REGULATION IN EUROPE
+
+
+                            _Great Britain_
+
+Attention was called to the problem of street trading by children in
+England for the first time, in a comprehensive way, in 1897. A few
+close observers of social conditions noticed that the situation was so
+grave as to demand an immediate remedy, and accordingly, upon their
+initiative, an organization was effected for the purpose of studying
+the subject. This organization took the form of a private association
+known as the Committee on Wage-Earning Children. The committee
+conferred with the officers of the board of education and succeeded in
+arousing their interest to the extent of securing a promise for the
+collection of a return from the elementary schools of England and
+Wales concerning the labor of public school pupils, their ages, and
+other relevant information. In 1898, the House of Commons ordered
+this inquiry to be made, and in June of that year copies of a schedule
+were sent by the educational department to all the public elementary
+schools in England and Wales. Many schoolmasters misunderstood the
+meaning of this schedule and failed to report the children of their
+schools who were actually engaged in various forms of work outside of
+school hours. Only about half of the schedules were filled and
+returned, but these showed that 144,026 children were following some
+kind of gainful occupation in addition to attending school. Many
+schoolmasters reported pitiable cases of child exploitation, as, for
+example, the following: "Boys helping milkmen are up at 5 o'clock in
+the morning, whilst those selling papers are about the streets to a
+very late hour at night. During lessons many fall off to sleep, and if
+not asleep the effort to keep awake is truly painful both to boy and
+teacher. The educational time, as a consequence, is materially
+wasted."[150] "These are sad cases, viz. one boy (aged eleven, in
+Standard III) works daily, as a grocer's errand boy, for 1_s._ 6_d._
+a week, from 8 to 9 A.M., from 12 to 1.30 P.M., and from 4.30 to 7.30
+P.M. On Saturday from 8 A.M. to 10 P.M. Another boy, aged ten in
+Standard III, works also as a grocer's errand boy for 1_s._ 6_d._ per
+week, from 8.30 to 9 A.M., from 12 to 1.30 and from 5 to 8 P.M., and
+on Saturday from 8.30 A.M. to 11 P.M." And all this in addition to
+twenty-seven and one half hours of school every week! A boy who works
+for 56-3/4 hours a week, selling papers, is employed as follows:
+"Monday to Friday, from 7 A.M. to 8.45 A.M., from 12 to 1 P.M., and
+from 4 to 10 P.M., and on Saturday from 7 A.M., to 10 A.M., from 12 to
+2 P.M. and from 3 to 11 P.M." "This is a very bad case: called at 2
+and 3 o'clock A.M., the boy (aged eight) is so tired that he is
+obliged to go to bed again, and is often absent from school, and made
+to work in the evening as well."[151] Many schoolmasters also
+testified to the need of a remedy; one of these wrote on the schedule:
+"May I be allowed to express my gratitude to the education department
+for making this inquiry, and express the hope that the department will
+be able to frame some regulation to meet and relieve the onerous
+conditions under which many of the young have to gain education.
+Without exaggeration I can truthfully assert that there are to-day in
+our national and board schools thousands of little white slaves."[152]
+
+Nothing more came of the movement until January, 1901, when the
+Secretary of State for the Home Department appointed an
+interdepartmental committee "to inquire into the question of the
+employment of children during school age, and to report what
+alterations are desirable in the laws relating to child labour and
+school attendance and in the administration of these laws." After
+making careful investigation this committee declared: "In the case of
+street-trading children very strong powers of regulation are required.
+These children are exposed to the worst influences; they enter public
+houses to ply their trade, they are kept up late at night and exposed
+to inclement weather, and the precarious nature of their trade
+disinclines them to steady work, and encourages them to dissipate
+their earnings in gambling ... there should be power to prohibit
+street trading by children; to make regulations as to the age and sex
+of street traders, and the days and hours on which they may ply their
+trade; to grant licenses to those permitted to trade and to require
+the wearing of badges or uniforms; to forbid street traders to enter
+public houses or to importune or obstruct passengers; and generally to
+control their conduct and to cope with the evil in every reasonable
+way."[153] The committee further reported: "Our main recommendation is
+that the overworking of children in those occupations which are still
+unregulated by law should be prevented by giving to the county and
+borough councils a power to make labour by-laws; ... further we
+suggest that the gaps that may be left by local by-laws should be
+filled up by a general prohibition of night labour by children and of
+labour manifestly injurious to health."[154] This committee reported
+that the number of children in England and Wales attending school and
+also in paid employment was far greater than as reported by the
+parliamentary return, estimating that the total number was no less
+than 300,000 in 1898.[155]
+
+One of the witnesses before this committee was a London truant officer
+of eighteen years' experience, who testified that every month he met
+with hundreds of cases of milk boys who "go to work at 5 A.M. and
+knock off at 8.30 and get to school at 9.45. At twelve they return to
+work, and after school at 4.30 they go again and wash up. The latest
+hour they work is about 8 P.M. I have frequently seen these children
+fast asleep in school. It is a common thing to see children of tender
+age outside the different theatres trying to sell newspapers at 11
+o'clock at night. The percentage of cases in which this work is
+necessary is very small; it simply means that a little more money is
+spent in the public houses."[156] The report of this committee
+contains a great mass of testimony from persons in many walks of life,
+nearly all of whom declared that street trading by children is bad and
+should be regulated. They differentiated between the hawking of
+articles in the streets and their delivery for employers, and one of
+the witnesses from Liverpool testified that the local regulation of
+street trading by children in that city did not apply to bootblacks
+nor to boys who carried parcels because they were not selling
+anything.[157]
+
+In 1902, an interdepartmental committee was appointed to study the
+subject in Ireland, and in its report stated: "The principal dangers
+to which they [street traders] are exposed are those arising from late
+hours in the streets, truancy, insufficient clothing, entering
+licensed premises to find sale for their goods, obstructing, annoying
+or importuning passengers, begging, fighting with other children,
+playing football or other games in the streets, using bad language,
+playing pitch and toss (a gambling game), smoking--all of which are
+matters of common observation, and have been testified to by many of
+the witnesses. In our opinion these evils can be lessened, if not
+entirely removed, by the simple system of regulation, licenses and
+badges."[158]
+
+The direct result of the reports of these committees was the passage
+by Parliament of the Employment of Children Act, 1903. Section 3 of
+this act provides, first, that no child under eleven years shall
+engage in street trading; second, no child under fourteen years shall
+be employed between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M.; third, no factory or workshop
+half-timer shall be employed in any other occupation; fourth, no child
+under fourteen years shall handle heavy weights likely to result in
+injury; fifth, no child under fourteen years shall engage in any
+injurious employment. Sections 1 and 2 of this act give to local
+authorities power to make by-laws regulating the employment of
+children. The provisions of Section 2 concerning street trading are in
+substance as follows: any local authority may make by-laws with
+respect to street trading by persons under the age of sixteen years
+and may prohibit such street trading subject to age, sex or the
+holding of a license; may regulate the conditions on which such
+licenses may be granted and revoked; may determine the days and hours
+during which and the places at which such street trading may be
+carried on; may require such street traders to wear badges and may
+regulate generally the conduct of such street traders; provided that
+the right to trade shall not be made subject to any conditions having
+reference to the poverty or general bad character of the person
+applying for this right, and provided also that the local authority
+shall have special regard to the desirability of preventing the
+employment of girls under sixteen years in streets and public places.
+
+Section 2 b of the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1904,
+imposes a penalty upon _adults_ who cause, procure or allow boys under
+fourteen or girls under sixteen to trade in the streets between 9 P.M.
+and 6 A.M.
+
+An official report made in 1907 gives the names of all counties,
+boroughs and urban districts in Great Britain which had up to that
+time made by-laws to regulate street trading by children. In England
+and Wales, 2 counties, 60 cities and boroughs and 4 urban districts
+had done so; in Scotland, 3 burghs and the school board districts of
+11 burghs and 12 parishes; and in Ireland, 4 cities and boroughs and 1
+urban district had made such by-laws.[159]
+
+By 1910, out of 74 county boroughs in England and Wales, not less than
+50 had made street-trading by-laws, and these included most of the
+larger places; but out of 191 smaller boroughs and smaller urban
+districts only 41 had done so; while among 62 administrative counties
+only 3 had made by-laws. In addition to these, 4 county boroughs and 2
+of the smaller boroughs had made street-trading by-laws under local
+acts.
+
+In Scotland, of the 33 county councils empowered to make by-laws, not
+one had done so by 1910; while of 56 burghs only 3 had passed by-laws;
+of 979 school boards only 27 had made such regulations. Edinburgh
+passed by-laws under a private act.
+
+In Ireland, out of 33 county councils not one had made by-laws; of the
+43 councils of urban districts with a population of over 5000, only 5
+had passed regulations.
+
+In 1909 the Secretary of State for the Home Department appointed a
+departmental committee to inquire into the operation of the Employment
+of Children Act, 1903, and to consider whether any and what further
+legislative regulation or restriction was required in respect of
+street trading and other employments dealt with in that act. This
+committee confined its report, which was submitted in 1910, to the
+subject of street trading; and its great contribution to the cause of
+child welfare is its recommendation that street trading should be
+_prohibited_ rather than regulated. The statute of 1903 prohibits all
+work by children under the age of eleven years, and its restrictions
+on street employment by children above that limit, out of school
+hours, are prohibitions of _night_ work after nine o'clock,
+consequently a child above the age of eleven years who engages in
+street trading is restrained, during the day, only by such by-laws as
+may have been adopted by the local authority. The committee found that
+even in communities where by-laws had been adopted they were not
+always observed, and also that where no by-laws had been passed the
+minimum statutory restrictions were frequently ignored. The report
+declared that: "A considerable amount of street trading is still done
+by children under eleven. Special censuses taken in Edinburgh revealed
+the fact that children as young as seven were trading in the streets.
+The great bulk of the evidence received in and from Scotland points
+to the conclusion that the Act [of 1903] has been almost a dead-letter
+in that country.... Infringements of the Act in Ireland are no less
+common. In Waterford newspapers are sold by children of nine years old
+up to 11 P.M. and later."[160] The issuance of licenses and badges was
+denounced as giving the stamp of official approval to what is
+recognized as an evil, the adoption of by-laws resulting merely in a
+partial improvement of conditions even when rigorously enforced.
+
+After having devoted several months to the inquiry, during which
+evidence was gathered in London, Manchester, Edinburgh, Glasgow,
+Dublin, Belfast, Birmingham and Liverpool in addition to receiving the
+testimony of witnesses from Sheffield, Nottingham, Bolton and other
+centers, the committee made this very noteworthy and significant
+declaration: "We have come to the conclusion ... that the effect of
+street trading upon the character of those who engage in it is only
+too frequently disastrous. The youthful street trader is exposed to
+many of the worst of moral risks; he associates with, and acquires the
+habits of, the frequenters of the kerbstone and the gutter. If a match
+seller, he is likely to become a beggar--if a newspaper seller, a
+gambler; the evidence before us was extraordinarily strong as to the
+extent to which begging prevails among the boy vendors of evening
+papers. There was an almost equally strong body of testimony to the
+effect that, at any rate in crowded centres of population, street
+trading tends to produce a dislike or disability for more regular
+employment; the child finds that for a few years money is easily
+earned without discipline or special skill; and the occupation is one
+which sharpens the wits without developing the intelligence. It leads
+to nothing practically, and in no way helps him to a future career.
