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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> +<p>Title: The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume III (of 3)</p> +<p>Author: Leonard Williams</p> +<p>Release Date: December 10, 2013 [eBook #44393]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN, VOLUME III (OF 3)***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3 class="pg">E-text prepared by<br /> + Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann, Joseph Cooper,<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.<br /> + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm">Volume I</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm<br /> + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm">Volume II</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm + <a href=""> + </a> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="345" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a> + <p class="caption">"THE GRAPE-GATHERERS"<br /> + (<i>Tapestry from Cartoon by Goya. El Escorial</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;"><br /><br />The World of Art Series</span></p> + +<h1>The Arts and Crafts<br /> +of Older Spain</h1> + +<p class="title">BY<br /> + +<span style="font-size: 150%;">LEONARD WILLIAMS</span><br /> + +<span class="smcap">Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy, of<br /> +the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the<br /> +Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts; Author<br /> +Of “The Land of the Dons”; “Toledo and<br /> +Madrid”; “Granada,” etc.</span><br /><br /> + +<i>IN THREE VOLUMES, ILLUSTRATED</i><br /><br /> + +<span style="font-size: 125%;">VOLUME III</span><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_03.jpg" width="100" height="99" + alt="title-symbol" + title="title-symbol" /> +</div> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;">CHICAGO<br /> +A. C. McCLURG & CO.</span><br /> +EDINBURGH: T. N. FOULIS<br /> +1908<br /><br /><br /> +AMERICAN EDITION<br /> +Published October 10, 1908</p> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME THREE</h2> + +<h3>TEXTILE FABRICS</h3> + +<table summary="TOC" cellpadding="4"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="page">PAGES</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#INTRODUCTION"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></a></td> + <td class="page">1–38</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#SPANISH_SILK"><span class="smcap">Spanish Silk</span></a></td> + <td class="page">38–105</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#CLOTHS_AND_WOOLLENS"><span class="smcap">Cloths and Woollens</span></a></td> + <td class="page">105–125</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#EMBROIDERY"><span class="smcap">Embroidery</span></a></td> + <td class="page">125–137</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#TAPESTRY"><span class="smcap">Tapestry</span></a></td> + <td class="page">137–159</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#LACE"><span class="smcap">Lace</span></a></td> + <td class="page">159–175</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><hr class="hr65" /></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="#APPENDICES"><span class="smcap">Appendices</span></a></td> + <td class="page">177–258</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY"><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span></a></td> + <td class="page">259–268</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Index</span></a></td> + <td class="page">271–282</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> + +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><i>VOLUME THREE</i></p> + +<table summary="LOI" cellpadding="2"> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum"> </td> + <td class="tdc">TEXTILE FABRICS</td> + <td class="page"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">PLATE</td> + <td class="chaptitle"> </td> + <td class="page">PAGE</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum"> </td> + <td class="chaptitle">“The Grape-Gatherers”; Tapestry from Cartoon by Goya; El Escorial</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">I.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The “Banner of Las Navas”; Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_22.jpg">22</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">II.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Fragment of the Burial Mantle of Ferdinand the Third; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_26.jpg">26</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">III.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">King Alfonso the Learned; from “The Book of Chess,” MS. in the Escorial Library</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_28.jpg">28</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">IV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Velvet; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1500</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_30.jpg">30</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">V.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The Tunic of Boabdil el Chico; National Museum of Artillery, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_36.jpg">36</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">VI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The “Banner of Saint Ferdinand”; Seville Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_40.jpg">40</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">VII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Velvet made at Granada</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_56.jpg">56</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">VIII.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></td> + <td class="chaptitle">The Daughters of Philip the Second; Prado Gallery, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_98.jpg">98</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">IX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Charra</i> or Peasant Woman of Salamanca, in the year 1777</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_102.jpg">102</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">X.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Priest's Robe; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1500</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_118.jpg">118</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Priest's Robe; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1500</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_120.jpg">120</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Chasuble; Palencia Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_122.jpg">122</a></td> + </tr> <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Case of Processional Cross; Toledo Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_124.jpg">124</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XIV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Front</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_126.jpg">126</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Front; Toledo Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_128.jpg">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XVI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Front; Palencia Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_130.jpg">130</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XVII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Fronts; Palencia Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_132.jpg">132</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XVIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Costume of Woman of the Balearic Islands; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1810</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_134.jpg">134</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XIX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The “Genesis Tapestry”; Gerona Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_138.jpg">138</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle"><i>Tapiz</i> of Crimson Velvet worked in gold tissue; Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_144.jpg">144</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">“The Spinners,” by Velazquez; Prado Gallery, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_148.jpg">148</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Tapestry made at Brussels from Granada Silk</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_150.jpg">150</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">“A Promenade in Andalusia”; Cartoon for Tapestry, by Goya</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_152.jpg">152</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXIV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Tapestry; Arras-Work, from Italian Cartoons; Zamora Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_156.jpg">156</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXV.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></td> + <td class="chaptitle">Flemish Tapestry; Collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_158.jpg">158</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXVI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The Marchioness of La Solana, by Goya</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_160.jpg">160</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXVII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">A Spanish <i>Maja</i>; <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1777</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_162.jpg">162</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXVIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Maja</i>, by Goya</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_164.jpg">164</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXIX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">A Lady of Soria; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1810</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_166.jpg">166</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Handkerchief of Catalan Lace, presented to Queen Victoria of Spain on her marriage</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_168.jpg">168</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXXI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Curtain of Spanish Lace; Point and Pillow Work, modern</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_170.jpg">170</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXXII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Point Lace Fan, of Mudejar Design, modern</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_172.jpg">172</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<h2>TEXTILE FABRICS</h2> + +<h3><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></h3> + +<p>Our earliest intelligence respecting textile fabrics +of old Spain derives almost exclusively from +Moorish sources, and shows, together with the +silence of Saint Isidore, that until the subjugation +of the Visigoths, the occupants of the Peninsula +attached no great importance to this industry. +Under the Moors, the south and east of Spain +grew rapidly famous for the manufacture of all +kinds of textile stuffs, and in particular those of +silk. The origin of these silks, or of the most +luxurious and artistic of them, may be traced to +Almería. According to Al-Makkari, what made +this Andalusian capital superior to all other cities +of the world was her “various manufactures of +silks and other dress materials, such as the <i>dibaj</i>, +a silken fabric of many colours, surpassing, both +in quality and durability, all other products made +elsewhere, and also the <i>tiraz</i>, a costly stuff whereon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +are inscribed the names of sultans, princes, and +other personages, and for making which there used +to be no fewer than eight hundred looms. Inferior +fabrics were the <i>holol</i> (a kind of striped silk), and +brocades woven upon a thousand looms, while as +many more were employed continually in making +the scarlet stuffs called <i>iskalaton</i>. Another +thousand produced the robes called <i>al jorjani</i> (or +‘the Georgian’), and yet another thousand the +Isbahani robes, from Isfahan, and yet another +thousand the robes of Atabi. The making of +damask for gay-coloured curtains and turbans for +the women kept busy as many persons as the +articles above-mentioned.”</p> + +<p>Edrisi, a chronicler of the twelfth century, says +of the same capital that she was the principal city +belonging to the Moors in the time of the Moravides. +In fact, she was then a great and prosperous +industrial centre, possessing, together with other +kinds of looms, eight hundred which produced the +fabrics known as <i>holla</i>, <i>debady</i>, <i>siglaton</i>, <i>espahani</i>, +and <i>djordjani</i>, curtains with a flowered decoration, +cloths of a smaller size, and the stuffs which were +denominated <i>attabi</i> and <i>mi djar</i>.</p> + +<p>A similar notice is contained in the <i>Chronicle +of Rassis the Moor</i>. Referring to the end of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +tenth century, this author wrote that “Almería is +the key of profit and of all prosperity. Within +her walls dwell cunning weavers who produce +in quantities magnificent silken cloths inwoven +with gold thread.” Other important centres of +this trade and craft were Málaga, Baeza, Alicante, +Seville, and Granada. Rassis wrote of Málaga: +“She has a fertile territory, wherein is made +the finest <i>sirgo</i> in the world. From here they +trade in it with every part of Spain. Here too +is made the finest of all linens, and that which the +women best esteem.” Of Baeza he wrote: “She +manufactures excellent and famous silken cloths +of the kind which are called <i>tapetes</i>”; and of +Alicante, “This city lies in the Sierra de Benalcatil, +which in its turn is situated in the midst of +other ranges containing prosperous towns where +silken cloths of finest quality were made in other +days; and the weavers of these cloths were skilled +exceedingly.”</p> + +<p>Málaga is described by the Cordovese historian +Ash Shakandi (thirteenth century) as “famous for +its manufactures of silks of every colour and design, +some of them so costly that a suit is sold for +thousands; such are the brocades of beautiful +pattern, inwoven with the names of caliphs, emirs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +and other wealthy personages…. As at Málaga +and Almería, there are at Murcia several manufactories +of silken cloth called <i>al washiu thalathat</i>, +or ‘the variegated.’ This town is also celebrated +for the carpets called <i>tantili</i>, which are exported +to all countries of the east and west, as well as for +a sort of bright-coloured mat with which the +Murcians cover the walls of their houses.”</p> + +<p>The ancient Illiberia or Illiberis, believed to +have been situated not far from where is nowadays +Granada, is described in Rassis' chronicle as “a +city great and flourishing by reason of the quantity +of silk that she exports to every part of Spain. +She lies at sixty thousand paces distance from, +and on the southward side of Cordova, and six +thousand paces from, and to the north of the +Frozen Sierra” (<i>i.e.</i> the Sierra Nevada).</p> + +<p>Another chronicle—that of El Nubiense, who +visited Spain towards the twelfth century—states +that in the kingdom of Jaen alone were six +hundred towns which produced and carried on a +trade in silk.</p> + +<p>The foregoing extracts show that under the +Spanish Moors the manufacture of textile fabrics +attained in mediæval times a very great importance. +It is also certain that during the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +period the textile fabrics in use among the Christian +Spaniards were strongly and continually influenced, +and even to a large extent produced, by Spanish +Moors, while, as the Moorish cities fell into the +power of the enemy, the Christian rulers encouraged +their newly-sworn Mohammedan lieges +to prosecute this industry with unabated zeal. A +privilege is extant which was granted by Jayme +the Conqueror in the year 1273, to a Moor named +Ali and his sons Mohammed and Bocaron, empowering +these artificers to manufacture silk and +cloth of gold at Jativa, in the kingdom of +Valencia. The fabrics produced by Mussulman +weavers such as these, found ready purchase with +the wealthier classes of the Christian Spaniards. +The dress and other materials thus elaborated +possessed a great variety of names, whose meaning +cannot always be determined at the present +day. Among the fabrics most in vogue were +those denominated <i>samit</i> (also <i>xamed</i> or <i>examitum</i>), +<i>ciclaton</i>, <i>tabis</i> or <i>atabi</i>, <i>zarzahan</i>, <i>fustian</i> or +<i>fustan</i>, <i>cendal</i> or <i>sendat</i>, <i>camelote</i> (also <i>chamelote</i> +or <i>xamellot</i>), <i>drap imperial</i>, and <i>bougran</i> (also +<i>bouckram</i>, <i>buckram</i>), stated by Dr Bock to be +derived from Bokhara, and which was of a quality +far superior to the buckram of more modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +times. These Saracenic or semi-Saracenic stuffs +were manufactured from an early period, but +modern experts are not agreed as to their character. +Miquel y Badía and some other authorities +believe that <i>samit</i> was a costly material which was +sometimes coloured green, and shot with gold or +silver thread. Others believe it to have been a +kind of velvet. In either case it is known to have +been used for shrouding the bodies of the wealthy. +<i>Ciclaton</i> was a strong though flexible material used +for robes and also for wall-hangings. <i>Tabis</i> or +<i>atabi</i> was a kind of taffeta, and probably consisted, +as a general rule, of silk, though sometimes it +was mixed with cotton. <i>Chamelot</i> was an oriental +fabric of rich silk, coloured white, black, or grey. +It is mentioned, together with velvets, taffetas, +and <i>cendal</i> or <i>sendat</i> (another silken stuff) in a law +passed by the Cortes of Monzón in 1375, and +which is quoted in Capmany's <i>Memorias</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Fustian +is thought to have been first produced in Egypt. +It was woven of thread or cotton, and was +largely used in England from at least as early as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +the twelfth century. From about the same time +buckram was also popular in northern countries.</p> + +<p>Early in the fourteenth century a number of +other costly stuffs began to be made in various +quarters of the civilized world, including Spain. +Among these fabrics were <i>zatonin</i> or <i>zatony</i> +(perhaps the same as <i>zetani</i>, <i>aceituni</i>, or <i>aceytoni</i>—that +is, satin), several kinds of <i>drap d'aur</i> or cloth +of gold, several kinds of velvet, <i>sarga</i> or serge, +and <i>camocas</i>, which is stated by Miquel y Badía +to have been a strong material used for lining +curtains, coats of mail, etc. The same writer +observes that the stuff called by the name <i>zatonin</i> +and its variations is the same as the Castilian raso +and the Catalan <i>setí</i> or <i>satí</i>, a favourite though +expensive and luxurious fabric in the fourteenth +and succeeding centuries. Under the name +<i>aceytoni</i> it is mentioned in a work in the Catalan +language titled <i>Croniques d'Espanya</i>, by Pedro +Miguel Carbonell, in which we read that at +the coronation of Don Martin of Aragon this +monarch's consort, Doña María, was “dressed in +white cloth of gold and a long mantle … and +rode upon a white horse covered with trappings +of white <i>aceytoni</i>.”</p> + +<p>Miquel y Badía has discovered the names of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +other fabrics which are known from documentary +evidence to have been used in older Spain, and +which were called <i>aducar</i>, <i>alama</i>, <i>tela de nacar</i>, +<i>primavera</i> or <i>primavert</i>, <i>almexia</i>, <i>picote</i>, and +<i>velillo</i>. It is probable that <i>alama</i> and <i>tela de +nacar</i> had silver interwoven with their texture. +The <i>primavera</i> or “spring fabric” was so named +from the flowers which adorned it. <i>Almexía</i> is +mentioned in the <i>Chronicle of the Cid</i>. It was a +costly and elaborate stuff, and is believed by +Miquel to have taken its title from the city of +Almería. <i>Picote</i> was a kind of satin manufactured +in the island of Majorca, and <i>velillo</i> a thin, delicate +fabric decorated with flowers and with silver thread.</p> + +<p>The devices on all these stuffs were very varied. +Prominent types among them were the <i>pallia +rotata</i>, containing circles which are commonly combined +with other ornament, the <i>pallia aquilinata</i>, +in which the dominant motive was the eagle, and +the <i>pallia leonata</i>, in which it was the lion. Other +beasts, birds, and monsters were also figured with +great frequency, such as griffins, peacocks, swans, +crows, bulls, tigers, or dogs; but the emblem +most in favour, especially throughout the tenth, +eleventh, and twelfth centuries, was the eagle, +owing to the numerous and illustrious qualities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +attributed to it, such as majesty, victory, valour, +and good omen. These creatures, too, were +frequently represented face to face or back to +back, in pairs; nor were they so disposed in textile +fabrics only, but on ivory, wood, or silver caskets, +and on numerous other objects, as well as on the +painted friezes of a place of worship.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>The colours of these fabrics also varied very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +greatly. That which was most admired was probably +red, crimson, or carmine, used by preference +as a ground, with the pattern inwoven or super-woven +in gold, silver, or otherwise. Velvets, too, +were not invariably in monochrome, but would contain +two or three colours such as purple, crimson, +blue, or yellow, besides gold and silver. Miquel +y Badía mentions a magnificent velvet pluvial in +gold and three colours, belonging to a church in +Cataluña. The following observations are by the +same authority, who himself possesses a valuable +collection of early textile fabrics, many of which +are Spanish. “The same prevailing colours are +found in the Mudejar textile fabrics as in those +of the Spanish Moors—the same ground of red +inclining to carmine, of dark blue, or of bluish +green, with a pattern in yellow, green, blue, or +red, according to the colour which combines with +it. I have seen copies of Mudejar stuffs in which +there is no white, because this was wanting in the +fragments which the copying artist had before +him. And it is a fact that from some cause, +which we cannot now determine, white silk is that +which disappears soonest from among the textile +fabrics of the Spanish Moors and Mudejares, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +that by far the greater part of them contain no +white at all, or only traces of it.”</p> + +<p>In Spain these handsome stuffs were used by all +the wealthier classes, and some idea of their prevalence +and popularity may be formed from the +voluminous mass of sumptuary laws which deal +with them at almost every stage of Spanish history. +Thus, an edict of Jayme the First of Aragon +established, in the year 1234, that neither the +monarch nor any of his subjects were to decorate +their clothes with gold and silver, or fasten their +cloaks with gold or silver clasps. The <i>Ordenamiento</i> +of Alfonso the Tenth, subscribed at Seville, +February 27th, 1256, provides that no woman is +to carry <i>aljofar</i>-work, trim her dress with gold or +silver, or wear a <i>toca</i> decorated with those metals, +but only a plain white one, the price of which is +not to exceed three <i>maravedis</i>. It is also provided +by this edict that on the celebration of a +wedding, the cost of the bridal clothes must not +exceed sixty <i>maravedis</i>, nor may the number of +guests who sit down to the marriage banquet +exceed five women and five men, besides the +witnesses of the ceremony and relatives of the +bride and bridegroom. This absurd law was so +extensively neglected that two years later the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +Cortes of Valladolid took up the matter afresh, +and even resolved that the expenses of the king's +table, without the cost of his invited guests, were +not to exceed a daily total of a hundred and fifty +<i>maravedis</i>.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1286 the Council of Cordova decreed +that knights and squires, upon the celebration of +their marriage, were not to present their brides +with more than two dresses, one of these to be of +scarlet, without trimming of ermine or grey fur, or +decoration of gold, silver, or <i>aljofar</i>. A law of +Alfonso the Eleventh, dated May 6th, 1338, proclaimed +that the women of the upper classes were +not to clothe themselves in any silken fabric decorated +with gold thread. Similar restrictions +were laid upon the other sex. “No man, whatever +be his condition (excepting only Us, the +King), shall wear cloth of gold, or silk, or any +stuff adorned with gold lace, <i>aljofar</i>, or any other +trimming, or with enamel: only his cloak may +bear <i>aljofar</i> pearl-work, or fillets without pearls.” +Other dispositions signed by the same monarch +show that the Spaniards of his time were in the +habit of wearing costly cloth adorned with gold +and silver, pearls, gold buttons, enamel, and other +ornament, while even the squires wore furs and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +gilded shoes. The <i>ricos-hombres</i> loaded their +saddles with gold and with <i>aljofar</i>-work, and their +wives were licensed to bear on each of their +dresses the same <i>aljofar</i>-work or strings of tiny +pearls, to the value of four thousand <i>maravedis</i>.</p> + +<p>Provisions of the same tenor are contained in +the prolix sumptuary pragmatic of Pedro the +Cruel, signed in the year 1351 at Valladolid, as +well as in that of Juan the First, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1385, which +ordained, together with other vexatious prohibitions, +that “neither man nor woman, whatever be +their condition or estate, shall wear cloth of gold +or any silk-stuff, gold or silver <i>aljofar</i>, or other +precious stones, excepting the Infante and Infantas, +who may wear whatever pleases them.”</p> + +<p>The extravagance of Isabella the Catholic in +dress and personal adornment generally, was illustrated +in an earlier chapter of this work. A +further instance is recorded by Clemencin. According +to this chronicler, in 1476 and 1477, +upon her reception at Alcalá of two embassies +from France, the queen was dressed in a magnificent +robe, which drew upon her a sharp rebuke +from her confessor, the virtuous and austere +Hernando de Talavera. From this charge Isabella +defended herself with more spirit than truthfulness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +“Neither myself nor my ladies,” she +wrote in her letter of reply, “were dressed in new +apparel. All that I wore on this occasion I had +already worn in Aragon, and the French themselves +had seen me wearing it. I only used one +robe at all, and that of silk with three marks +of gold, the plainest I could find: in this was all +my festival. I say this much in that my clothing +was not new; nor did we deem that error could +dwell therein.”<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>Although their own extravagance is past all +question, on September 30th, 1499, Ferdinand +and his consort issued a proclamation at Granada, +in which it was commanded that “no persons shall +wear clothing of brocade, or silk, or silk <i>chamelote</i>, +or <i>zarzahan</i>, or taffeta, or carry linings of the same +upon the trappings of their horses, or upon hoods, +or the straps and scabbards of their swords, or +bits, or saddles, or <i>alcorques</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> … nor shall they +wear embroidered silk-stuffs decorated with gold +plates, whether such gold be drawn or hammered, +spun to a thread, or interwoven with the fabric.”</p> + +<p>These prohibitions, or others of their import,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +were ratified by Doña Juana at the Cortes of +Burgos, and, in 1533, by Charles the Fifth at +Valladolid. In 1551 the Emperor again prohibited +“all brocaded stuffs, or gold or silver cloth, +whether embroidered or enriched with gold or +silver thread, or bound with cord or edging of +the same;” and a royal edict of January 12th, +1611, forbade the wearing of brocade and every +other costly stuff to all except the clergy and the +military.</p> + +<p>The clergy, indeed, had always been notorious +for extravagance, and not a few of all these +sumptuary laws are aimed specifically at them. +In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1228 the Council of Valladolid prohibited +the use by priests of sleeved robes, or gilded +saddles, bits, spurs, or poitrels. In 1267 the +Synod of León repeated these prohibitions, further +insisting that the garments of the clergy, besides +being sleeveless, were not to be red or green, and +were to have a moderate length (“<i>non muy largas, +non muy cortas</i>”), and that their cloaks were not +to fasten with a clasp or cord; these regulations +to be rigidly adhered to <i>en sennal de honestidat</i>—“as +a sign of honesty.”</p> + +<p>We also know that at this time (thirteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +century) the shirts of many of the wealthier +Spaniards were woven of finest linen imported from +the East, embroidered and picked out with gold and +silver thread, and that the clergy were at least the +equals of the laity in their craze for costly clothing. +In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1273, an inventory was made of the effects +belonging to Don Gonzalo Palomeque, on his +election to the bishopric of Cuenca. It mentions +<i>almadraques</i> and Murcian <i>tapetes</i>, <i>carpitas viadas</i> +from Tlemcen, fine Murcian blankets (<i>alhamares</i>), +silk <i>xamedes</i>, Murcian matting for covering walls +and daïses (“<i>para paret et para estrado</i>”), and +stuffs from Syria. Another inventory, that of Don +Gonzalo Gudiel, archbishop of Toledo, is dated +<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1280, and mentions, as included with his +property, quantities of oriental fabrics which are +designated by the general name <i>tartaricas</i>.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> +Among them were “unus pannus operatus ad +aves de auro et campus de serica viridi, item unus +alius pannus tartaricus cum campo de seta alba et +vite aurea, item unus pannus tartaricus de seta<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +rubea cum pinis aureis, item unus pannus tartaricus +de seta viridi.”<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>A number of mediæval textile fabrics, some in +fragments, some intact, have been preserved in +Spanish private collections or museums. It is, +however, seldom easy to determine whether they +were made in this Peninsula, or whether in Sicily, +Byzantium, Venice, or the East. Among the +most remarkable of all these interesting specimens +are, a strip which was extracted from the +mausoleum of a Spanish bishop, Don Bernardo +Calbó, a native of Vich in Cataluña, and which is +now in the museum of that town; other fragments +in the same collection, including one of <i>holosericum</i> +or pure silk, which was formerly in the neighbouring +church of San Juan de las Abadesas, and is +commonly known as the <i>pallium</i> or altar front “of +the witches” (owing to certain beasts or monsters +figuring in the design), a Moorish <i>tiraz</i>, now in +the Academy of History at Madrid, the celebrated +Moorish “banner of the battle of Las +Navas,” now in the Monastery of Santa María la +Real de las Huelgas at Burgos, the banner (also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +Moorish) of the battle of the River Salado, the +chasubles “of the Constable” and of Chiriana, preserved +respectively at Burgos and at Caravaca, +a fragment, preserved in the Royal Armoury at +Madrid, of the shroud of Ferdinand the Third, and +the Moorish clothing of the son of the same King +Ferdinand, the Infante Don Felipe, and of Felipe's +second wife, Doña Leonor Ruiz de Castro.</p> + +<p>The strip of woven material found in the +sepulchre of Bishop Calbó, who is said to have +accompanied Don Jayme the Conqueror in the +conquest of Valencia (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1238), is described by +Miquel y Badía as belonging to the class denominated +<i>pallia rotata</i>—that is, with circles forming +part of their design,—and dates most probably +from the twelfth century; but it is impossible to +say whether it was manufactured in the East, or +whether at Valencia or some other Spanish town. +The same remark applies to other fragments which +are also, as I stated, in the Vich Museum. The +one discovered in the tomb of Bishop Calbó contains, +coloured in green, grey, and black upon a +carmine ground, a decorative scheme of circles, +flowers, and gryphons or other monsters in pairs, +<i>affrontés</i>, and also, within the circles, the figure of +a man grappling with two lions, tigers, dogs, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +other beasts, and who is believed to represent +Samson or Daniel—more probably the latter. +Miquel y Badía points out that in this fragment +the figure of the man recalls Egyptian art, suggested +by his curious head-dress, and by the +crossing of his clothes upon his breast.</p> + +<p>Another textile fragment in the same collection +is coloured black, red, and grey upon a yellowish +ground. It is decorated with long-tailed birds +resembling peacocks, and with sphinxes which fill +the circles or medallions. A third fragment, also +in the Vich Museum, belongs to the type of <i>pallia +cum aquilis et bestiolis</i>. The design consists of a +double-headed eagle with half-extended wings, +holding in the claws of either foot some kind of +quadruped—perhaps a bull. The colour of the +ground resembles carmine, and on it the design is +wrought in greenish black—that may have been +originally green—relieved at intervals with yellow.</p> + +<p>The “witches'” <i>pallium</i> in the same collection +is decorated with the series of extraordinary +beasts or monsters that have won for it this title +with the vulgar, depicted in yellow, white, black, +and dark green upon a red ground. Miquel +believes this fabric to proceed from Byzantium, +and to date from not much earlier than the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +eleventh century. The devices are disposed in +two rows, the lower containing peacocks <i>affrontés</i>, +and the upper a series of fantastic monsters, each +of which possesses a head, two bodies, and four +feet—the head being semi-human, semi-bestial, the +double body that of a bird, and the claws those +of a lion or some other formidable quadruped.</p> + +<p>The Royal Academy of History at Madrid +possesses a fragment of the costly fabric known as +<i>tiraz</i>, an eastern word (corrupted by the Spaniards +into <i>taracea</i>, <i>i.e.</i> embroidery on clothing), which +means the bordering for a royal robe. Such +bordering, which contained inscriptions, or the +sultan's name, or both together, is said to have +been first used in Spain by Abderrahman the +Second, who ruled from <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 825 to 852. “The +caliphs of Cordova,” says Riaño, “had a place set +apart in their palaces where this stuff was kept: +this custom lasted until the eleventh century, when +it disappeared, and was re-established in the thirteenth +century with the kings of Granada.” <i>Tiraz</i>, +in fact, was both produced and stored in special +departments of the Sultan's palaces<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>; or so we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +must infer from the following passage by Ibn-Khaldun. +“The places (<i>almedinas</i>) where these +stuffs were woven were situated within the palaces +of the caliphs, and were known as the ‘pavilions +of the <i>tiraz</i>.’ The person at the head of these +workshops was called the superintendent of the +<i>tiraz</i>: he had charge of both the weavers and the +looms, administered the salaries, and looked to the +quality of the work. This post was entrusted by +the princes to one of the foremost officers of their +kingdom, or else to some freedman who thoroughly +deserved their confidence.” The same historian +adds that the manufacture of <i>tiraz</i> was conducted +in Spain in the same manner as in the East +under the dynasty of the Ommeyades. It is, +however, certain that among the Spanish Moors +<i>tiraz</i> was not produced exclusively in royal +factories. Al-Makkari states that in the time of +the Somadies and the Almoravides there were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +looms at Nerja (and possibly at Almería) for +weaving this luxurious fabric, as well as <i>holas</i>, a +fine brocade, heavily embroidered, and adorned +with figures representing the caliphs and other +personages. In the time of the Almoravides +there were at Almería as many as a thousand +factories for making <i>holas</i>.</p> + +<p>The piece of <i>tiraz</i> which belongs to the Spanish +Academy of History measures about a yard and a +half in length by eighteen inches wide. Riaño +describes it as of wool, embroidered in silks with +“seated figures which appear to be a king, a lady, +lions, birds, and quadrupeds”; but after carefully +examining it I cannot but agree with Miquel y +Badía that this fabric is woven throughout of pure +silk, without the slightest trace of hand-embroidery. +It has two borders containing these inscriptions in +Cufic letters: “In the name of God, the clement, +the merciful. (May) the blessing of God and +happiness (be) for the Caliph Iman Abdallah +Hixem, the favoured of God and prince of believers.” +This monarch, second of the name, +reigned at the end of the tenth century and early +in the eleventh, and the <i>tiraz</i> we are noticing was +found in a casket on the altar of a church at San +Esteban de Gormaz, in the province of Soria.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +As Riaño suggests, it was very probably a war +trophy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_22.jpg" width="360" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_22.jpg" id="img_22.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">I<br />THE “BANNER OF LAS NAVAS”<br /> +(<i>Monastery of Santa Maria la Real de las Huelgas, Burgos</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Another most interesting example of Saracenic +textile work is the so-called “banner of Las Navas” +(Plate <a href="#img_22.jpg">i</a>.), which popular tradition affirms to +have been captured (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1212) in the memorable +battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, between the +Almohades and the Spanish Christians. Most +experts now consider that this object is not a +military ensign, but a curtain or some other +hanging for a tent or doorway. The material is +<i>sirgo</i> or silken serge, and both the decoration +and the workmanship are purely Moorish. The +design is rich and intricate throughout, consisting +of scrolls, leaves, stems, and inscriptions from +the Koran, disposed with exquisite effect about +the principal and central motive, formed by a +large eight-pointed star within a circle, and +which contains, so as to form the angles of the +star, eight repetitions of the words in Arabic, “<i>The +Empire</i>.” The dominant colour is carmine, and +the fabric terminates in eight <i>farpas</i> or scallops +with red and yellow edges, and bearing a series +of inscriptions in the African character.</p> + +<p>The “<i>pendon</i> of the Rio Salado,” a trophy which +seems to have really been a war-flag, belongs to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +the cathedral of Toledo. It measures at this day +about nine feet two inches by seven feet four +inches, but is believed to have been originally of a +square form, with scalloped edges. The dominant +colours are red, green, and gold. The decorative +scheme consists of tastefully combined circles and +inscriptions in the Cufic character, and the lower +end concludes in the following sentences, now +rendered incomplete through the loss of nearly +two feet of the material:—“ … the wise, the +victorious, the assiduous, the generous, the sultan, +the caliph, the famous emir of the Muslims and +representative of the Lord of the Universe, Abu-Said +Otsmin, son of our lord and master … +the worshipper of (Allah), the modest, the warlike, +the emir of the Mussulmans Nassir-li-Din +(<i>defender of the law</i>), Abu Yusuf Yacub, son +of Abd-il-Hac. In the Alcázar of Fez (God +bless it. Praised be God), in the Moon of +Moharran of the year twelve and seven hundred” +(712 of the Hegira, or May 9th–June 7th, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> +1312).</p> + +<p>Tastefully disposed in white Cufic characters, +within four rows of circles woven in gold, are the +words which sum the Mussulman religion,—“There +is no God but God: Mahoma is His Messenger”;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +and on other parts of the flag are inscribed these +sentences:—</p> + +<p>“The prophet believes in the purpose for which +he was sent by his Lord, and all the faithful believe +in God, in His angels, in His writings, and in His +messengers. We make no distinction between +any of His messengers. And these declare: +‘We hear and do obey. Pardon us, O Lord.’</p> + +<p>“…. And unto Thee we shall return. God +will not lay on any soul but such a weight as it +can bear; for it or against it shall be the deeds +it may have done. O Lord, chastise not our +forgetfulness or errors. O Lord, lay not upon us +the burden Thou hadst laid on those that were +before us.</p> + +<p>“…. O Lord, burden us not too heavily. +Blot out our faults, and pardon them to us, and +have mercy on us. Thou art our Lord. Grant +us victory over the infidel. There came to us a +glorious prophet that was born among us.</p> + +<p>“On him rests the weight of your faults, and +full of goodness and of clemency he longs ardently +for you to believe. If you should be forsaken, +exclaim, ‘God is sufficient for me. There is no +God but He. I trust in Him, because He is +Lord of the throne that is on high.’”</p> + +<p>Miquel y Badía considers that when it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +intact this object must have measured eleven feet +square. Attention was first drawn to its merit +and antiquity when it was shown at the Exposición +Histórico Europea of 1892.</p> + +<p>The chasubles of Chirinos (Caravaca) and of +the Chapel of the Constable in Burgos cathedral +are both considered to be of Spanish-Moorish +workmanship. The former is woven of silk of +various colours, but without admixture of gold +thread, and bears an inscription in Arabic which +Amador de los Ríos has interpreted as, “Glory to +our Sultan Abul-Hachach.” The same authority +deduces that the fabric dates from the fourteenth +or the fifteenth century—that is, from the time of +the Sultan Abul-Hachach (Yusuf the First) or of +his immediate successors.</p> + +<p>The chasuble preserved at Burgos is also woven +of variegated silk without gold thread, and may +originally have been a <i>tiraz</i>, since it bears, in African +letters, the inscription, “Glory to our lord the +Sultan.” The date is probably the fifteenth or +sixteenth century. Fragments of similar material +are in the collections of Señores Osma and Miquel +y Badía.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_26.jpg" width="500" height="403" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_26.jpg" id="img_26.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">II<br />FRAGMENT OF THE BURIAL MANTLE OF FERDINAND THE THIRD<br /> +(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The object represented in Plate ii. is described<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +in the Catalogue of the Royal Armoury at Madrid +as <i>A fragment of the royal mantle in which was +buried the king and saint, Ferdinand the Third +of Castile</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1217–1252). Gestoso, in the course +of his researches into the history of old Seville, has +found that in the year 1579 Philip the Second +caused an examination to be made at that city of +the remains, enshrined in her cathedral, of Saint +Ferdinand. The body was found “with a ring +with a blue stone on a finger of the right hand, +and wearing sword and spurs.” In 1677 Charles +the Second sent for the ring in question, and +eleven years later a fresh examination was made, +when the mummy of the saint was stated to +be wrapped in “clothing of a stuff the nature of +which cannot now be recognised, but which is +chequered all over with the royal arms of Castile, +and with lions.” A third examination was made +in 1729, when the “holy body of Señor San +Fernando” was reported to be “covered, the +greater part, with a royal mantle, of a stuff +which could not be recognised for its decay: only it +was seen to be embroidered with castles and lions.”</p> + +<p>Probably, therefore, this fragment was taken to +Madrid at the same time as the ring—that is, in +the year 1677. It has an irregular shape, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +measures eighteen inches long by thirteen and a +half in breadth. The material is a woven mixture +of silk and gold thread, and the decoration consists +of castles and lions in gold and red respectively, +upon a ground of carmine and dirty white. Count +Valencia de Don Juan points out that this strip +belonged to the lower end of the mantle, since it +includes a portion of the border, formed by a series +of horizontal stripes, blue, yellow, red, and gold. +The character of the whole fragment is decidedly +Mohammedan, and indicates a Mudejar fabric, +made at Seville in the thirteenth century.</p> + +<p>I find that in the <i>Book of Chess</i> of Alfonso the +Learned (an illuminated Spanish manuscript executed +in the thirteenth century, and now preserved +at the Escorial), Alfonso himself is represented +(Plate <a href="#img_28.jpg">iii</a>.) as wearing a mantle with this very +pattern of lions and castles contained in squares. +Therefore it seems extremely probable, either +that this device was not uncommon on the robes +of Spanish kings, or else that at some time the +body of San Fernando was enveloped in a mantle +belonging to, and which perhaps had been inherited +by, his son.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_28.jpg" width="500" height="292" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_28.jpg" id="img_28.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">III<br />KING ALFONSO THE LEARNED<br /> +(<i>From “The Book of Chess”; MS. in the Escorial Library</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The clothing of the Infante Don Felipe and of +Doña Leonor, his wife, consists of the prince's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +cloak, which is nearly intact, a piece of his <i>aljuba</i>, +his cap, and a strip of silken cloth inwoven with +gold. The latter fragment is thought to have +belonged to the robe of the Infanta.</p> + +<p>These objects, discovered in 1848, in the tomb +of Don Felipe and Doña Leonor, at Villalcazar +de Sirga, near Palencia, are now in the National +Museum. The cloak or mantle is richly wrought +in silk and gold, and bears the word <i>Blessing</i>, +woven in Cufic characters upon the ground. +The <i>aljuba</i> is also of silk and gold, showing a +delicate combination of blue and yellow, and the +style and workmanship of all these fragments are +unmistakably Mohammedan.</p> + +<p>Therefore, in textile crafts, the Spanish Moors +supplied the wants and the caprices both of themselves +and of their enemies the Christians.</p> + +<p>The relationship between certain under-garments +of the two peoples is evident from the very +titles of those garments. Thus, the Spanish +<i>joquejo</i> or <i>soquejo</i>, a scarf for winding round a +woman's body, is obviously derived, or merely +corrupted, from the Arabic <i>jocob</i>; the Spanish +<i>arrede</i> or <i>arrelde</i>, a kind of cloak, from the Arabic +<i>arrida</i>, and the Spanish shirt or tunic for ordinary +wear, called the <i>casot</i>, <i>quesote</i>, or <i>quizote</i> (which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +was sometimes white and sometimes coloured) +from the Arabic <i>al-kuesnat</i>. The <i>Chronicle of +Juan the Second</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1410) tells of a mountain +covered with Moorish troops, “and all of them +had red <i>quesotes</i>.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_30.jpg" width="445" height="450" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_30.jpg" id="img_30.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">IV<br />SPANISH VELVET<br /> +(<i>Red upon Gold Ground. About A.D. 1500</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Among the cities of Moorish Spain, Almería and +Granada were undoubtedly those which produced +the handsomest stuffs—Almería from comparatively +early in the days of Muslim domination, +Granada from a somewhat later time.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Notices +are extant of Christian princes who directly ordered +these materials from Granada; <i>e.g.</i> in 1392 Don +Juan the First caused to be purchased there, as +a present to his daughter on her marriage, “una +cambra de saya orlada ab son dozer e cobertor de +color vermella, blaua, ó vert, ù otro que fuera de +buena vista” (<i>Archives of the Crown of Aragon</i>). +The manufacture of velvet was probably introduced +into Aragon in the reign of Pedro the Fourth. +Excellent silks and cloth of gold were also made +at Málaga, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia. Indeed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +no better source exists for studying the character +of this important industry in older Spain than the +Ordinances of the cities I have just enumerated.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> +We learn from these municipal provisions, most of +which were framed or ratified in the reign of Ferdinand +and Isabella, that the mingling of fine with +base material was forbidden in the strictest terms, +and that the styles and classes of even the luxurious +and elaborate stuffs, which bore an infinite variety +of devices, were very numerous. Thus, there +were satins, taffetas, <i>azeytunis</i>, double and single +velvets (Plates <a href="#img_30.jpg">iv</a>. and <a href="#img_56.jpg">vii</a>.), brocades, and silken +serges; as well as fabrics interwoven with gold and +silver thread, including the <i>gorgoranes</i>, <i>restaños</i>, +<i>sargas</i>, and <i>jergas de filigrana de plata</i>. The +Ordinances of Toledo mention the following fabrics +as manufactured in that city in the reigns of +Ferdinand and Isabella, and of Charles the Fifth:—</p> + +<p>“Stuffs of gold and silver made in the same manner as satin.</p> + +<p>“Satins woven with gold.</p> + +<p>“Satins brocaded with silk and gold, or silver<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +flowers.</p> + +<p>“Silver serges with double filigree.</p> + +<p>“Silver and gold materials, which are made +like <i>gorgoran</i> or serge.</p> + +<p>“Silver and gold stuffs which are made like +taffetas, or in silver with silk flowers.</p> + +<p>“Embroidered stuffs.</p> + +<p>“Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or +<i>berguilla</i>.</p> + +<p>“<i>Lama</i>, cloth of silver, shaded with watering +in silver.</p> + +<p>“Plain silk-stuffs woven with silver or gold, +and called <i>restaño</i>.</p> + +<p>“Silk-stuffs woven with gold or silver, and +called <i>relampagos</i>.</p> + +<p>“Serges woven with gold and silver for church +vestments.</p> + +<p>“Plain filigree serges.</p> + +<p>“<i>Velillo</i> of silver.</p> + +<p>“Satin woven with gold and silver.</p> + +<p>“Brocades of different kinds.</p> + +<p>“Church vestments.</p> + +<p>“Silver <i>primaveras</i>.</p> + +<p>“Serges for church vestments.”</p> + +<p>It was usual for ladies of the Christian-Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +aristocracy to trim their clothes, in Moorish fashion, +with strings of larger pearls or of <i>aljofar</i>-work—a +custom which continued until the extinction +of the House of Austria. The Alburquerque +inventory includes “a <i>marlota</i> of crimson satin, +trimmed with pearls and with <i>aljofar</i>, as to +the hem, the sleeves, and the hood; with twelve +buttons of <i>aljofar</i>-pearls in the front thereof, that +on a time were thirteen; but one is missing <i>which +was ground up for the said Duchess when she was +sick</i>, and six buttons on each sleeve, and the same +where each sleeve meets the shoulder.”</p> + +<p>Early in the seventeenth century, Pinheiro da +Veiga mentions the same fashion at Valladolid:—“At +the sale of the Marchioness of Mondejar, I +saw twelve of her <i>sayas</i> with long trains to them, +and satin bodices, all of embroidered silk, and +some with <i>aljofar</i>-work, besides a number of all +kinds of <i>diabluras</i>.”</p> + +<p>It is stated by Ibn-Said, Al-Makkari, Al-Kattib, +and Ibn-Khaldun, that the Moors of Granada +occasionally adopted Christian clothing, and we +know that the Sultan Mohammed, a contemporary +of Alfonso the Learned of Castile, was assassinated +by Abrahim and Abomet, the sons of Osmin, +because he was so clothed, and because he had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +further violated the precepts of the Koran by +eating at Alfonso's table.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> But as a rule the +costume of the Spanish Moors was almost wholly +that of orientals. Where they were tolerated in a +city under Christian rule, a certain dress was +sometimes forced upon them by their subjugators, +as by the <i>Ordenamiento</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1408) of Doña +Catalina, issued on behalf of her son, Juan the +Second, and which prescribed for the Moorish men +a <i>capuz</i> of yellow cloth with a mark upon it in the +form of a blue half-moon measuring an inch from +point to point, and which was to be worn on the +right shoulder. The garments of the women were +to be similarly marked, on pain of fifty lashes +administered publicly, together with the forfeiture +of all such clothes as lacked this necessary and +humiliating token.</p> + +<p>But where the Spanish Moors were in possession +of the soil, their clothes were similar in most +respects to those of eastern peoples. Detailed +notices of these costumes are furnished us by Ibn-Said +and other writers. Fray Pedro de Alcalá +explains in his <i>Vocabulary</i> that, among the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +Granadinos, the use of one garment in particular +was limited to royalty, or nobles of high rank. +This was the <i>libas</i> (or, in the Granadino dialect, +<i>libis</i>), shaped like roomy breeches, and greatly +resembling the <i>zaragüelles</i> worn until this hour +by the peasants of the Huerta of Valencia. Ibn-Said, +quoted by Al-Makkari (see Gayangos, +<i>History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain</i>, +Vol. I., p. 116) says that the dress of the Moors +of Andalusia was not identical with that of the +Asiatic Mussulman. The former, he declares, +would often discard the turban; especially those +who lived towards the eastern frontier. In the +western region the turban continued to be generally +worn by the upper classes and by the leading +State officials. Thus, at Cordova and Seville +every <i>cadi</i> and <i>alfaqui</i> would wear a turban, while +at Valencia and Murcia even the nobles went +without it, and among the lower classes it had +fallen into absolute disuse. Neither officers nor +soldiers of the army wore the turban.</p> + +<p>We learn from Casiri (<i>Bibl. Arabico-Hispana</i>, +II., p. 258) that the <i>imama</i><a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> was the only form of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +head-dress used by the <i>cheiks</i>, <i>cadis</i>, and <i>ulemas</i> of +Granada. At this capital red was the distinctive +colour of the sovereigns of the Alahmar dynasty, +who took their very title from this circumstance, +the Arabic word <i>alahmar</i> meaning “red.” The +distinctive colour of the Nasrite sultans was purple, +which was replaced by black in time of mourning. +In this last fashion the sultans were probably +influenced by the Christian usage, for Ibn-Khaldun +remarks that black was not a colour approved of +by the orientals, who considered it to be related +with the spirits of evil. However this may be, +the manuscript <i>History of the House of Cordova</i> +quoted by Eguilaz Yanguas, says that when +Boabdil el Chico entered that city as a prisoner, +“the captive monarch was dressed in black velvet, +in token of his adverse fortune and defeat. He +rode a richly caparisoned charger, whose coat was +black and glossy.”</p> + +<p>The Moors regarded green or white as pleasant +and well-omened colours, symbolic of the angels +and of all good fortune. Perhaps this preference +was suggested to them by the cool oasis in the +desert. Nevertheless, when Ibn-Hud became ruler +of Andalusia, his shields and banners were black, +as well as his costume. Black, too, was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +colour adopted by the Abbaside Sultans, to whom +Ibn-Hud was subject. Under the Beni-Nasr and +Beni-Alahmar, this gloomy hue was changed, as +we have seen, to purple or to scarlet, though black +continued to be used in sign of mourning.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_36.jpg" width="393" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_36.jpg" id="img_36.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">V<br />THE TUNIC OF BOABDIL EL CHICO<br /> +(<i>National Museum of Artillery, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The chronicle says that Abu-Said, “the Red,” +who was assassinated at Tablada, under the walls +of Seville, by Pedro the Cruel, was clothed in +scarlet at the time of that atrocious deed. Boabdil +was also clothed in red at the battle of Lucena. +The <i>History of the House of Cordova</i>, from which +I have already quoted, says: “Il était armé d'une +forte cuirasse à clous dorés, doublée de velours +<i>cramoisi</i>, d'un morion teint de <i>grenat</i> et doré…. +Sur sa cuirasse était passé un caban de brocart +et de velours cramoisi” (Plate <a href="#img_36.jpg">v</a>.). Eguilaz +quotes a further passage from Hurtado de Mendoza, +to prove that red continued to be the official +colour of the Moorish rulers of Granada; for when +the Moriscos had risen in the Alpujarra, and met +together to invest their leaders, Aben-Abu and +Aben-Humeya, with the insignia of royalty, they +clothed the former in a red costume and the latter +in purple, “passing about his neck and shoulders +a red token in the form of a scarf.”<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> + +<p>As I remarked in speaking of the <i>tiraz</i>, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +clothing of the Moorish kings of Spain was of +the richest quality obtainable, massively wrought, +embroidered in colours and in gold, and bearing +“sometimes a prince's name, sometimes his device +or motto, or even a portrait of himself embroidered +on the right breast of his <i>caban</i> or robe, thus +following the fashion of the monarchs of Assyria +and Persia.”</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> “Perco con los draps d'or é d'argent, é de seda axi brocats d'or +é d'argent con altres é velluts, xamelots, tafetanes, é sendats se usen +molt de vestir en lo dit Principat d'alguna generalitat ne dret no y +sia posat, mes solament vi liners per liura per la entrada.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> “We have seen many instances of such opposed animals and +birds on the metal-work and carving of the thirteenth century, and +there is no doubt that the design is much older than Mohammedan +times, and goes back to the productions of the old artists of +Mesopotamia and Persia. We read in Quintus Curtius of robes +worn by Persian satraps, adorned with birds beak to beak—<i>aurei +accipitres veluti rostri in se irruerunt pallam adornabant</i>. Plautus +mentions Alexandrian carpets ornamented with beasts: <i>Alexandrina +belluata conchyliata tapetia</i>. There is indeed reason to believe that +the notion of such pairs of birds or beasts may have originated with +the weavers of ancient Persia, and have been borrowed from them +by the engravers of metal-work; for the advantage of such double +figures would be specially obvious to a weaver. The symmetrical +repetition of the figure of the bird or animal, reversed, saved both +labour and elaboration of the loom. The old weavers, not yet +masters of mechanical improvements, were obliged to work their +warp up and down by means of strings, and the larger the design +the more numerous became these strings and the more complicated +the loom. Hence, to be able to repeat the pattern in reverse was a +considerable economy of labour, and could be effected very simply +on a loom constructed to work <i>à pointe et à reverse</i>. Examples of +such repetitions of patterns, especially of symmetrical pairs of animals +within circles, are common in Byzantine and Sassanian woven work, +and the Saracens followed these models.”—Stanley Lane-Poole, +<i>The Art of the Saracens in Egypt</i>, p. 288.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Elogio de la Reina Católica</i>, p. 374.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> These are defined by the Count of Clonard as “a kind of clog +(<i>chapín</i>) with a cork sole, and which was introduced by the Moors +under the name <i>al-kork</i>.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Specifically, <i>tartari</i> was a costly fabric, heavily embroidered. +Ducange considers that it came, or came originally, from Tartary. +We read of it twice in the <i>Chronicle of the Cid</i>, and again, in the +<i>Chronicle of Ferdinand the Fourth</i>:—“tiraron los paños de +marhega que tenia vestidos por su padre é vistiéronle unos paños +nobles de tartari.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Quoted by Fernandez y Gonzalez, <i>Mudejares de Castilla</i>, p. 231, +from the originals in the Archiepiscopal Library of Toledo.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> “An interesting parallel to the royal silk factory, or Dār-et-tirāz +of Kay-Kubād, and to that of the Fātimy Khalif at Tinnīs, is found +in the similar institution at Palermo, which owed its foundation to +the Kelby Amīrs who ruled Sicily as vassals of the Fātimis in +the ninth and tenth centuries, though it maintained its special +character and excellence of work under the Norman kings. The +factory was in the palace, and the weavers were Mohammedans, as +indeed is obvious from a glance at the famous silk cloth preserved +at Vienna, and called the “Mantle of Nürnberg,” where a long +Arabic inscription testifies to the hands that made it, by order of +King Roger, in the year of the Hijra 528, or <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1133.”—Stanley +Lane-Poole, <i>The Art of the Saracens in Egypt</i>, p. 289.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The Alburquerque inventory mentions, in 1560, “two Almería +sheets, one with green and purple edging, and the other with white +and red”; also “two <i>short</i> holland shirts for sleeping in at night.” +Commenting on the word <i>short</i>, Señor de la Torre de Trassierra +aptly recalls the thrifty proverb of the Spaniards,—“A shirt which +reaches below the navel is so much linen wasted.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See particularly <i>Las Ordenanzas de los tejedores de seda +de Sevilla</i> (officially proclaimed on March 2nd, 1502), and also +<i>Las Ordenanzas para el buen régimen y gobierno de la muy +noble, muy leal, é imperial cuidad de Toledo</i>. (<i>Tit.</i> cxxxv: “silk-weavers.”)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> On the other hand, Rosmithal recorded in his narrative of a tour +of Spain that Henry the Second of Castile affected the costume of +the Mohammedans.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> This was a large form of turban. In the well-known painting +in the Hall of Justice of the Alhambra, the head-dress is the <i>aharim</i> +or <i>almaizar</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Eguilaz Yanguas, <i>Les Peintures de l'Alhambra</i>.</p></div> +</div> + +<h3><a name="SPANISH_SILK" id="SPANISH_SILK">SPANISH SILK</a></h3> + +<p>A very fair idea of the magnitude of the craft +and trade of Spanish silk in bygone epochs may +be formed by tracing chronologically the production +and treatment of the raw material in +various parts of the Peninsula. During the +centuries of Moorish rule, Spain's principal silk-producing +centre was the kingdom of Granada, +which then embraced a large extent of coast, +together with Málaga and other thriving ports. +In proof of this, and in his interesting memorial +on the silk factories of Seville,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Ulloa quotes +old Spanish ordinances of the weavers, stating +that quantities of this substance were exported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +from “tierra de Moros” for use by Christian +craftsmen, and also the <i>Chronology of the Kings +of Granada</i>, concluded by Al-Khattib in the year +1364. A fragment of this chronicle is preserved +at the Escorial, and states, in the well-known +version of Casiri, that the silk produced at +Granada was both abundant and of excellent +quality, surpassing even the Assyrian.</p> + +<p>The growing of mulberry trees and rearing +of silkworms was also busily pursued in the +kingdom of Aragon, which formerly included +Cataluña, Valencia, and the Balearic Islands. +Hence, though somewhat gradually, it seems to +have spread to Seville. In the ordinances of this +town relating to her weavers of silks and velvets, +and which are dated 1492, it is stated that her +<i>oficiales de texer sedas</i> were so few that, as a +stimulus to augment their number, all who wished +might join them in the practice of this craft +without examination. Between that year and +1502 they evidently multiplied, since subjects of +examination of no easy character are formulated +in the ordinances of this later date, examined and +confirmed by Ferdinand and Isabella. Nevertheless, +it is impossible to credit the assertion of some +authors that by the year 1519 Seville possessed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +no less than sixteen thousand looms, affording +occupation to one hundred and fifty thousand +persons. As Ulloa suggests, it is far more +reasonable to suppose that her silk trade grew in +proportion as the Spaniards continued to discover, +and to open up to commerce, new regions of +America; and that it reached the maximum of its +development in the reigns of Charles the Fifth +and Philip the Second. The same writer attributes +its decline and downfall to the “piracies +and insults” of Spain's foreign enemies and rivals.</p> + +<p>The price of Seville silks was also raised and +the trade injuriously affected, by the imposition, at +the close of the reign of Philip the Second, of the +onerous <i>millones</i> tax, as well as of the minor dues +denominated <i>alcavalas</i> and <i>cientos</i>; while finally, +when Philip the Third was on the throne, the expulsion +of the Moriscos precipitated the utter ruin +of this industry.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_40.jpg" width="500" height="366" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_40.jpg" id="img_40.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">VI<br />THE “BANNER OF SAINT FERDINAND”<br /> +(<i>Seville Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The Spanish government proved quite incapable +of grappling with these wrongs and difficulties. +There were, however, numerous attempts to legislate +in the direction of reform. Measures forbidding +the introduction of silk proceeding from abroad +received the royal signature in 1500, 1514, 1525, +1532, and 1552. A petition to the same effect,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +framed by the procurators of the Cortes, was presented +to the king in 1618, urging that no skein or +twisted silk proceeding from the Portuguese Indies, +China, or Persia should be imported into Spain in +view of the damage thus inflicted on the silk-producing +regions of Granada, Murcia, and Valencia. +At the same time the petitioners suggested that if +it should be found impracticable to suppress such +importation altogether, the foreign silk should be +required to be in the form of stuffs already woven.</p> + +<p>Matters grew steadily worse all through the +reign of Philip the Fourth. The principal cause +of this additional decline lay in the constant depreciation +of the national currency, which kept at +an intolerable pitch of dearness the price of home-grown +silk, and enabled foreign traders to undersell +the Spaniard. This will be better understood +if we consider that the composition of the copper +and silver coinage was often tampered with by +Crown and Parliament in such a way as to allow +the foreigner to rid the country of nearly all her +gold and silver, leaving in exchange only the baser +metal. At intervals of a few years, proclamations +were issued altering the values of the coinage in the +most capricious and disastrous terms, and Ulloa +mentions as still in circulation in the eighteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +century, <i>ochavos</i> of Philip the Third which bore +inscribed the value of twelve <i>maravedis</i> in Roman +numerals, and also (owing to the restamping of +the coins by order of the Crown), the second and +successive value of eight <i>maravedis</i>, marked in +ordinary numerals. In fact, so grave were these +abuses, that the arbitrary value imposed upon the +coins in question grew to be six times that of the +actual value of the metal.</p> + +<p>At the close of the seventeenth century, when +Charles the Second was on the throne, a couple +of well-meant and not completely ineffectual +attempts were made to bring about a fresh revival +in the growth of Spanish silk. On November +18th, 1683, the silk-makers of Toledo, Seville, +Granada, and Valencia were summoned to a +council at Madrid, and the dispositions they then +agreed upon received the royal signature and +became law on January 30th of the following year, +the pragmatic which embodied them being issued +to the public ten days later. It was commanded +by this document that all the silk produced +at the above-named towns should be examined +and approved by the <i>veedores</i> or <i>mayorales</i>, and +bear the official stamp which guaranteed their +quality. The effect of these ordinances was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +further strengthened by a Crown <i>cedula</i> of July +15th, 1692, confirming other dispositions dated +1635; and later still, in June of 1699, a law was +passed prohibiting the exportation of all home-made +silks to other countries.</p> + +<p>The accession of the Bourbon kings heralded +a further slight improvement. Philip the Fifth +had barely mounted the throne when the Junta de +Comercio was revived by his command, and drafted +various laws for bettering this and other industries. +Royal decrees of June 20th and September 17th, +1718, renewed in June of 1728 and in April and +August of 1734, forbade the introduction of silk +and certain other stuffs from China and the rest +of Asia—a measure which was made more strict as +time went on, the prohibition being extended to +linens and cottons produced and printed in Africa +or Asia or imitated in Europe. In the meantime +another <i>cedula</i>, signed at the Escorial on November +10th, 1726, had ordered that every Spanish +citizen of either sex should dress exclusively in +silks or cloths of Spanish manufacture.</p> + +<p>These laws, though founded on mistaken principles, +undoubtedly restored the national silk trade +for a while. In 1713 the silk looms of Seville had +increased to four hundred and five, and by 1732—in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +which year the Court resided at that capital—to +a thousand; but on the return of the royal +family to Madrid, and the declaration of war +against England in 1739, the number dropped to +a hundred and forty. In 1743 an effort was made +to remedy this by exempting Seville silks from +payment of the <i>alcabalas</i> and <i>cientos</i>, and further +support was rendered in 1749 by Ferdinand the +Sixth, who lowered to eighty <i>maravedis</i> per pound +weight the tax on Spanish silks exported from +the kingdom, and issued, in 1752, 1753, and 1756, +additional decrees intended to encourage and +protect this industry. In 1748 the same ruler +established the celebrated silk factories of Talavera +de la Reina, sparing no pains to bring their +products to a level with the best in Europe, and +choosing as director of the works a thoroughly +proficient Frenchman named Jean Roulière, a +native of Nîmes, who was assisted by a carefully +selected staff of experts, also principally foreigners.