+There can be no doubt that large numbers of those who were once street
+traders drift into vagrancy and crime.... Much evidence was given to
+the effect that the practice of street trading, even though only
+carried on in the intervals of school attendance, tends to produce a
+restless disposition, and a dislike of restraint which makes children
+unwilling to settle down to any regular employment. So far as girls
+are concerned, there must be added to the above evils an
+unquestionable danger to morals in the narrower sense. The evidence
+presented to us on this point was unanimous and most emphatic. Again
+and again persons specially qualified to speak, assured us that, when
+a girl took up street trading, she almost invariably was taking a
+first step toward a life of immorality. The statement that the
+temptations are great, and the children practically defenseless, needs
+no amplification. An occupation entailing such perils is indisputably
+unfit for girls."[161]
+
+The need for _prohibition_ of street trading was realized by this
+committee, the change being urged in the following epoch-making
+statement: "After carefully considering the operation of the by-laws
+adopted since 1903, and comparing the present state of affairs with
+that existing before the passing of the act, we have come to the
+conclusion that the difficulties of the situation cannot be said to
+have been met, or any substantial contribution to a solution of the
+problem made, by the existing law and the machinery set up for its
+enforcement. Regulation, however well organized and complete, will not
+turn a wasteful and uneconomic use of the energies of children into a
+system which is beneficial to the community. Consequently we feel that
+we have no choice but to recommend the complete statutory prohibition
+of street trading either by boys or by girls up to a specific age. In
+the case of boys we feel that it would be wise to name an age which
+would render it likely that they would have had full opportunities of
+taking to regular work before they could legally trade in the streets.
+We think the most suitable age would be seventeen, which gives an
+interval of three or four years after the ordinary time of leaving an
+elementary school.... So far as girls are concerned, we feel that the
+arguments in favor of prohibiting trading increase rather than
+diminish in force as the age of the traders advances. The entire body
+of testimony laid before us has forced upon us the conclusion that
+street trading by girls is entirely indefensible, and that no system
+of regulation is sufficient to rid the employment of its risks and
+objections. On the other hand, we have not been able to discover any
+trace of hardship having resulted in any of those towns in which
+by-laws have prohibited trading by girls, or have restricted the ages
+during which trading is permitted. We think that the age of
+prohibition should be higher for girls than for boys, and, while we
+feel that it should, in any event, not be less than eighteen, we
+should be willing to see it fixed as high as twenty-one."[162]
+
+As to the administration of the law, the committee declared that this
+should be delivered into the hands of the education authorities who
+could charge the regular truant officers with the work of enforcement
+or employ special officers for the purpose. The placing of
+responsibility upon the parents of child offenders was indorsed, but
+the committee criticised administrators because of the small penalties
+imposed as fines, the amounts being easily covered by the earnings of
+the traders, and hence an increase of the maximum fine was
+recommended.
+
+A minority report was submitted by four members of this committee who
+declined to support the recommendation of the majority that street
+trading should be immediately and universally prohibited in the case
+of boys up to the age of seventeen. These members held that the cause
+of street trading should first be removed by organizing employment
+bureaus for children, by giving the children the benefit of vocational
+direction, and by promoting industrial education for boys both while
+attending the elementary schools and after.
+
+
+                              _Liverpool_
+
+As to local efforts to regulate the street-trading evil, the first
+steps were taken in Liverpool. In this city the condition of child
+street traders was particularly bad; half of them were girls, and the
+stock in trade was usually newspapers and matches--the children were
+dirty, ragged and running the streets at all hours of the night, the
+apparent trade in newspapers and other articles being frequently used
+to cover up much worse things; in fact, many of the girls were
+practically prostitutes. Quite a number of these children were nothing
+more or less than beggars, and deliberately appeared in ragged
+clothing for the purpose of exciting sympathy. A local association
+undertook to supply them with clothing, but many refused this aid
+"because it would interfere with their trade." Commenting on similar
+practices among the street traders of Dublin, Sir Lambert H. Ormsby,
+M.D., said in 1904: "They sell other things besides ... matches
+principally. Of course the selling of matches is merely a means of
+evading being taken up by the police for begging. The matches are only
+humbug; they do not want to sell them ... they do it for begging
+purposes."[163] In 1897 the Liverpool Watch Committee appointed a
+subcommittee to consider the question of children trading in streets,
+and this subcommittee reported that: "The practice is attended, first,
+with injury to the health of the children; second, with interference
+with the education of such as are of school age; third, with danger to
+the moral welfare of the children inasmuch as the practice frequently
+leads to street gambling, begging, sleeping out and other undesirable
+practices, and in some cases to crime." They were of opinion--in which
+the inspector of reformatories concurred--that much of the money
+earned by the children went to indulge the vicious and intemperate
+propensities of parents and guardians.
+
+By the Liverpool Corporation Act, 1898, Parliament gave the city power
+to regulate street trading by children, and accordingly the following
+provisions were made by the city council: (1) no licenses to any child
+under eleven; (2) boys eleven to thirteen and girls eleven to fifteen
+inclusive, to be licensed if not mentally or physically deficient,
+with consent of parent or guardian; (3) licenses good one year; (4)
+badges also to be issued; (5) no charge for license or badge; (6)
+licenses may be revoked by Watch Committee for cause; (7) no licensed
+child to trade after 9 P.M., nor unless decently clothed, nor without
+badge, nor in streets during school hours unless exempted from school
+attendance, and no licensed child may alter or dispose of badge, or
+enter public houses to trade, or importune passengers. These
+regulations took effect May 31, 1899, and marked the formal beginning
+of the movement against street trading by children.
+
+In 1901 the Liverpool subcommittee reported that it was "of opinion
+that the application of the powers conferred by the Act has had the
+effect of greatly reducing the number of children trading in the
+streets, especially during school hours and late in the evenings, and
+of improving the condition, appearance, and behaviour of those
+children who still engage in street trading." This subcommittee
+recommended raising the boys' age limit for licenses from fourteen to
+sixteen years, and was inclined to advise the total prohibition of
+street trading by girls.[164]
+
+
+                                _London_
+
+Under the powers conferred on local authorities by the Employment of
+Children Act 1903, the London County Council framed in February, 1905,
+a set of by-laws, the provisions of which seemed quite innocuous.
+Nevertheless a considerable outcry was raised by persons whom they
+would affect, and thereupon the Secretary of State withheld his
+confirmation and authorized Mr. Chester Jones to hold an inquiry at
+which complaints could be heard as well as arguments in favor of the
+by-laws. This inquiry was held in June and July of 1905, and
+schoolmasters, attendance officers, police inspectors, news agents and
+others testified. Mr. Jones held that it was his duty "to endeavour to
+discover where the line should be drawn, and that it was not open to
+argument either that child labour should entirely be prohibited or
+that it should be unregulated."[165]
+
+In his report Mr. Jones took up each by-law separately and discussed
+it, recommending that it be either confirmed or rejected in accordance
+with his findings. He also drafted a set of by-laws and submitted them
+with the recommendation that they be adopted instead of the ones
+originally passed by the London County Council. Referring to these, he
+says: "An important respect in which my suggested by-laws differ from
+the County Council by-laws is in differentiating between employment in
+connection with street stalls and other forms of street trading. It
+seemed to be the general opinion [of witnesses] that the former
+employment, being under the supervision of some adult person, probably
+the parent, is not so harmful in its effects on the morals of the
+child as the latter, and it must be remembered that the main objection
+to street trading was on the ground rather of its affecting the
+morality than the health and education of the children."[166] The
+regulations drafted by Mr. Jones were not even so drastic as those
+proposed by the London County Council, and in recommending milder
+restrictions Mr. Jones says: "A set of by-laws should not err upon the
+side of overstringency, nor should they be in advance of public
+opinion; the first, because taking a step more or less in the dark
+might cause hardships impossible to avoid, and the second, because any
+by-laws of this sort, being most difficult of enforcement, will
+certainly be evaded unless backed up by the weight of public
+opinion."[167]
+
+The County Council, however, did not follow Mr. Jones's
+recommendations in their entirety, but adopted a more stringent set of
+by-laws which were put in force in October, 1906. In December, 1909,
+the County Council again amended the by-laws, and an inquiry relative
+to these changes was held by Mr. Stanley Owen Buckmaster in October,
+1910. Mr. Buckmaster recommended a number of changes of minor
+importance which were adopted by the Council, and accordingly the new
+by-laws were adopted and took effect on June 3, 1911. This set of
+by-laws will be found in the Appendix, page 264. The most significant
+feature which they present is the raising of the age limit for boys to
+fourteen years and for girls to sixteen years without exemption. The
+old by-laws prohibited street trading by children under sixteen years
+between the hours of 9 P.M. and 6 A.M., and this provision was
+retained in the new by-laws, applying, however, only to boys, inasmuch
+as girls under that age are prohibited from trading in the streets at
+any time. These London by-laws on street trading are identical with
+the provisions of the most advanced American child labor laws on
+factory employment, and consequently they blaze the way for the
+application of these provisions in the United States to street trading
+as well as to employment in factories, mills and mines.
+
+
+                              _Manchester_
+
+Although the British departmental committee of 1910 was not favorably
+impressed by the results of regulation as a cure for the evils of
+street trading, nevertheless it gave due credit to the city of
+Manchester for what had been accomplished there under the license
+system. Referring to this city, the report says: "In Manchester such
+good results as can be arrived at by the method of regulation were,
+perhaps, more apparent than anywhere else. In that city the entire
+evidence testified to the fact that the regulation of street trading
+is very highly organized; a special staff of selected, plain-clothes
+officers, giving their whole time to the work, knowing the traders
+personally, visiting the homes, advising the parents, clothing the
+children and apparently exerting a most beneficial influence. All that
+can be done through the instrument of regulation seems to be done
+there, the various authorities working together to that end."[168]
+
+An English writer says that regulation in Manchester "has greatly
+improved the conditions of the newspaper boys and others who earned
+their living by hawking goods in the streets. It is something to the
+good at any rate that a boy should be compelled to be decently
+dressed and so avoid the obvious temptation of appealing to the
+sympathies of the public by the picturesque raggedness of his
+clothing. At the same time one cannot help feeling that halfway
+legislation of this sort is only playing with the problem and that the
+only really satisfactory law would be one which prohibited street
+trading by children altogether."[169]
+
+
+                           _New South Wales_
+
+The British Colony of New South Wales has adopted some mild
+restrictions under the Employment of Children Act, 1903, and the
+president of the State Children Relief Board for New South Wales
+states in his report for the year ending April 5, 1910, that "the
+Board is not favorably impressed with the principle of street trading
+by juveniles, realizing that even under the most careful
+administration children, when once licensed to engage in street
+trading, are exposed to great temptations."
+
+
+                                _Canada_
+
+The province of Manitoba, Canada, forbids children under twelve years
+from trading in the streets at any time; licenses are issued to boys
+twelve to sixteen years old, who are not allowed to sell after 9 P.M.
+Some boys have been denied licenses because of their poor school
+record, others because of lack of proof as to age, others on account
+of not being physically qualified, and still others because there was
+no need for their earning money in this way. The licensed boys are
+kept under supervision; their attendance at school is watched; and if
+they persist in selling after 9 P.M. or disobey instructions, their
+licenses are revoked.[170]
+
+
+                               _Germany_
+
+The Industrial Code of Germany prohibits children under fourteen years
+from offering goods for sale on public roads, streets or places, and
+peddling them from house to house. In localities in which such sale or
+peddling is customary, the local police authorities may permit it for
+certain periods of time not exceeding a total of four weeks in any
+calendar year. "Under this provision there was considerable street
+trading, especially in the larger cities. In Berlin, for instance,
+during the weeks preceding Christmas, numerous children under fourteen
+were thus employed. Protests against the practice were made by the
+Consumers' League and similar organizations, and resulted in the
+passage of a police regulation, for its restriction; and in 1909 a
+further step was taken by providing that no exceptions of this sort be
+thereafter permitted, so that now the employment of children under
+fourteen years of age in street trading is absolutely forbidden in
+Berlin."[171]
+
+The Industrial Code forbids children under twelve years to deliver
+goods or perform other errands except for their own parents. Children
+over twelve years may so engage for not more than three hours daily
+between 8 A.M. and 8 P.M., but not before morning school nor during
+the noon recess nor until one hour after school has closed in the
+afternoon; on Sundays and holidays such children may do this work only
+for two hours between 8 A.M. and 1 P.M., but not during the principal
+church service or the half hour preceding it. Such children must
+first obtain the _Arbeitskarte_ from the local police authority, which
+is issued upon request of the child's legal representative. Employers
+must notify the police authority in advance of the employment of such
+children.
+
+
+                                _France_
+
+The labor of children in France is regulated by the law of November 2,
+1892, as amended by the act of March 30, 1900. This law applies to
+factories, workshops, mines and quarries, exempting home industries,
+agricultural work and purely mercantile establishments.[172] The work
+of children in city streets is not even mentioned. New legislation has
+recently been proposed to regulate the employment of minors under 18
+years of age and of women in the sale of merchandise from stands and
+tables on sidewalks outside of bazaars and large stores. According to
+its provisions, the work of such persons would be prohibited for more
+than two hours at a time and for more than six hours a day, while
+seats and heating facilities would have to be supplied the same as
+for employees inside the large establishments.[173]
+
+In Paris, newspapers are sold almost exclusively at kiosks on street
+corners, presided over by middle-aged women.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONCLUSION
+
+
+Many years ago Macaulay declared, "Intense labor, beginning too early
+in life, continued too long every day, stunting the growth of the
+mind, leaving no time for healthful exercise, no time for intellectual
+culture, must impair all those high qualities that have made our
+country great. Your overworked boys will become a feeble and ignoble
+race of men, the parents of a more feeble progeny; nor will it be long
+before the deterioration of the laborer will injuriously affect those
+very interests to which his physical and moral interests have been
+sacrificed. If ever we are forced to yield the foremost place among
+commercial nations, we shall yield it to some people preeminently
+vigorous in body and in mind." To-day these words seem to us a
+veritable prophecy--but we must not forget that they apply to America
+no less than to England. If our civilization is to continue and to
+improve with time, every child must have a proper opportunity to grow
+under conditions as nearly normal as possible; we must secure to the
+children their birthright--the right to play and to dream, the right
+to healthful sleep, the right to education and training, the right to
+grow into manhood and into womanhood with cleanness and strength both
+of body and of mind, the right of a chance to become useful citizens
+of the future. Eternal vigilance is the price of protection for
+childhood, and while "Women and children first" is a rigid law of the
+sea, "Children first" is the fundamental law both of Nature and
+civilization.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Wisconsin Statutes, Section 1728 p., Laws of 1911.
+
+  [2] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment of
+  Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Minutes of Evidence, Q.
+  71. Cf. also Great Britain--Employment of Children Act, 1903, Section
+  13.
+
+  [3] _The Newsboy_, Pittsburgh, April, 1909.
+
+  [4] Great Britain--Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment
+  of School Children, 1901, pp. 18, 19.
+
+  [5] Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia," _Charities
+  and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [6] "The Child in the City," Handbook of Chicago Child Welfare
+  Exhibit, 1911, p. 25.
+
+  [7] "A Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City Streets," a
+  folder issued by Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+  representing local organizations, 1911.
+
+  [8] Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee, p. 8.
+
+  [9] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [10] _The Survey_, April 22, 1911, p. 138.
+
+  [11] "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England)," edited by E. J.
+  Urwick, 1904, p. 296.
+
+  [12] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment of
+  Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
+
+  [13] Twelfth Census of United States, Vol. II, Population, Part II, p.
+  506.
+
+  [14] Twelfth Census of United States, Special Reports, Occupations,
+  1904, pp. xxiv, cxxxiii.
+
+  [15] _Idem_, pp. xxiii, cxxxiii.
+
+  [16] Twelfth Census of United States, 1900, Vol. VII, p. cxxv.
+
+  [17] Instructions to Enumerators, Thirteenth Census of the United
+  States, pp. 32-34.
+
+  [18] These tables were copied from charts displayed at the Chicago
+  Child Welfare Exhibit, May, 1911.
+
+  [19] "The Child in the City," Handbook of the Child Welfare Exhibit,
+  Chicago, May 11-25, 1911, p. 25.
+
+  [20] _Idem_, p. 25.
+
+  [21] "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, pp. 241-242.
+
+  [22] "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
+  Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+  representing local organizations, 1911.
+
+  [23] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [24] Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the Greek Padrone
+  System in the United States, 1911, p. 9.
+
+  [25] A more detailed presentation of this matter will be found in
+  Chapter IV.
+
+  [26] Immigration Commission's Report, p. 9.
+
+  [27] Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House of Commons
+  Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 17.
+
+  [28] _Idem_, p. 21.
+
+  [29] _Idem_, p. 17.
+
+  [30] Elementary Schools (Children working for Wages), House of Commons
+  Papers, 1899, No. 205, p. 25.
+
+  [31] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 8.
+
+  [32] _Idem_, p. 9.
+
+  [33] _Idem_, p. 10.
+
+  [34] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 18.
+
+  [35] _Idem_, p. 16.
+
+  [36] Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, p. 178.
+
+  [37] Report of President of State Children Relief Board of New South
+  Wales for year ending April 5, 1910, pp. 39-40.
+
+  [38] Vierteljahrshefte des Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amts, 1900, Heft
+  III, p. 97. See also Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental
+  Committee on Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 3, p. 294.
+
+  [39] Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 84.
+
+  [40] Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 56.
+
+  [41] _Idem_, p. 63.
+
+  [42] _Idem_, p. 65.
+
+  [43] _The Hustler_, organ of Boston Newsboys' Club, February, 1911.
+
+  [44] Report of the Newsboys' Home Association of Washington, D.C.,
+  1863-1864, p. 7.
+
+  [45] "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys Engaged in
+  Street Trading in Manchester," by E. T. Campagnac and C. E. B.
+  Russell; Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 45, pp. 456-457.
+
+  [46] Handbook of New York Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911, p. 33.
+
+  [47] "Child Labor on the Street," _The Newsboy_, leaflet of New York
+  Child Labor Committee, 1907.
+
+  [48] Report of Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington,
+  D.C., 1889, p. 10.
+
+  [49] "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys Engaged in
+  Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac and Russell, 1901.
+
+  [50] Child Labor at the National Capital, an address delivered in
+  Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of National Child Labor
+  Committee.
+
+  [51] Mary E. McDowell, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee,
+  pp. 6-7.
+
+  [52] "The Social Evil in Chicago" by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, p. 242.
+
+  [53] Miss Todd, Pamphlet 114 of National Child Labor Committee, p. 12.
+
+  [54] National Child Labor Committee, Pamphlet 114, p. 12.
+
+  [55] Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken Before Departmental
+  Committee on Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, Q. 9724.
+
+  [56] Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 46.
+
+  [57] _Charities and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [58] "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 12.
+
+  [59] "Child Labor on the Street," _The Newsboy_, leaflet of New York
+  Child Labor Committee, 1907.
+
+  [60] "Children in American Street Trades," 1905, Pamphlet 14 of
+  National Child Labor Committee.
+
+  [61] _Charities and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [62] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 23.
+
+  [63] Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence Taken before Departmental
+  Committee on Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, Q. 1837 _et seq._
+
+  [64] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
+
+  [65] George A. Hall, "The Newsboy," in Proceedings of Seventh Annual
+  Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 102.
+
+  [66] School Document, No. 14, 1910, Boston Public Schools, pp. 42-44.
+
+  [67] Report of New York-New Jersey Committee of the North American
+  Civic League for Immigrants, December, 1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.
+
+  [68] Abstract of Immigration Commission's Report on the Greek Padrone
+  System in United States, 1911, p. 10.
+
+  [69] Abstract of Report on Greek Padrone System in United States, by
+  Immigration Commission, 1911, p. 22.
+
+  [70] _Survey_, Vol. XXVI, p. 591.
+
+  [71] School Document, No. 10, 1910, Boston Public Schools, p. 133.
+
+  [72] "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, p. 242.
+
+  [73] "Child Labor at the National Capital," an address delivered in
+  Washington, December, 1905, Pamphlet 23 of National Child Labor
+  Committee.
+
+  [74] "The Social Evil in Chicago," by the Vice Commission of Chicago,
+  1911, p. 244.
+
+  [75] Bulletin 69 of Bureau of Census, "Child Labor in the United
+  States," 1907, p. 170.
+
+  [76] Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," p. 179.
+
+  [77] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical
+  Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 10,440.
+
+  [78] J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy Life in
+  Our Cities," edited by E. J. Urwick (England), 1904, p. 121.
+
+  [79] E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities" (England),
+  1904, p. 305.
+
+  [80] "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation," 1905, p. 15.
+
+  [81] Victor S. Clark, "Women and Child Wage Earners in Great Britain,"
+  Bulletin 80, United States Bureau of Labor, p. 28.
+
+  [82] "Newsboy Life--What Superintendents of Reformatories and Others
+  think about its Effects," Leaflet No. 32 of National Child Labor
+  Committee, 1910.
+
+  [83] "Buffalo Child Labor Problems," folder issued by New York Child
+  Labor Committee, 1911, p. 3.
+
+  [84] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [85] Scott Nearing, "The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia," _Charities
+  and The Commons_, February 2, 1906.
+
+  [86] John Spargo, "Bitter Cry of the Children," 1906, p. 184.
+
+  [87] James L. Fieser, "Causes of Truancy," Indiana Bulletin of
+  Charities and Correction, June, 1910, p. 227.
+
+  [88] James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile Court,"
+  Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee, 1909.
+
+  [89] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 12.
+
+  [90] Mrs. Louise B. More, "Wage-Earners' Budgets," 1907, p. 148.
+
+  [91] J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy Life in
+  Our Cities (England)," edited by E. J. Urwick, 1904, p. 131.
+
+  [92] _Idem_, p. 135.
+
+  [93] E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities," 1904, p. 307.
+
+  [94] _Idem_, p. 309.
+
+  [95] Robert H. Sherard, "Child Slaves of Britain," 1905, pp. 179-180.
+
+  [96] Constance Smith, Report on the Employment of Children in the
+  United Kingdom, 1909, p. 11.
+
+  [97] Margaret Alden, M.D., "Child Life and Labour," 1908, p. 118.
+
+  [98] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical
+  Deterioration, 1904, Vol. I, paragraph 68.
+
+  [99] _Idem_, Vol. II, Q. 2453.
+
+  [100] _Idem_, Vol. II, Q. 2479.
+
+  [101] Great Britain, Minutes of Evidence taken before Departmental
+  Committee on Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1910, Q. 9503 _et seq._
+
+  [102] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 39, p. 418.
+
+  [103] Copied from Charts in Child Labor Exhibit at National Conference
+  of Charities and Correction, St. Louis, May, 1910.
+
+  [104] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, p. 11.
+
+  [105] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, 1910, p. 12.
+
+  [106] Elizabeth C. Watson, "New York Newsboys and their Work," 1911.
+
+  [107] "Child Labor on the Street," leaflet of New York Child Labor
+  Committee, _The Newsboy_, 1907.
+
+  [108] "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of Boys Engaged in
+  Street Trading in Manchester," by Campagnac and Russell, 1901.
+
+  [109] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of Children
+  during School Age in Ireland, 1902, Q. 3862.
+
+  [110] Report of the Board of Education of the Toledo City School
+  District, 1910-1911, p. 141.