</p> + +<p>About the end of the century Laborde described +this enterprise as follows:—“The manufactures +of silks, gildings, and galloons are highly useful +and important…. There has also been raised +at Cervera, a village two leagues from Talavera, +another large edifice, in which are twelve mills<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +for twisting the silk, four large windles for winding +it, and six machines for doubling it. This +complicated machinery is put in motion by four +oxen, and the various processes of twisting, winding, +and doubling seven thousand and seventy-two +threads of silk are thus performed at once.</p> + +<p>“This establishment was rapidly augmented +under the direction of Roulière and the other +French mechanics who succeeded him in its superintendence. +So successful were their labours that, +in a short time, stuffs were fabricated in Spain not +unworthy of competition with those of France, the +demand for which was found to diminish. In +1762, Roulière being obliged to withdraw from +this manufactory, the care of it was committed +to a company to the exclusion of almost all +the French who had previously assisted in its +establishment. The consequences of this change +were soon discovered; the manufacture declined, +the stuffs deteriorated, and the consumption +diminished; the artisans were discharged from +the loom, and everything threatened the total +subversion of the establishment, when the king +interposed, and again extended to it his care and +protection, It has since been yielded to the incorporated +society of the Gremios at Madrid, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +has never recovered its former splendour and +prosperity.</p> + +<p>“Taffetas, satins, silk cloths, and serges are +fabricated here, as are silk ribbons, plain and +figured velvets, stuffs of silk and silver, stuffs of +silk and gold, galloons, gold and silver fringes, +and silk stockings. The factory employs three +hundred and sixty-six looms, and affords occupation +to two thousand persons. There are annually +consumed in it about a hundred thousand pounds +of silk, four thousand marks of silver, and seventy +marks of gold.</p> + +<p>“Some of the stuffs issuing from the manufactory +are beautiful and good, but they want the +gloss and lustre of the French stuffs; and as +they are dearer than those, with all the contingent +expense of commission and transportation, they +are far from being able to maintain a competition +with them. The stockings are of the vilest +quality, being thin, shaggy, and ill-dressed. The +greater part of these articles are exported to the +Spanish colonies.”</p> + +<p>Further efforts to improve the quality of Spanish +silk were made by Charles the Third, in whose +reign the silk looms of Seville increased to four +hundred and sixty-two for weaving larger pieces,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +sixty-two for silver and gold galloons, three +hundred and fifty-four for finely-worked ribbons, +twenty-three for small pieces of gold and silver +stuffs, eight for fringes and <i>cintas de rizo</i>, sixty-three +for stockings, sixty-five for <i>redecillas</i>, three +for caps, and one thousand three hundred and +ninety-one for ordinary ribbon. At the same time, +according to Ulloa, one hundred thousand pounds +of silk required to be annually brought to Seville +to supply these factories.</p> + +<p>“In its fortunate days,” wrote Alexander de +Laborde, “Seville had many splendid manufactures; +it wove silks of every kind, gold and silver +tissues, linens, and cottons.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> A memoir presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +in 1601 by the seventeen companies of arts and +trades of this city gives us an idea of the brilliant +state of those manufactures: the amount of the +silk looms is there stated to be 16,000, and the +persons of both sexes employed at them, 130,000. +These manufactures had greatly declined even +in the last century. We learn from Francisco +Martínez de la Mata, in his <i>Discursos</i>, published +in 1659, according to a memoir presented to the +king by an <i>alcalde</i> of the silk manufactures of +Seville, that there were no more, at that time, +than sixty-five looms, that a great number of +persons having no work had quitted the town, +that the population had decreased a third, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +that many houses were shut up, uninhabited, and +going to ruin. The silk manufactures began to +look up again in the eighteenth century, but they +are very far below the brilliant state they formerly +displayed: in 1779 there were 2318 silk looms in +Seville, including those for stockings, slight stuffs, +and ribbons.”<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>Turning our attention from Seville to Granada, +we find that the fame of the silks produced in this +latter city, or rather kingdom (for silk was raised +in great quantities throughout the entire region) +extended as far abroad as Constantinople, and +that they were used in Greece in the reign of +Comnenus. The Muzarabs, who petitioned Alfonso +el Batallador to bring an expedition to their rescue +and wrest Granada from her Mussulman lords, +reported to him in enthusiastic terms the quality +and abundance of the silk of that locality, and +many a document and chronicle record its vogue +among the Spanish Christians of the Middle +Ages.</p> + +<p>The Alcaicería or silk-market of Granada is referred +to by various of the older writers, including<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +Marineus Siculus, Navagiero, Lalaing, Bertaut de +Rouen, and Alvarez de Colmenar. The name +itself is stated in Fray Pedro de Alcalá's <i>Vocabulario</i> +to be derived from the Arabic <i>al-aqqisariya</i>, +meaning “an exchange for merchants.” Buildings, +or groups of buildings, of this kind existed both +in Spain and in Morocco. Early in the eighteenth +century a Spanish friar wrote of Fez; “The +Moorish portion of this city is the Alcaicería. It +stands nearly in the centre of the level part of the +town, and near the principal mosque, resembling +a town in itself, with solid walls and doors, and +chains across it to keep out the horses. It consists +of fifteen streets of wealthy shops, stretching without +a break, and what is sold in them—whether +of linen, silk, or cloth—is of the richest and the +noblest quality.”</p> + +<p>Very similar are the descriptions relative to the +Alcaicería of Granada in the olden time. Bertaut +de Rouen wrote of it, and of the adjoining Zacatin; +“En retournant devers la porte d'Elvire est le +<i>Zacatin</i>, qui est une rue paralelle au Canal du +Darro, longue et assez estroite, qui vient de la +place de la Chancellerie à la place de <i>Vivarambla</i>. +Dans cette rue sont tous les orfévres, les marchands +de soie, de rubans, de vermillon, qui croist assez<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +prés de Grenade, dont on fait là grand trafic. +C'est une plante semblable à celle du Safran, dont +il y a beaucoup dans ces quartiers-là.</p> + +<p>“Dans cette mesme rue du <i>Zacatin</i> donne d'un +costé l'<i>Alcayzerie</i>, qui est une espèce de Halle +couverte à la manière de la Foire Saint Germain, +où sont plusieurs boutiques remplies des Marchandises +les plus curieuses. Ils disent que cette place, +aussi bien que beaucoup d'autres des autres Villes +d'Andalousie, se nomme ainsi à cause d'un privilege +que donnerent les Cesars aux Arabes de travailler +en Soye.”</p> + +<p>Alvarez de Colmenar wrote of the same edifice, +a few years later than Bertaut; “Vis-à-vis de la +Chancellerie on voit une maison fort longue, +nommée Alcacéria (<i>sic</i>), partagée en près de deux +cent boutiques, où les Marchands ètalent tout sorte +de marchandises, particulièrement des étoffes en +soie.” On the authority of the same writer, the +makers and the dyers of silk-stuffs inhabited +another quarter of the town. “Le dernier quartier +de la Ville, nommé Antiqueruela, est dans une +plaine, peuplé de gens venus d'Antechera, d'où lui +vient le nom qu'il porte. Ses habitants sont pour +la plupart ouvriers en soie, tisseurs de satin, de +tafetas, de damas; teinturiers qui teignent en<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +pourpre, en écarlate, et autres ouvriers semblables.” +He adds; “Il s'y fait grand commerce d'étoffe de +soie; et la Ville et les environs sont pour cet effet +plantés d'un si grand nombre de meuriers, que le +seul impôt sur les feuilles de ces arbres vaut +annuellement trente mille écus au Roi.”</p> + +<p>About the beginning of the nineteenth century +Laborde wrote: “The Alcaicería is in the Bivarambla: +it is merely an immense edifice, without +ornament, covering a considerable extent of +ground. The Moors used it as a bazaar, and a +good many tradesmen still carry on their business +there. It contains about two hundred shops.” +It remained, in fact, in much the same condition +as when the Moors possessed it, until the year +1843, when a fire, which broke out on the night of +July 20th of that year, reduced it almost totally to +ashes. To-day the historic silk trade is no more; +but the Alcaicería, consisting of a chapel and a +street which call to mind the graceful and effective +decoration of its predecessor, has been rebuilt with +taste and accuracy from the model of the old.</p> + +<p>The <i>Ordenanzas</i> of Granada city, the first +edition of which was published in 1552, and the +second in 1678, inform us very closely of the silk +trade of that region in the times immediately succeeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +the reconquest. Having regard to the +fact that the silk was now spun in skeins in an imperfect +manner, “with much deceit and trickery,” +and that its quality was of the worst (Ordinance of +<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1535), nobody was allowed henceforth to spin +silk in or about Granada without being qualified +through examination by the <i>veedores</i> or inspectors +appointed for this purpose by the corporation. +The inspector might charge for this examination a +fee of twenty-five <i>maravedis</i>, and if the candidate +were successful he was permitted to set up his +loom forthwith, and engage two lads or girls, not +less than twelve years old, to fetch and carry at +his wheel, “so that the work may be continued all +day long.”</p> + +<p>Minute instructions follow as to the method of +spinning the silk, wages, the treatment of apprentices, +and other detail. Many of these narrow +points of city law were troublesome and senseless, +and must have tended to destroy the trade. For +instance, the earnings of a master-spinner, after +paying the lads or girls who worked for him, were +limited to a maximum of two <i>reales</i> and a half +per day. Women were allowed to spin upon the +following conditions: “Also, seeing that there be +some honest women here who have no access to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +a public wheel, but work within their dwellings +only, we (<i>i.e.</i> the city councillors) command that +these may spin per thousand of cocoons, or at a +daily wage, not to exceed two <i>reales</i> and a half.” +The silk was not to be spun with an <i>escobilla</i> or +brush, but with the hand, obedient to the rhyming +Spanish proverb which says, or used to say, <i>con +escobilla el paño, y la seda con la mano</i> (“brush +cloth with a brush, and silk with the hand”).</p> + +<p>The laws affecting the dyers of silk contain the +following provisions. They were not to dye with +pomegranate or sumach, and if the rind of the +former fruit were found in their houses, they were +liable to a fine of six thousand <i>maravedis</i> and +thirty days' imprisonment. Dyeing with Brazil-wood +was also prohibited in the case of silks of +finer quality exposed for sale in the Alcaicería. +Elaborate directions follow as to the manner of +applying the dye. In the case of silks dyed blue +or purple, the dyer, before he drew the fabric from +the vat, was required to show it to the <i>alamin</i> or +inspector of the silk, or else to one of the <i>veedores</i> +nominated by the city councillors. The fines +imposed upon the dyers who were found to contravene +these regulations were distributed in the +following proportion: one-third towards repairing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +the ramparts or <i>adarves</i> of Granada; another +third between the <i>alamin</i>, the <i>veedores</i>, and the +other officials who discovered and denounced the +culprit; and the remaining third between the +magistrates and other authorities who tried and +sentenced him.</p> + +<p>Further, each silk-dyer was to have six <i>tinajas</i>, +or large jars (see Vol. II., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>), kept continually +full of dye, well settled, and liable at any +hour to be analyzed by the <i>veedores</i>. In dyeing +fabrics black, each pound of silk was to be treated +with ten ounces of foreign galls of fine quality, +two ounces of copperas, and two ounces of gum-arabic.</p> + +<p>It is evident that nearly all this legislation was +of a mischievous character, nor can it cause +surprise that certain of the silk-makers of this +locality should have been in the habit of committing +many kinds of fraud, such as mixing salt +or oil with the raw material, in order to increase +its weight. Thus, at the same time that the laws +themselves were made more numerous and stringent, +the more elaborate and various were the +shifts invented by the citizens as a means to violate +those laws. The inspectors were empowered to +enter a shop and examine its contents at any hour.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +Sometimes, we read, such ingress was denied +them, and the door was kept closed, or slammed in +their faces. The penalty for this resistance was a +fine of two thousand <i>maravedis</i> and twenty days +imprisonment. No silk-spinner was allowed to +possess more than two spinning-wheels (Ordinance +of November 18th, 1501), or to keep these +working after midnight, for we are told that in +this way the <i>veedores</i> were impeded from paying +their official visit in the small hours of the morning, +and much “deceit and insult” was the consequence. +This Ordinance was confirmed by a +royal rescript of 1542.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_56.jpg" width="313" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_56.jpg" id="img_56.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">VII<br />VELVET MADE AT GRANADA<br /> +(<i>Late 15th Century</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Another group of <i>Ordenanzas</i> concerns the +weavers and the silk-merchants of the Alcaicería, +determining that no silk was to be imported +from the kingdoms of Valencia or Murcia, and +that no merchant was to buy the raw material in +order to resell it at a profit, but might only trade +in the productions of his own factory. Minute +instructions are appended for weaving the various +stuffs which had a silk foundation, such as several +kinds of damask, scarlet velvet<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> many kinds of +satin, velvet dyed with Brazil-wood, taffeta of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +four leishes, taffeta of two leishes, and <i>sargas</i>, or +silken serge. Other fabrics mentioned in the +Ordinances are <i>tocas</i> called “San Juanes,” <i>campuses +moriscos</i> (elsewhere “las tocas moriscas que se +llaman <i>campuzas</i>”), “las tocas moriscas labradas +que se dizen <i>coninos</i>,” <i>quinales</i> and <i>alfardillas</i>, +<i>alcaydias</i>, <i>tocas de Reyna</i>, and <i>espumillas</i>. Most of +these names are of obscure meaning at the present +day; but I find that <i>espumillas</i> were silken crape, +while <i>alfardillas</i> are defined in the old dictionary +of Fathers Connelly and Higgins as “an ancient +kind of silken ribbon, or tape.”</p> + +<p>No weaver was allowed to be the owner of +more than four looms for making velvet, satin, +damask, taffeta, or silken serges. The apprentice +to a satin-maker required to be bound for a +minimum term of three years, the apprentice to +a damask-maker for five years, the apprentice to +a taffeta-maker for three years. No weaver was +to have more than three apprentices at one time, +except in the case of the damask-makers, who +might have four. No weaver might dismiss his +apprentice without deponing to the cause before +the city officers, nor might he accept money, +or anything in lieu of money, from an apprentice. +Master-weavers were required to pass<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +their examinations in Granada; no other city +would suffice.</p> + +<p>We further learn that many of the apprentices +were “of evil character,” and damaged velvet +stuffs “maliciously, though knowing perfectly +how to weave the same.” If any worker at this +craft fell sick, the guild or <i>oficio</i> was to defray the +expenses of his cure, including physic “until he +be recovered, provided his be not a venereal +ailment, or a wound inflicted with a knife.” If +he succumbed, the guild was to bury him; and +when a master-weaver died, his apprentices were +compelled to serve out the rest of their indentures +with his widow, or his sons. No slave might +learn to weave, even though he should be made +a <i>horro</i> or freedman.</p> + +<p>Other ordinances refer to the officers known as +Xelizes and Almotalefes of the silk, the privilege +of appointing whom had been conferred upon the +town-council by Ferdinand and Isabella. It was +the business of the <i>almotalefe</i> or <i>motalefe</i> to +collect silk throughout the <i>alcarias</i> or villages of +the surrounding districts, and convey it, on behalf +of the owner, to a <i>xeliz</i> or “superintendent of the +market,” attached to one or other of the three +Alcaicerías of the kingdom of Granada. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +<i>xeliz</i>, in his turn, was required to see that the +parcel was put up for sale by public auction and +disposed of to the highest bidder, after which he +handed to the <i>motalefe</i> a certificate of the price +obtained, together with the corresponding cash, +less certain fees deducted for himself and calculated +on a reasonable scale. The number of <i>motalefes</i> +throughout this region was evidently large, because +in the year 1520 the town-council resolved to +appoint as many as “one or two in every town +and district.”</p> + +<p>Ordinances to the above effect were notified to +the city of Almuñecar, and the towns of Motril, +Salobreña, and the Alpujarras; from which we +must infer that, though subordinated to the capital +herself, these places also were silk-producing +centres of no slight importance.</p> + +<p>Further laws relating to the Xelizes were passed +in 1535. On August 13th, the mayor of Granada +(described as the “very magnificent” Señor Hernan +Darias de Saavedra) summoned before him these +officials in order to admonish them respecting certain +fresh decisions that had been adopted by the councillors. +The said Xelizes were six in all, known +severally as Juan Ximenez, Hernando el Comarxi, +Juan Infante Zaybona, Juan de Granada, Lorenzo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +el Mombatan, and Francisco Hernandez Almorox—names +which are of interest, as showing that the +Morisco element was still of weight among the +manufacturers and merchants of Granada. From +this time forth, and by the resolution of the town +authorities, the Xelizes in question were called +upon to lodge a deposit of one thousand ducats as +security for the value of the silk entrusted them +for sale. Besides this, the silk was to be sold in +the Zaguaque—that is, by public auction “as in +the time of the Moors,” from two in the afternoon +onward. The buyer was required to settle his +account before ten in the morning of the day next +following his purchase. Failing this, the silk was +to be again put up for sale, and the costs of this +new operation were charged to the defaulting first +purchaser, who was further obliged to pay a daily +compensation of two <i>reales</i> to the <i>motalefe</i> who +had brought the silk to market. Xelizes were +strictly forbidden to traffic on their own account, +and the fines for infringing any of these laws were +heavy. If the infraction were repeated once, the +fine was doubled; if twice, in addition to the +same amount in money, the transgressor was +banished for all his lifetime from Granada.</p> + +<p>All pieces of stuff which measured ten yards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +long and upwards, and which it was desired to +sell within the capital or district of Granada, +required to be marked with the weaver's stamp. +If three pieces were sold together, or sent abroad +to other places to be sold, they required to be +stamped with the city seal at a fee for stamping +of two <i>maravedis</i> the piece. This was to be +performed by the <i>veedores</i>, who were also to +keep a register of all the city looms, and pay +them a visit of inspection once at least in every +month.</p> + +<p>Finally, one of the most ridiculous and noxious +of these ordinances forbade the planting of more +mulberry-trees in or about Granada; notwithstanding +that it was also forbidden to deal in +silk imported from Valencia or Murcia, as the +merchants were said to mingle these foreign silks +with that of Granada herself, to the detriment of +the latter.</p> + +<p>Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries the silk-trade of this capital remained +in much the same condition. In 1747 a company +was formed at Granada titled the “Compañía +Real de Comercio y Fábricas de Granada,” and +the formal prospectus of this society, of which +document a printed copy is in my possession,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +was embodied in a royal <i>cedula</i> dated in the same +year. The preliminary remarks attached to this +certificate explain that the people of Granada +were now reduced to “the most unhappy state of +poverty, insomuch that nowhere is there memory +of a greater horde of mendicants.” The principal +cause of this distress is stated to be the ruin of +the silk-trade, in which disaster may be recognised +the consequences of the senseless legislation +I have instanced in the foregoing paragraphs. +The fifteen thousand looms which once upon a +time existed there had dwindled to six hundred, +and the production of raw silk, from one million +pounds a year to one hundred thousand. The +new Company was floated with the professed +ambition of restoring Granada to a measure of +her old prosperity. The capital was half a +million <i>pesos</i>, divided into shares of two hundred +<i>pesos</i> each; but silk and woven fabrics generally, +whose value had been suitably appraised by the +authorities, were admissible in payment of a +share. The holder of each five shares enjoyed +one vote, except in the case of founders, who +were privileged, as “instruments of this important +establishment,” to vote upon possession of a +single share. If a shareholder wished to sell his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +interest, the Company was to have the first +refusal. It further possessed initially in cash a +sum exceeding one hundred and twenty thousand +<i>pesos</i>—sufficient to construct and work three +thousand looms in all; and it engaged, in return +for certain favours and exemptions under royal +warrant, to set up twenty looms for making +serges of fine quality, and eight more in each +year, for the space of ten years, for making +<i>carros de oro</i>, <i>medios carros</i>, <i>anascotes finos</i>, +<i>christales</i>, “and every other kind of stuff that is +not manufactured in this kingdom.”</p> + +<p>The favours and exemptions thus solicited +were of a very mischievous character; for the +political mind of Spain was not yet shrewd +enough to grasp the fact that where all competition +is removed, quality cannot but decline. +The products of the Company were freed from +paying taxes for ten, or in the case of stuffs whose +price amounted to six <i>reales</i> per yard, for twenty +years. Similarly, all of its merchandise exported +to America “in <i>flotas</i>, <i>galeones</i>, <i>registros</i>, or other +craft of those that are permitted,” was freed +from all except the royal dues on loading, although +if shipped to other parts it was to pay a tax +of fifty <i>maravedis</i> for each Castilian pound of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +sixteen ounces. All the materials and ingredients +required by the Company in the preparation of +its fabrics were exempted from customs and other +dues. The Company enjoyed a preferential right +to purchase silk throughout the kingdom of +Granada, and such as it abstained from purchasing +was to be sold by public auction in the Alcaicerías +of Granada and Málaga, that of Almería being +henceforth suppressed. The Company was also +empowered to introduce silk from Murcia and +Valencia, and the determination to crush all +private enterprise is clearly expressed by the +twenty-second heading of this document, which +says; “All manufacturers and traders who do not +associate themselves with this body shall pay the +full tariff of dues at present established.” The +Company was further empowered to compel the +inhabitants of this locality to plant new lots of +mulberry-trees, “in view of the notorious fact +that not the one-hundredth part remains of all +that were delivered by the Royal Census to the +occupants of the kingdom of Granada at the time +of the reconquest.” The Company might further +open shops and erect warehouses wherever it +chose. Its assets were to enjoy perpetual immunity +from seizure by the city council, whether<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +as a loan or otherwise, and none of its servants +might be called upon to serve the Crown in the +event of war.</p> + +<p>Very shortly after its foundation, this Company +united (each bringing half the capital) with another +powerful association titled the Commercial Company +of Estremadura, with a view to securing a +conjoint Crown monopoly or “exclusive privilege” +for Portugal, “to the effect that only these two +companies may traffic there in silk, and none other +of my vassals or the inhabitants of my dominions +may do business, whether in pure silk, or silk +mixed with silver or with gold, in the kingdom of +Portugal aforesaid.”</p> + +<p>The privilege was granted in these terms, and +bears the royal signature, attached at Aranjuez, June +17th, 1747. Its provisions were to last for ten +years, and, in return for their concession, the two +Companies engaged for a like term of ten years to +set up fifty silk-looms annually at Toledo, “over and +above the looms at present working in that city.”</p> + +<p>I have not been able to trace, in writing or in +print, the subsequent records of the Royal Commercial +and Manufacturing Company of Granada, +although I have been told that it existed for some +time, and that on one occasion there was a riot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +among the townsfolk in opposition to its tyranny.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> +In 1776 Swinburne wrote of the same region: +“The annual produce of silk in this province, +before the year 1726, seldom fell short of two +millions six hundred thousand pounds weight, +whereas now it does not exceed one hundred +thousand.” Judging from this, the Company does +not appear to have prospered. In 1775 the same +author wrote of other and more fertile silk-producing +districts: “The manufacturers of silk are the +cause of a population (<i>i.e.</i> in Valencia) that may be +reckoned considerable, if compared to that of other +provinces of Spain. The produce of this article +came this year to one million pounds, but one year +with another the average quantity is about nine +hundred thousand pounds, worth a doubloon a +pound in the country. The crop of silk this last +season was very abundant. Government has prohibited +the exportation of Valencian raw silk, in +order to lay in a stock to keep the artificers constantly +employed in bad years; for it has happened +in some, that half the workmen have been laid +idle for want of materials. As they are not so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +strict about Murcian silk, which is of an inferior +quality, I am told that some from Valencia is sent +out of Spain under that denomination. The great +nurseries of mulberry-plants in this plain (the +Huerta of Valencia) are produced from seed obtained +by rubbing a rope of <i>esparto</i> over heaps of +ripe mulberries, and then burying the rope two +inches under ground. As the young plants come +up, they are drawn and transplanted. The trees, +which are all of the white kind, are afterwards set +out in rows in the fields, and pruned every second +year; in Murcia, only every third year, and in +Granada never. The Granadine silk is esteemed +the best of all; and the trees are all of the black +sort of mulberry.”</p> + +<p>According to Laborde, who wrote some twenty-five +years later; “The cultivation of silk was +formerly very flourishing in Andalusia; the kingdoms +of Granada, Seville, and Jaen produced +immense quantities of it, but after the conquest of +those countries it was burdened with heavy taxes: +silk was made subject to ecclesiastical tithes payable +in kind; the royal tenth it paid under the +Moors was retained, estimated at three <i>reales +vellon</i> each pound of silk. To these were added +a duty of <i>tartil</i> of seventeen <i>maravedis</i> per pound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +and duties of <i>alcabalas</i> and <i>cientos</i>, fixed at eleven +<i>reales</i> thirty-two <i>maravedís</i>. There accrued from +it a tax of fifteen <i>reales</i> fifteen <i>maravedís</i> for the +king, and six <i>reales</i>, or thereabouts, for the +ecclesiastical tithe, making together twenty-one +<i>reales</i> fifteen <i>maravedís</i>, or about four shillings +and sixpence the pound, which at that time sold +only for thirty <i>reales</i>, or six shillings and three +pence English. The speculators were consequently +discouraged, most of them relinquished +a labour from which they derived so little profit, +and this branch of industry entirely failed in the +kingdoms of Cordova and Seville, and afterwards +in those of Granada and Jaen. For some time +it has been looking up in the two latter kingdoms, +but it is very far from what it was under the +Moors. The mulberries of Granada and Jaen are +black; they are suffered to grow without any care +or management, are never lopped or dressed, and +look as if they were planted by chance.”</p> + +<p>Of Murcia he wrote; “This province has the +raw materials of other manufactures no less +important. In the first place, it has a prodigious +quantity of silkworms, which are not turned to +advantage; most of the raw silks are sold to the +neighbouring provinces, and manufactured silk is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +imported from foreign looms, though the inhabitants +might manufacture their own materials, and +make it an article of considerable exportation. +The town of Murcia is the only place where they +work some small quantity; there they manufacture +a few slight silks, chiefly taffetas and velvets, but of +an inferior quality; and the whole is confined to a +small number of looms. They make a much +greater quantity of ribbons, in which twelve +hundred looms are employed; but they are badly +dyed, and have not a good gloss. The Murcians +likewise prepare the raw silk, spin, and twist it; +they have even a warden, and a great number of +masters in this business, and, in spite of its +importance, they carry it on without being subject +to any superintendence, everyone doing as he +pleases. The consequence is that the silk is badly +prepared and spun unequally. The threads are +collected without any method, sometimes more, +sometimes less, and then twisted unequally. +They are of course unfit to make fine stuffs, and +the trade of Murcia is therefore declining…. +Silk stuffs, satins, velvets, and taffetas are made +here, but there is no great manufactory of them. +They are wrought at private houses, and are but +of a middling quality.”</p> + +<p>Toledo silk, including the delicate and costly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +<i>cendal</i> (see pp. 5, 6) which is mentioned in the +sumptuary law, dated 1348, of Alfonso the +Eleventh, was largely in demand from early in +the Middle Ages till about the sixteenth century. +The statements of the older writers as to this +neighbourhood are contradictory. According +to Damián de Olivares, himself a native of +Toledo, this city in the sixteenth century possessed +between five thousand five hundred and +six thousand looms, consuming annually more +than six hundred thousand pounds of raw silk. +Other authors estimate the number of her looms +at twenty, thirty, or even forty thousand. Writing +in our own time, Count Cedillo is responsible +for declaring that after the revolt of the Communities, +the persons occupied in weaving silk +amounted to fifty thousand, all of whom were +natives of Toledo and the neighbouring villages; +and he adds, perhaps a little rashly, that the velvets, +damasks, satins, and taffetas of this locality were +“unrivalled, even in comparison with the admirable +products of Seville, Cordova, and Granada.”<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +Certainly, the silk stockings of Toledo enjoyed +a wide-spread fame, and were used, among other +distinguished patrons, by the Duke of Guise and +by Philip the Second. They were also exported in +quantities to America. Banners, altar-fronts, and +vestments for religious worship were also made +here in large numbers, and of excellent quality, +both in silk alone, and in this substance mixed +with gold and silver.</p> + +<p>Laborde wrote of all these manufactures at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +the time of their decline; “It is easy to estimate +their former importance from the loss they sustained +by the introduction of foreign merchandise. +The memorial states that the consumption of silk +was materially diminished, and computes the loss +sustained by thirty-eight thousand artisans, from +the interruption of their occupation, at 1,937,727 +ducats. Symptoms of decay continued to increase +till the middle of the sixteenth century, when +every vestige of commerce was effaced.</p> + +<p>“Toledo remained in this state of listless +despondence till the present archbishop made a +noble effort to revive the love of industry, and to +open an asylum for the tribes of mendicants, +accustomed from infancy to subsist on precarious +bounty. The measure adopted by this prelate +was to establish in the Alcazar various branches +of manufacture, such as linen, ribbons, cloths, +serges, woollen stuffs, and silk stuffs of every +description. He introduced also another branch +of occupation, appropriated solely to the production +of sacerdotal ornaments. In 1791 there were a +hundred and twelve manufactories in Toledo, ten +for lawns and canvas, twelve for ribbons, fifty-five +for silk, and seven for sacerdotal ornaments. At<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +this period the indigent class employed in them +amounted to six hundred people, who were instructed +in various processes, and were led insensibly +to acquire the useful habits of industry. +They were taught to draw, to prepare the +materials, and to perform the manufacture; and +each was destined to pursue some occupation suitable +to his age, his inclination, and his abilities.”</p> + +<p>In 1786 Townsend, himself a clergyman, had +written of Toledo in far less hopeful terms. +“This city, which contained two hundred thousand +souls, is now reduced to less than twenty-five +thousand. The citizens are fled; the monks +remain. Here we find twenty-six parish churches, +thirty-eight convents, seventeen hospitals, four +colleges, twelve chapels, and nineteen hermitages, +the monuments of its former opulence.” Townsend's +good taste, unusual for a traveller of that +time, was horrified at the profanation of the +Alcazar, whose “magnificent apartments are now +occupied with spinning-wheels and looms, and +instead of princes they are filled with beggars. +The good archbishop here feeds seven hundred +persons, who are employed in the silk manufactory; +but unfortunately, with the best intentions, he has +completed the ruin of the city; for by his weight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +of capital, he has raised the price both of labour +and of the raw material, whilst, by carrying a +greater quantity of goods to the common market, +he has sunk the price of the commodity so much, +that the manufacturers, who employed from forty +to sixty workmen, now employ only two or three, +and many who were in affluence are now reduced +to penury.</p> + +<p>“These people are so far from earning their +own maintenance, that over and above the produce +of their labour they require forty thousand ducats +a year for their support.”