+
+  [111] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session.
+
+  [112] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 39.
+
+  [113] _Idem_, p. 42.
+
+  [114] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 44.
+
+  [115] _Idem_, p. 59.
+
+  [116] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 62.
+
+  [117] _Idem_, p. 69.
+
+  [118] _Idem_, p. 71.
+
+  [119] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 73.
+
+  [120] _Idem_, p. 84.
+
+  [121] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 86.
+
+  [122] _Idem_, p. 87.
+
+  [123] _Idem_, p. 90.
+
+  [124] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 91.
+
+  [125] _Idem_, p. 92.
+
+  [126] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 105.
+
+  [127] Includes 17 in bowling alleys and pool rooms and 23 in theaters
+  and other places of amusement.
+
+  [128] Includes 2 in boarding houses, 26 home workers (precise
+  character of work not specified), 10 in restaurants, and 12 in private
+  families.
+
+  [129] Includes 26 bootblacks and 320 newsboys.
+
+  [130] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 106.
+
+  [131] _Idem_, pp. 106-107.
+
+  [132] "Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment," Vol. VIII
+  of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
+  States, Senate Document No. 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session, p. 108.
+
+  [133] _Idem_, pp. 116-117.
+
+  [134] _Idem_, p. 134.
+
+  [135] Davis Wasgatt Clark, "American Child and Moloch of To-day,"
+  1907, p. 40.
+
+  [136] George B. Mangold, "Child Problems," 1910, p. 232.
+
+  [137] James A. Britton, M.D., "Child Labor and the Juvenile Court,"
+  Pamphlet 95 of National Child Labor Committee, 1909.
+
+  [138] Vol. VIII of Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners
+  in the United States, 1911, p. 22.
+
+  [139] E. J. Urwick, "Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities (England),"
+  1904, p. 304.
+
+  [140] Bulletin 81, United States Bureau of Labor, p. 416.
+
+  [141] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on the
+  Employment of Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 9.
+
+  [142] "A Plea to take the Small Boy and the Girl from the City
+  Streets," by the Chicago Board of Education and a committee
+  representing local organizations, 1911.
+
+  [143] Report on Bylaws made by London County Council under Employment
+  of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones, 1906, pp. 24-27.
+
+  [144] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 33, p. 403.
+
+  [145] Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment of
+  Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. vii.
+
+  [146] "Street Trades," in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting of
+  National Child Labor Committee, 1911, p. 108.
+
+  [147] School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools, pp. 34-35.
+
+  [148] Committee on Work and Wages, Handbook of New York Child Welfare
+  Exhibit, 1911, p. 33.
+
+  [149] School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools, p. 36.
+
+  [150] Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House of
+  Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, p. 14.
+
+  [151] Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), House of
+  Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205, pp. 26-27.
+
+  [152] _Idem_, p. 16.
+
+  [153] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, pp. 20-21.
+
+  [154] _Idem_, p. 24.
+
+  [155] _Idem_, p. 9.
+
+  [156] _Idem_, Q. 1123.
+
+  [157] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, Q. 7203.
+
+  [158] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on the
+  Employment of Children during School Age in Ireland, 1902, p. 6.
+
+  [159] Great Britain, Return of Local Authorities which have made
+  By-laws under the Employment of Children Act, 1903, 1907.
+
+  [160] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 7.
+
+  [161] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 11.
+
+  [162] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 13.
+
+  [163] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical
+  Deterioration, 1904, Vol. II, Q. 12757-12759.
+
+  [164] Great Britain, Report of Interdepartmental Committee on
+  Employment of School Children, 1901, App. 37, pp. 415-416.
+
+  [165] Report on the By-laws made by the London County Council under
+  the Employment of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones, 1906, p. 5.
+
+  [166] _Idem_, p. 16.
+
+  [167] _Idem_, p. 15.
+
+  [168] Great Britain, Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of
+  Children Act, 1903, submitted in 1910, p. 9.
+
+  [169] J. G. Cloete, "The Boy and his Work" in "Studies of Boy Life in
+  our Cities," 1904, p. 131.
+
+  [170] "Citizens in the Making," Annual Report of Superintendent of
+  Neglected Children for Province of Manitoba, Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.
+
+  [171] C. W. A. Veditz, "Child Labor Legislation in Europe," in
+  Bulletin 89 of United States Bureau of Labor, 1910, p. 242.
+
+  [172] Henry Ferrette, "Manuel de legislation industrielle," 1909, p.
+  149.
+
+  [173] Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 14th Year, No. 106, p. 566.
+
+
+
+                              BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+                                 BOOKS
+
+  ADAMS, MYRON E., _Children in American Street Trades_, in Proceedings
+     of First Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1905,
+     pp. 25-46.
+
+  ---- _Municipal Regulations of Street Trades_, in Proceedings of
+     National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1904, Vol. XXXI,
+     pp. 294-300.
+
+  ALDEN, MARGARET, _Child Life and Labour_.
+
+  BRITTON, JAMES A., _Child Labor and the Juvenile Court_, in
+     Proceedings of Fifth Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
+     Committee, 1909, p. 111.
+
+  BROWN, EMMA E., _Child Toilers of Boston Streets_.
+
+  _Buffalo Child Labor Problems_, folder issued by New York Child Labor
+     Committee, 1911.
+
+  CAMPAGNAC AND RUSSELL, _Education, Earnings and Social Condition of
+     Boys Engaged in Street Trading in Manchester_, Board of Education
+     Special Reports on Educational Subjects, 1902, Vol. VIII, pp.
+     653-670.
+
+  _Child Labor in Germany Outside of Factories_, in Report of United
+     States Commissioner of Education, 1900-1901, Vol. I, pp. 54-80.
+
+  _Child Labor on the Street--The Newsboy_, leaflet of New York Child
+     Labor Committee, 1907.
+
+  _Child Labor in the United States_, Bulletin 69 of Bureau of Census,
+     1907.
+
+  CLARK, DAVIS W., _American Child and Moloch of To-day_, 1907, p. 40.
+
+  CLARK, VICTOR S., _Woman and Child Wage Earners in Great Britain_, in
+     Bulletin 80 of United States Bureau of Labor, January, 1909.
+
+  CLOETE, J. G., _The Boy and his Work_, in _Studies of Boy Life in Our
+     Cities_, edited by E. J. Urwick, 1904, pp. 129-133.
+
+  CLOPPER, EDWARD N., _Children on the Streets of Cincinnati_, in
+     Proceedings of Fourth Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
+     Committee, 1908, pp. 113-123.
+
+  ---- _Child Labor in Street Trades_, in Proceedings of Sixth Annual
+     Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1910, pp. 137-144.
+
+  CONANT, RICHARD K., _Street Trades and Reformatories_, in Proceedings
+     of Seventh Annual Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1911,
+     pp. 105-107.
+
+  _Employment of Children Act_, 1903, Great Britain, in J. N. Larned's
+     _History for Ready Reference_, 1910, Vol. VII, p. 87.
+
+  DAVIS, PHILIP, _Child Life on the Street_, National Conference of
+     Charities and Correction, 1909.
+
+  FIESER, JAMES L., _Causes of Truancy_, in Indiana Bulletin of
+     Charities and Correction, June, 1910, p. 227.
+
+  FLEISHER, ALEXANDER, _The Newsboys of Milwaukee_, in Fifteenth
+     Biennial Report, Part III, of Wisconsin Bureau of Labor, 1911-1912,
+     pp. 61-96.
+
+  GIBBS, S. P., _Problem of Boy Work_.
+
+  GREAT BRITAIN, Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages),
+     Parliament Sessional Papers 1899, Vol. 75.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of School
+     Children, 1901.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of Children
+     during School Age in Ireland, 1902.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Physical Deterioration,
+     1904, Vol. II, Q. 2453-2479, 10,440, 12,757.
+
+  ---- Report of Interdepartmental Committee on Partial Exemption from
+     School Attendance.
+
+  ---- Report of Departmental Committee on Employment of Children Act,
+     1903, 1910.
+
+  ---- Report on By-laws made by London County Council under Employment
+     of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones, 1906.
+
+  ---- Report of Education Committee of London County Council, March 21,
+     1911, pp. 690-696.
+
+  Report of President of State Children Relief Board of New South Wales
+     for year ending April 5, 1910, pp. 39-40.
+
+  Citizens in the Making, Annual Report of Superintendent of Neglected
+     Children for Province of Manitoba, Canada, 1910, pp. 31-34.
+
+  _Greek Padrone System in United States_, Abstract of Immigration
+     Commission's Report on, 1911.
+
+  GUNCKEL, J. E., _Boyville_, 1905.
+
+  HALL, GEORGE A., _The Newsboy_, in Proceedings of Seventh Annual
+     Meeting of National Child Labor Committee, 1911, pp. 100-102.
+
+  HENDERSON, CHARLES R., _Street Trading of Children_, in his
+     _Preventive Agencies and Methods_, 1910, Vol. III, pp. 97-100.
+
+  _Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment_, Vol. VIII of
+     Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in United
+     States, Senate Document 645, 61st Congress, 2d Session.
+
+  KELLEY, FLORENCE, _Children in Street Trades_ and _Telegraph and
+     Messenger Boys_, in her _Some Ethical Gains through Legislation_,
+     1905, pp. 11-26.
+
+  ---- _Street Trades_, in Proceedings of Seventh Annual Meeting of
+     National Child Labor Committee, 1911, pp. 108-110.
+
+  MANGOLD, GEORGE B., _Child Problems_, 1910, p. 232.
+
+  NEILL, CHARLES P., _Child Labor at the National Capital_, in
+     Proceedings of Second Annual Meeting of National Child Labor
+     Committee, 1905, pp. 17-20.
+
+  _New York Child Welfare Exhibit, Handbook of_, 1911, p. 33.
+
+  _Newsboys' Home Association of Washington, D.C., Report of_,
+     1863-1864.
+
+  _Newsboy Law_, in Handbook of Child Labor Legislation, 1908, National
+     Consumers' League, p. 63.
+
+  _Newsboys' and Children's Aid Society of Washington, D.C._, 1889.
+
+  _Newsboy Life--What Superintendents of Reformatories and Others Think
+     about its Effects_, Leaflet 32 of National Child Labor Committee,
+     1910.
+
+  North American Civic League for Immigrants, Report of New York-New
+     Jersey Committee, December, 1909-March, 1911, pp. 33-34.
+
+  PEACOCK, ROBERT, _Employment of Children with Special Reference to
+     Street Trading_, in Proceedings of Third International Congress for
+     Welfare and Protection of Children, 1902, pp. 191-202.
+
+  _Plea to Take the Small Boy and Girl from the City Streets_, a folder
+     issued by Chicago Board of Education and a committee representing
+     local organizations, 1911.
+
+  _Problems of Street Trading_, in Proceedings of Fifth Annual Meeting
+     of National Child Labor Committee, 1909, pp. 230-240.
+
+  _Saving the Barren Years_, in The Child in the City, Handbook of
+     Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, 1911, pp. 25-27.
+
+  School Document No. 14, 1910, Boston Public Schools, pp. 41-44.
+
+  School Document No. 10, 1910, Boston Public Schools, pp. 132-138.
+
+  School Document No. 15, 1909, Boston Public Schools, pp. 34-37.
+
+  SCOTT, LEROY, _The Voice of the Street_.
+
+  SHERARD, ROBERT H., _Child Slaves of Britain_.
+
+  SMITH, CONSTANCE, _Report on Employment of Children in United
+     Kingdom_.
+
+  _The Social Evil in Chicago_, Report of Chicago Vice Commission, 1911,
+     pp. 241-245.