</p> + +<p>Alvarez de Colmenar, Ricord, Bourgoing, +Laborde, and other writers, Spanish and non-Spanish, +of the eighteenth century, inserted full +descriptions of the silk trade of Valencia and +Barcelona. “On y fait,” wrote Alvarez de +Colmenar of the former of these towns, “de très +bonnes draperies, fortes, d'un bon et long usage, +et propres à résister à la pluie, et grande quantité +d'étoffes de soie; delà vient que les meuriers, +dont les feuilles servent à nourrir les vers à soie, +y font d'un fort gros revenu pour les habitans.” +Ricord, in his scarce pamphlet, printed at Valencia +in 1793, gives valuable statistics relating to this +industry and locality, prefacing his figures arranged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +in tabular form by the following remarks: +“The silk factories of this province form the +principal basis of her commerce. They not only +consume all the silk which is raised in the kingdom +(of Valencia), and which, in 1791, amounted to +581,688 pounds of fine silk, 93,800 of that of +Alducar, and 26,115 of <i>hiladillo</i>, but they also +require to provide themselves from Aragon and +other parts of Spain, or even from abroad, seeing +that in the year aforesaid more than 37,000 pounds +were imported from foreign countries.” The +tabular statement appended to these observations +tells us that in the region of Valencia the looms +for making fine and silken fabrics such as velvets, +<i>anascotes</i>, stockings, handkerchiefs, scarves, garters, +and ribbons, gave employment to a total of 9,668 +workmen, and were distributed among the towns +or villages of Valencia, Alcira, San Felipe, Alcoy, +Vilanesa, Denia, Ruzafa, Alicante, Peniscola, +Beniganim, Pego, Olivo, Liria, Asuevar, Orihuela, +Gandia, Elche, Castellon, and Vall de Almonacid. +Riaño admits, however, that this manufacture +might have prospered even more, if means had +been adopted to suppress certain acts committed +by the weavers, spinners, and twisters of the silk.</p> + +<p>More curious and instructive is the description<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +of the same industry by Jean-François Bourgoing, +whose observations, evidently secured at first-hand, +are worth translating <i>in extenso</i>:—</p> + +<p>“What attracted us still more than the fine-art +works were the stuffs produced at the silk-factories, +which constitute the principal glory of Valencia +and contribute to her prosperous condition. We +followed all the process of this manufacture, from +the cultivation of the mulberry-tree to the weaving +of the richest fabrics. I will try, therefore, to +give a comprehensive account of them.</p> + +<p>“Spain, and particularly the kingdom of +Valencia, could well export her silk to foreign +parts, even after setting apart a quantity sufficient +for her factories. Government, however, does not +appear to be convinced of this, because it offers +constant hindrance to such exportation, or else, +when it consents to it, imposes heavy dues. +These dues consist of nine <i>reales</i> and a <i>quartillo</i>, +or nearly two <i>livres</i> seven <i>francs</i> per each +Valencian pound of silk, which only weighs twelve +ounces, and is worth at least fifteen <i>livres</i> when it +is in the raw state. When the silk harvest has +been scanty, as in the year 1784, it has been +known to fetch eighty <i>reales</i> or twenty <i>livres</i>. +This year, too, the yield of silk has been so small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +that the manufacturers of Valencia petitioned +Government to allow the introduction, duty-free, +of two hundred thousand pounds of it from Italy +and France.</p> + +<p>“In ordinary years, the pound of (raw) silk +costs eight <i>reales</i> for twisting and three <i>reales</i> for +dyeing in green, blue or other common colours; +so that this material, ready to use, costs altogether +about seventy-one <i>reales</i> the pound, or seventeen +to eighteen francs of our money.</p> + +<p>“Of course this price varies according to circumstances. +One of the causes which exercise +the greatest influence on this fluctuation is the +harvest of the mulberry. These valuable trees +are thickly planted over the champaign of +Valencia, and all of them are of the white-leaved +kind. This distinction, which would be superfluous +in France, is by no means so in Spain, +where, in several provinces, as, for instance, the +kingdom of Granada, the leaves of the black +mulberry are used to nourish the silkworms, and +yield almost as handsome a silk as those of the +white.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> + +<p>“The leaves to these mulberry-trees are sold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +by the load of ten <i>arrobas</i>; and the Valencian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +<i>arroba</i>, which is about equal to twenty-seven +French pounds, cost, in 1783, about thirty <i>sols +tournois</i>.</p> + +<p>“The mulberry leaves are gathered once, twice, +or, at most, three times in each year; but it is not +often that the two last crops are of as fine a quality +or as abundant as the first. The greater part of +the year is suited for harvesting the leaves, and this +harvesting is carried out progressively as the silkworms +copulate, steadily increasing in quantity up +to the moment when they build their cocoons. +As a rule only the leaves are plucked, the +branches being spared as far as possible. Thus +despoiled of its verdure in the middle of the finest +times of year, although surrounded by a dazzling +vegetation, the tree looks like a dry log floating +on a green expanse of waters, while the mass of +naked trunks which seem to be completely sterile, +and which grow more numerous as the season +advances, combine to render cheerless a prospect +otherwise so fertile and so smiling. Still worse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +becomes their state when the trees are pruned +entirely of their branches—an operation which is +performed upon them at least once in every three +years.</p> + +<p>“In the space of ten years the kingdom of +Valencia has yielded six million pounds of silk, +which makes a yearly average of six hundred +thousand pounds; and as the whole of Spain produces +a million pounds per annum, we see from +this that Valencia alone supplies more than half +of the entire quantity. The silks of Valencia are +the finest of the whole Peninsula, and fit to be +compared with the best of Europe generally, but +the spinning is still imperfect, because in Spain +there are not, as in France and elsewhere, houses +where the women who spin are gathered together +under the eye of an inspector to see that all the +silk is spun evenly. In the kingdom of Valencia +the spinning is distributed among several thousand +hands, who introduce six, seven, eight, or even +more ends in a thread of silk which should always +have the same number; hence the unevennesses in +the fabrics which are woven from them, while for +the same reason we do not utilize for any delicate +work the raw material which we import from +Spain. The silk we employ for our costlier<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +fabrics is of the kind which we import from +Piedmont and the southern provinces of France. +Also, for the last few years we have felt less need +of the Valencian silk. The laws prohibiting the +exportation of this Spanish silk have stimulated +the cultivation of mulberry-trees in Languedoc, +where the peasantry, alive to the profit which +these trees could render them, have preferred +them to other kinds for planting round their +property. This is why, in the year 1783, French +silk could be bought for a lower price than the +Valencian silk purchased in that region, plus the +dues levied upon its exportation. I know of a +merchant who at this time enjoyed the privilege +of exporting for six years a hundred thousand +pounds free of all dues, but who throughout the +year 1783 was unable to find a purchaser in +France. Spain could perhaps remedy the egress +of her raw material by further increasing (as, +indeed, she daily does) the number of her looms, +and by exporting a greater number of her products +to her American possessions; but her silk-stuffs +will never be perfected until she markets +them in foreign countries, where the taste of her +customers may tend to better that of her +manufacturers.</p> + +<p>“The silk raised in the kingdom of Valencia is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +estimated, during an average year, to be worth +six or seven millions of <i>piastres</i> (nineteen to +twenty-two millions of <i>livres</i>.) At the time of +my visit to this city, she only employed one half +this quantity, although her looms of every size +amounted to four thousand. The rest, in spite +of the prohibitions laid upon its extraction, is +smuggled off to foreign countries, escaping, +sometimes to France by way of Barcelona, and +sometimes to Portugal by way of Seville and +Extremadura. Nevertheless, there is probably +more silk in Spain to-day than formerly, and +measures have been earnestly adopted to encourage +the industries which make use of it. For +some time past, silk-looms have been scattered +over the whole of Cataluña, and in the kingdoms +of Granada, Cordova, Seville, etc., producing +handkerchiefs, ribbons, and other stuffs in +sufficient quantity to supply, or nearly so, the +national market: nevertheless this still left +a large market for our stocking-factories of +Languedoc. The Spanish Government, by the +law of 1778, limited itself to excluding these +stockings from forming part of the foreign cargoes +to the Colonies, but as they continued to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +imported into Spain, this law was readily evaded, +since it sufficed to stamp the French article with +the mark of a Spanish factory. It would have +required an excessive vigilance, almost a positive +inquisition, to guard against a fraud of this kind, +prompted by the avarice of traders. The Spanish +Government next sought, by the law of 1785, to +put a stop to it by totally excluding our silk +stockings, and this measure, together with the +establishment of a number of new looms in Spain, +has produced an almost absolute stagnation in the +market which our factories of Languedoc had +formerly enjoyed in the Peninsula. But let me +return now to the Valencian factories.</p> + +<p>“This city has no one building in which might +be performed the whole of the processes through +which the silk must pass. Any person who +wishes to examine them, must visit several +workshops; and this was the course which we +adopted, under the guidance of a manufacturer +as intelligent as he is amiable, named Don Manuel +Foz, a gentleman who has travelled extensively +in order to perfect his knowledge of handling +silk, and who, among other secrets, has brought +from Constantinople the art of watering silken +stuffs. As a reward for his activity, he has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +appointed <i>Intendente</i> of all the factories of +Valencia.</p> + +<p>“There are hardly any merchants at Valencia +who are not more or less concerned in silk-making: +indeed, they look upon this industry as quite a +<i>point d'honneur</i>. Some of them supply with silk +no more than four or five looms, which work at +their expense, while others have under their control +as many as several hundred.</p> + +<p>“After the silkworm has cleverly built its cell, +the first thing to be done is to stifle it before it +can pierce the cocoon in search of a new existence. +For this purpose the cocoons are thrown into a +moderately heated oven; and then, when once +the worm is killed, they can be kept without being +spun for as long as may be needed.</p> + +<p>“In order to strip them of their covering of +silk, they are thrown into hot water, after which +the women workers pick up, and with surprising +quickness, the threads of several of them, join +them, and deal them out, thus joined, on wheels +constructed for this object. On the design of +the wheels depends the degree of thoroughness +with which the silk is spun; but those which +are employed in Spain are generally the most +imperfect, as I shall presently explain.</p> + +<p>“I have already said that the slip of silk should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +be drawn from at least four cocoons, and even then +it only serves for making slender fabrics, such as +taffeta or ribbon. We were shown, indeed, a +skein which was assured to contain no more than +two cocoons; but so slight a slip is of no use at +all. Most of them are made from seven or eight +cocoons, and two of the former are joined in order +to form a thread sufficient to be placed upon the +loom.</p> + +<p>“My readers are sure to know that all woven +fabrics consist of two distinct parts, the woof and +the warp. The woof is that which is passed by +the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other, +and which is enchased between the two surfaces +formed by the warp. As the woof is subjected to +more wear and tear than the warp, it should be +stouter. For this reason each of the two ends +of which it is composed is twisted separately +before the two are twisted together, while for the +warp the latter of these processes is sufficient. +The result of this difference is that, when looked +at beneath the microscope, the thread of the +woof has an uneven look, as though it were a +small cable, while that of the warp looks flat and +smooth, and is therefore adapted to reflect the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +light, receiving the shiny look which makes a +silk-stuff so attractive.</p> + +<p>“But the beauty of these fabrics depends, above +all else, upon the way in which the silk is divided +as it is drawn from the cocoon. This first stage +of the spinning is performed in one or other of +three ways, according to the kind of wheel which is +employed for it. The method which the Spaniards +have adopted from an early period has the following +drawback; that the small threads of six, seven, +and eight cocoons which are stripped at the same +time, go to form a single thread, and are deposited +upon a small spindle without the thread rubbing +against another one, which friction serves to +lay the little hairs which bristle up, so that +the slip of silk thus formed retains a hairy +nap and is easily frayed. In the Piedmontese +method, on the other hand, each slip is joined to +another, and is not drawn apart until it has been +twisted round it four or five times.</p> + +<p>“The third method, known as that of Vaucanson, +is more expensive than the one last mentioned. +In the wheel invented by Vaucanson, the two silk-slips +are reunited after the first twisting, in order +to be twisted once again. This operation is called +the ‘double <i>croissade</i>.’</p> + +<p>“If these threads, thus placed on bobbins, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +intended for the woof, they are enchased perpendicularly +in a machine consisting of several compartments, +in which they are twisted separately. +Thence they are transferred to another machine, +in which they are twisted all together; after which +they are ready for the loom. Those which are +destined for the web are not twisted (as I have +explained above) until the moment when they are +united. Both at Valencia and at Talavera de la +Reina these machines, so precious to the weaver's +craft, and which economise manual toil, are not +unknown.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p>“At the latter of these towns I had already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +seen a single toothed-wheel, which set in motion +up to a thousand of these tiny bobbins on +which are wound the twisted slips of silk. The +wheels I saw at Valencia were smaller, because in +this city there is not, as there is at Talavera, a +royal factory self-contained within a single building. +At Valencia each manufacturer, in order to +carry out these various processes, requires to deal +with workmen and machines distributed through +several quarters of the town, and chooses from +among them such as he best prefers.</p> + +<p>“Nothing can be simpler than the working +of these silk-twisting machines, when once the +toothed-wheel has set them going. The perpendicular +movement of all these little bobbins +is looked after by women, and even children.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> + +<p>“If they should happen to clog, a touch of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +finger disengages them. If one of the slips should +break, the harm is mended in a trice: the practised +fingers of the machinist pick up the broken ends +with marvellous despatch, tie them together by +an imperceptible knot, and the bobbin which was +thus delayed loses no time in overtaking its +neighbours.</p> + +<p>“The slips of silk, before being twisted two by +two, are put through another process which I +ought to mention. When they are still in skeins +they are spread upon a large tub in which is a +quantity of viscous substances heated to boiling +point, the gases from which tend to make them +adhere to one another. This is termed <i>passer à +la brève</i>.</p> + +<p>“Thence they are removed to the machine for +twisting them. The silk, on issuing from this +machine, is called organzine; and it is only when +it is in this state that it can be exported from +Piedmont, where the twisting process was better +executed than elsewhere, until the time when it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +was rendered yet more perfect by Vaucanson.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> +This clever mechanic has combined all possible +advantages relating to the business of the silk-weaver. +His system, and no other, is practised in +the Lyons factories; but these wheels <i>à double +croissade</i> are only available for silk produced in +France; since that which is exported from abroad +and which is principally used in these factories, +requires to be reduced to organzine before it can +again be taken out of the country.</p> + +<p>“In this respect Spain possesses a sensible +advantage over other manufacturing nations; +since she raises a greater quantity of silk than +she is able to consume, and could easily put it +through the most advanced and perfect processes; +in spite of which she has clung for ages to her +faulty method. The present government has +attacked this method by the only means efficient +to bring about a change; that is, the slow but certain +influence of persuasion. In 1781 the Count of +Floridablanca contracted with a French merchant +settled in Madrid, that he should supply a hundred +<i>tours</i> of the Vaucanson pattern for spinning silk,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +first to the Murcian factories (of which province +the Count was a native), next to the Valencian, +and subsequently to any others that might wish +for them; and with this object he granted to the +merchant in question the privilege of exporting, +free of duty, six hundred thousand pounds of silk +in six years. Nevertheless, it is possible that this +measure may yet remain fruitless for many years +owing to the apathy of the Spanish manufacturers, +who were loth to use a finer, closer quality of silk, +because it must be woven with greater care owing +to its containing three ends instead of two, the +work being greater on this account without a +corresponding increase in the gain. It has also +been found necessary to employ Frenchmen in +the earliest trials made in Spain of this new +method.</p> + +<p>“The success of the Spaniards should not be +counted on, if we are to judge of it by a factory, +which was founded some years since at <i>La +Milanesa</i>, a league's distance from Valencia, by an +intelligent man named La Payessa.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> + +<p>“He introduced the method of Vaucanson, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +when I went to see his factory he had not seen his +way to recover the money which this improvement +had cost him. He employed barely two hundred +persons for the most important work; nothing +more was done than to spin the silk, divide it, +and convert it into organzine. Thus treated, it +cost from fifty to sixty <i>reales</i> more per pound than +that which is prepared according to the Spanish +method, so that its success was but small.</p> + +<p>“I shall not describe in detail either the method +of dyeing the silk, or that of weaving it. The first +of these operations is readily imagined; the second +is hard to understand, and still more so to explain, +unless one is assisted by engravings. I will +merely observe that all silk is dyed in skeins, just +before it enters the loom. If it be required +occasionally to dye it after it is woven, this is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +only when the silk is spotted, or when the dyeing +of the skeins has proved a failure. At the time +of my visit to Valencia, there were a hundred and +seventeen master-dyers in that city, but not all of +them were working.</p> + +<p>“The stuffs in which the factories of Valencia +are most successful are principally of the smooth +sort; they also make there handsome damask +<i>brochés</i> with large flowers for wall-hangings; but +generally all that is undertaken is by order of the +Court, Madrid, and the provinces. The Valencians +follow as closely as possible the rapidity +with which the French designs are changed, and +those who profess to invent new ones are but +copying the French ones in a greater or less +degree. Notwithstanding, the Valencian Fine-Arts +Academy is taking serious steps to form +designers, and a school has been founded which +has already developed able pupils—amongst +others, a young man called Ferrers, who had died +a short while before our arrival at the city, and +some of whose designs of flowers we had occasion +to admire.</p> + +<p>“But the process in which the Valencians +particularly excel is that of watering stuffs, which +M. Foz has rendered absolutely perfect. He gave<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +us a clear account of this process, which consists +in passing a cylinder over the stuff to be watered, +this cylinder being pressed upon by a heavy mass +moved to and fro by a mule which draws a lever +round and round. The stuff is folded in the +manner of a closed jalousie, and these folds require +to be often varied so as to distribute the undulations +evenly. M. Foz admitted that the shape +and the arrangement of these undulations are +more or less a matter of chance, but he proved to +us that it is possible to influence them to some +extent by moistening the stuff in a certain manner +and direction, and this is the particular secret +which he alone possesses in the whole of Spain. +The excellence of this method is demonstrated by +the beauty of the watered silk which issues from +these presses. M. Foz himself set us to judge of +this by asking us to compare the blue ribbon of +the Order of Charles the Third, watered by himself, +with those of the Order of the Holy Spirit. +The comparison, I must admit, was far from +advantageous to these last.”</p> + +<p>The subsequent vicissitudes of the Valencian silk +trade are indicated by Laborde, who wrote, some +few years later than the conscientious and observant +author of the <i>Nouveau Voyage en Espagne</i>:—</p> + +<p>“The mulberry-trees are of great importance;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +the fields of Valencia are covered with them, +particularly in the environs of that town, in the +dale of Elda, in the county of Carlet, in almost +all the places situated on the sea coast, etc. +There are white mulberry-trees, which are lopped +every two years.</p> + +<p>“The leaves of these trees serve as nourishment +to silkworms, which are raised almost everywhere +in the kingdom of Valencia. Algemesi, +Alcira, Carcagente, Castillo of San Felipe, the +county of Carlet, Undasuar, Gandia, Denia, +Orihuela, and all the villages near the sea are +places which produce the greatest quantity.</p> + +<p>“The silk made from them is the finest in +Spain. It would be equal to the best and finest +silks of Europe, if the Valencians, in spite of the +vivacity of their imagination, did not obstinately +persist in their old routine in the skeining; for in +the skein they put an undetermined number of +threads. The government has hired a man who +has the most experience in this kind of work; +but in vain does he endeavour to instruct them, +since the manufacturers continue their bad custom +just the same. The quantity of silk wound +annually is, on an average, about 1,500,000 pounds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +of twelve Valencian ounces (1,312,500 pounds +of sixteen ounces avoirdupois). It is commonly +sold raw for fifty reals of vellon a Valencian pound, +which gives a total of 75,000,000 reals of vellon +(£731,250)….</p> + +<p>“Silk is twisted in different places in the kingdom +of Valencia, for which purpose machines and +mills are established at Gandia, San Felipe, +Carcagente, Orihuela, and Valencia. The most +important establishment of this kind is at La +Milanesa, near the last mentioned town. Nevertheless, +these machines are not able to furnish as +much as the manufactures of the country require. +Part of the silk is sent to Priego and Toledo in +Andalusia, whence it is returned into the kingdom +of Valencia to be worked….</p> + +<p>“A great many impediments are thrown in the +way of the exportation of silk, which is only +allowed for six months after the harvest. If in +that period the national manufacturers want it, +they are at liberty to take it from the merchants +who have bought it, on reimbursing them the +purchase-money together with six per cent. interest. +The consequence is that the merchants, +uncertain whether they will be allowed to export +the silk which they have purchased, no longer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +take any foreign commissions for it, and so this +branch of exportation has fallen. Besides this, a +duty has been laid upon the silk sent out of the +kingdom, of nine reals of vellon and one quartillo +(1s. 11¼d. sterling) on every pound of twelve +Valencian ounces, which is almost a fifth of its +value. This is another obstacle to the exportation +of it. A very small quantity, twisted and dyed, +is sent into Portugal.</p> + +<p>“Generally 1,500,000 pounds of silk are made +annually, of which 1,100,000 are consumed in the +province, and 400,000 pounds are exported to +Talavera de la Reina, Requeña, Toledo, Granada, +Seville, Priego, and Cataluña. From this results +a product of 20,000,000 reals (£208,333, 6s.).”</p> + +<p>Of the city of Valencia, Laborde wrote:—</p> + +<p>“The manufactories of silk are the most considerable. +They employ nearly 25,000 persons, +and make taffetas, serges, silks, satins, plain +damasks, striped, printed, of one colour and of +mixed colours, full velvets, flowered velvets, plain +and of various colours. The plain stuffs are those +in which they succeed best. There are also fine +damasks made and worked with large flowers.”</p> + +<p>According to the same writer, the manufacture +at Valencia of silk stockings, galloons, silk ribbon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +handkerchiefs, and sashes revived to such an +extent, that in the year 1799 the looms for producing +these articles were 423 more than they had +been in 1769. “There are 3618 silk looms, which +work about 800,000 pounds of silk annually; the +handkerchiefs, sashes, and other little articles of +lace consume 100,000 pounds.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_98.jpg" width="500" height="462" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_98.jpg" id="img_98.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">VIII<br />THE DAUGHTERS OF PHILIP THE SECOND<br /> +(<i>By Sanchez Coello. Prado Gallery</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Equally as instructive is Laborde's account of +Barcelona.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> After remarking that the decay in +her manufactures lasted from the end of the +sixteenth century till the middle of the eighteenth, +he continues:—“They are at present in a very +flourishing state, and are more numerous and +varied than ever…. There are 524 looms of +silk stuffs, and 2700 of ribbons and silk galloon. +The silk works consist of taffetas, twilled and +common silks, satins, and velvets of every kind +and colour. These are mixed with gold and silver. +Gold cloths and brocades are also made there.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +The manufactures are not carried on by companies, +but dispersed among the workmen themselves, by +which perhaps the qualities may in some degree +be injured. It is remarked that the stuffs would +be better if they were closer, for their texture is +commonly loose; they are also different in the +gloss, which is seldom fine, and is never equal to +that in the manufactures of France. Another +fault in all these stuffs is the imperfect preparation +of the silk, which leaves it nearly always shaggy:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +the cause of this is the silk being spun or twisted +in an uneven manner. The same unpleasant +effect is observed in the silk stockings. They +cannot be fine, their stitches being uneven, and +often large and shaggy. They do not last long, +and are as dear as the French stockings after the +duty on their entrance into Spain has been paid.</p> + +<p>“At Barcelona, laces, blonds, net-work, and +tapes employ about twelve thousand persons. +Galloons, laces, and gold and silver fringes, are +likewise made here; but these are of no great +importance. Silk, gold, and silver embroideries +are very common, and the embroiderers are so +numerous that they are to be found in every street.</p> + +<p>“<i>Silk Stuffs.</i>—These are manufactured at +Manresa, Cardona, and Mataró, which has forty-eight +looms; but principally at Barcelona, where +there are five hundred and twenty-four. There +they make velvets, satins, damasks, silks, taffetas, +and gold and silver stuffs. The town of Barcelona +alone uses annually 300,000 pounds of raw silk.</p> + +<p>“<i>Taffetas, Handkerchiefs, and silk sashes.</i>—They +make a great quantity of these at Barcelona, +where there are a good many little manufactories +of this kind. There are a hundred and +fifty looms at Reus, and six hundred at Manresa.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +At the last place sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs +are made, which take about seventy +thousand pounds of raw silk.</p> + +<p>“<i>Silk twisters.</i>—There are some of these in +several towns, and a great many in Barcelona. +There are eighteen frames at Mataró, which +twist, one year with another, one hundred and +twenty-four quintals of silk; and thirty-seven at +Tarragona, which twist eleven thousand quintals.”</p> + +<p>Elsewhere in the course of his exhaustive +tomes, Laborde sums up the general revival of +the Spanish silk-trade in the following terms:—</p> + +<p>“Silk stockings are woven at Málaga, Zaragoza, +Valencia, and at various other places in the +kingdom of Valencia; at Valdemoro, and at +Talavera de la Reina in New Castile; also in +different parts of Cataluña, more especially at +Mataró, Arenys del Mar, and Barcelona. The +most extensive manufacture is carried on at the +latter city, where the number of frames amounts +to nine hundred. In the city of Mataró are fifty-two, +in Valencia one hundred and fifty, and nearly +as many in Talavera. The stockings made in +Spain are of a loose texture; owing to the improper +method in which silk-throwsting is conducted, +they are badly dressed and worse glossed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +The Spanish people themselves prefer French +stockings, and most of those manufactured in the +country are exported to America.</p> + +<p>“Ribbons hold a distinguished place among +the manufactured articles of Spain. Some few +are woven at Jaen, Granada, and Cordova; but +more at Talavera. Cadiz has but twenty ribbon-looms, +Manresa five hundred, Mataró eighty, Vich +twenty-two, Requeña two hundred, Valencia four +hundred, Murcia twelve hundred, and Barcelona +nearly three thousand. These looms are not in +factories, but individually dispersed. The Spanish +ribbons are in general thin and flimsy, have little +lustre, and their colours are neither brilliant nor +permanent. Ribbons are made of floss-silk at +Toledo, where there are about twelve looms, and +at Manresa, where there is a greater number.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_102.jpg" width="364" height="501" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_102.jpg" id="img_102.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">IX<br />A <i>CHARRA</i> OR PEASANT WOMAN<br /> +(<i>Salamanca, A.D. 1777</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>“Silk taffetas, serges, and other articles, such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +as common and figured satins, damasks, and plain +and flowered velvets, are made at Jaen, Granada, +Murcia, Valencia, and the adjacent villages; at +Málaga, Zaragoza, Toledo, Requeña, Talavera +de la Reina, Mataró, Manresa, Cardona, and +Barcelona. The silk-trade of Jaen and Granada +is at present in a very languishing state; the +manufacture of Murcia is dwindled to a few +individual looms. At Toledo are fifty looms, +fifty at Mataró, forty at Málaga, six hundred at +Requeña, four hundred at Talavera, which +consume annually two hundred thousand pounds +of silk; five hundred at Barcelona, which annually +manufacture, in conjunction with those of Cardona +and Manresa, about three thousand pounds +weight of silk; and in the city of Valencia are +three thousand, whose annual demand of silk is +eight hundred thousand pounds, while twenty-two +thousand persons are employed in the trade. In +Zaragoza are sixty looms, which consume fifty +thousand pounds of silk; but taffetas only are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +manufactured there. The cities of Toledo and +Talavera de la Reina are the only places where +the looms are collected together in factories: +in all other places they are separated, and are +found individually at the houses of the respective +weavers.</p> + +<p>“A great portion of the silks manufactured +in Spain are stout and excellent, but they are +destitute of the brilliancy observable in French +silks. The damasks made at Valencia are +extremely beautiful, and in that city they excel +in the art of mixing silk and mohair, and produce +mohair stuffs which appear to be superior to those +of France and England.</p> + +<p>“Quantities of silk handkerchiefs and bands +are manufactured at Reus, Manresa, and Barcelona. +Reus had five hundred looms, Manresa +six hundred, and annually made sixty thousand +dozen handkerchiefs; Barcelona, a much larger +quantity.</p> + +<p>“At Barcelona is a very considerable manufacture +of white, coloured, plain, and figured gauzes.</p> + +<p>“The art of silk-throwsting tends greatly to +improve the silk manufactures in Spain. Machines +invented in other countries have been adopted +here, and in many places profitable changes and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +corrections have taken place in the trade. Silk +is principally thrown at Priego, Toledo in Andalusia, +at Murcia in the kingdom of the same name, +at Cervera near Talavera de la Reina in New +Castile, at Valencia, at Milanesa near that city, +at Gandia, San Felipe, and Carcagente in the +kingdom of Valencia. The silk-throwsters, who +work at their own houses, and are paid in the +great, that is, according to the quantity of work +they perform, are very numerous in Murcia; but +they perform the business there in a very slovenly +way. In the city of Murcia a factory is established, +where silk is thrown in an excellent manner +by means of an ingenious machine, which has +been already described. The establishment at +La Milanesa is a very important one, and well +administered. At Cervera are a dozen silk-mills, +each having four large dividers, and six machines +for doubling and twisting, by which seven thousand +and seventy-two threads are divided, doubled, +and twisted at the same time.”</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Don Martin de Ulloa, <i>Discurso sobre las fábricas de seda +de Sevilla</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> In former times, linens and cottons painted, stencilled, or +stamped with decorative patterns from an iron or boxwood matrix, +were considered to be luxurious fabrics, and are denounced as such +in the sumptuary pragmatic (quoted by Miquel y Badía) issued by +Jayme the Conqueror in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1234: “Item statuimos quod nos nec +aliquis subditus noster non portet vestes <i>incisas</i>, <i>listatas</i>, vel +trepatas.”