+
+  SPARGO, JOHN, _Street Trades_ in his _Bitter Cry of the Children_,
+     1906, pp. 184-188, 258-259.
+
+  STELZLE, CHARLES, _The Boy of the Street_, New York, 1904, pp. 7, 41.
+
+  URWICK, E. J., editor of _Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities_
+     (England), 1904.
+
+  VEDITZ, C. W. A., _Child Labor Legislation in Europe_, Bulletin 89 of
+     United States Bureau of Labor, July, 1910.
+
+  WATSON, ELIZABETH C., _New York Newsboys and their Work_, 1911.
+
+  WHITIN, E. S., _Child Labor: Street Trades_, in his _Factory
+     Legislation in Maine_, 1908, pp. 137-138.
+
+  WILLIAMS, M., _The Street Boy: Who He is and What to do with Him_,
+     National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1903.
+
+  WILLIAMSON, E. E., _The Street Arab_, in Proceedings of National
+     Conference of Charities and Correction, 1898, Vol. XXV, pp.
+     358-361.
+
+
+                           MAGAZINE ARTICLES
+
+  Child Labor, by Florence Kelley, _Twentieth Century_, 1911, Vol. V,
+     pp. 30-34.
+
+  Child Laborers of the Street--The New York Bills, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 205-206.
+
+  Child Labor and the Night Messenger Service, by Owen R. Lovejoy, _The
+     Survey_, Vol. XXIV, pp. 311-317.
+
+  Child Street Trades in London, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X,
+     pp. 149-150.
+
+  Children as Wage Earners--Street Sellers, _Fortnightly Review_, 1903,
+     Vol. LXXIX, pp. 921-922.
+
+  Committee on Wage-earning Children--Third Annual Report, _Economic
+     Review_, 1904, Vol. XIV, pp. 208-211.
+
+  Convalescent Men for Newsboys, _The Survey_, 1910, Vol. XXV, p. 809.
+
+  Enforcing the Newsboy Law in New York and Newark, by J. K. Paulding,
+     _Charities and Commons_, 1905, Vol. XIV, pp. 836-837.
+
+  Ethics of the Newsboy, by A. Saxby, _Western_, Vol. CLVIII, pp.
+     575-578.
+
+  The Greek Bootblack, by Leola Benedict Terhune, _The Survey_, 1911,
+     Vol. XXVI, pp. 852-854.
+
+  The Greek Boy Who Shines Shoes, _The Survey_, 1911, Vol. XXVI, p. 591.
+
+  Hartford Regulates Child Street Trades, _The Survey_, 1910, Vol. XXV,
+     p. 511.
+
+  Industrial Democracy: A Newsboys' Labor Union and What It Thinks of a
+     College Education, by R. W. Bruere, _Outlook_, 1906, Vol. LXXXIV,
+     pp. 878-883.
+
+  John E. Gunckel of Toledo: the Newsboys' Evangelist, by A. E. Winship,
+     _World To-day_, 1908, Vol. XV, pp. 1169-1173.
+
+  De Kid Wot Works at Night, by William Hard, _Everybody's_, 1908, Vol.
+     XVIII, pp. 25-37.
+
+  Milwaukee Regulates Its Street Trades--Other Wisconsin Child Labor
+     Advances, _Survey_, 1909, Vol. XXII, p. 589.
+
+  New Jersey Children in Street Trades by E. B. Butler, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1907, Vol. XVII, pp. 1062-1064.
+
+  New Rules for Street Trades in Boston, with a Comparison of
+     Regulations in Liverpool, _Charities and Commons_, 1909, Vol. XXI,
+     pp. 953-954.
+
+  New York's Newsboy Lodging House, _Charities and Commons_, 1908, Vol.
+     XXI, pp. 147-148.
+
+  New York's Newsboys Licensed, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. XI,
+     pp. 188-189.
+
+  The Newsboy at Night in Philadelphia, by Scott Nearing, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1907, Vol. XVII, pp. 778-784.
+
+  The Newsboy Breadwinner Story, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. XI,
+     pp. 482, 568.
+
+  Newsboy Wanderers are Tramps in the Making, by Ernest Poole,
+     _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 160-162.
+
+  Newsboys Elect Their Own Judge, _Survey_, 1910, Vol. XXV, p. 312.
+
+  Night Messenger Service, by Owen R. Lovejoy, _Survey_, Vol. XXV, p.
+     504.
+
+  The Press and its Newsboys, by John Ihlder, _World To-day_, 1907, Vol.
+     XIII, pp. 737-739.
+
+  Sale of Goods on Sidewalks (in France), Daily Consular and Trade
+     Reports, 14th Year, No. 106, p. 566.
+
+  School Children as Wage Earners, by E. F. Hogg, _Nineteenth Century_,
+     1897, Vol. XLII, pp. 235-244.
+
+  School Children as Wage Earners--Street Trading in Liverpool, by J. E.
+     Gorst, _Nineteenth Century_, 1899, Vol. XLVI, p. 16.
+
+  Street Children, by Benjamin Waugh, _Contemporary Review_, 1888, Vol.
+     LIII, pp. 825-835.
+
+  Street Labor and Juvenile Delinquency, by Josephine C. Goldmark,
+     _Political Science Quarterly_, 1904, Vol. XIX, pp. 417-438.
+
+  Street Trades and Delinquency, _Survey_, 1911, Vol. XXVI, p. 285.
+
+  The Street-trading Children of Liverpool, by Thomas Burke,
+     _Contemporary Review_, 1900, Vol. LXXVIII, pp. 720-726.
+
+  Street Trading by Children (Bradford, England), Daily Consular and
+     Trade Reports, 14th Year, No. 89, p. 246.
+
+  Two O'clock Sunday Morning, by Scott Nearing, _The Independent_, 1912,
+     Vol. LXXII, No. 3297, pp. 288-289.
+
+  A Western Newspaper and its Newsboys, by W. B. Forbush, _Charities and
+     Commons_, 1907, Vol. XIX, pp. 798-802.
+
+  Waifs of the Street, by Ernest Poole, _McClure's_, Vol. XXI, pp.
+     40-48.
+
+  What Boston Has Done in Regulating the Street Trades for Children, by
+     Pauline Goldmark, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp.
+     159-160.
+
+  What of the Newsboy of the Second Cities? Investigations carried on in
+     Buffalo, _Charities and Commons_, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 368-371.
+
+
+
+
+                               APPENDICES
+
+
+
+
+                               APPENDIX A
+
+                                  LAWS
+
+The law of Wisconsin relative to street trading, as amended in 1911,
+is given below in its entirety, because it is the most advanced law of
+its kind in the United States.
+
+
+                              _Wisconsin_
+
+SECTION 1728 p. The term "street trade," as used in this act, shall
+mean any business or occupation in which any street, alley, court,
+square or other public place is used for the sale, display or offering
+for sale of any articles, goods or merchandise. No boy under the age
+of twelve years, and no girl under the age of eighteen years, shall in
+any city of the first class distribute, sell or expose or offer for
+sale newspapers, magazines or periodicals in any street or public
+place.
+
+SECTION 1728 q. No boy under fourteen years of age, shall, in any city
+of the first class, work at any time, or be employed or permitted to
+work at any time, as a bootblack or in any other street trade, or
+shall sell or offer any goods or merchandise for sale or distribute
+hand bills or circulars or any other articles, except newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals as hereinafter provided.
+
+SECTION 1728 r. No girl under eighteen years of age shall, in any city
+of the first class, work at any time, or be employed or permitted to
+work at any time, as a bootblack or at any other street trades or in
+the sale or distribution of hand bills or circulars or any other
+articles upon the street or from house to house.
+
+SECTION 1728 s. No boy under sixteen years of age shall, in any city
+of the first class, distribute, sell or expose or offer for sale any
+newspapers, magazines or periodicals in any street or public place or
+work as a bootblack, or in any other street or public trade or sell or
+offer for sale or distribute any hand bills or other articles, unless
+he complies with all the legal requirements concerning school
+attendance, and unless a permit and badge, as hereinafter provided,
+shall have been issued to him by the state factory inspector. No such
+permit and badge shall be issued until the officer issuing the same
+shall have received an application in writing therefor, signed by the
+parent or guardian or other person having the custody of the child,
+desiring such permit and badge, and until such officer shall have
+received, examined and placed on file the written statement of the
+principal or chief executive officer of the public, private or
+parochial school, which the said child is attending, stating that such
+child is an attendant at such school with the grade such child shall
+have attained, and provided that no such permit and badge shall be
+issued, unless such officer issuing it is satisfied that such child
+is mentally and physically able to do such work besides his regular
+school work as required by law.
+
+SECTION 1728 t. Before any such permit is issued, the state factory
+inspector shall demand and be furnished with proof of such child's age
+by the production of a verified baptismal certificate or a duly
+attested birth certificate, or, in case such certificates cannot be
+secured, by the record of age stated in the first school enrollment of
+such child. Whenever it appears that a permit was obtained by wrong or
+false statements as to any child's age, the officer who granted such
+permit shall forthwith revoke the same. After having received,
+examined and placed on file such papers, the officer shall issue to
+the child a permit and badge. The principal or chief executive officer
+of schools, in which children under fourteen years of age are pupils,
+shall keep a complete list of all children in their school to whom a
+permit and badge has been issued, as herein provided.
+
+SECTION 1728 u. Such permit shall state the place and date of birth of
+the child, the name and address of its parents, guardian, custodian or
+next friend, as the case may be, and describe the color of hair and
+eyes, the height and weight and any distinguishing facial marks of
+such child, and shall further state that the papers required by the
+preceding section have been duly examined and filed; and that the
+child named in such permit has appeared before the officer issuing
+the permit. The badge furnished by the officer issuing the permit
+shall bear on its face a number corresponding to the number of the
+permit, and the name of the child. Every such permit, and every such
+badge on its reverse side, shall be signed in the presence of the
+officer issuing the same by the child in whose name it is issued.
+Provided, that in case of carrier boys working on salary for newspaper
+publishers delivering papers, a card of identification shall be issued
+to such carriers by the factory inspector, which they shall carry on
+their person, and exhibit to any officer authorized under this act,
+who may accost them for a disclosure of their right to serve as such
+carriers.
+
+SECTION 1728 v. The badge provided for herein shall be such as the
+state factory inspector shall designate, and shall be worn
+conspicuously in sight at all times in such position as may be
+designated by the said factory inspector by such child while so
+working. No child to whom such permit and badge or identification card
+are issued shall transfer the same to any other person.
+
+SECTION 1728 w. No boy under fourteen years of age shall, in any city
+of the first class, sell, expose or offer for sale any newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals after the hour of six-thirty o'clock in the
+evening, between the first day of October and the first day of April,
+nor after seven-thirty o'clock in the evening between the first day of
+April and the first day of October, or before five o'clock in the
+morning; and no child under sixteen years of age shall distribute,
+sell, expose or offer for sale any newspapers, magazines or
+periodicals or shall work as a bootblack or in any street or public
+trades or distribute hand bills or shall be employed or permitted to
+work in the distribution or sale or exposing or offering for sale of
+any newspapers, magazines or periodicals or as a bootblack or in other
+street or public trades or in the distribution of hand bills during
+the hours when the public schools of the city where such child shall
+reside are in session. Provided, that any boy between the ages of
+fourteen and sixteen years, who is complying and shall continue to
+comply with all the legal requirements concerning school attendance,
+and who is mentally and physically able to do such delivery besides
+his regular school work, shall be authorized to deliver newspapers
+between the hours of four and six in the morning.
+
+SECTION 1728 x. The commissioner of labor or any factory inspector
+acting under his direction shall enforce the provisions of this law,
+and he is hereby vested with all powers requisite therefor.