</p> + +<p>Latterly, these kind of stuffs were made in great quantities at +Barcelona, and exported to other Spanish provinces, as well as to +America. “Several manufactures of printed linens are established +here,” wrote Swinburne, in 1775, “but have not yet arrived at any +great elegance of design or liveliness of colour.” The manuscript +(dated about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1810) attached to my copy of Pigal's plates of +Spanish costume, says that the <i>pañoleta</i> or <i>fichu</i> (neckerchief) of +the women of Cartagena in their gala-dress was at that time of +“mousseline blanche, quelquefois brodé, et três souvent n'est qu'un +mouchoir d'indienne des fabriques de Barcelonne, avec une brodure +en fleurs rouges, le fond blanc et parsemé de petits bouquets.” The +same manuscript describes the dress of a cook at Granada:—“Le +jupon (<i>refajo</i>), qui est toujours três court, est en hiver de laine avec +une garniture au bas: en été il est en indienne. Cette <i>indienne</i> +est une sorte de percale ou toile de coton peinte, dont il y a plusieurs +fabriques en Catalogne. On en exportait autrefois une quantité, +immense que l'on portait dans les Amériques Espagnoles; c'est ce +qui lui a fait donner le nom d'indienne.”</p> + +<p>From the same source we learn respecting another cotton fabric, +which might easily be thought by the unwary reader of to-day to +have been of Spanish manufacture, that “l'habitant de Mahon fait +en été un grand usage de l'étoffe des Indes appelée <i>nankin</i>. Cette +étoffe n'est connue dans plusieurs parties de l'Espagne que sous +le nom de <i>Mahon</i>.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> In 1799 the Marquis of Monte-Fuerte declared the silk of +Seville to be of as fine a quality as that of Valencia and Carmona. +(<i>Discurso sobre el plantío de moreras en Sevilla y sus inmediaciones.</i>)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Granada was especially renowned for her velvets (Plate <a href="#img_40.jpg">vi</a>.), +grounded or relieved, in the oriental manner, with gold or silver.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Similar companies were formed at Toledo, Zaragoza, Burgos, +Seville, and Zarza. For the Crown <i>cedula</i>, dated February 10th, +1748, authorizing the Real Compañía de Comercio y Fábricas of +Toledo, see Larruga's <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. VII., p. 63.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Toledo en el Siglo XVI.</i> Miquel y Badía says that in the +fifteenth century Toledo, together with Genoa and Venice, manufactured +superb velvets, coloured crimson, blue, purple, or yellow, +and figured with pineapples or pomegranates (Plate <a href="#img_30.jpg">iv</a>.). The latter +tree and fruit are commonly related, in Spain, with the city of +<i>Granada</i>; but quite apart from this, the pomegranate was formerly +regarded as a symbol of fecundity and life. (See Goblet d'Alviella, +<i>La Migration des Symboles</i>, p. 184, and also Madame Errera's +Catalogue, No. 50.) In these velvets the gold thread is woven with +consummate skill, and forms, in the costliest and most elaborate +specimens, a groundwork of exceedingly small rings. These +fabrics were used as hangings for beds and walls, as well as for the +clothing of great lords and ladies. Touching the use of silk for +certain articles of dress, an amusing story is told in the MS. account +of Valladolid, published by Gayangos in the <i>Revista de España</i>. +“One day, Don Pedro de Medicis is reported to have paid a visit +to a married lady, to whom he had presented some damask curtains, +and he was wearing at the time some taffeta hose which made a +creaking as he walked. The lady came out of her room, and, finding +him in one of the lower apartments, exclaimed, ‘Why do you come +here at such an hour, and with that silk on you which creaks so +loudly? Take care my husband does not hear it.’ Whereto the +gentleman replied; ‘Good God, madam, is it possible that the two +hundred yards of damask which I gave you for that curtain have +made no noise at all, but that a mere four yards of simple taffeta +about my breeches should put you in such consternation?’”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> “The mulberry of Valencia is the <i>white</i>, as being most suitable +to a well-watered plain. In Granada they give the preference to +the <i>black</i>, as thriving well in elevated stations, as more durable, +more abundant in leaves, and yielding a much finer and more valuable +silk. But then it does not begin bearing till it is about twenty +years of age. In this province they reckon that five trees should +produce two pounds of silk.</p> + +<p>“I had the curiosity to examine their method of feeding the silkworms. +These industrious spinners are spread upon wicker shelves, +which are placed one above the other, all round, and likewise in the +middle of each apartment, so as to leave room only for the good +woman to pass with their provisions. In one house I saw the produce +of six ounces of seed, and was informed that to every ounce, +during their feeding season, they allow sixty <i>arrobas</i> of leaves, +valued at two pounds five. Each ounce of seed is supposed to yield +ten pounds of silk, at twelve ounces to the pound. March 28th, +the worms began to hatch, and May 22nd they went up to spin. +On the eleventh day, from the time that they were hatched, they +slept; and on the fourteenth, they awoke to eat again, receiving +food twice a day till the twenty-second day. Having then slept a +second time, without interruption, for three days, they were fed +thrice a day; and thus alternately they continued eating eight days +and sleeping three, till the forty-seventh day; after which they ate +voraciously for ten days, and not being stinted, consumed sometimes +from thirty to fifty <i>arrobas</i> in four and twenty hours. They then +climbed up into rosemary bushes, fixed for that purpose between +the shelves, and began to spin.</p> + +<p>“Upon examination, they appear evidently to draw out two +threads by the same operation, and to glue these together, covering +them with wax. This may be proved by spirit of wine, which will dissolve +the wax, and leave the thread. Having exhausted her magazine, +the worm changes her form and becomes a nymph, until the +seventy-first day from the time that the little animal was hatched, +when she comes forth with plumage, and having found her mate, +begins to lay her eggs. At the end of six days from this period of +existence, having answered the end of their creation, they both lie +down and die. This would be the natural progress; but, to preserve +the silk, the animal is killed by heat, and the cones being +thrown into boiling water, the women and children wind off the +silk.”—Townsend; <i>Journey through Spain in the years 1786 and +1787</i>; Vol. III., pp. 264–266.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> They certainly were not unknown at Valencia. I have before +me a copy of the work, <i>Disertacion descriptiva de la Hilaza de la +Seda, segun el antiguo modo de hilar y el nuevo llamado de +Vaucanson</i>, written by the priest Francisco Ortells y Gombau, and +published at Valencia in 1783, by order of the Royal Council of +Commerce and Agriculture. This book, which clearly sets forth the +superiority of Vaucanson's method over those which had preceded it, +states that at first the Valencians were strongly opposed to the +Vaucanson wheel, believing that it caused a loss and waste of silk. +Probably the real reason was that it prevented the manufacturers +from adding spurious weight to the silk by mixing it with oil. This +practice, says Ortells, was then “so widespread an evil in the kingdom +of Valencia, that there is hardly anybody who does not resort to it: +notwithstanding it has been so often prohibited by His Majesty, yet +openly, where all the world may witness, do the workers spin with +much oil added to the silk.”</p> + +<p>The Vaucanson form of wheel was also more expensive. In the +region of Valencia its cost was about thirty <i>pesos</i>, that of the older +wheels being only fifteen or sixteen <i>pesos</i>. However, this difficulty +was not insuperable, for in the year 1779 the Royal Council of +Commerce presented a hundred and twenty Vaucanson wheels to +the peasants who had raised a minimum crop of a hundred pounds +of silk, requiring, in return, that the recipients of the gift should spin +not less than fifty pounds of silk per annum.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> At the time when Vaucanson's wheels began to be used in +Spain, silk was spun by men all over the Peninsula, except in the +immediate neighbourhood of Valencia (Orteils; <i>Hilaza de la Seda</i>, +pp. 134 <i>et seq.</i>) In every other region devoted to this industry +such as the valley of the Jucar and the Huertas of Orihuela and +Murviedro, as well as in the factories of Toledo, Seville, Granada, +Cordova, Jaén, Baeza, Talavera, and Priego, the spinning was performed +by men exclusively. Women, however, were often engaged +in harvesting the cocoons.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> “I should here remark that the silk which is spun and twisted +according to the method of Vaucanson, forms a fabric a third part +closer and stronger than ordinary silk-stuffs.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> This man, Joseph Lapayese or La Payessa, did not initiate +Vaucanson's method in this region. He succeeded a Frenchman +named Reboul, who, in 1769, and holding privileges from the Crown, +began to work with Vaucanson wheels at Vilanesa, near Valencia—the +same place which Bourgoing calls <i>La Milanesa</i>. Both the king +and his minister of finance, Don Miguel de Muzquiz, were keenly +interested in these experiments, and Muzquiz, who owned an estate +near the town of Sueca, in the same neighbourhood, imported four +more of the new wheels there, under Reboul's direction. This +craftsman, however, was not successful. Lapayese, who came after +him and enjoyed the same Crown privileges, made considerably +better progress, his efforts being seconded by the Royal Junta, the +archbishop, and other bodies or individuals of Valencia, who +awarded prizes of wheels and money to the best workers in the new +style.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The art of weaving silk appears to have found its way into +Barcelona comparatively late, for the veil-makers did not form a +guild of their own till <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1553, the velvet-makers till 1548, the +silk-twisters till 1619, and the dyers of silk till 1624.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Brocade (Spanish <i>brocado</i> or <i>brocato</i>) may be generally described +as a silk-stuff woven with devices or raised figures in gold and +silver thread, or either of these metals separately (Plate <a href="#img_98.jpg">viii</a>.). +This costly fabric, which may be said to have superseded the earlier +kinds of cloth of gold, was greatly in vogue in older Spain, especially +throughout the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. It +is constantly referred to by her writers (“No siendo nueva la que +prohibe las telas de oro, los <i>brocados</i>, y tabies.”—Fernandez +Navarrete; <i>Conservacion de Monarquías</i>, p. 231), and denounced +by her priests (Fray Luis de León, “Y ha de venir la tela de no sé +donde, y <i>el brocado de mas altos</i>, y el ambar que bañe el guante”), +or in the pragmatics of her kings (<i>e.g.</i> that of September 2nd, 1494, +and of 1611: “Está prohibido todo género de colgaduras, tapicerias +sillas, coches, y literas de <i>brocados</i>, telas de oro ó plata…. Asi +mismo se prohiben bordaduras en el campo de los doseles y camas; +pero no en las cenefas, que podrán llevar alamares, y fluecos de +oro, ó plata, ó <i>brocado</i>”).</p> + +<p>Brocade was made in Spain at Toledo, Barcelona, Seville, Valencia +and elsewhere, but as a rule it could not be compared in quality +with that of Genoa or Venice. A cheaper, though showy and +attractive modification of brocade was brocatel, in which the silk +was mixed with common thread or flax. According to the +Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, this commoner fabric was used +for hangings for churches, halls, beds, etc., and a document of 1680 +tells us that the price of brocatel made at Granada, and containing +two colours, was twenty-two <i>reales</i> the yard.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Towards the nineteenth century, ribbon was a great deal worn +upon, or together with, the regional costumes of the Spanish women; +for instance, on the gala bodice or <i>cotilla</i> of the <i>hortelana</i> of Valencia, +who further used it to make fast her <i>alpargatas</i> or sandals, described +in the manuscript account attached to Pigal's plates as “espèce de +cothurnes, attachés avec des rubans en soie ou fil bleu ou rouge.” +The same fabric served the peasant woman of Carthagena for +securing the sleeves of her gala camisole, for lacing the bodice of +the woman of Iviza, and in the other Balearic Islands, for tying the +<i>rebocillo</i> or <i>rebociño</i> beneath the chin. Also it was with ribbon that +the servant-girls of Granada suspended a cross round their necks, +that the <i>charra</i> of Salamanca (Plate <a href="#img_102.jpg">ix</a>.) trimmed her hat, that the +women of Madrid, La Mancha, and Andalusia bound up their knots +of hair (<i>moños con cinta</i>), and that, in some localities, even ladies +of the highest class secured their shoes about the lower leg and +ankle.</p></div> +</div> + +<h3><a name="CLOTHS_AND_WOOLLENS" id="CLOTHS_AND_WOOLLENS">CLOTHS AND WOOLLENS</a></h3> + +<p>Although the history of Spanish cloths and +woollens is not of great importance, I think it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +well to briefly sketch their history. Sails and +other fabrics of the coarsest kind are said to have +been made, almost in prehistoric times, at Sætabi +(the modern Játiva) and at Saguntum (Murviedro). +From the thirteenth century cloths of good +quality were made at Barcelona, Lerida, San +Daniel, Bañolas, Valls, and other towns of +Cataluña. A privilege of Alfonso the Learned, +dated May 18th, 1283, contains the following +technical disposition relative to the cloth-looms of +the city of Soria: “Que la trenza cuando sea +ordida que haya 88 varas, que pese una aranzada +é 5 libras de estambre; é cualquier que la fallare +menor, que peche 5 sueldos. Que todos los +tejedores é tejedoras de la dicha cibdad é de su +tierra, que pongan en las telas de lino 42 linnuelos +é en las de estopazo 32 linnuelos; é en las de +marga é de sayal 32 linnuelos.”</p> + +<p>Segovia was another ancient centre of this +manufacture, which Larruga considers to have +been transferred hither upon the extinction of the +factories of Cameros, Burgos, and Palencia. +However this may be, the <i>fuero</i> of Sepúlveda, +signed by Alfonso the Sixth, tells us that clothworks +existed here as early as the eleventh +century. Towards the end of the fourteenth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +when Catherine of Lancaster was married to the +Infante Don Enrique, the English princess +brought over, as part of her dowry, a flock of +merino sheep. These are believed to have pastured +near Segovia—a city where Catherine made +her home for many years. In any case, Segovian +cloths improved considerably from about this time, +and by the reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip +the Second, when thirty-four thousand persons +were employed in the manufacture and twenty-five +thousand pieces of cloth were produced +annually, were thought (especially the baizes and +the serges) to be unsurpassed in Europe.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Sovereigns, +including Charles the Second and Charles +the Fifth of Spain, and Henry the Eighth of +England, were among the patrons of these fabrics, +while as late as the year 1700 the Franciscan +friars engaged in redeeming captives from the +Turks, reported that “at Constantinople, whither<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +they had carried Segovian cloths as presents to +the principal rulers of that country, those cloths +were spoken of in terms of high approval.”</p> + +<p>Early in the seventeenth century, and owing to +a series of causes such as impertinent or improvident +legislation, heavy taxes, and the importation +of foreign cloths, the trade showed +symptoms of decay.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Bertaut de Rouen wrote in +1659, referring to the Spanish character at this +time: “Bien souvent le pain leur manque, comme +j'ay veu dans <i>Almagro</i>, petite ville située dans le +meilleur pays d'Andalousie, et dans <i>Segovie</i>, qui +est une des grandes villes d'Espagne, et où il y +avoit autrefois des plus riches marchands à cause +des draps et des chapeaux que l'on y faisoit, qui a +esté longtemps le sejour des Roys de Castille, et +qui n'est qu'environ à douze ou quatorze lieuës de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +Madrid, où il n'y avoit point de pain dans toute la +ville le jour que j'y arrivay, et il n'y en eut qu'à +quatre heures après midy, que l'on le distribua par +ordre du <i>Corregidor</i>, aussi bien qu'à Almagro.”</p> + +<p>The rise, decay, and subsequent revival of the +Spanish cloth industries, and particularly the +Segovian, are well described by Laborde, Bourgoing, +and Townsend. According to the first of +these authorities, “at so early a period as 1629 +the merchants (of Segovia) complained that there +was every year a reduction in the fabrication of +cloth, to the amount of five thousand five hundred +pieces; and that there resulted from this deficiency +an annual loss of 2,424,818 ducats and 2 reals, +or about £274,000 sterling. In the eighteenth +century it appeared, from the observations of the +Economical Society, that the fabrication of stuffs +and cloths employed but one hundred and twenty +looms, in which only four thousand three hundred +and eighteen quintals of washed wool were consumed.</p> + +<p>“About forty years ago these manufactures +began to revive, the looms were multiplied, and +the consumption of wool considerably augmented. +A single individual, Don Lorenzo Ortiz, has +for some years accelerated their progress. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +1790 there was an addition of sixty-three looms, +which employed eight or nine hundred quintals +of wool, and afforded occupation to two thousand +four hundred manufacturers.”</p> + +<p>The same author wrote that early in the +nineteenth century, “the woollen manufactures of +New Castile are the most numerous and important. +Cloths are made at Toledo, Chinchon, +Brihuega, Guadalajara; serges, stuffs, and flannels +at Toledo and Cuenca. The cloths of Brihuega +are of an excellent quality, but those of Guadalajara +are still superior to them; in particular, the +cloth of Vigonia. There are twenty-eight looms +at Toledo, forty at Guasmenia, a hundred at +Brihuega, and six hundred and fifty-six at Guadalajara.”</p> + +<p>Bourgoing wrote, a dozen years or so before +the close of the eighteenth century: “Spanish +wool is eagerly demanded by manufacturing +peoples of the rest of Europe. Nevertheless, it +is not turned to so much advantage as it might be. +French, Dutch, and English come to Spain to +purchase the wools of Segovia and León at the +ports of Bilbao and Santander.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Not even so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +much as the commission on their sale is left in +power of the Spaniards, for the foreigners buy +up the wool straight from the shepherd, and wash +it on their own account. Out of one million of +<i>arrobas</i><a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> of fine wool which Spain produces +annually, she exports more than half in washed +wool, and a lesser quantity, by far, of unwashed. +It has been estimated that the export duties on this +wool and which it has not been hitherto thought +prudent to curtail, produce a sum of close upon five +millions for the King of Spain. Here, therefore, +is another reason for not suppressing the ‘abusive +measure’ of which the patriotic Spaniards complain +so loudly; since it is far from easy to do +away with so appreciable a source of revenue +unless one has at hand a swift and sure alternative +measure by which it may be substituted. All the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +same, government is endeavouring to derive a +greater fiscal profit from the exportation of these +wools, and at the same time to bring about a +greater use of them in the Peninsula. For a long +time past, all kinds of common woollen fabrics, +such as clothing for the soldiery and lower classes, +have been made in Spain. The exportation of +these fabrics is prohibited. As for the finer +wools, these also are employed in several places, +but more than anywhere else at Guadalajara, +where I visited the factories towards the end of +the year 1783. I was surprised to remark that +in several respects the manufacture had reached +a great pitch of perfection. I say <i>I was surprised</i>, +because I had heard, times without number, +that the Spaniards were completely ignorant of +these processes, and did not know how to card, +or spin, or weave, or dye, or full, or calender; +that their stuffs grew loose and wore badly; that +the price was exorbitant, etc. How many prejudices +of this nature was I able to throw aside +after fair and deliberate examination of the stuffs +in question! I will only quote a single point to +prove that the censures which are aimed at the +Spaniards respecting the quality of their cloths +are not applicable to them all, and that they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +well upon the road to being entirely undeserving +of them. I was shown at Guadalajara a piece of +scarlet cloth, which, both for its excellent quality +and for its skilful dyeing, seemed to me to be quite +comparable with the best cloths of Julienne. +These latter cost at their place of manufacture as +much as thirty-nine <i>livres</i> the ell. At Guadalajara, +I noted from the tariff established in the +factory, that the price of the finest scarlet cloth +was only from thirty-one to thirty-two <i>livres</i> the +ell. Comparing these and other figures on the +tariff, I came to the conclusion that there was +about the same difference in price between +Spanish cloths and French cloths, in favour of +the former. What seems more singular still is +that the factories which work at the King's +expense are generally administered in a thriftless +fashion, and that the factory of Guadalajara was +being greatly mismanaged at the time in question. +However, subsequently to my visit, changes for +the better have been introduced, which will +improve the quality of, as well as cheapen, its +products, though, even when I saw it, this +factory was one of the most perfect to be seen +anywhere. Within a space by no means large, it +contained all the machines and apparatus required<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +for clothmaking, except the thin, polished pasteboards +which are placed between the folds of a +piece of cloth as it is passed through the press. +These were still brought from England; but +everything else was prepared upon the spot, even +to the large scissors used in the shearing. There +were eighty looms for the finest cloths, whose +proper name is <i>cloths of San Fernando</i>, from +the town where they were first produced; a +hundred for cloths of the second quality; and five +hundred and six for making serges, in which, in +course of time, hopes are entertained of excelling +those of England.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> All these looms were contained +in two buildings, and kept employed three thousand +eight hundred and twenty-five persons, all of them +paid by the King,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> without counting some forty +thousand more dispersed all over the Castilian and +Manchegan tableland, engaged in spinning the +wool which is made up into stuffs at Guadalajara. +It would be difficult, I am sure, to find a factory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +better organized. Even the town in which it is, +presents a striking contrast with others of that +neighbourhood. I did not see one single mendicant +or idler among all its fifteen or sixteen +thousand inhabitants. Such are the good results +of its manufactures, and, above all, those of cloth, +including many small and detailed processes which +women, children, aged people, or even the sick +are able to perform. Here, where Nature +seemed to have condemned these ailing folk to a +tedious and useless existence, art, as it were, steps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +in and finds employment and relief for them. +Nevertheless, it must be owned that the Spaniards +(as they themselves admit) are still a little behindhand +in the method of dyeing and fulling their +cloths, though when a people possess (as they) +the raw materials needed, both for making and +for dyeing, a few men skilled in these processes +are all that is wanted to perfect several branches +of this industry; especially when, as is the case +in Spain, government spares no effort to achieve +this end. Guadalajara is further the only +place in Spain which produces the celebrated +Vicuña cloth; an admirable fabric for which the +rest of the world has cause to envy Spanish +America.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> As the use of this cloth has not as yet +become general, it is not continually manufactured, +nor is it easy to obtain a few ells of it without +ordering them several months in advance. +This stuff is also manufactured for the King of +Spain, who makes presents of it to various other +monarchs. In the year 1782, after concluding a +treaty with the Porte, he sent twenty pieces of +it to the Sultan of Turkey. They gave great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +satisfaction. It has been imagined from this circumstance +that Spain would not be loth to supply +the Turkish market with her cloths; and other of +the manufacturing nations have felt some measure +of alarm, perhaps unnecessarily. The Spanish +government has too much sense to enter upon +such a competition with other peoples as long as +Spain does not supply the whole of the two and +twenty million citizens who live beneath her rule. +The same government, too, is well aware how +remote is this degree of prosperity. The clothworks +of Guadalajara have a kind of branch +factory at Brihuega, four leagues distant. At +Brihuega there are a hundred looms, all used for +making fabrics of the finest quality.</p> + +<p>“Segovia, famous at all periods for the excellence +of her wool, was formerly not less so for +the number and perfection of her clothworks. +Now, every patriotic Spaniard must lament to +see how she has fallen. In the year 1785 +the number of her looms did not exceed two +hundred and fifty. The most important factory +was that of Ortiz, founded in 1779 under the title +of <i>Real Fábrica</i>: the King possessed an interest +in it. In 1785 Ortiz was still employing three +thousand workers in and about Segovia, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +manufactured every quality of cloth in sixty-three +looms, from the pieces which contained the two +thousand threads prescribed by the <i>Ordenanzas</i>, to +those which should contain four thousand. His +energy was only hampered by the indolent character +of the Segovians. The privileges wherewith +the government has sought to stimulate his first +experiments in this craft are not at all injurious to +the other manufacturers. They all concur to sell +their goods, and at a reasonable price. In +September of 1785, the most expensive cloths +cost only ninety reals the <i>vara</i>; that is to say, +about thirty-one <i>livres</i> and ten <i>sols</i> the ell.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_118.jpg" width="361" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_118.jpg" id="img_118.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">X<br />PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH<br /> +(<i>Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Townsend wrote, precisely at the same time as +Bourgoing: “Segovia was once famous for its +cloth, made on the King's account; but other +nations have since become rivals in this branch, +and the manufacture in this city has been gradually +declining. When the King gave it up to a private +company, he left about three thousand pounds in +trade; but now he is no longer a partner in the +business.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> In the year 1612 were made here<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +twenty-five thousand five hundred pieces of cloth, +which consumed forty-four thousand six hundred +and twenty-five quintals of wool, and employed +thirty-four thousand one hundred and eighty-nine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +persons; but at present they make only about four +thousand pieces. The principal imperfections of +this cloth are, that the thread is not even, and +that much grease remains in it when it is delivered +to the dyer; in consequence of which the colour +is apt to fail. Yet, independently of imperfections, +so many are the disadvantages under which the +manufacture labours, that foreigners can afford to +pay three pounds for the <i>arroba</i> of fine wool, for +which the Spaniard gives no more than twenty +shillings, and after all his charges can command +the market even in the ports of Spain.</p> + +<p>“In the year 1525, the city contained five +thousand families, but now they do not surpass +two thousand—a scanty population this for twenty-five +parishes; yet, besides the twenty-five churches, +together with the cathedral, they have one and +twenty convents. When the canal is finished, +and the communication opened to the Bay of +Biscay at Santander, the trade and manufactures +of Segovia may revive; but, previous to that event, +there can be nothing to inspire them with hope.”</p> + +<p>Swinburne had written of the same city ten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +years earlier (1776): “The inhabitants do not +appear much the richer for their cloth manufactory. +Indeed, it is not in a very flourishing +condition; but what cloth they make is very +fine.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_120.jpg" width="500" height="370" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_120.jpg" id="img_120.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XI<br />PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH<br /> +(<i>Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The Ordinances of Granada (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1532), from +which we learn that cloth was also manufactured +at that capital, contain the usual dispositions relative +to the stamping of this product by the city +officers. The stamps were in a box which was kept +in a corner of the cathedral and closed by two keys, +guarded severally by a councillor and an inspector +of the trade, or <i>veedor</i>. On every day except a +public festival, between the hours of ten and +eleven of the morning, and three and four of the +afternoon, it was the duty of these two authorities +to proceed to the Alcaicería, and ascertain if any +cloth required stamping. If so, the stamps were +fetched forthwith from the cathedral, the cloth +was marked, and the stamps were solemnly restored +to their chest beneath the double key.</p> + +<p>Among the woven fabrics other than those of +silk, and which are specified in the Ordinances of +Granada relative to the <i>tundidores</i> or shearers, +are cloths of Florence, Flanders, London, Valencia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +Zaragoza, Onteniente, Segovia, and Perpignan; +<i>velarte</i> (a fine cloth manufactured at Granada), +red <i>burel</i> (kersey) of Baeza, black kersey of +Villanueva and La Mancha, <i>ruan</i> (Roan linen), +fustians, friezes, and <i>cordellate</i> (grogram) of +Granada, Valencia, Toledo, Segovia, and Cuenca. +According to Capmany, cloths of the commoner +kind, and which were popular about this time, +were the <i>granas treintenas</i> and black cloths of +Valencia, the white or yellow <i>veintiseiseno</i> cloths +of Toledo, the white cloths of Ciudad Real, the +green <i>palmillas</i> of Cuenca, and green <i>dieciochenos</i> +of Segovia, the <i>contrayes</i> of Cazalla, and the +<i>pardillos</i> of Aragon. Spanish cloth was also +manufactured at Vergara, Cordova, Jaen, Murcia, +Palencia, Tavira de Durango, and Medina del +Campo.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_122.jpg" width="341" height="499" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_122.jpg" id="img_122.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XII<br />EMBROIDERED CHASUBLE<br /> +(<i>Palencia Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Laborde says: “In the archives of the Crowns +of Aragon and Castile there is a notice of the +duties paid from the thirteenth to the end of the +seventeenth century for foreign cloths sold in +Spain, and for other articles of consumption coming +from abroad. The principal cloths came from +Bruges, Montpellier, and London; the velvets +from Malines, Courtrai, Ypres, and Florence. +This trade became so injurious to Spain, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +Ferdinand and Isabella thought themselves bound +to limit it entirely to the stuffs required for ornaments +of the church, which of itself was a considerable +quantity. Their prohibition is the +subject of the rescript of September 2nd, 1494, +for the provinces of the Crown of Castile. Even +so far back as the Ordinances of Barcelona in +1271, mention is made of the taxes levied on the +cloths of Flanders, Arras, Lannoy, Paris, Saint +Denis, Chalons, Beziers, and Reims.”<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_124.jpg" width="348" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_124.jpg" id="img_124.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XIII<br />EMBROIDERED <i>MANGA</i> OR CASE OF PROCESSIONAL CROSS<br /> +(<i>Early 16th Century; Toledo Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1809 the same author remarked: “The +kingdom of Valencia produces little wool, yet +there are five manufactories of woollens and +coarse and fine cloths: they are at Morella, +Enguera, Bocairente, Onteniente, and Alcoy. +The small woollen stuffs are principally made +at Enguera; nothing but the coarsest cloths are +made at Morella, Bocairente, and Onteniente. +The manufactory at Alcoy is the most considerable: +the cloths, though finer, are generally of +an inferior quality. The woof of them is thick,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +with little nap upon it. The finest are scarcely +superior to the beautiful cloths of Carcassonne.”</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Colmenares, who wrote a history of Segovia down to the reign +of Philip the Second, says that in his time the clothmakers of this +town were “true fathers of families, who within and without their +houses sustain a multitude of persons (in many cases two and three +hundred), producing, with the aid of other people's hands, a great +variety of finest cloth: an employment worthy to be ranked with +agriculture, and that is of the utmost profit to any city, or to any +kingdom.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> An amusing passage in Fernandez Navarrete's <i>Conservación de +Monarquías</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1626) tells us that most of the costlier dress-materials +used in Spain about this time proceeded from abroad, and +that they were “of so fine a texture that the heat of an iron scorches +them and wears them out in a couple of days; while a great number +of men employ themselves in the effeminate office of dressing +collars, who, ceasing also to be men, forsake the plough or warlike +exercises; for it is certain that when the Spaniards kept the world +in awe, this land produced a greater number of armourers, and less +persons who busied themselves with looking after womanish apparel” +(p. 232).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> This recalls the statement made, centuries before, by Alonso de +Cartagena at the Council of Bâle: “And if the English should +vaunt the cunning of their cloth-makers, then would I tell them +somewhat; for if our country lack the weavers to make a cloth so +delicate as the scarlet cloths of London, yet is that substance titled +<i>grana</i> (the kermes, or scarlet grain), from which the scarlet cloth +receives its pleasantness of smell and brilliancy of hue, raised in the +kingdom of Castile, and thence conveyed to England, and even to +Italy.”—Larruga, <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. XIV., p. 167.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> “The weight of an <i>arroba</i> is twenty-seven pounds. The +average price is from twenty-three to twenty-seven <i>livres</i> the <i>arroba</i> +of unwashed wool of the best quality, which pays five <i>livres</i> ten <i>sols</i> +of export duty. The <i>arroba</i> of washed wool pays double.