+
+SECTION 1728 y. The permit of any child, who in any city of the first
+class distributes, sells or offers for sale any newspapers, magazines
+or periodicals in any street or public place or works as a bootblack
+or in any other street trade, or sells or offers for sale or
+distributes any hand bills or other articles in violation of the
+provisions of this act, or who becomes delinquent or fails to comply
+with all the legal requirements concerning school attendances shall
+forthwith be revoked for a period of six months and his badge taken
+from said child. The refusal of any child to surrender such permit,
+and the distribution, sale or offering for sale of newspapers,
+magazines or periodicals or any goods or merchandise, or the working
+by such child as a bootblack or in any other street or public trade,
+or in distributing hand bills or other articles, after notice, by any
+officer authorized to grant permits under this law of the revocation
+of such permit and a demand for the return of the badge, shall be
+deemed a violation of this act. The permit of said child may also be
+revoked by the officer who issued such permit, and the badge taken
+from such child, upon the complaint of any police officer or other
+attendance officer or probation officer of a juvenile court, and such
+child shall surrender his permit and badge upon the demand of any
+police officer, truancy or other attendance officer or probation
+officer of a juvenile court or other officer charged with the duty of
+enforcing this act. In case of a second violation of this act by any
+child, he shall be brought before the juvenile court, if there shall
+be any juvenile court in the city where such child resides, or, if
+not, before any court or magistrate having jurisdiction of offenses
+committed by minors and be dealt with according to law.
+
+SECTION 1728 z. Any parent or other person who employs a minor under
+the age of sixteen years in peddling without a license or who, having
+the care or custody of such minor, suffers or permits the child to
+engage in such employment, or to violate sections 1728 p to 1728 za,
+inclusive, shall be punished by a fine not to exceed one hundred
+dollars nor less than twenty-five dollars, or by commitment to the
+county jail for not more than sixty days or less than ten days.
+
+SECTION 1728 za. Providing that no badge shall be issued for a boy
+selling papers between the ages of twelve and sixteen years by the
+state factory inspector, except upon certificate of the principal of
+either public, parochial or other private school attended by said boy,
+stating and setting forth that said boy is a regular attendant upon
+said school. No boy under the age of sixteen years shall be permitted
+by any newspaper publisher or printer or persons having for sale
+newspapers or periodicals of any character, to loiter or remain around
+any salesroom, assembly room, circulation room or office for the sale
+of newspapers, between the hours of nine in the forenoon and three in
+the afternoon, on days when school is in session. Any newspaper
+publisher, printer, circulation agent or seller of newspapers shall
+upon conviction for permitting newsboys to loiter or hang around any
+assembly room, circulation room, salesroom or office where papers are
+distributed or sold, shall be punished by a fine not to exceed one
+hundred dollars nor less than twenty-five dollars, or by commitment to
+the county jail for not more than sixty days or less than ten days.
+
+
+                           _London, England_
+
+          BY-LAWS ADOPTED BY THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL AND PUT IN FORCE
+  ON JUNE 3, 1911
+
+          By-laws 1-9 concern the employment of children generally.
+
+10. No girl under the age of 16 years shall be employed in or carry on
+street trading.
+
+11. No boy under the age of 14 years shall be employed in or carry on
+street trading.
+
+12. No boy under the age of 16 years shall be employed in or carry on
+street trading before 6 in the morning or after 9 in the evening.
+
+13. No boy under the age of 16 years shall at any time be employed in
+or carry on street trading unless
+
+(1) He is exempt from school attendance, and
+
+(2) He first procures a badge from the London County Council, which he
+shall wear whilst engaged in street trading on the upper part of the
+right arm in such a manner as to be conspicuous.
+
+The badge shall be deemed to be a license to trade, and may be
+withheld or withdrawn for such period as the London County Council
+think fit in any of the following cases--
+
+(_a_) If the boy has, after the issue of the badge to him, been
+convicted of any offense.
+
+(_b_) If it is proved to the satisfaction of the London County Council
+that the boy has used his badge for the purpose of begging or
+receiving alms, or for any immoral purpose, or for the purpose of
+imposition, or for any other improper purpose.
+
+(_c_) If the boy fails to notify the London County Council within one
+week of any change in his place of residence.
+
+(_d_) If the boy commits a breach of any of the conditions under which
+such badge is issued; such conditions to be stated on such badge or
+delivered to the boy in writing.
+
+14. A boy to whom a badge has been issued by the London County Council
+shall in no way alter, lend, sell, pawn, transfer, or otherwise
+dispose of, or wilfully deface, or injure such badge, which shall
+remain the property of the London County Council, and he shall, on
+receiving notice in writing from the London County Council (which may
+be served by post) that the badge has been withdrawn, deliver up the
+same forthwith to the London County Council.
+
+15. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged in street trading,
+shall not enter any premises used for public entertainment or licensed
+for the sale of intoxicating liquor for consumption on the premises
+for the purpose of trading.
+
+16. A boy under the age of 16 years, whilst engaged in street trading,
+shall not annoy any person by importuning.
+
+17. Nothing in these by-laws contained shall restrict the employment
+of children in the occupations specified in section 3 (_a_) of the
+Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1904, further than such
+employment is already restricted by statute.
+
+
+                               APPENDIX B
+
+TWO TYPES OF NEWSBOY BADGES.
+
+[Illustration: BADGE USED IN CINCINNATI.]
+
+[Illustration: BADGE USED IN BOSTON.]
+
+
+                               APPENDIX C
+
+                        CARDS FOR INVESTIGATIONS
+
+The cards used in the inquiries into the newsboy situations of
+Philadelphia and Milwaukee are reproduced here, in the hope that they
+will be of use in furnishing suggestions to any organization or
+individual who contemplates making such an investigation elsewhere. It
+will be observed that these cards are practically confined to
+questions affecting newsboys only, and would have to be considerably
+amplified, if intended for use in a general study of street work by
+children.
+
+
+     Cards used by Boston School Committee for Issuance of Licenses
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                        APPLICATION FOR A LICENSE
+
+  To the School Committee of the City of Boston:
+
+   I hereby apply for a license for my son as NEWSBOY--PEDLER--BOOTBLACK.
+
+                                                                SIGNATURE
+                                                                OF PARENT
+
+   I promise to see that he lives up to the license rules. ________________
+
+                                                               SIGNATURE
+                                                                 OF BOY
+
+   I promise to live up to the license rules.              ________________
+
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  SCHOOL RECORD OF BOY TO BE FILLED OUT BY THE TEACHER AND PRINCIPAL
+  ---------------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
+     PLACE OF BIRTH    |   DATE OF BIRTH   |              RESIDENCE
+                       |                   |
+  -------+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
+   GRADE | SCHOLARSHIP | PHYSICAL DEFECT?  |  SIGNATURE OF TEACHER
+         |             |                   |
+  -------+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
+
+   I hereby certify that this Boy's attendance is______ His conduct is_____
+
+
+         SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL                            SCHOOL
+
+   ____________________________________       _____________________________
+
+
+    GRANTED WITH THE APPROVAL OF THE SCHOOL COMMITTEE:
+
+               __________________________ SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                    (CARD RETURNED TO SCHOOL FOR FILE)
+                             LICENSED MINORS
+                                 _________
+
+
+  ________________________________________      No.________________________
+
+  Birth date
+
+  Teacher                                       Grade
+
+  School
+
+  Badge given              Expires and must be returned
+  =========================================================================
+
+                             READ AND COPY
+
+              LICENSE RULES OF THE BOSTON SCHOOL COMMITTEE
+
+                               _________
+
+    No boy can get a license unless he is eleven years of age and able to
+  understand and COPY the following:
+
+                           A LICENSED NEWSBOY
+
+                MUST                               MUST NOT
+
+  1. Must ATTEND school regularly.  |   6. Must not sell before 6 A.M.
+  2. Must be "GOOD" in conduct.     |   7. Must not sell after 8 P.M.
+  3. Must have no UNLICENSED        |        (9 P.M. in baseball season.)
+       boy help him.                |   8. Must not sell in SCHOOL HOURS.
+  4. Must keep the badge TO         |   9. Must not sell on CARS.
+       HIMSELF.                     |  10. Must not sell without wearing
+  5. Must RETURN his badge to the   |        the badge IN PLAIN SIGHT
+       Superintendent of Schools    |        ALL THE TIME.
+       when ordered to do so.       |
+
+    Any boy who breaks any of the above rules is liable to have his license
+  revoked or go to court and pay a maximum fine of TEN dollars.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+        Form of Application for License used in Hartford, Conn.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                             ~City of Hartford~
+
+
+  TO THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS:--
+
+    I hereby make application for a Street-Sales Permit for
+  ______________________________________________________________________
+
+  Born in ______________________________________________________________
+
+  Age ______________ Sex _______________ Complexion ____________________
+
+  Eyes _____________ Hair ______________ Figure ________________________
+
+  Living at_________________________________________ Street ____________
+
+  If such license is granted I agree that it shall be for this child and
+  for no other.
+
+  ________________________________________ Parent, Guardian, Next Friend
+
+  Hartford, ____________________________
+
+
+                          =School Information=
+
+  ______________________________________________________________________
+
+  Living at _______________________________________ _Street_____________
+
+  is pupil in this School, is regular in attendance, and is a suitable
+  child to have a Street-Sales Permit.
+
+                             ________________________________ Principal.
+
+                             __________________________________ Teacher.
+
+  __________________________________ School.
+
+  The age, sex, complexion, eyes, hair, and figure, should be as
+  described above.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+  Form used in Obtaining Information before the Issuing of a Badge in
+                     Province of Manitoba, Canada.
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+                            LICENSED NEWSBOY
+
+  No. __________________          Date _________________________________
+
+  Child's name _____________________________________ Age _______________
+
+  Father's name ____________________________ Address ___________________
+
+  Mother's name ________________________________________________________
+
+  Father's occupation __________________________________________________
+
+  School and Grade _____________________________________________________
+
+  Principal's name _____________________________________________________
+
+  Church __________________ Clergyman __________________________________
+
+  Address ______________________________________________________________
+
+  Is child of apparently normal development? ___________________________
+
+  What proof has been given that he is over twelve years of age? _______
+
+  ______________________________________________________________________
+
+  Why do parents want him to sell papers? ______________________________
+
+  Can child read? ______________________________________________________
+
+  Can child write? _____________________________________________________
+
+  Has badge been granted? _____________ No. of badge ___________________
+
+  If badge has not been granted, state why _____________________________
+
+             _____________________________________________
+                 _Superintendent Neglected Children,
+                                  Province of Manitoba._
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+  Sample of Card used in Investigation of Street Trades in Philadelphia
+
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+  Name_______________________________Address_______________________________
+
+  Age_______________sells__________________________at______________________
+
+  From________to________every day. Works from________to________on Saturday.
+
+  How long in street trades_____________Income________________per__________
+
+  Parents living_____lives at home_______contributes_______per_____to home.
+
+  If not living at home where does boy reside?