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> “It has been calculated that Spain, about this time, paid annually +to England two million pounds sterling per annum, solely on account +of her woollens.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> “His Majesty maintained this factory by a monthly payment +from his treasury of one hundred and fifty thousand <i>livres</i>; an +exorbitant amount, which very possibly would not be covered by the +sales of cloth.”</p> + +<p>Townsend wrote in 1787 “Royal manufactures and monopolies +have a baneful influence on population: for, as no private adventurers +can stand the competition with their sovereign, where he is +the great monopolist, trade will never prosper. The Spanish +monarch is a manufacturer of</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> +Broad cloth, at Guadalajara and Brihuega;<br /> +China, at the palace of the Buen Retiro;<br /> +Cards, at Madrid and Málaga;<br /> +Glass, at San Ildefonso;<br /> +Paper, in Segovia;<br /> +Pottery, at Talavera;<br /> +Saltpetre, at Madrid and various other places;<br /> +Stockings, at Valdemoro;<br /> +Swords, at Toledo;<br /> +Tapestry, at Madrid;<br /> +Tissue, at Talavera.<br /> +</div> + +<p>He has the monopoly of brandy, cards, gunpowder, lead, quicksilver, +sealing-wax, salts, sulphur, and tobacco.”—(<i>Journey through +Spain</i>, Vol. II., p. 240.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> “It is made from wools of Buenos Aires and Peru. The wool +of the former of these regions is the longer, but the Peruvian is the +more silky.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> A report presented by the Council of Commerce to the Marquis +of la Ensenada, put forward, in 1744, the absurd pretence that +the king of Spain maintained his factories “not for any State +convenience or <i>ad lucrum captandum</i>, but in order to augment +our own products, and diminish those which are imported from +abroad.”—Larruga's <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. XV., pp. 70 and 247. Also +see the conference delivered by the Count of Torreánaz in 1886, +in the Royal Spanish Academy of Moral and Political Science; +p. 27, note.</p> + +<p>Several of the Spanish Crown factories were finally taken over +by the association—immensely wealthy at one period—known as +the Five Chief Gremios of Madrid (<i>Los Cinco Gremios Mayores de la +Villa de Madrid</i>), and it is clear that the investment of a large +amount of capital, subscribed by many shareholders, would of itself +be calculated to destroy the narrow ideals and what I may term the +individually greedy spirit which hitherto had ruled within the craftsman's +private family. Private interests, in short, were superseded +by the larger interests of a powerful company. That which I have +mentioned was composed of the five <i>gremios</i> of the capital of Spain +which subscribed the largest sums in taxes to the national exchequer; +namely, the drapers, haberdashers, spicers and druggists, jewellers, +cloth-merchants, and linen-drapers. For many years this association +administered, on government's behalf, the <i>alcabalas</i>, <i>tercias</i>, +and <i>cientos</i> of the town and district of Madrid, and subsequently +(<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1745) the <i>millones</i> tax, together with other important dues, +and ultimately, as I have stated, took over, on a liberal scale of +purchase, the royal cloth and silk factories of Talavera de la Reina +(<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1785), San Fernando, Guadalajara, Brihuega, Ezcaray, and +Cuenca. The decay and downfall of the company was due to gross +mismanagement, and indeed, the idiosyncrasies of the Spanish +character render this people, even at the present day, but little fitted +to embark upon commercial schemes requiring competent directors, +heavy capital, and confident assistance, moral and material, from a +large body of investors. Spaniards, as I have insisted elsewhere, +do not pull well together; and so, early in the nineteenth century, +the association of the five great <i>gremios</i>, which had possessed at +one time many millions of <i>pesetas</i>, suspended payment of all +dividends. It is fair to add, however, that this collapse was partly +owing to the wars between France and Spain.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> In the reign of Francis the First, the importation of Catalan +cloth into France was prohibited altogether.—Levasseur, <i>Histoire +des classes ouvrières en France</i>, Vol. II., p. 73.</p> + +<p>Among the various cloths (exclusively or chiefly of the less +expensive kinds) which were manufactured in the capital and +country of Cataluña, we read of those of pure scarlet, scarlet +tinted with light or dark purple, ash-coloured, carmine, and rose; +of cloth of combed wool, <i>medias lanas</i> (half-woollens), serges, and +<i>cadinas</i> or <i>banyolenchs</i>. But before the close of the fifteenth +century the production of these fabrics had suffered a serious +decline caused by the tactless government of Ferdinand the +Catholic, and above all, by the introduction of the Inquisition into +Barcelona. A privilege of Ferdinand, granted on November 4th, +1493, to the Barcelonese clothmakers, admits that this was the +foremost and most useful local manufacture (“no y ha altre art ni +offici que mes util done”), adding, however, that it had fallen into +a state of sad prostration “owing to the indisposition of these +times.” (Capmany, <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. II., <i>Doc.</i> ccxliv).</p> + +<p>This was undoubtedly the case; for in a report of the city council +drawn up in 1491, it is stated that good cloth can only be manufactured +from good wool, but that this had now become a difficult +matter at Barcelona, because the clothmakers were without the +money to purchase such wool. In consequence, they appealed to +the city (then even more resourceless than themselves) to help +them.</p> + +<p>Although it has become fashionable in some quarters to deny +that the Inquisition contributed in a sensible degree to the decline +of Spanish arts and industries, the following passage, quoted from +the municipal archives of Barcelona, places the fact beyond all +argument as far as this locality is concerned. The city councillors +declared in 1492 that “by reason of the Inquisition established in +this city, many evils have befallen our commerce, together with +the depopulation of the said city, and much other and irreparable +damage to her welfare; and as much more harm will occur in the +future, unless a remedy be applied, wherefore the said councillors +entreat of the king's majesty that of his wonted clemency he order +the said Inquisition to cease; or else that he repair the matter in +such wise that <i>the merchants who departed because of the Inquisition</i> +may return, and continue in the service of their God, their +king, and of the general welfare of the city aforesaid.”</p></div> +</div> + +<h3><a name="EMBROIDERY" id="EMBROIDERY">EMBROIDERY</a></h3> + +<p>The art of embroidering, and especially of embroidering +with the aid of gold and silver thread, +was communicated to the Spaniards by the +Spanish Moors, who doubtless had derived it from +the East. By about the thirteenth century, the +needle of the Spanish embroiderer had become, in +the picturesque phrase of one of his compatriots, +“a veritable painter's brush, describing facile outlines +on luxurious fabrics, and filling in the spaces, +sometimes with brilliant hues, or sometimes with +harmonious, softly-graduated tones which imitate +the entire colour-scheme of Nature.” Nevertheless, +it was not until the fifteenth and the sixteenth +centuries that this art attained, in the Peninsula, +its topmost summit of perfection.</p> + +<p>It is not at all surprising that embroidery should +have made great progress among a people so devoted +to the outward and spectacular forms of worship +as the Spaniards; nor have the chasubles, +copes, and other vestments of the Spanish prelacy +and priesthood ever been surpassed for costly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +splendour<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> (Plates <a href="#img_118.jpg">x</a>., <a href="#img_120.jpg">xi</a>., <a href="#img_122.jpg">xii</a>.). But generally +where the Spanish embroiderer excelled was in +the mere manipulation of the needle. In fertility +of design he was far outdistanced by the Germans +and Italians, and was even to a large extent their +imitator; for Spanish embroidery, as occurred with +Spanish painting, was influenced, almost to an +overwhelming degree, firstly by northern art, and +subsequently by the art of the Renaissance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_126.jpg" width="600" height="255" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_126.jpg" id="img_126.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XIV<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT</p> +</div> + +<p>These tendencies or characteristics will be found +in nearly all the masterpieces of Spanish embroidery +that have been preserved until to-day, +of which perhaps the most remarkable specimens +are the <i>manga</i> or case of the great processional +cross presented by Cardinal Cisneros to Toledo +cathedral, and the “<i>Tanto Monta</i>” embroidered +tapestry belonging to the same temple. The +<i>manga grande</i>, known as that of the Corpus +(Plate <a href="#img_124.jpg">xiii</a>.), is in the Gothic style, with reminiscences +of German art, and consists of the +following four scenes arranged in panels thirty-seven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +inches high, and hung successively about +the handle of the cross:—</p> + +<p>(1) The Ascension of the Virgin Mary, who is +supported by six angels.</p> + +<p>(2) The Adoration of the Magi.</p> + +<p>(3) San Ildefonso in the act of cutting off a +piece of the veil of Santa Leocadia, patron +of Toledo.</p> + +<p>(4) The Martyrdom of San Eugenio, another +patron of the city of Toledo.</p> + +<p>The ground of this elaborate “sleeve” is a +fabric of rich silk, on which the embroidery is +worked in gold and silver thread and coloured +silks, principally blue and red, combined in delicate, +harmonious tones. The figures are outlined with +fine gold cord, which forms a kind of frame or +fencing to confine the stretches of smooth silk. +The careful copying of architectural detail is +stated by Serrano Fatigati to be strongly +characteristic of Spanish industrial art in the +fourteenth, fifteenth, and even sixteenth centuries. +The same writer considers that this “sleeve” +was executed towards the year 1514, when +embroiderers of great renown, such as Alonso +Hernández, Juan de Talavera, Martin Ruiz,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +Hernando de la Rica, Pedro de Burgos, and +Marcos de Covarrubias were engaged on similar +work in the venerable city of the Tagus. Two +out of the four panels, says Serrano Fatigati, may +possibly be from the hand of Covarrubias, who +was a famous craftsman of his time, and held the +post of master-embroiderer in Toledo cathedral. +In any case, the four panels are evidently not all +by the same artist, nor do they appear to have +been executed at precisely the same period.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_128.jpg" width="600" height="192" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_128.jpg" id="img_128.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XV<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT, WITH THE ARMS OF CARDINAL MENDOZA<br /> +(<i>15th Century. Toledo Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The gorgeous embroidered tapestry which also +belongs to this cathedral (where it serves as a +hanging or <i>colgadura</i> for the altar on the day of +Corpus Christi), and which is known as the “Tanto +Monta” <i>tapiz</i>, is stated by some authorities to +have been the <i>dosel</i> or bed canopy of Ferdinand +and Isabella, and to have been purchased, +in the year 1517, for 900,000 <i>maravedis</i> by +Alonso Fernández de Tendilla, steward of those +sovereigns. Riaño gives the following account of +the same object:—</p> + +<p>“As a fine specimen of embroidery on a large +scale, must be mentioned the <i>dosel</i> or canopy called +the tent of Ferdinand and Isabella, which was +used in the reception of the English envoys, +Thomas Salvaige and Richard Nanfan, who were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage of +Prince Henry with the Infanta Doña Catalina.” +The ambassadors describe it in the following +manner: “After the tilting was over, the kings +returned to the palace, and took the ambassadors +with them, and entered a large room; and there +they sat under a rich cloth of state of rich crimson +velvet, richly embroidered with the arms of Castile +and Aragon, and covered with the device of the +King which is a … (blank in original),<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> and +his motto, written at length, which is ‘Tanto +Monta.’” (“Memorials of King Henry the +Seventh,” Gairdner, London, 1858, p. 348).</p> + +<p>Riaño also describes the mantle of the Virgen +del Sagrario at Toledo. “It is completely covered +with pearls and jewels forming a most effective +ornamentation. This embroidery was made in +the beginning of the seventeenth century, during +the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who presented +it to the church.” Señor Parro, in his exhaustive +work <i>Toledo en la Mano</i> (Vol. I., p. 574), gives +the following account of it: “It is made of twelve +yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is +entirely covered with gold and precious stones.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +In the centre there is a jewel of amethysts and +diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each +side, of enamelled gold, emeralds, and large +rubies. A variety of other jewels are placed at +intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part +are the arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on +gold and studded with sapphires and rubies. The +centre of this mantle is covered with flowers +and pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of +different sizes. Round the borders are rows of +large pearls. Besides the gems which are employed +in this superb work of art, no less than two +hundred and fifty-seven ounces of pearls of different +sizes were used, three hundred ounces of gold +thread, a hundred and sixty ounces of small pieces +of enamelled gold, and eight ounces of emeralds.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_130.jpg" width="500" height="297" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_130.jpg" id="img_130.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XVI<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT<br /> +(<i>Palencia Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>As in other countries, embroidery in Spain +was executed in the bygone time, both by paid +embroiderers, and as a domestic occupation by +the ladies of the aristocracy. The work of the +professional embroiderer consisted principally of +paraments or altar-fronts (Plates <a href="#img_126.jpg">xiv</a>., <a href="#img_128.jpg">xv</a>., <a href="#img_130.jpg">xvi</a>., +<a href="#img_132.jpg">xvii</a>xvii.), and ecclesiastical vestments. Among the +former of this class of objects, nothing is finer than +the <i>frontal</i> of the Chapel of Saint George in the +Audiencia of Barcelona. It is believed to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +been wrought by Antonio Sadurni, a Catalan +embroiderer who flourished in the middle of the +fifteenth century. The scene represented is the +combat between Saint George (patron of Cataluña) +and the dragon. The saint has rescued a +damsel from the monster's claws, and her parents +are looking on from a <i>mirador</i> of their palace. +This central episode is surrounded with borders +and arabesques of extraordinary richness.</p> + +<p>Riaño gives a list, compiled from Cean, Martinez, +Suarez de Figueroa, and other authors, of forty-seven +Spanish embroiderers of the fifteenth, sixteenth, +seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. +More recently, Ramírez de Arellano has discovered, +among the municipal archives of Cordova, +the names of sixteen others, who resided at +that city towards, or early in, the seventeenth +century. The craftsmen in question were Diego +de Aguilar, Juan Bautista, Bernardo Carrillo, +Luis Carrillo de Quijana, Andrés Fernández de +Montemayor, Hernán Gómez del Río, Diego +Fabián de Herrera, Diego del Hierro, Diego +López de Herrera, Diego López de Valenzuela, +Antonio de Morales, Gonzalo de Ocaña, Mateo +Sanguino, Manuel Torralbo, Cristóbal de Valenzuela, +and Martin de la Vega.</p> + +<p>Documents in the same archive contain additional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +particulars respecting two or three of these +artificers. Thus, on February 10th, 1607, Hernán +Gómez del Río engaged himself to embroider for +the convent of the Trinity at Cordova, “a +bordering for a chasuble and four <i>faldones</i> for +dalmatics, with their collars and <i>sabastros</i> and +<i>bocas mangas</i>. The said <i>bocas mangas</i> to be four +in number, and the collars two; also the <i>collaretes</i> +which may be necessary for the two dalmatics, +and which I am to embroider in silk and gold +upon white satin. The <i>collaretes</i> also to be embroidered +by me in silk and gold to match a +bordering of white satin for a cloak in possession +of the said convent.” Further, the convent was to +supply the artist with the quantity of white satin +required, and pay him two hundred and ten ducats, +secured by certain of the convent's revenues, for +the gold, the silk, and the workmanship.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_132.jpg" width="500" height="311" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_132.jpg" id="img_132.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XVII<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONTS<br /> +(<i>Palencia Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Manuel Torralbo contracted to embroider a +velvet altar-front and its corresponding <i>fronteleras</i> +for the parish church of Luque, at a price of three +hundred <i>reales</i>; and Cristóbal de Valenzuela (on +September 25th, 1604) to embroider two frontals +for the altar of the church of Obejo. One of them +was to be of purple velvet worked in gold, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +the other of “black velvet, with borders and +<i>caidas</i> embroidered in yellow satin and white satin, +with skulls and bones embroidered in gold.”<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> + +<p>Turning our attention to the embroidery which +was executed, principally as a recreation, by highborn +Spanish ladies of some centuries ago, the +romance of <i>El Compte Arnau</i>, quoted by Miquel y +Badía and written in Catalan and Provençal, +contains the following lines:—</p> + +<table summary="catalan"> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">“¿</td> + <td class="tdl">Ahout teniu las vostras fillas—muller leal?</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">¿</td> + <td class="tdl">Ahout teniu las vostras fillas—viudeta igual?</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="tdl">A la cambra son que <i>brodan</i>—Compte l'Arnau</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="tdl">A la cambra son que <i>brodan</i>—seda y estam.”</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Isabella the Catholic presented to the Chapel +Royal of the cathedral of Granada an ecclesiastical +robe embroidered by her own hands for the festival +of Corpus Christi. The material was black +satin brocade, with a fringe of white silk, and the +letters IHS in white damask.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_134.jpg" width="413" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_134.jpg" id="img_134.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XVIII<br />WIFE OF WELL-TO-DO MERCHANT<br /> +(<i>Palma, Balearic Islands. About A.D. 1810</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The same usage continued in the seventeenth +century. Countess d'Aulnoy says: “Young ladies +of great beauty and of noble blood engage themselves +to wait on ladies of the aristocracy, and +spend most of their time embroidering the collars +and sleeves of shirts in gold, silver, and coloured +silk, although, if they be suffered to follow their +liking, they work but little, and gossip a great +deal.” The same writer refers repeatedly to the +sumptuous embroideries in use among the upper +classes of the Spaniards of that time. Thus, the +bed-pillows of the Princess of Monteleón were +embroidered with gold. The sleeves of the coat +of Charles the Second were of white silk, very +large, opening towards the wrist, and embroidered +with blue silk and jet, the rest of his costume +being embroidered in white and blue silk. In the +palace of the same monarch, the daïs of the throne-room +was covered with “a wondrous carpet, and +the throne and its canopy were embroidered with +pearls, diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and other +precious stones.” The cloaks of the chevaliers +who belonged to the Military Orders of Santiago, +Calatrava, and Alcántara were embroidered with +gold. The gentlemen of Madrid covered their +horses with silver gauze, and trappings embroidered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +with gold and pearls.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> The same gentlemen wore +coats whose sleeves were of coloured satin, embroidered +with silk and jet, and even their lackeys, +when they attended their masters in a procession, +wore uniforms of cloth embroidered with gold and +silver. Unmarried girls and brides wore gold-embroidered +bodices. The chairs in which the ladies of +Madrid paid visits were made of cloth embroidered +in gold and silver, stretched upon the wooden +frame. In the train of the Duchess of Terranova +went six litters covered with embroidered velvet. +“In the parish church of San Sebastián,” wrote +Countess d'Aulnoy, “I have seen a hand-chair +made by order of the queen-mother, for carrying +the Sacrament to sick persons in bad weather. It +is lined with crimson velvet embroidered in gold +and covered with hide studded with gilt nails: it +has large window-glasses, and a kind of small +belfry full of golden bells.”</p> + +<p>With the succession of a French line of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +sovereigns to the throne of Spain, a taste for French +embroideries passed into the Peninsula, and these, +in course of time, were imitated by the Spanish +craftsmen.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> “We find,” says Riaño, “that Madrid +was the principal centre of this industry, and that +French designs were universally copied, as was +the case in the whole of Europe. The splendid +curtains and embroidered hangings for apartments +which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the +Escorial, and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens.”</p> + +<p>I may mention here the embroidery, often of +a rich and highly ornate character, which is, or +used to be, applied to the regional costumes of +Spain. Plate ix. is reproduced from a rare print +in my possession, showing the gala dress, as it +existed in the year 1777, of the <i>charra</i> of Salamanca, +with full, white sleeves ornamented in +black embroidery with animals and other devices. +A similar costume is still worn in that neighbourhood. +Plate xviii., also copied from a print in my +collection, dating from about the year 1810, shows +the costume worn by the women of the well-to-do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +middle class of the island of Majorca. “Le jupon +ou <i>guardapies</i>,” says the manuscript description +prefixed to this series of plates, “en mousseline, +complete le costume de cette insulaire: il est orné +au bas de riches broderies, mais assez court pour +laisser voir un joli petit pied chaussé d'un bas de +coton ou de soie et d'un élégant soulier de satin.”</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> The cathedrals of Toledo and Palencia are particularly rich in +sets of magnificently embroidered vestments. “Each set,” says +Riaño, “generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope, altar frontal, +covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces. The embroideries +on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of saints, are +as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MSS.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The device of Ferdinand the Catholic was a yoke; the sheaf of +arrows, that of Isabella. (See Vol. II., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>, etc.).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> The skull and crossbones were a favourite design upon these +objects. The Church of the Escorial possesses four paraments so +decorated, which were shown, in 1878, at the Parisian Exhibition +of Retrospective Art.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Gómez Moreno; <i>Apuntes que pueden servir de historia del +bordado de imagineria en Granada</i> (<i>El Liceo de Granada</i>; 6th year, +No. 18).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> A similar usage prevailed at Valladolid. The account of this +city as it existed in 1605, published by Gayangos in the <i>Revista de +España</i>, describes Don Juan de Tassis, Count of Villamediana, as +“riding in the finest clothes imaginable; his cloak, jacket, breeches, +shoes, and the trappings, harness, reins, etc., of his horse, being all +embroidered with the finest twisted silver thread. Even his horse's +blinkers were of the same material.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The use of embroidery was, however, greatly curbed by sumptuary +pragmatics, issued early in this century (see Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_287">287</a>, +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>). A similar pragmatic had appeared in 1622; but it is clear from +the passages I have quoted, that little or no attention was paid to it.</p></div> +</div> + +<h3><a name="TAPESTRY" id="TAPESTRY">TAPESTRY</a></h3> + +<p>There is a dim tradition, derived from or supported +by a Latin poet (“Tunc operosa suis +<i>Hispana tapetia</i> villis”) that carpets or tapestries +of some kind were made in the Spanish Peninsula +in the time of the Romans. Undoubtedly this +craft was practised by the Spanish-Moors, particularly +in the regions of Valencia, Alicante, Cuenca, +and Granada. This statement is confirmed by two +laconic notices which occur in the <i>Description of +Africa and Spain</i> of Edrisi, a Mohammedan +geographer of the twelfth century. Of the town +of Chinchilla, in Alicante province, he wrote,—“woollen +carpets are made here, such as could +not be manufactured anywhere else, owing to the +qualities of the air and water”; and of Cuenca,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +“excellent woollen carpets are manufactured at +this town.”</p> + +<p>“En Espagne,” says Müntz, “l'industrie textile +ne tarda pas à prendre également le plus brilliant +essor, grâce à la conquête maure. Les étoffes +d'Almeria acquirent rapidement une réputation +européenne; il est vrai que c'étaient des brocarts, +des damas, et autres tissus analogues, non des +tapisseries: l'influence qu'elles furent appelées à +exercer au dehors se borna donc au domaine de +l'ornementation.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_138.jpg" width="475" height="411" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_138.jpg" id="img_138.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XIX<br />THE “GENESIS TAPESTRY”<br /> +(<i>12th Century; Gerona Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Of a similar composition to the foregoing +fabrics specified by Müntz—that is to say, not +genuine tapestries, although requiring for several +reasons to be classed with these—is the celebrated +“Genesis” (Plate <a href="#img_138.jpg">xix</a>.) of the cathedral of +Gerona. This primitive yet complicated work +of art, dating from the twelfth century, is embroidered +in crewels upon linen, and represents +the creation of the world. Its dimensions are +about four yards high by four and a half yards +wide; but the bordering has been torn away in +places. The design is thus described by Riaño:—“In +the centre is a geometrical figure formed by +two concentric circles. In the lesser circle is a +figure of Christ holding an open book, on which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +appear the words <i>Sanctus Deus</i>, and on each side +<i>Rex fortis</i>, surrounded by the inscription, <i>Dixit +quoque Deus, Fiat lux, Et facta est lux</i>. In the +larger circle are the words, <i>In principio creavit +Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia quæ in eis +sunt, et vidit Deus cuncta quæ egerat et erant +valde bona</i>.</p> + +<p>“The space between the two circles is divided +by radiating lines into eight portions, in which +are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of +light and darkness: the division of land from +water, the creation of sun, moon, and stars, of +birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve. +In the angles outside the larger circle are the four +winds, and the whole is surrounded by a border, +imperfect in parts, containing representations of +the months, and apparently of certain scriptural +incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out.”</p> + +<p>The royal palaces of Spain and many of her +noble houses have possessed, from about the +fifteenth century, splendid collections of the +costliest tapestries, consisting principally of <i>paños +de Ras</i>, or “Arras cloths” (as they were called +among the Spaniards, and especially in Aragon). +Until a later period all, or very nearly all, these +objects were imported from the Flemish workshops.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> +At the palace of a nobleman in Madrid, +Bertaut de Rouen observed “les plus belles +tapisseries du monde.” The same author tells us +that in the seventeenth century, when he visited +Spain and wrote his entertaining <i>Journal</i>, it was +customary for the walls of the royal palace to +be hung with tapestry in winter, these hangings +being removed for greater coolness in the summer +months. In reading descriptions of Spanish life +referring to the same period, one is struck by the +craze which prevailed among the Spaniards for +displaying tapestries and other gay-coloured fabrics +in all kinds of places and on every possible occasion. +Thus, Bertaut de Rouen relates that when he saw +a play performed in the Alcázar, “le long de ces +deux costez de la salle estoient seulement deux +grands bancs couverts de tapis de Perse”; that +the boxes at the bull-fights, both at Madrid and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +in the country, were “tapissées de brocatelle de +soye”; and that the lower part of the dome in +one of the chapels of Seville cathedral was +decorated with the same material. At the haunted +castle of Quebaro, on the road from Galareta +to Vitoria, Countess d'Aulnoy saw upon the +walls of a large chamber, some tapestries representing +the amours of Don Pedro the Cruel and +of Doña María de Padilla. “This lady was +depicted seated, like a queen, among various other +ladies, while the king crowned her with a chaplet of +flowers. Elsewhere Doña María was reposing in +a forest, as the king offered her a falcon. I also +saw her dressed as a warrior while the king, in +armour, offered her a sword. This set me thinking +whether she had ever accompanied Don Pedro +in one of his campaigns. All the figures in these +tapestries were badly drawn, but Don Fernando +assured me that all well-executed likenesses of +Doña María de Padilla represented her to be a +woman of rare charm, the loveliest of her century.”</p> + +<p>Pinheiro da Veiga says that at Valladolid in +1605, a banquet was celebrated in “a large gallery, +completely covered with the richest silk brocade, as +were most of the other apartments.” He also says +that cloths of similar richness were employed as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +street-awnings. “Upon the ninth was the Corpus +procession, at which the king was to assist; and +a proclamation was issued that none should +promenade on horseback or in coaches. I found +nothing remarkable in this procession, unless it +were the hangings and the awnings to keep off +the sun, which were of the richest damask and +brocade.” Of the same <i>fiesta</i> Countess d'Aulnoy +wrote in 1679: “The streets through which the +procession has to pass are adorned with the finest +tapestries in all the world, since in addition to +those belonging to the Crown, many of the greatest +beauty are displayed by private persons. The +<i>celosías</i> of all the balconies are replaced by +elaborate canopies and hangings, and the whole +roadway is covered with an awning to ward off the +sun, and which, for the sake of greater freshness, +is moistened with a little water.” Nearly identical +with this account is that of Alexander de Laborde, +who wrote, a century and a quarter later than the +Countess; “On Corpus Christi day there is a +grand procession composed of the regular and +secular clergy of Madrid, followed by the king, +his ministers, and court, each bearing in his hand +a wax taper. Magnificent awnings of tapestry are +raised in the streets through which the procession<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +is to pass; the balconies are decorated with +splendid hangings; the seats are covered with +cushions, and occasionally surmounted with a daïs; +in some of the streets the face of day is darkened +by canopies which stretch from one side to the +other. Altars are placed at regular intervals; the +balconies are thronged with ladies superbly +dressed, who sprinkle scented water, or scatter +fragrant flowers on the passing multitudes.”</p> + +<p>Pinheiro da Veiga also describes a set of remarkable +tapestries, evidently Flemish, which he saw +in the Chapter-room of the Convent of Cármen +Calzado at Valladolid. “It was hung with the +richest tapestry, silk, and paintings that had +belonged to the Duke of Lerma. I greatly +admired some cloths of green velvet, worked all +over with the <i>Bucolics</i> of Virgil, in <i>tarjas</i> embroidered +in silk and gold, as though they were +<i>sebastos</i><a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> of ecclesiastical vestments, but these +were old, of great value, and extraordinary merit. +Finer still were certain cloths of recent workmanship, +such as I had never seen equalled, of a +white material painted in tempera, with the borders, +dresses, and faces of the personages on them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +wrought in twisted gold. I never saw anything +so brilliant or so novel. The cloths were eight +in number, with four embroidered <i>guardapuertas</i>. +The persons figured upon them wore belts of +real pearls, rings set with diamonds and rubies +on their fingers, and gold chains and medals +studded with precious stones, just as living people +wear them.”</p> + +<p>The fashion of collecting foreign tapestries seems +to have reached its height at the Spanish capital +in the first half of the seventeenth century. +“Nowadays,” wrote Fernandez de Navarrete, in +his <i>Conservacion de Monarquías</i>, published in +1626, “gentlemen are not contented with hangings +which a few years ago were considered good +enough to adorn a prince's palace. The Spanish +taffetas and guadamecíes, so highly esteemed in +other provinces, are held of no account in this one +(Madrid). The <i>sargas</i> and <i>arãbeles</i> wherewith the +moderation of the Spanish people was satisfied in +former days, must now be turned into injurious +<i>telas rizas</i> of Florence and Milan, and into costliest +Brussels tapestry.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_144.jpg" width="335" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_144.jpg" id="img_144.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XX<br /><i>TAPIZ</i> OF CRIMSON VELVET WORKED IN GOLD TISSUE<br /> +(<i>16th Century. Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>It is perhaps allowable to include among the +oldest makers of Spanish tapestry the names of +Gonzalo de Mesa and Diego Roman, who, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +the year 1331, were paid respectively one thousand +<i>maravedis</i> and eighteen hundred <i>maravedis</i>, for +decorating the tents of King Sancho the Fourth. +There also exists the following entry, dating from +the same period; “To Boançibre, master of the +tents; XXX <i>maravedis</i> for his food, for fifteen +days.”<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p> + +<p>Far clearer than these laconic excerpts is a +document preserved in the library of the Academy +of History at Madrid, in the form of a memorial +presented to Philip the Second by a Spanish +tapestry-maker of Salamanca, named Pedro +Gutierrez,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> and setting forth, in pessimistic +language, the unhappy condition of this craft in +the Peninsula. Pedro relates of himself that in +twenty-four days he made for the Cardinal-archduke +no less than a hundred and twenty <i>reposteros</i>; +and that in order to exhibit his cleverness as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +tapestry-weaver, he set up a loom in the royal +palace (being officially the <i>tapicero</i> to the Crown), +and worked for forty days where all might criticise +the product of his toil. Gutierrez also states that +the township of Madrid had provided him with +six hundred ducats to enable him to establish +there a tapestry-factory for the space of ten years, +together with six hundred and fifty ducats from +the Cortes for supporting his apprentices, and a +thousand ducats from the king to defray the cost +of certain voyages he had made to Lisbon, +Monzón, and Barcelona, and of removing his residence +from Salamanca to the capital of Spain. He +complains, however, that the house he dwells in +at Madrid is not large enough to contain his loom, +and replies to the objections of such persons as +opposed his opening the tapestry-works at all (on +the ground that this craft was practised better and +more cheaply in Flanders), by asserting that +Spanish makers of <i>reposteros</i> were now accustomed +to receive a daily wage of no more than three +<i>reales</i> and “a miserable meal.” This, he urges, +should render Spanish tapestries at least as inexpensive +to produce as those of Flanders; although, +upon the other hand, he admits that the colouring +of the former is likely to prove inferior to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +Flemish cloths in purity and durability. “Common +tapestry,” he says, “seldom keeps its colour upward +of a couple of years, so that, if such were +used in open sunlight on the backs of beasts of +burden, or to cover carts, exposed to sun, wind, +dust, and mire, or else for cleaning shoes upon, +as now is practised with the <i>reposteros</i>, their +imperfections would become apparent all the +sooner.”</p> + +<p>Mention of these typically Spanish objects +known as <i>reposteros</i>,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> induces me to quote an +interesting notice relating to the visit of Philip the +Second to Cordova, in the year 1570. The train +of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, who journeyed +to this city in order to receive his sovereign, +consisted of a hundred and three mules covered +with “new <i>reposteros</i> of wool, and of six mules<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +covered with <i>reposteros</i> of purple velvet, embroidered +with silver and gold, and bearing the +duke's arms.”</p> + +<p>If, as seems most likely, the woollen <i>reposteros</i> +above referred to were of woven work containing +a device, this passage would demonstrate that the +manufacture of the cloths in question was sometimes +the province of the tapestry-maker and +sometimes that of the embroiderer. Ramírez de +Arellano, from whose instructive studies on the +craftsmen of older Spain I quote the foregoing +extract, says that the making of <i>reposteros</i> +constitutes a branch of craftsmanship distinct +from embroidery of the common class, and that +the men who produced them deserve to be +included among artists of real merit. He gives +the names of two, Hernán Gonzalez and Juan +Ramos, who worked at Cordova in the middle of +the sixteenth century. A document relating to the +former of these men tells us that in those days the +price of a <i>repostero de estambre</i> measuring sixteen +palms square, with a coat-of-arms worked in the +centre, and a decorative border, was ninety <i>reales</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_148.jpg" width="500" height="379" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_148.jpg" id="img_148.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXI<br />THE SPINNERS<br /> +(<i>By Velazquez. Prado Gallery</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Riaño says: “I do not find any information of +a later date which suggests the existence of the +manufacture of tapestries in Spain during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +Middle Ages.” Davillier, however, affirms that +in the year 1411 two master-makers of tapestry +were living at the court of the King of Navarre, +and that other craftsmen, holding the same title, +were established at Barcelona in 1391 and 1433. +This notice is accepted by Müntz: “A la fin du +XIV<sup>e</sup> et au commencement du XV<sup>e</sup> siècle, les +Espagnols tentèrent de fonder dans leur patrie +quelques ateliers de haute lisse. A Barcelone, en +1391 et en 1433, plusieurs tapissiers (<i>maestros de +tapices</i>) firent partie du grand Conseil. Mais ces +tentaves ne semblent pas avoir eu de résultats +durables. Il était plus commode de recourir +aux manufactures flamandes, si merveilleusement +organisées. Peut-être même ce système était-il +plus économique. Ne voyons-nous pas aujourd'hui +jusqu'à l'extrême Orient tirer, pour raison +d'économie, des fabriques de Manchester et de +Birmingham les tissus courants dont il a besoin?”</p> + +<p>The history of tapestry-making at Madrid may +be said to date from the establishment in this +town of a small factory by Pedro Gutierrez, whose +petition to Philip the Second I have already +quoted, and who received protection both from +that monarch and from the queen, Doña Ana. +In 1625 Gutierrez was succeeded by Antonio<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +Ceron, who formally styled himself “tapicero de +nuevo, sucesor de Pedro Gutierrez” (“maker of +new tapestries, successor to Pedro Gutierrez”), +and petitioned the king for the grant of a meal a +day, “in recompense of having taught his trade +to eight lads, and of having mounted eight looms +in (the factory of) Santa Isabel.” This factory of +Santa Isabel was so called from the street in which +it lay, and part of it is represented in the celebrated +painting by Velazquez called <i>Las Hilanderas</i> +(“The Spinners,” not, as it is translated in +Riaño's handbook, “The Weavers.” Plate xxi.).</p> + +<p>This factory was unsuccessful, and declined by +degrees until it ceased completely, in spite of the +efforts made to revive it in 1694 by a Belgian +named Metler, and in 1707 by a Salamanquino, +Nicholas Hernández.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_150.jpg" width="500" height="367" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_150.jpg" id="img_150.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXII<br />TAPESTRY MADE AT BRUSSELS FROM GRANADA SILK<br /> +(<i>16th Century. Spanish Crown Collection</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>A new tapestry-factory—that of Santa Barbara—was +founded shortly afterwards in a building +known as the Casa del Abreviador. The first +director, engaged in 1720 by order of Philip the +Fifth, was Jacob Van der Goten, a native of +Antwerp,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> who died in 1724, and was succeeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +at the factory by his sons, Francisco, Jacobo, +Cornelius, and Adrian. These craftsmen worked +with <i>basse lisse</i> looms till 1729, in which year a +<i>haute lisse</i> loom was mounted by a Frenchman, +Antoine Lenger.</p> + +<p>In 1730, when the court removed to Seville, a +tapestry-factory was established at this city also. +The director was Jacob Van der Goten the +younger, assisted by the painter Procaccini. At +the end of three years this factory closed its +doors, and Van der Goten and Procaccini, returning +to Madrid, established themselves at the old +factory of Santa Isabel, from which, in 1744, they +again removed to the factory of Santa Barbara.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> + +<p>In 1774, when, with the exception of Cornelius,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +who was considered the most skilful of them all, the +family of the Van der Gotens had died out, the +direction of the Santa Barbara factory was entrusted +to several Spanish artists, named Manuel +Sanchez, Antonio Moreno, Tomás del Castillo, +and Domingo Galan. Sanchez, who acted as +general superintendent of the works, died in 1786, +and was succeeded in this office by his nephew, +Livinio Stuck, whose son resumed the directorship +in 1815, after the factory had been paralysed +by the invasion of the Peninsula, and destroyed +by the French in 1808. Since then it has never +ceased working, and descendants of the Stucks +continue to superintend it at the present day.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_152.jpg" width="325" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_152.jpg" id="img_152.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXIII<br />A PROMENADE IN ANDALUSIA<br /> +(<i>Cartoon for Tapestry. By Goya</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The collection of tapestry belonging to the +Crown of Spain is probably the finest in the +world. As far back as the reign of Ferdinand +and Isabella the walls of the royal palace were +hung with decorative textile cloths or <i>paños de +Ras</i>, and among the officers in the household of +their son, the youthful Prince Don Juan, we find<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +included a keeper of the tapestry and <i>reposteros</i>. +But it was not until the reigns of Charles the +Fifth and Philip the Second that the royal collection +was enriched with numerous sets of celebrated +tapestries produced in Italy and Flanders—countries +which were then subjected to the yoke +of Spain. Frequent additions were also made +throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, +both from abroad and subsequently (when +the Brussels industry declined) from the Spanish +factories of Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara.</p> + +<p>As early as the year 1600 a Spaniard wrote +enthusiastically of “the rich and cunning tapestries +belonging to His Majesty, to whom it would be +easier to win a kingdom than to get them made +anew.”<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> At the present day it is impossible to +estimate with any certainty the number of these +tapestries, the greater part of which are locked +away. Only on certain festivals, such as the days +of Corpus Christi and the Candelaria (Purification), +a few are unfolded and displayed in the upper +galleries of the palace at Madrid. Their total +number is believed to be not far short of one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +thousand pieces;<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> but Señor Tormo calculates +that were they no more than five hundred, they +would, if placed end to end, cover more than two +miles of ground.</p> + +<p>Among the sets which form this wonderful +collection, distributed between the palaces of +Madrid, the Prado, and the Escorial, none is of +greater merit or magnificence than the series of +twelve cloths depicting the <i>Conquest of Tunis</i> +(Plate <a href="#img_150.jpg">xxii</a>.), designed for Charles the Fifth by +his Court painter, Jan Vermay or Vermeyen, +of Beverwyck, near Haarlem, and executed by +William Pannemaker, of Brussels. It was agreed +by Pannemaker in 1549 that the materials employed +upon this tapestry should consist of the finest +wool, Granada silk, and, for the woof, the choicest +Lyons <i>fillet</i>—the very best that money could procure. +The Emperor himself was to provide the +gold and silver thread. Accordingly, Pannemaker +was supplied with five hundred and fifty-nine +pounds and one ounce of silk, dyed and spun in +the city of Granada, where one of Charles' agents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +resided for two years seven months and twenty-five +days, for the purpose of superintending its +preparation. The cost of this silk, exclusive of +the agent's expenses, amounted to 6,637 florins. +Nineteen colours were employed in the dyeing, +each colour consisting of from three to seven +shades, and a hundred and sixty pounds of the +finest silk were consumed in trying to obtain a +special shade of blue.</p> + +<p>After receiving these materials, Pannemaker +kept seven workmen constantly engaged upon +each <i>paño</i> of this tapestry, or eighty-four workmen +in all. As soon as any one of the pieces was concluded, +he submitted it to experts who pointed out +such details as they recommended for correction. +The entire work required a little more than five +years, and was therefore terminated in 1554. The +price paid for it was twelve florins per ell, and +the number of these was 1246, representing a +total cost of 14,952 florins, while Pannemaker, +subject to the Emperor's being satisfied with the +work, was further promised a yearly pension of a +hundred florins.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> + +<p>Equally remarkable are the spirited design and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +the flawless execution of this series of elaborate +cloths, recalling, in their swarms of armed figures +and the lofty point of view, which reduces the sky +to a mere strip, the vivacious war and camp pictures +of Snyders. The titles of the subjects, forming, +as it were, a pictured epitome of the expedition +led by Charles in person against the Barbary +pirates, are as follows: (1) A map of the Spanish +coast; (2) The review of the troops at Barcelona; +(3) The landing of the forces; (4) A skirmish; +(5) The camp; (6) Foraging; (7) The capture of +La Goleta; (8) The battle of Los Pozos, Tunis; +(9) A sortie of the besieged; (10) The sack of +Tunis; (11) The victors returning to the harbour; +(12) The forces embarking.</p> + +<p>According to Müntz, this tapestry has been +copied at least on two occasions; once in the +eighteenth century by Josse de Vos, of Brussels, +and also, in the same century, in Spain, partly at +Seville, and partly at the factories of Santa Isabel +and Santa Barbara.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_156.jpg" width="600" height="302" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_156.jpg" id="img_156.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXIV<br />TAPESTRY. ARRAS WORK, FROM ITALIAN CARTOONS<br /> +(<i>First half of 15th Century. Zamora Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Other most valuable and beautiful tapestries +belonging to the Spanish Crown are the series +titled <i>The History of the Virgin</i>, believed to be +from cartoons by Van Eyk, <i>The Passion</i>, from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +cartoons attributed to Van der Weyden, the +<i>History of David</i> and <i>History of Saint John the +Baptist</i>, the <i>Mass of Saint Gregory</i>, and the +<i>Founding of Rome</i>. All of these series date from +the fifteenth century and early in the sixteenth. +Belonging to a later period are the reproductions +of rustic scenes and hunting subjects by Teniers +and others, executed in Spain between 1721 and +1724, the <i>Scenes from Don Quixote</i>, made at Santa +Barbara from Procaccini's cartoons, and the eminently +national series produced at the same factory +from designs by Francisco Goya y Lucientes. +This latter group amounts to several dozen pieces, +including the well-known <i>Blind Man's Buff</i>, +<i>A Promenade in Andalusia</i> (Plate <a href="#img_152.jpg">xxiii</a>.), <i>The +Crockery-seller</i>, <i>The Grape-Gatherers</i> (<i>Frontispiece</i>), +and other spirited and charming scenes +of popular Spanish life—“tout cela,” as Lefort +describes it, “spirituel, vif, pittoresque, très mouvementé, +bien groupé, s'élevant sur des fonds champêtres +ou baignant gaiement en pleine lumière.”</p> + +<p>Other tapestry collections of great merit belong +to the cathedrals of Burgos, Zamora (where they +line the walls of the Sacristy; Plate xxiv.), Zaragoza, +Toledo, Tarragona, and Santiago. The +first of these temples possesses the following sets,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +which are displayed to decorate the cloisters on +the feast of Corpus Christi:—</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(1) The History of Cleopatra and Mark Antony.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(2) The History of David.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(3) The Creation.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(4) An Historical Subject.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(5) The Theological and Cardinal Virtues.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(6) A series of five Gothic tapestries, which +represent some mystery or allegory, and +seem to be of Flemish manufacture. +One other <i>paño</i>, of a similar character, +accompanies them.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_158.jpg" width="338" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_158.jpg" id="img_158.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXV<br />FLEMISH TAPESTRY<br /> +(<i>Late 15th Century. Collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>All but the last of the above sets are marked +with two B's separated by a shield, denoting +Brussels workmanship. The <i>Theological and +Cardinal Virtues</i> were presented to the cathedral +about the end of the sixteenth century. They +are evidently executed from Italian cartoons, and +the <i>haute-lisse</i> craftsman who made them, in or +towards the year 1571, was named Francis +Greubels.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> + +<p>The tapestries which belong to the cathedral of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +Zaragoza number some sixty or seventy pieces, +including a series (fifteenth century) representing +<i>The Life of Saint John the Baptist</i>, from designs +by Lucas of Holland. Good tapestries were also +the property of Valencia cathedral, but have been +dispersed and sold in recent years. The convent +of the Descalzas Reales at Madrid possesses a +set from designs by Rubens. Ten pieces of this +series formerly belonged to the Count-Duke of +Olivares, who sent them to his town of Loeches; +four passing subsequently to the Duke of Westminster's +collection. The small though valuable +collection formed by the late Count of Valencia +de Don Juan (Plate <a href="#img_158.jpg">xxv</a>.), passed at this nobleman's +death to his daughter, Señora de Osma, who +has presented part of it to the Archæological +Museum at Madrid. Another collector resident +in Spain, Mons. Mersmann, of Granada, possesses +a series of fine Brussels cloths representing scenes +from <i>Don Quixote</i>, by Van den Hecke.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> “A côté de l'Italie, il faut citer l'Espagne, tributaire comme elle +des ateliers flamands. Les résidences royales regorgeaient de ces +précieux tissus, qui aujourd'hui encore, à Madrid ou à l'Escurial, se +chiffrent par centaines. Parmi les présents que le roi de Castille +envoya à Tamerlan († 1405), on remarquait des tapisseries dont les +portraits étaient faits avec tant de délicatesse, dit un chroniqueur +persan, que si on voulait leur comparer les ouvrages merveilleux +autrefois exécutés par le peintre Mani sur la toile d'Artène, Mani +serait couvert de honte et ses ouvrages paraîtraient difformes.”—Müntz, +<i>La Tapisserie</i>, p. 172.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> A Portuguese word meaning a strip of silk upon the back of a +chasuble.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Manuel G. Simancas, <i>Artistas Castellanos del Siglo XIII</i> +(<i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i> for January, +1905.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> At about the same time that this petition was presented by +Gutierrez, another tapestry-maker named Pedro de Espinosa, a +native of Iniesta, was living at Cordova. On February 2nd, 1560, +he married Leonor de Burgos, and received as dowry from his bride +the sum of thirty-five thousand <i>maravedis</i>. (Ramírez de Arellano, +<i>Artistas Exhumados</i>, published in the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad +Española de Excursiones</i>.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> “<i>Reposteros</i>,” says Riaño, “is the ancient name given to the +hangings which are placed outside the balconies on state occasions +in Spain. Several splendid examples of the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries may still be seen at the houses of Spanish grandees, +of which those belonging to the Conde de Oñate and Marques de +Alcañices at Madrid are the most remarkable for their artistic design.”</p> + +<p>It is surprising that Riaño should insert so incomplete a definition +of this word, whose primitive and proper meaning, according to the +Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, is “a square piece of cloth +with the arms of a prince or Señor, which serves for covering +baggage carried by beasts of burden, and also for hanging in antechambers.” +See also Vol. II., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_16">16</a> (note) of the present work.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The royal contract with the elder Van der Goten, dated July +30th, 1720, was the result of secret negotiations, and largely brought +about by the influence of Philip's minister, Cardinal Alberoni.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> “On Saturday, May 27th, passing through the gate of Saint +Barbara, I visited the tapestry manufactory, which resembles, and +equals in beauty, the Gobelins, whence it originally came. I found +a Frenchman at the head of it, who was civil and communicative. +This fabric was brought into Spain, and established here under the +direction of John de Van Dergoten, from Antwerp, in the year 1720. +They now employ fourscore hands, and work only on the king's +account, and for his palaces, making and repairing all the tapestry +and carpets which are wanted at any of the <i>Sitios</i>, or royal residences.”—Townsend, +in 1786.</p> + +<p>“The elegant manufacture of tapestry is carried on without Saint +Barbe's gate, at the entrance of the promenade of Los Altos, or +Chamberi; it was established in 1720 by Philip the Fifth, at whose +invitation John Dergoten, of Antwerp, was induced to undertake its +superintendence, an office at present filled by his descendants. +The productions of this manufactory are carpets and tapestry, the +subjects of which are often drawn from fable or history; it sometimes +copies pictures executed by superior artists, and affords daily +employment to eighty persons, including dyers, drawers, designers, +and all its various branches.”—Laborde (about 1800).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los Ríos, <i>Noticia general para la +estimación de las Artes y de la manera en que se conocen las liberales +de las que son mecánicas y serviles</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Riaño estimates them at this number. See his <i>Report on a +collection of photographs from tapestries of the Royal Palace of +Madrid</i>; London, 1875; and also <i>Tapices de la Corona de España</i>, +with 135 plates in phototype, and text by Count Valencia de Don +Juan; Madrid, Hauser and Menet, 1903.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Müntz, <i>La Tapisserie</i>, pp. 217, 218. Wauters, <i>Les Tapisseries +Bruxelloises</i>, pp. 76, 77. Houdoy, <i>Tapisseries représentant la Conqueste +du Royaulme de Thunes par l'empereur Charles-Quint</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> See an article on these tapestries by Señor Lamperez y Romea, +published in No. 55 of the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de +Excursiones</i>; and also Nos. 156 and 157 of the same publication, +for an article on the Crown and other Spanish collections, by Elías +Tormo y Monzó.</p></div> +</div> + +<h3><a name="LACE" id="LACE">LACE</a></h3> + +<p>Although the Spaniards have enjoyed, and still +enjoy, a widespread fame for lace-making, their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +written records of this craft are unsubstantial. +Originally, perhaps, they borrowed it from the +Arabs or Venetians. Certainly, the earliest +Spanish lace was such as is made with a needle, +that is, point, not pillow lace. In this form, <i>à la +aguja</i>, and in the sixteenth century, the Spaniards +possibly conveyed the secrets of its manufacture +to the Netherlands, receiving from the natives of +this country, in exchange, the art of making lace +by means of bobbins, including the characteristic +“Flemish net,” or <i>red flandés</i>.</p> + +<p>Towards the sixteenth century the parts of +Spain where lace was manufactured in the largest +quantity were some of the Manchegan towns and +villages, the coast of Finisterre, and nearly the +whole of Cataluña. In La Mancha lace was made, +and still is so, at Manzanares, Granatula, Almagro, +and other places. That of Almagro (the celebrated +<i>punto de Almagro</i>, resembling the lace of +Cataluña), is mentioned by nearly all the older +travellers. In <i>Don Quixote</i>, Teresa writes to +Sancho Panza that their daughter Sanchita was +engaged in making bobbin-lace at a daily wage of +eight <i>sueldos</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_160.jpg" width="334" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_160.jpg" id="img_160.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXVI<br />THE MARCHIONESS OF LA SOLANA<br /> +(<i>By Goya</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1877, at the Exhibition of Sumptuary Arts +which was held in Barcelona, a magnificent lace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +<i>toca</i> was shown, which was affirmed by its possessor, +Señor Parcerisa, to be the work of a Spaniard of +the later part of the fifteenth century, and to have +belonged to Isabella the Catholic. The cathedral +of the same city owns three thread-lace albs of +sixteenth century workmanship, and the South +Kensington Museum other pieces of Spanish lace +of a comparatively early date, probably made by +nuns and subtracted from the convents during the +stormy scenes of 1835.</p> + +<p>Dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries, we have a number of notices, though +scrappy and inexplicit as a rule, relating to +Spanish lace. One of the more complete and interesting +is quoted by Riaño from the <i>Microcosmia +y Gobierno Universal del Hombre Cristiano</i> +(Barcelona, 1592) of Father Marcos Antonio de +Campos. “I will not be silent,” wrote this +austere <i>padre</i>, “and fail to mention the time lost +these last years in the manufacture of <i>cadenetas</i>, +a work of thread combined with gold and silver; +this extravagance and excess reached such a point +that 100 and 1000 ducats were spent in this work, +in which, besides destroying the eyesight, wasting +away the lives, and rendering consumptive the +women who worked it, and preventing them from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +spending their time with more advantage to their +souls, a few ounces of thread and years of time +were wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I +ask myself, after this fancy shall have passed +away, will the lady or gentleman find that the +chemises that cost them 50 ducats, or the <i>basquiña</i> +(petticoat) that cost them 300, are worth half their +price, which certainly is the case with other objects +in which the material itself is worth more?”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_162.jpg" width="364" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_162.jpg" id="img_162.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXVII<br />A SPANISH <i>MAJA</i><br /> +(<i>A.D. 1777</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Several of the other notices relating to the +lace-makers' craft are from the pen of Countess +d'Aulnoy. Of the Countess of Lemos this writer +says: “Her hair was white, but she carefully +concealed it beneath a black blonde”; and of +another Spanish lady, Doña Leonor de Toledo, +that she wore “a green velvet skirt trimmed with +Spanish blonde.” In the apartments of the young +Princess of Monteleón the countess saw “a bed +of green and gold damask, decorated with silver +brocade and Spanish blonde. The sheets were +fringed with English point-lace, extremely broad +and handsome.” The countess also says that the +petticoats of the Spanish ladies were of English +point-lace,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> and that these ladies, when they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +visited each other, wore on their heads “a <i>toca</i> +of the richest English black point-lace, half a yard +broad, forming points like the antique laces, +beautiful to look at, and very dear. This head-dress +suits them rarely.”</p> + +<p>According to Balsa de la Vega, whose interesting +articles on Spanish lace (published in the +newspaper <i>El Liberal</i>) are worth perusal by all +who are interested in this craft, about the middle +of the seventeenth century the custom originated +in Spain of making lace in broader pieces, dividing +the pattern into a number of strips or <i>fajas</i> which +were subsequently sewn together. In Belgium, +on the contrary, the design was cut out, following +the contour of the floral or other decoration.</p> + +<p>In former ages gold and silver lace was made +in France, and also at Genoa. I think it possible +that Genoese merchants, many of whom are known +to have settled in Granada and other Spanish +cities, may first have introduced this branch of +lace-making among the Spaniards. The sumptuary +laws of Aragon, Castile, León, and Navarre +would seem to show that lace of these materials, +known as <i>punto</i> or <i>redecilla de oro</i> (or <i>plata</i>) was +manufactured by the Spanish Jews between +the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. During the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +seventeenth century and part of the eighteenth, +the quantity produced in the Peninsula was very +large. In his <i>Fenix de Cataluña</i>, a work which +was published at Barcelona in 1683, Feliu de la +Peña says that Spanish <i>randa</i> or <i>réseuil</i>, of gold +and silver, silk, thread, and aloe fibre, was better +made in Spain than in the Netherlands. The +journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the following +notice of this silver lace: “Le Roy y envoya le +Lieutenant du Maistre des Postes, avec huit +postillons, couverts de clinquant, et quarante +chevaux de poste, dont il y en avoit huit avec des +selles et des brides du Roy où il y avoit de la +dentelle d'argent, que Monsieur le Mareschal fit +distribuer à environ autant de gens que nous +estions, sur une liste qu'il avoit envoyée quelques +jours auparavant.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_164.jpg" width="284" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_164.jpg" id="img_164.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXVIII<br /><i>MAJA</i><br /> +(<i>By Goya</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>It is impossible to mention Spanish lace without +recalling that most graceful article of headwear, +the <i>mantilla</i>, the use of which is gradually +dying out. At present we understand by this +word a black or white head-covering of lace alone +(the white being more conspicuous and dressy), +but about a hundred years ago the <i>mantilla</i> was +made of a variety of fabrics. Also, it was worn +in an easier and more <i>negligé</i> manner than nowadays,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +retaining a closer likeness to the <i>velo</i> or +<i>manto</i> with which the Spanish women of the +seventeenth century were able, at their pleasure, +to completely mask their faces (Plates <a href="#img_160.jpg">xxvi</a>. and +<a href="#img_162.jpg">xxvii</a>.). Indeed, as late as the early part of the +nineteenth century the <i>mantilla</i> was sometimes +thrown over the face (Plates <a href="#img_164.jpg">xxviii</a>. and <a href="#img_166.jpg">xxix</a>.). +The same usage is referred to by Townsend, who +describes the <i>mantilla</i> as “serving the double purpose +of a cloak and veil.”<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> To-day it is worn, not +hanging loose and open, but a good deal bunched +up at the bosom. The hair, too, is dressed to an +unusual height, with a tall comb, and over this +the delicate lace covering should droop a little to +one side. A flower or two (roses or carnations by +preference) may be worn at one side of the head, +and where the <i>mantilla</i> is caught up at the breast.</p> + +<p>The manuscript account of Spanish costumes +early in the nineteenth century, and which is prefixed +to my copy of Pigal's coloured lithographs, +contains some excellent descriptions of the older<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +Spanish <i>mantilla</i>. We learn, for instance, that +at Palma the women of the well-to-do middle class +wore a <i>mantilla</i> of black taffeta, trimmed with +blonde (Plate <a href="#img_134.jpg">xviii</a>.).<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> In La Mancha, and among +the peasants, it was of white muslin; at Cordova, +in cold weather, “en flanelle ou en bayette fine: +elle est garnie de rubans à l'extrémité desquels il +y a deux gros noeuds: en été elle est en mousseline.” +The small <i>mantilla</i> or “mantellina” of +the wife of the smuggler of Tarifa was “en flanelle +blanche, ou noire, ou rose, brodée d'un ruban: +elle en fait três souvent un usage différent des +autres femmes espagnoles, car au lieu de la mettre +sur la tête attachée avec des épingles, elle s'en +sert de schal: quelque fois elle la met en baudrier +laissant flotter derrière elle les deux extrémités +qui sont ornées d'un noeud en ruban.” The +servant-girl of Madrid wore a white <i>mantilla</i> in +summer, and a black one in winter. The same +author describes in greater detail the <i>mantillas</i> of +the fine ladies. “La mantille et la basquigne,” he +says, “voila de quoi se compose principalement +le costume du beau sexe en Espagne. Ce costume, +quoique national, est susceptible de recevoir aussi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +bien que tout autre les divers degrés de luxe que +les femmes d'une riche classe et celles du plus +haut rang peuvent apporter dans leur parure: la +classe la moins aisée porte la mantille en laine +noire ou blanche et la basquigne en serge ou autre +étoffe de laine noire. Pendant le jour, lorsque les +dames espagnoles se présentent en public, c'est +toujours avec la mantille et la basquigne, mais le +soir si elles vont au spectacle ou ailleurs, elles +sortent três souvent habillées à la française.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_166.jpg" width="407" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_166.jpg" id="img_166.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXIX<br />A LADY OF SORIA<br /> +(<i>About A.D. 1810</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Elsewhere he says: “Nous avons déjà dit qu'un +simple ruban, un peigne, ou une fleur, est la +coiffure adoptée par les dames espagnoles, pour +faire usage de la mantille: celle-ci est dans l'hiver +quelquefois en serge de soie, taffetas, etc., noir, +garnie en outre de blondes, ou d'un large ruban +de velours noir en échiquier (<i>cinta de terciopelo à +tablero</i>), mais ce ruban est toujours noir. Il y +eut un temps où la mode, qui ne fut pas de longue +durée, prescrivait que les bouts de la mantille se +terminassent en trois pointes ornées chacune d'une +houppe (<i>borla</i>) noire, ou d'un lacet de ruban noir. +Jamais les mantilles ne sont doublées.”</p> + +<p>The same author remarks of the lady of Madrid; +“La mantille de tulle brodé ne se porte que dans +la belle saison … elle ne dépasse jamais la<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +ceinture”<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>; and of the lady of Granada: “si la +mantille est blanche, elle est en tulle parsemé de +petits bouquets et garnie de larges et riches +dentelles. Si elle est noire, comme cela arrive +plus ordinairement, elle est alors en blonde: il y +a de ces mantilles qui coutent cinq cent, mille, et +jusqu'à deux mille francs.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_168.jpg" width="350" height="348" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_168.jpg" id="img_168.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXX<br />HANDKERCHIEF OF CATALAN LACE<br /> +(<i>Presented to Queen Victoria of Spain, on her marriage</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>A good deal of lace, principally of the less +elaborate and cheaper kinds, was formerly manufactured +in the kingdom of Valencia. Cabanillas +wrote in 1797 that at Novelda, a small town of +this region, more than two thousand women and +children worked at making laces, which were +hawked about the country by others of the townspeople. +Swinburne remarks upon the same +industry, and Ricord tells us in his pamphlet +(1791) that cotton lace was made in six factories +at Torrente, Alicante, and Orihuela.