+
+     Lodging house___ Furnished room___
+
+  Some relative___$__per___paid for board. Does boy gamble__drink__smoke___
+
+  Habit acquired prior to engaging in street trades________________________
+
+  Does vendor save part earnings___________________________________________
+
+  Where and with whom does boy spend non-working hours_____________________
+
+  At what hour does newsboy reach home_____Has boy a route (exclusive)_____
+
+  General health of boy____________________________________________________
+
+  Schooling________________________________________________________________
+
+  Is selling boy's own choice______________________________________________
+
+  How many nights so far this summer has boy stayed out all night__where___
+
+  Investigator________________________________Date_________________________
+
+
+                    =Philadelphia Investigation Card=
+
+  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+      Sample of Card used in Investigation of Newsboys in Milwaukee
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+   NAME                  ADDRESS                CITY
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| I. FAMILY                                                               |
++======================+=================+=============+==================+
+|Name of   {Guardian}  | Nationality:    | Religion:   | Occupation:      |
+|person he {Parent  }  |                 |             |                  |
+|lives with{        }  |                 |             |                  |
++--------------------+-+------+--------+-+-------+-----+------------------+
+|Number in Family:   |Mother  |Father  | Total   |Number contributing     |
+|                    |        |        |Children | to family support      |
++--------------------+--------+--------+---------+------------------------+
+|Age of Boy, yr. mo. |Number of years  |Papers handled Daily  Sunday     *|
+|                    | selling papers  |               Weekly             |
++--------------------+-----------------+----------------------------------+
+|Sells papers as Employer      Employee of               Individual      *|
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+|Sells at (street)                                                        |
++---------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
+|Sells: Morning    Afternoon    Evening    After 9 P.M.  *|Permit Number *|
+|                                                         |Has none       |
++------------------+--------------------------+-----------+---------------+
+|Does he come      |Where else does he eat?   | How often (elsewhere)     |
+|home for supper?  |                          | per week?                 |
++------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------+
+|Arrives home      |P.M. Saturday nights      |Leaves to {deliver}   A.M.*|
+|P.M. week nights  |                          |          {sell   }        |
++------------------+---------------+----------+-+-------------------------+
+|Does he stay out    How often     |Shoot       |Go into {Saloons   }     |
+|all night?          per week?     |"craps"?    |        {Tenderloin}     |
++-----------------------+-----------------------+-------------------------+
+|Does he like           |Family require         |Why is he working?       |
+|the work?              |his working?           |                         |
++=======================+=======================+=========================+
+| II. SCHOOL                                                              |
++==============================+==========================================+
+|School attended:              | Location:                                |
++-------------------------+----+----------+-------------------------------+
+|Informant:               | Grade:        | Years in school:              |
++-------------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+|Boy's standing in  Good   Fair   Poor   *| Conduct: Good   Fair   Poor  *|
+|school work:        Poor                 |                               |
++------------------+----------------------+-------------------------------+
+|Is Boy drowsy?    |Is school work injured by selling papers?  Yes  No   *|
++------------------+--------------+--------------------+------------------+
+|Attendance: Regular  Irregular  *|Number of days      |Absences excused  |
+|                                 |absent last month:  |                  |
++---------------------------------+--------------------+------------------+
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+           Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
++--------------------------------------------++---------------------------+
+|     III. INCOME (AMOUNT RECEIVED BY        ||                           |
+|          FAMILY CASHIER)                   ||IV. TO BE OBTAINED FROM BOY|
++----------------------------------+---------+|                           |
+|SOURCE  OCCUPATION  PER  NO. WEEKS| TOTAL   ||                           |
+|                   WEEK  PER YEAR |PER YEAR ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Newsboy                           |      |  ||What does boy       $      |
+|                                  |      |  ||earn per week?             |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Other Children                    |      |  ||How much given      $      |
+|                                  |      |  ||to family?                 |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Father                            |      |  ||Why is he selling papers?  |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Mother                            |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Rents                             |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Lodgers                           |      |  ||                           |
+|(outside of family)               |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Other                             |      |  ||                           |
+|Sources                           |      |  ||                           |
++----------------------------------+------+--++---------------------------+
+|Total                             |      |  ||                           |
++==================================+======+==++===========================+
+|Remarks--Housing:                           ||      INSTRUCTIONS         |
+|                                            ||                           |
+|                                            || It is necessary to get    |
+|                                            ||answers to all questions,  |
+|                                            ||as there are a             |
++--------------------------------------------++comparatively small number |
+|                                            ||of cases being             |
+|                                            ||investigated.              |
+|                                            || Divisions I and III are to|
+|                                            ||be obtained from the       |
+|                                            ||family.                    |
++--------------------------------------------++ Division II from school   |
+|Cleanliness:                                ||principal or teacher.      |
+|                                            || Division IV from the boy  |
+|                                            ||himself, away from his     |
+|                                            ||family, if possible.       |
+|                                            || Only boys under 14 are to |
++--------------------------------------------++considered.                |
+|Other:                                      || If parent is dead, cross  |
+|                                            ||out line two, over.        |
+|                                            || * Use check ([X]) to mark |
+|                                            ||what answer is.            |
+|                                            || If there are several      |
+|                                            ||answers, check each.       |
++--------------------------------------------++---------------------------+
+
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Addams, Jane, on Illinois child labor law, 15.
+
+  Age limit (_see_ Laws and Ordinances), 194-196.
+
+  Austria, investigation of 1907, 49-51.
+
+
+  Begging, 38, 69, 96, 220.
+
+  Berlin regulations, 240.
+
+  Bootblacks, 83, 93.
+    Ages, 84.
+    Delinquency, 165.
+    Diseases, 87, 88.
+    Earnings, 84, 89, 95.
+    Environment, 86, 87.
+    Home conditions, 85.
+    Hours, 84, 85, 94, 95.
+    Padrone System, report by Immigration Commission, 86-92.
+      Report by North American Civic League for Immigrants, 83, 84.
+
+  Boston, license statistics, 33.
+    Regulations of street work, 196.
+
+  Boston Newsboys' Court, 79-81.
+
+  Boston Newsboys' Republic, 212.
+
+  Buffalo conditions, report on, 132, 133.
+
+
+  Canada, 238.
+
+  Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit, 14, 29.
+
+  Chicago statistics of local studies, 28, 29.
+
+  Chicago Vice Commission's report, 30, 67, 96, 118.
+
+  Child Welfare Exhibit, 14.
+    Chicago, 29.
+    New York, 60.
+
+  Cincinnati, license statistics, 35, 71.
+    Market children, 97.
+    Newsboy conditions, 54.
+    Regulations of street work, 196.
+
+
+  Delinquency, relation to street work, report of Dr. Charles P. Neill,
+  159.
+    Chicago juvenile court records, 178.
+    Connection between occupation and offense, 171.
+    Records of Indiana Boys' School, 179-187.
+
+  Delivery Service, 68, 161-174.
+
+  Detroit, regulations of street work, 193.
+
+
+  Edinburgh, conditions in, 44, 125, 224.
+
+  Effects of street work, classified, 128.
+    In Buffalo, 132, 133.
+    In physical deterioration, 142-145.
+    Opinions of superintendents of reformatories, 131, 132.
+
+  Employment distinguished from independent work, 2, 192.
+
+  Enforcement of regulations, 132, 208, 211.
+
+  Errand running, 202.
+    Delinquency, 161-174.
+
+
+  France, regulations, 241.
+
+
+  Germany, inquiry of 1898, 45-48.
+    Regulations, 239.
+
+  Girls as newspaper sellers, 31, 65, 200.
+
+  Great Britain, Departmental Committee of 1910, 76, 138, 147, 197, 223,
+  237.
+    Employment of Children Act, 1903, 221.
+    Interdepartmental Committee of 1901, 43, 73, 145, 203, 217.
+    Interdepartmental Committee of 1902 on Ireland, 150, 294, 220.
+    Interdepartmental Committee of 1904 on Physical Deterioration, 125,
+    142.
+    Parliamentary return of 1899, 39-42, 215.
+
+
+  Hartford, regulations of street work, 196.
+
+  Housing problem's relation to street trading, 20.
+
+
+  Illinois, effort to regulate street trading, 14, 198.
+
+  Immigration Commission, report on Padrone System, 36, 86-92.
+
+  Ireland, report of Interdepartmental Committee of 1902, 150, 204, 220.
+
+
+  Kelley, Florence, on street trading, 52, 70, 127, 207.
+
+
+  Laws, table of state, 194.
+
+  Licenses for street work required, 197, 209.
+
+  License statistics, of Boston, 33.
+    Of Cincinnati, 35, 71.
+    Of New York, 16, 34.
+
+  Liverpool, conditions, 230.
+    Regulations, 232.
+
+  London County Council bylaws, 233-236, 264.
+
+  Lovejoy, Owen R., on messenger service, 123.
+
+
+  Manchester regulations, 236.
+
+  Market children, 21, 96.
+    Ages, 97.
+    Earnings, 96.
+    Home conditions, 99, 100.
+    Hours, 99.
+    Nationalities, 97, 98.
+    Orphanage, 100.
+    Retardation, 98, 99.
+
+  Merchandise, distinction between newspapers and, 189.
+
+  Messenger boys, 101.
+    Ages, 106-117.
+    Character of work, 101-104.
+    Chicago Vice Commission's report, 118-121.
+    Delinquency, 104, 165, 169.
+    Diseases, 111, 112, 113.
+    Earnings, 106, 112, 113, 114.
+    Environment, 102, 103.
+    Hours, 108, 113, 115, 119.
+    Investigation in Ohio Valley, 106-117.
+    Lack of prospects, 104, 126.
+    Poverty as excuse for work, 122.
+    Use of men instead of boys, 105, 123-125.
+
+
+  Nationality of street workers, 33, 97.
+
+  Nearing, Scott, conditions in Philadelphia, 69, 135.
+
+  Neill, Charles P., on newsboys' work, 64.
+    On messenger service, 117.
+    Report on Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, 159.
+
+  Newark, regulations of street work, 196.
+
+  New York, report of newsboy investigation, 16, 34, 148.
+    Child Welfare Exhibit, 60.
+    Regulations of street work, 195.
+
+  Newsboys, ages, 54-60.
+    Associations, 66.
+    Character of work, 56-58.
+    Classified, 52.
+    Delinquency, 165.
+    Diseases, 136.
+    Earnings compared with factory wages, 58.
+    Environment, 60, 135.
+    Home conditions, 70-72.
+    Hours, 65-70.
+    Irregularity of meals, 61.
+    Orphanage, 71, 168.
+    Retardation, 147-156.
+    Substitutes, 75-79.
+    Tricks of the trade, 63-64.
+
+  Newsboys' Court of Boston, 79-81.
+
+  Newsboys' Republic of Boston, 212.
+
+  New South Wales, license statistics, 45.
+    Regulations, 45, 238.
+
+  Newspapers, as merchandise, 189.
+    Attitude toward regulation, 28, 199.
+
+  Night work, of messengers, 101, 169.
+    Of newsboys, 65-70.
+
+
+  Ordinances, table of city, 196.
+
+
+  Padrone System, report, of Immigration Commission, 36, 86-92.
+    North American Civic League for Immigrants, 83, 84.
+
+  Peddlers, findings of Chicago Vice Commission, 96.
+    Cincinnati statistics, 97.
+    Delinquency, 165.
+    Immigration Commission's report, 36.
+
+  Philadelphia conditions, 69.
+
+  Playgrounds, 22.
+
+  Poverty as an excuse for street work, 70-73, 136-138.
+
+  Prohibition, of night work, 208.
+    Of street work by children, 224, 227.
+
+
+  Regulation, by municipality or state, 205.
+    Degree of, 193, 206.
+    In future, 207.
+    Unsatisfactory, 228.
+
+  Retardation in school of street workers, 98, 147-156.
+
+  Rochester, method of enforcement, 211.
+
+
+  St. Louis statistics, 146, 151.
+
+  School, as social center, 21.
+    Retardation of street workers, 98, 147-156.
+
+  Scotland, conditions, 44, 225.
+
+  Spargo, John, on effects of street work, 135.
+
+  Statistics, of U.S. Census, 24, 25.
+    Austria, 49-51.
+    Boston, 33.
+    Chicago, 28, 29.
+    Cincinnati, 35, 71.
+    Germany, 45-48.
+    Great Britain, 40-44, 143-145.
+    New York, 16, 34, 148.
+
+  Street as a social agent, 17.
+
+  Street employments, distinction between, 5.
+
+  Street occupations, of minor importance, 38.
+    Classified, 4.
+    Contrasted with regular work, 73, 139.
+
+  Street trading defined, 3.
+    Neglected in legislation, 7, 12, 192.
+
+  Street trading problem related to other problems, 20.
+
+
+  Toledo, retardation of street workers, 152-156.
+
+
+  Vagrants, Chicago report on, 32.
+
+  Vice Commission of Chicago, report, 30, 67, 96, 118.
+
+
+  Wisconsin, law, 257.
+
+
+
+
+  The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan
+     books on kindred subjects.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                   NOTABLE WORKS BY MISS JANE ADDAMS
+
+
+
+
+A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil
+
+                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net; by mail, $1.10_
+
+It is almost unnecessary to call attention to the importance of a new
+book by Jane Addams. As a servant of the public good Miss Addams, both
+through her work at Hull-House and through her writings, has made for
+herself a name all over the world. She does not view things from a
+standpoint of destructive criticism, but rather from that of
+constructive, her aim being always to better the conditions in the
+particular field which she is considering. In "A New Conscience and an
+Ancient Evil," she considers sanely and frankly questions which
+civilized society has always had confronting it and in all probability
+always will. Something of her attitude of mind and of her purpose in
+writing this book as well as a glimpse of the character of the volume
+may be seen from the following paragraph taken from her preface:
+
+"'A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil' was written, not from the
+point of view of the expert, but because of my own need for a
+counter-knowledge to a bewildering mass of information which came to
+me through the Juvenile Protective Association of Chicago. The reports
+which its twenty field officers daily brought to its main office
+adjoining Hull-House became to me a revelation of the dangers incident
+to city conditions and of the allurements which are designedly placed
+around many young girls in order to draw them into an evil life."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Miss Addams's volume is painful reading, but we heartily wish that it
+might be read and pondered by every man and woman who to-day, in smug
+complacency, treat with indifference and contempt the great struggle
+for social purity."--_The Nation._
+
+"As an educational weapon, incalculably valuable. A torch with which
+every thinking citizen should be armed for a crusade against the
+dark-covered evil at which it is aimed."--_The Continent._
+
+
+
+
+The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets
+
+                                _12mo, cloth, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_
+
+A protest against the practice of every large city of turning over to
+commercialism practically all the provisions for public recreation,
+leaving it possible for private greed to starve or demoralize the
+nature of youth.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Few persons in this country are better qualified to speak with
+authority on any subject connected with the betterment of the poor
+than is Jane Addams."--_New York Herald._
+
+"The book should be in the hands of every preacher and laborer for
+humanity. I wish that parents might make it a text-book."--Rev.
+MADISON C. PETER in _The New Orleans Daily News_.
+
+"It is brimming full of the mother sentiment of love and yearning, and
+also shows such sanity, such breadth and tolerance of mind, and such
+philosophic penetration into the inner meanings of outward phenomena
+as to make it a book which no one who cares seriously about its
+subject can afford to miss."--_New York Times._
+
+
+
+
+Newer Ideals of Peace
+
+                                             _12mo, cloth, leather back,
+                                              $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_
+
+"A clean and consistent setting forth of the utility of labor as
+against the waste of war, and an exposition of the alteration of
+standards that must ensue when labor and the spirit of militarism are
+relegated to their right places in the minds of men.... Back of it
+lies illimitable sympathy, immeasurable pity, a spirit as free as that
+of St. Francis, a sense of social order and fitness that Marcus
+Aurelius might have found similar to his own."--_Chicago Tribune._
+
+The editor of _Collier's_ writes: "To us it seems the most
+comprehensive talk yet given about how to help humanity in America
+to-day."
+
+"It is given to but few people to have the rare combination of power
+of insight and of interpretation possessed by Miss Addams. The present
+book shows the same fresh virile thought, and the happy expression
+which has characterized her work.... There is nothing of namby-pamby
+sentimentalism in Miss Addams's idea of the peace movement. The volume
+is most inspiring and deserves wide recognition."--_Annals of the
+American Academy._
+
+"No brief summary can do justice to Miss Addams's grasp of the facts,
+her insight into their meaning, her incisive estimate of the strength
+and weakness alike of practical politicians and spasmodic reformers,
+her sensible suggestions as to woman's place in our municipal
+housekeeping, her buoyant yet practical optimism."--_Examiner._
+
+
+
+
+Democracy and Social Ethics
+
+                                    _Half leather, ix + 281 pages, 12mo,
+                                              $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_
+
+"The result of actual experience in hand-to-hand contact with social
+problems.... No more truthful description, for example, of the 'boss'
+as he thrives to-day in our great cities has ever been written than is
+contained in Miss Addams's chapter on 'Political Reform.' ... The same
+thing may be said of the book in regard to the presentation of social
+and economic facts."--_Review of Reviews._
+
+"The book is startling, stimulating, and intelligent."--_Philadelphia
+Ledger._
+
+
+
+
+Twenty Years at Hull-House
+
+                                                 _Ill., dec. cloth, 8vo,
+                                              $2.50 net; by mail, $2.68_
+
+Jane Addams's work at Hull-House is known throughout the civilized
+world. In the present volume she tells of her endeavors and of their
+success--of the beginning of Hull-House, of its growth and its present
+influence. For every one at all interested in the improvement of our
+cities, in the moral education of those who are forced to spend much
+of their time on the streets or in cheap places of amusement--"Twenty
+Years at Hull-House" is a volume of more than ordinary interest and
+value.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"The personality of Jane Addams is one of the finest achievements of
+that idea of democracy, service, and freedom for which America means
+to stand before the world."--_N. Y. Times._
+
+"The story of the beginnings of this remarkable undertaking
+(Hull-House), the problems that were faced and conquered in the early
+days, the unsuspected resources that were developed among the crowded
+city population of foreign birth, and the efforts continuously made
+for the betterment of labor legislation in the State of Illinois, are
+all set forth with simplicity and directness. On the whole it is a
+wonderful record of accomplishment, full of suggestion to social
+reformers the world over."--_Review of Reviews._
+
+"Who reads this book lightly misses a great opportunity."--_Bellman._
+
+"The story is one of singular interest and has a strange affinity with
+the stories of other great moral and spiritual leaders of
+humanity."--_Bookman._
+
+
+
+
+On City Government
+_The American City_
+
+      By DELOS F. WILCOX, Ph.D.
+
+    "In the 'American City' Dr. Wilcox ... has written a book that every
+    thoughtful citizen should read. The problems of the street, the
+    tenement, public utilities, civic education, the three deadly vices,
+    municipal revenue and municipal debt, with all their related and
+    subsidiary problems, are clearly and fully considered."--_Pittsburgh
+    Gazette._
+
+                              _6 + 423 pages, 12mo, cloth, leather back,
+                                           $1.25 net. Citizens' Library_
+
+
+
+
+Great American Cities
+_Their Problems and Their Government_
+
+      By DELOS F. WILCOX, Chief of the Bureau of Franchises, of the
+      Public Service Commission for the first District, New York
+
+    A detailed account of present conditions in the half-dozen largest
+    cities of the country, including Chicago.
+
+                                         _Half leather, 12mo, $1.25 net_
+
+
+
+
+On Industrial Legislation
+_Some Ethical Gains through Legislation_
+
+      By MRS. FLORENCE KELLEY
+
+    The book has grown out of the author's experience as Chief Inspector
+    of Factories in Illinois from 1893 to 1897, as Secretary of the
+    National Consumers' League from 1899 till now, and chiefly as a
+    resident at Hull-House, and later at the Nurses' Settlement, New
+    York.
+
+                                  _Cloth, leather back, 341 pages, 12mo,
+                                           $1.25 net. Citizens' Library_
+
+
+
+
+On Charitable Effort
+_How to Help_
+
+      By MARY CONYNGTON, of the Department of Commerce and Labor,
+      Washington
+
+    Not only is the professional charity worker often in need of advice
+    as to the best methods of investigation, administration, etc., but
+    the non-professional worker, with his zeal unrestrained by special
+    training, is even more emphatically in need of such guidance as this
+    sound and competent book gives.
+
+                                   _New edition, cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net_
+
+
+
+
+The Development of Thrift
+
+      By MARY W. BROWN, Secretary of the Henry Watson Children's Aid
+      Society, Baltimore
+
+    "An excellent little Manual, a study of various agencies, their
+    scope and their educating influences for thrift. It abounds in
+    suggestions of value."--_Chicago Inter-Ocean._
+
+                                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net_
+
+
+
+
+Friendly Visiting among the Poor
+
+      By MARY E. RICHMOND, General Secretary of the Charity Organization
+      Society of Baltimore
+
+    "A small book full of inspiration, yet intensely
+    practical."--CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON.
+
+                                                _Cloth, 16mo, $1.00 net_
+
+
+
+
+The Care of Destitute, Neglected, and Delinquent Children
+
+      By HOMER FOLKS, Ex-Commissioner of Public Charities, New York City
+
+    CONTENTS.--Conditions prevalent at the opening of the Nineteenth
+    Century; Public Care of Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Private
+    Charities for Destitute Children, 1801-1875; Removal of Children
+    from Almshouse; The State School and Placing Out System; The County
+    Children's Home System; The System of Public Support in Private
+    Institutions; The Boarding Out and Placing Out System; Laws and
+    Societies for the Rescue of Neglected Children; Private Charities
+    for Destitute and Neglected Children, 1875-1900; Delinquent
+    Children; Present Tendencies.
+
+                                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net_
+
+
+
+
+Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy
+
+      By JOSEPH LEE, Vice-President of the Massachusetts Civic League
+
+    CONTENTS.--Essence and Limitations of the Subject; Before 1860;
+    Savings and Loans; The Home; Health and Building Laws, Model
+    Tenements; The Setting of the Home; Vacation Schools; Playgrounds
+    for Small Children; Baths and Gymnasiums; Playgrounds for Big Boys;
+    Model Playgrounds; Outings; Boys' Clubs; Industrial Training; For
+    Grown People; Conclusion.
+
+                                                _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                Publishers  64-66 Fifth Avenue  New York
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber's Notes:
+
+  The following changes have been made to the text:
+
+  - In the table introduced as "Street traders and street employees may be
+    classified by occupation as follows:--" Newspaper sellers was written
+    as one word once.
+
+  - In the table detailing the occupation of children in Germany,
+    introduced as "Seven divisions of these children were made
+    according to occupation ..." the word Austragedienste was wrongly
+    hyphenated.
+
+  - In the TABLE E. HOURS AND EARNINGS OF STREET WORKERS a header
+    "OCCUPATIONS" was missing (compared to TABLE D before), and was added.
+
+  - In Footnote [172] the title of Mr. Ferrette's work was misspelled as
+    "Manuel de Legislation Industrielle", and was changed to "Manuel de
+    legislation industrielle" in accordance with its original title.
+
+  - In the Index entry "Great Britain ... Interdepartmental Committee of
+    1902 on Ireland ..." the reference to page 294 was changed to page 204.
+
+  The following changes have been made to the formatting and layout:
+
+  - Tables D to G in Chapter VII, and some tables in Annex C were changed
+    in layout to enable readability in plain text.
+
+  - In "Reverse Side of Milwaukee Newsboy Investigation Card": Original
+    uses check mark, rendered here as [X].
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Child Labor in City Streets, by
+Edward Nicholas Clopper
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILD LABOR IN CITY STREETS ***
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