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> The total +product of these factories for the said year was +1,636,100 yards, which sold at from nine to twelve +<i>reales</i> the yard. Laborde wrote some years later, +in the first volume of his book, that lace, and gold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +and silver fringes were then made at Valencia, +and in the fourth volume; “Gold and silver laced +stuffs, and velvets of all colours brocaded and +flowered with the same metals, are made at Toledo, +Barcelona, Valencia, and Talavera de la Reina; +and the manufacture at the last-named city +annually consumes four thousand marks of silver, +and seventy marks of gold.</p> + +<p>“At Barcelona, Talavera de la Reina, and +Valencia are also manufactured gold and silver +edgings, lace, and fringes, though not in a +sufficient quantity to answer the demands of +Spain; and the gold is very badly prepared, +having too red a cast.”</p> + +<p>Lace-making was an ancient and important +industry of every part of Cataluña. Lace articles +for ladies' headwear are known to have been +made throughout this region at least as far back as +the fifteenth century, and Capmany reminds us that +by a <i>cedula</i> dated from the Cortes of Monzón, +December 16th, 1538, the Emperor Charles the +Fifth confirmed the Ordinances of the guild, +established long before, of the <i>tejedores de velos</i> +of Barcelona. Technical provisions are embodied +in this code, concerning various articles of lace employed +as headwear, such as <i>alfardillas</i>, <i>quiñales</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +and <i>espumilla</i>, all of which were largely exported +to America.</p> + +<p>The attention of foreigners who travelled in +Cataluña towards the eighteenth century was +constantly attracted by the lace-makers. Swinburne +mentions “Martorell, a large town, where +much black lace is manufactured,” and “Espalungera +(Esparraguera?), a long village, full of +cloth and lace manufacturers,” and wrote of Sarriá +and its surroundings, close to Barcelona: “The +women in the little hamlets were busy with their +bobbins making black lace, some of which, of the +coarser kind, is spun out of the leaf of the aloe. +It is curious, but of little use, for it grows +mucilaginous with washing.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_170.jpg" width="345" height="481" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_170.jpg" id="img_170.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXXI<br />CURTAIN OF SPANISH LACE<br /> +(<i>Point and Pillow Work. Modern</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>“Martorell,” wrote Townsend in 1786, “is one +long, narrow street, in which poverty, industry, +and filth, although seldom seen together, have +agreed to take up their abode. The inhabitants +make lace, and even the little children of three +and four years old are engaged in this employment.” +Laborde wrote that at the beginning of +the eighteenth century seventeen manufactories +of blondes were established at Mataró, and adds +of Barcelona province generally at that time: +“Laces and blondes constitute the employment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +women and children. The work is principally +done at Pineda, Malgrat, San Celoni, Tosa, +Canet, Arenys, Callela, San-Pol, Mataró, Esparraguera, +Martorell, and Barcelona…. The laces +are almost all shipped for the New World.”</p> + +<p>The most observant and most entertaining of +all these tourists was Arthur Young, who wrote, in +1787, of the towns upon the coast of Cataluña: +“The appearance of industry is as great as it can +be: great numbers of fishing-boats and nets, with +rows of good white houses on the sea-side; and +while the men are active in their fisheries, the +women are equally busy making lace.” Of +Mataró he says: “It appears exceedingly industrious; +some stocking-frames; lace-makers at +every door…. I am sorry to add that here also +the industry of catching lice in each other's heads +is well understood.</p> + +<p>“Pass Arrengs (Arenys), a large town … +making thread lace universal here. They have +thread from France; women earn ten to sixteen +<i>sous</i> at it. Great industry, and in consequence a +flourishing appearance. Canet, another large +town, employed also in ship-building, fishing, and +making lace…. Pass Malgrat, which is not +so well built as the other towns, but much lace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +made in it…. Reach Figueras, whose inhabitants +seem industrious and active. They make +lace, cordage, and mats, and have many potteries +of a common sort.”<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> + +<p>Lace-making prevails to-day all through this +region of north-eastern Spain, particularly in the +strip or zone of it including the valley of the +Llobregat as far as Martorell, and which extends +from Palamós to Barcelona. The towns which +produce the greatest quantities of lace are Arenys +de Mar, Malgrat, San Pol, Canet, and Arenys de +Munt. In the last of these places an important +Regional Exhibition of Lace was held in July of +last year, the number of exhibitors amounting to +one hundred and twenty-five. Due to the increasing +production of underlinen and woven +fabrics generally, or to other causes, lace-making +has declined at Blanes, Pineda, Calella, and one +or two other places. At San Celoni, Vallgorguina, +San Vicente, San Andrés de Llevaneras, Argentona, +Caldeta, and San Acisclo de Vilalta, lace is +made by women who combine this work with +dirtier and rougher labour in the field. Most of +the lace made in these towns is therefore black.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_172.jpg" width="500" height="338" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_172.jpg" id="img_172.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">XXXII<br />POINT LACE FAN, OF MUDEJAR DESIGN<br /> +(<i>Modern</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>In the spring of last year, an elaborate lace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +pocket-handkerchief (Plate <a href="#img_168.jpg">xxx</a>.), designed by +Señor Riquer, and executed in a traditional style +of Cataluña, denominated locally the <i>ret Catalá</i>, +was made in the old-established lace-factory of the +widow of Mariano Castells in the town of Arenys +de Mar, and offered by the Agricultural Institute +of San Isidro as a wedding-present to Princess +Ena of Battenberg. Two <i>encajeras</i> worked at +this handkerchief under the personal direction of +the widow Castells, and the time employed by +them in making it was two months.</p> + +<p>Plate xxxi. represents a small portion of a +very original and beautiful lace curtain, ten feet +high, designed by Señor Aguado, and executed, +partly by Señorita Pilar Huguet (who superintended +the work throughout), and partly by +seventeen of this lady's pupils, at the School of +Arts and Industries, Toledo. Although it is a +hackneyed trope to declare that the ornamentation +of the Spanish-Moors, whether in ivory, wood or +metal, stone or plaster, was “delicate enough to +seem of lacework,” I believe this to be the first +occasion when such intricate and graceful +motives have been actually reproduced in lace. +The result of the experiment has proved surprisingly +effective. The design is Spanish-Arabic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +in its purest form, recalling various arabesques +upon the walls of the Alhambra, and includes +thirty-three medallions which constitute the principal +decorative scheme, a hundred and forty-eight +palms or <i>alharacas</i>, and the Arabic expression +“God is all-powerful,” repeated sixty-six times. +The centre of the curtain consists in all of four +hundred and forty-eight pieces. The broad cenefa +or bordering, which runs right round the whole, +contains, in Arabic, the following inscription: +“This curtain was begun in the <i>curso</i> (course or +series of classes) of the year 1903–1904, and +terminated in the <i>curso</i> following, (Art) School +of Toledo.” The style adopted throughout is that +of Brussels, known erroneously as English point, +although upon a coarser scale than is considered +to be proper to this lace, the ground being executed +by the needle, or in point-work, and the +rest by bobbins.</p> + +<p>Plate xxxii. represents a covering for a fan, +also executed by Señorita Huguet, and also in +the Brussels style. The design is a combination +of Mudejar motives, such as conventional +foliage and geometrical bordering, with a Spanish +scutcheon and the double-headed eagle of the +Emperor Charles the Fifth.</p> + +<p>At the present day, and largely owing to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +initiative and the skilled tuition of Señor Salvi, +excellent lace is manufactured at Madrid, including +reproductions—which have been generally admired +in Great Britain and elsewhere—of the finest +point or bobbin work of Malines, Manchester, and +Venice.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Upon the other hand, a notice dated 1562 says that at that time +Spanish-made black lace was largely used at the Court of England.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> “Pour les femmes, elles ne sortent point qu'emmantelées d'une +mante noire comme le deüil des dames de France, et elles ne se montrent +qu'un œuil, et vont cherchant et agaçant les hommes avec tant +d'effronterie, qu'elles tiennent à affront quand on ne veut pas aller +plus loin que la conversation.”—Bertaut de Rouen; <i>Journal du +Voyage d'Espagne</i>, p. 294.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Blonde, I need hardly state, is silk-lace. It can always be distinguished +by the glossy surface.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> This is incorrect. It was sometimes worn longer.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> A letter from Vargas y Ponce to Cean Bermudez, dated 1797, +says that in this year there existed at Murcia a school for making +blondes, owned by one Castilla. “He does good work, teaches well, +and has executed blondes for the Queen, which are well spoken of.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Tour in Catalonia in 1787; Vol. I., p. 644, etc.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES">Appendices</a></h2> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p> + +<h3>APPENDIX A</h3> + +<p class="title">THE LEGEND OF SAN MIGUEL IN EXCELSIS</p> + +<p>Towards the year <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 707, when Witiza was king of +Spain, there dwelt at the castle of Goñi, not far from the +city of Pamplona in Navarre, a cavalier named Don +Theodosio, whose wife, Doña Constanza de Viandra, +was a lady of remarkable beauty. On one occasion +Don Theodosio found himself obliged to quit his native +country for a time, in order to command a military +expedition against the Berbers, and before his departure +he begged his father and mother to cheer his wife's +loneliness while he should be away, by taking up their +residence at his castle. They came accordingly, and as +a special mark of honour to the parents of her lord, Doña +Constanza gave up to them her own chamber, together +with the nuptial couch. After a time, when Theodosio's +enterprise was concluded, and the warrior, safe and sound, +was returning to Navarre, the Devil, disguised as a +hermit, one evening lay in wait for him at a spot called +Errotavidea, situated at a few miles' distance from Goñi +castle, in the wooded and romantic valley of the Ollo. +Stepping up to the cavalier's side, Satan assured him, in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +tone of smooth hypocrisy, that during his absence the lady +Constanza had been seduced by one of Theodosio's own +servants. Upon the knight's demanding proof, “proceed,” +replied the Devil, “to your castle, enter your nuptial +chamber, and there you will find your consort in the +very arms of her paramour.” Frantic with apprehension, +the warrior spurred home, broke into his chamber at the +dead of night, and, passing his hand over the bed, encountered, +as Satan had malignantly foretold, two bodies; +whereupon he drew his sword and, in this moment of +fatal and irreflective haste, murdered his own father +and mother. Then, just as he was rushing from +the room, he met, carrying a lighted lamp, the lady +Constanza herself, returning from the chapel in which, +as was her custom every night, she had been praying +for his safe return.</p> + +<p>Smitten with deep repentance for the crime, whose +enormity had been discovered by the impetuous lord in +so dramatic and dreadful a fashion, Theodosio journeyed +to Rome, and related what had happened to the Pope, +who sentenced him to wear a heavy iron collar round +his neck, and chains about his body, and to wander, in +a state of rigorous penance, through the loneliest regions +of Navarre, without setting foot in any town, until, as a +sign that divine justice was satisfied, the chains should +fall from off him. Wherever this should come to pass, +he was instructed to build a temple in honour of the +archangel Michael.</p> + +<p>The sentence was patiently performed, and Theodosio +had spent some years in solitary wandering, when on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +a day a single link dropped from his ponderous chains. +This happened on the top of a high mountain called +Ayedo, in the Sierra de Andía, and accordingly the +penitent erected on the spot a simple fane in the +archangel's honour, known by the name of San Miguel +de Ayedo, and which, in the form of a little hermitage, +still exists.</p> + +<p>This proof of heavenly grace presaged a further and a +more complete deliverance. When Theodosio's wandering +had lasted seven years, he reached one day the +summit of Mount Aralar, at two leagues' distance from +his own castle, and was there met by a ferocious dragon +of appalling size. Being, as a penitent, unarmed, as +well as encumbered by his massive chains, the miserable +man fell helpless to his knees, and called to God to +succour him. The prayer was heard. Suddenly the +form of his patron the archangel flashed out against the +sky, the dragon fell dead, and all of Theodosio's chains +were shattered, and dropped from him. Here, therefore, +he built another and a larger temple in honour of his +guardian, and, accompanied by Doña Constanza, passed +the remainder of his life in peaceful and secluded piety.</p> + +<p>The castle of Goñi, which was also called “Saint +Michael's palace,” and “the palace of the cavalier to +whom Saint Michael revealed himself,” was standing as +late as the year 1685, but, according to Padre Burgui, by +the close of another century the walls were crumbling +fast. Until about the year 1715 there also stood an +ancient wooden cross to mark the spot where Satan, in +a hermit's garb, had appeared to Don Theodosio.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p> + +<h3>APPENDIX B</h3> + +<p class="title">JET-WORK OF SANTIAGO</p> + +<p>In former times the art of carving jet was largely +practised at this town. The characteristic form was the +<i>signaculum</i> or image of Saint James; that is, a more or +less uncouth representation of the apostle in full pilgrim's +dress. The height of these images, which are now +dispersed all over Europe, varies between four and +seven inches. They are fully described in Drury +Fortnum's monographs, <i>On a signaculum of Saint James +of Compostela</i>, and <i>Notes on other signacula of Saint +James of Compostela</i>, as well as in Villa-amil y Castro's +<i>La azabachería compostelana</i>. These objects were sold +in quantities to the pilgrims visiting Santiago, who +nevertheless were often cheated by the substitution of +black glass for jet.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> + +<p>Specimens of this work are in the British and Cluny<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +Museums, and in the Archæological Museum at Madrid. +An interesting jet figure of the apostle on horseback +belonged to the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan. +Jet processional crosses (twelfth and thirteenth century), +studded with enamel, and which were used at funerals, +are preserved in the cathedrals of Oviedo and Orense. +Rings, rosaries, and amulets were also carved from this +material.</p> + +<p>As to Spanish processional crosses generally (the use +of which was undoubtedly borrowed from the standard +borne at the head of pagan armies), I may say that they +are commonly fitted with a handle, called the <i>cruz baja</i> +or “lower cross,” though sometimes this handle is dispensed +with, as, for instance, at the funerals of infants. +According to Villa-amil y Castro, the typical shape of +the Spanish processional cross has always been that +denominated the <i>immissa</i>, consisting of four arms +terminating in straight edges. The same authority says +that within this broader definition the primitive form +was the Greek cross, that is, having four arms of equal +length. Another early form was the “Oviedo” cross +(see Vol. I., Plate <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#img_36.jpg">II</a>.), with the four arms in the shape of +trapezia, united at the centre by a disc. Of this latter +shape are, or were, the crosses of Guarrazar and those +which were presented by Alfonso the Second and Alfonso +the Third to the cathedrals of Oviedo and Santiago.</p> + +<p>A later form was the <i>potenzada</i> cross, which had a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +cross-piece fixed at the extremity of each arm. As time +advanced, this T-shaped termination to the arms assumed +such decorative and capricious forms as the trefoil and +the fleur-de-lis. Early in the history of the Spanish +church the processional cross consisted often of a +wooden core, covered with more or less profusely +ornamented silver plates, and having, between the handle +and the upper part, an enamelled bulb or <i>nœud</i>. The +image of Christ, converting the cross into the crucifix, +was not attached until a later period, because, as Villa-amil +y Castro has remarked, the primitive Christians considered +the essential glory of their faith, rather than, as +yet, the perils and the pains to which they were exposed +by clinging to that faith. The cross was thus the symbol +of the Christian's glory; the crucifix, of his suffering.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p> + +<h3>APPENDIX C</h3> + +<p class="title">DESCRIPTION OF THE <i>CUSTODIAS</i> OF SEVILLE AND CORDOVA</p> + +<p>The <i>custodia</i> of Seville cathedral is described by its +author, Juan de Arfe, in the following terms:—</p> + +<p>The shape is circular, with projecting friezes and +bases. The <i>custodia</i> is four yards high, and is divided +into four orders of symmetrical proportions, the second +order being smaller by two-fifths than the first, the third +smaller by the same fraction than the second, and the +fourth than the third. Each order rests upon four-and-twenty +columns, twelve of which are of a larger size, and +wrought in relief. The other and the smaller twelve are +striated, and serve as imposts to the arches. All these +orders are of open work, containing twelve <i>vistas</i> (prospects) +apiece. Six are of full dimensions, and the other +six spring from half-way up the larger ones, as is shown +in the appended design, which I will not explain further, +as the proportion and harmony can be judged of from +the plan (see Vol. I., Plate <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#img_100.jpg">xvii</a>.).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p> + +<p class="title">FIRST ORDER</p> + +<p>The first order is in the Ionic style. The columns and +frieze are adorned with vines containing fruits and +foliage, and some figures of children holding spikes of +wheat, to signify bread and wine. In the centre of this, +the largest order, is Faith, represented by the figure of +a queen, seated on a throne, holding in her right hand a +chalice with the host, and in the other a standard such +as is seen in certain ancient medals of the emperors +Constantine and Theodosius. Beneath her feet is a +world, and behind her, overthrown and bound with +chains, a monster with the face of a beautiful woman +and the trunk or body of a dragon, to represent Heresy, +which seems to attract by pleasantness of shape, being +at bottom poison and deceit.</p> + +<p>At one side is the figure of a youth with wings, and a +bandage over his eyes, representing Intelligence. His +hands are shackled, and he is kneeling, as one that +surrenders himself captive to Faith in all her mysteries, +and particularly in this one.</p> + +<p>Corresponding to this figure, on the opposite side, is +that of a beautiful woman, likewise kneeling, crossing +her hands before her breast, and holding a book, to +represent Human Wisdom, which acknowledges the +majesty of the Catholic Faith, and is subservient thereto.</p> + +<p>On the right hand of Faith is Saint Peter, seated, +holding his keys on high, and on her left Saint Paul, +with naked sword, that is, the preaching of the word of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +God. High up, about the spring of the vault, is the +figure of the Holy Spirit, assistant in the church.</p> + +<p>Between the six <i>asientos</i> of the base are the four +doctors of the Church, together with Saint Thomas and +Pope Urban the Fourth, who instituted the festival of +the Holy Sacrament.</p> + +<p>All these figures are half a yard in height; that is, one +half the height of the larger columns belonging to this +order.</p> + +<p>In the six niches that are between the arches, are the +figures of six Sacraments, in this wise:—</p> + +<p>(1) <i>Baptism</i>, represented by the figure of a youth +holding in one hand a bunch of lilies, signifying purity +and innocence, and in the other a beautiful vessel, +showing the act of washing the soul, that is the particular +virtue of this Sacrament. Over the arch is a scroll +containing the word <span class="smcap">BAPTISMUS</span>.</p> + +<p>(2) <i>Confirmation</i> is a damsel of spirited mien, armed +with a helmet. In one hand she has some vessels of +holy oil. Her other hand is raised, while with the index +finger she expresses firm determination to confess the +name of Christ. Inscribed upon her is the word +<span class="smcap">CONFIRMATIO</span>.</p> + +<p>(3) <i>Penitence</i> holds in her right hand a wand, denoting +spiritual jurisdiction, like the wand wherewith they +smite the excommunicated at his absolution. In her +left hand is a Roman javelin, that was the symbol of +liberty, to signify the free estate of the captive's soul, +and how, through absolution, sin is made a slave; +together with the word <span class="smcap">PŒNITENTIA</span>.</p> + +<p>(4) <i>Extreme Unction</i> is represented by an aged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +woman, holding a vase whence issueth an olive bough, +and in her other hand a candle, as token that this +Sacrament is a succour to those that be in the last +agony. The word inscribed is <span class="smcap">UNCTIO</span>.</p> + +<p>(5) <i>Order</i> is a priest with his vestments, holding an +incensory, together with a chalice and the host, signifying +Oration and Sacrifice. The word inscribed is <span class="smcap">ORDO</span>.</p> + +<p>(6) <i>Matrimony</i> is the figure of a youth, holding in one +hand a cross with two serpents twined about it, in +imitation of Mercury's wand. In his other hand he bears +a yoke, and the inscription <span class="smcap">MATRIMONIUM</span>.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p>The Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist, as being most +excellent of all, occupies a loftier place than all these +other Sacraments.</p> + +<p>The basement of this order, forming, as it were, a +boundary and bordering to this holy edifice of the +Church, has twelve pedestals beneath the columns, +making six and thirty sides, which are adorned with +six and thirty scenes, eighteen whereof are taken from +the Old Testament, and the other eighteen from the New +Testament, or relating to the present state of the Church.</p> + +<p>(1) The first scene represents how God formed Eve +from one of Adam's ribs. An inscription at the foot of +the pedestal says, <i>Humani generis auspicia</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) Next to the preceding is an image of our Saviour +with two angels supporting him by the arms, while from +his wounded side issue seven rays of blood, signifying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +the Church and Sacraments. The inscription says, +<i>Felicior propagatio</i>.</p> + +<p>(3) The tree of Life, with Adam and Eve partaking +of its fruit, and the inscription, <i>Perituræ gaudia vitæ</i>.</p> + +<p>(4) A cross adorned with branches and with blades of +wheat, surmounted by a chalice and the host, and round +about it a few prostrate figures, eating this holy fruit, +and the inscription, <i>Vitæ melioris origo</i>.</p> + +<p>(5) The angel with the flaming sword, driving our +fathers from Paradise, without suffering them to reach +the tree of Life. The inscription says, <i>Procul, procul +esse prophani</i>.</p> + +<p>(6) The parable of the banquet, from which was +driven out the man that had no wedding garment. The +inscription says, <i>Non licet sanctum dare canibus</i>.</p> + +<p>(7) The stream of water that issued from the rock +smitten by the rod of Moses, and the thirsty people, +drinking. The inscription says, <i>Bibebant de spirituali +petra</i>.</p> + +<p>(8) Beside the preceding, the figure of Christ, from +whose side issues a stream of blood, of which some +sheep are drinking. The inscription says, <i>Petra autem +erat Christus</i>.</p> + +<p>(9) The manna which fell from Heaven. The inscription +says, <i>Manducaverunt et mortui sunt</i>.</p> + +<p>(10) The miracle of the five loaves, with the inscription, +<i>Qui manducat vivit in æternum</i>.</p> + +<p>(11) The raven bringing bread and meat to Elijah. +The inscription says, <i>Non turpat dona minister</i>.</p> + +<p>(12) Next to this, an angel conveying a chalice and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +the host to the saints in the desert, with the inscription, +<i>Sacerdos Angelus Domini est</i>.</p> + +<p>(13) Elisha throwing flour in the pot to sweeten the +bitterness of the colocynth. The inscription says, <i>Vitæ +solamen acerbæ</i>.</p> + +<p>(14) Christ turning the water into wine, with the inscription, +<i>Vertit tristes in gaudia curas</i>.</p> + +<p>(15) Tobias frightening away the Devil with the +smoke from the liver of a fish. The inscription says, +<i>Fumum fugit atra caterva</i>.</p> + +<p>(16) Devils flying from an altar containing a chalice +and the host, with the inscription, <i>Fugiunt phantasmata +lucem</i>.</p> + +<p>(17) Lot inebriated, sleeping with his daughters. The +inscription says, <i>De vinea sodomorum vinum eorum</i>.</p> + +<p>(18) A group of virgins prostrating themselves before +the Sacrament upon the altar, with the inscription, <i>Hoc +vinum virgines germinat</i>.</p> + +<p>(19) Abraham harbouring the angels and washing +their feet. The inscription says, <i>Non licet illotos +accedere</i>.</p> + +<p>(20) Christ washing the feet of his disciples before a +table. The inscription says, <i>Auferte malum cogitationum +vestrarum</i>.</p> + +<p>(21) The supper of the paschal lamb, with the inscription, +<i>Antiqua novis misteria cedunt</i>.</p> + +<p>(22) The supper of Christ, with the inscription, +<i>Melioris fercula mensæ</i>.</p> + +<p>(23) The throne of God, before which stands the +prophet Isaiah, and an angel whose mouth is smitten by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +a lighted brand. The inscription says, <i>Purgavit filios +Levi</i>.</p> + +<p>(24) A priest before an altar, in his robes, administering +the communion to the Christian people. The inscription +says, <i>Probet se ipsum homo</i>.</p> + +<p>(25) Elijah reclining in the shade of the tree, with an +angel bringing him bread and a vessel. The inscription +says, <i>In pace in idipsum</i>.</p> + +<p>(26) A sick man in his bed, with a priest administering +the Sacrament to him. The inscription says, <i>Dormiam +et requiescam</i>.</p> + +<p>(27) Habbakuk borne by the angels to the den of +lions, to carry food to Daniel. The inscription says, +<i>Adjutor in opportunitatibus</i>.</p> + +<p>(28) An angel with a chalice and the host, which he +administers to the souls in Purgatory. The inscription +says, <i>Emissit vinctos de lacu</i>.</p> + +<p>(29) Noah sleeping beneath the vine, holding a vessel, +with his sons gathered about him. The inscription says, +<i>Humanæ ebrietatis ludibria</i>.</p> + +<p>(30) Christ with a chalice in his hand, and angels +round him, holding clusters of grapes, and a cross surrounded +with a vine. The inscription says, <i>Calix ejus +inebrians quant præclarus est</i>.</p> + +<p>(31) A queen adorned profanely, crowned with a +snake. She holds a vessel in her hand, and rides upon +a dragon with seven heads, some of which are drooping, +as though they were inebriated. The inscription says, +<i>Hæreticæ impietatis ebrietas</i>.</p> + +<p>(32) The figure of a virtuous lady wearing a royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +crown. She holds a chalice in her hand, and rides in a +car borne by the figures of the four evangelists. The +inscription says, <i>Ecclesiæ Catholicæ veritas</i>.</p> + +<p>(33) The table with the loaves of propitiation, before +the tabernacle, with Moses and Aaron standing beside +it, and the inscription, <i>Umbram fugit veritas</i>.</p> + +<p>(34) A custodia, with a chalice and the host, borne by +angels. The inscription says, <i>Ecce panis angelorum</i>.</p> + +<p>(35) David and his soldiers, who receive bread from +the priest's hand. The inscription says, <i>Absit mens +conscia culpæ</i>.</p> + +<p>(36) A priest, administering the Sacrament to two +persons, each of whom has an angel beside him. The +inscription says, <i>Sancta sanctis</i>.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p>And since all Sacraments have virtue and efficacy +from the passion of Christ our Saviour, which passion +is perpetually commemorated by this holiest of Sacraments, +I placed upon the summit of the twelve columns +belonging to this order twelve child-angels, naked, +bearing the signs and instruments of the Passion, as +voices to announce this sacred mystery.</p> + +<p>On the tympanums of the arches are angels bearing +grapes and ears of wheat, and in the middle of the six +sides of the frieze are graven, upon some ovals, the +following images and devices, the inscription corresponding +to them being on the largest scroll of the architrave.</p> + +<p>(1) A garland of vine-tendrils and ears of wheat, and +in the midst thereof an open pomegranate, signifying, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +the number and cohesion of its grains, the Church, +guarded within the fortress of this holiest of Sacraments. +The inscription says, <i>Posuit fines tuos pacem</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) A hand among clouds, extended over a nest of +young ravens that have their beaks open and raised, +with the inscription <i>Quanto magis vos</i>. This signifies, +that the Lord who taketh care to sustain the infidels and +pagans, taketh also especial care to sustain His Church +with abundance of this celestial food.</p> + +<p>(3) A fair stalk of wheat, whence issue seven ears of +great fatness, with the inscription, <i>Sempiterna satietas</i>; +showing that, not as in the seven years in Egypt, but +for ever, shall spiritual abundance abide in the Church of +Christ, owing to this holy table of His body and His blood.</p> + +<p>(4) A stork upon a nest woven of wheat-ears and +vine-tendrils, with the inscription, <i>Pietas incomparabilis</i>. +Showing the piety and fatherly love that God affordeth +to us in this Sacrament.</p> + +<p>(5) A hare smelling at a bough and some ears of +wheat, with the inscription, <i>Vani sunt sensus hominis</i>. +The hare signifies the senses, which are deceived by the +appearance of the bread and wine, unless they be fortified +by faith.</p> + +<p>(6) A hand bearing a wand, the end whereof is turning +to a serpent, with this inscription, <i>Hic vita, hic mors</i>; +because this Sacrament is the judgment and condemnation +of all that receive it unworthily, but life for such +as receive it with a clean spirit. The device has reference +to the rod of Moses, that gave health to the people of +Israel, affording them a passage through the midst of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +the sea, and making streams of sweet water to gush from +the rock, but that was ruinous to the Egyptians, causing +among them terrible sickness and destruction.</p> + +<p class="title">SECOND ORDER</p> + +<p>The second order is in the Corinthian style, the +columns and frieze adorned with foliage in the upper +and lower thirds, and the other one with fluted columns. +This order contains the Holy Sacrament in a circular +<i>viril</i> ornamented at its ends. Round it are the four +evangelists with the figures of the lion, bull, eagle, and +angel, adorning the majesty of the Lord that is within +the Sacrament, whereof they gave true testimony, according +to these words upon a tablet which each one holdeth +in his hand:—</p> + +<div class="poem-container"> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Saint Matthew, <i>Hoc est corpus meum</i>.</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Saint Mark, <i>Hic est sanguis meus</i>.</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Saint John, <i>Caro mea vere est cibus</i>.</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Saint Luke, <i>Hic est calix novi testamenti</i>.</span><br /> +</div></div></div> + +<p>On the outside are placed these figures, in pairs:—Saint +Justa and Saint Rufina, patron saints of Seville; +San Isidro and San Leandro, archbishops of the same +city; San Hermenegildo and San Sebastian; San Servando +and San Germano, martyrs; San Laureano, archbishop +of Seville, and San Carpóforo, priest; Saint +Clement, pope, and Saint Florence, martyr.</p> + +<p>On the six running pedestals of the columns of this +order are six scenes or figures of ancient sacrifices,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +symbolic of this holiest sacrifice of the Eucharist, as +showing how this one is the consummation and perfection +of all sacrifices, and that the light thereof dispersed +the shadows of the others. And these be in the following +wise:—</p> + +<p>(1) The sacrifice of Abel.</p> + +<p>(2) That of Noah, on his leaving the ark.</p> + +<p>(3) That of Melchisidech.</p> + +<p>(4) That of Abraham, when he sought to sacrifice Isaac.</p> + +<p>(5) That of the lamb which was found in the thornbush +and placed upon the altar.</p> + +<p>(6) Solomon's sacrifice at his dedication of the temple.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p>On the tops of these columns are twelve figures +representing the twelve gifts and fruits of this most holy +Sacrament, as they are told of by Saint Thomas in his +treatise on this mystery:—</p> + +<p>(1) <i>The conquest of the Devil</i>, represented by a maiden +beautified and adorned with a palm and a cross. The +inscription on the pedestal says, <i>Fuga dæmonis</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) <i>Spiritual cheerfulness and delight</i>, in the form of +another maiden, holding a wand wreathed with boughs +and tendrils of the vine, and in her other hand some +ears of wheat. The inscription says, <i>Hilaritas</i>.</p> + +<p>(3) <i>Purity of soul</i>, represented by a heart among +flames, suspended over a crucible. The inscription, +<i>Puritas</i>.</p> + +<p>(4) <i>Self-knowledge</i>, represented by a figure of Reason,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +holding in one hand a mirror, in which she regards herself, +and in the other hand a leafy bough. The inscription +says, <i>Cognitio sui</i>.</p> + +<p>(5) <i>Peace, and the appeasing of the wrath of God</i>, represented +by a figure holding in one hand an olive bough, +and in the other a cornucopia filled with grapes and +wheat. The inscription, <i>Reconciliatio</i>.</p> + +<p>(6) <i>Inward quiet and control of the affections</i>, represented +by a figure holding some poppies in one hand, +and in the other a lamp, the lower wick of which is +being extinguished. The inscription says, <i>Animi qui est</i>.</p> + +<p>(7) <i>Charity, and profound love for God and for our +neighbours</i>, represented by a figure holding in one hand +a lighted heart that has two wings, and with the other +pouring from a cornucopia. The inscription says, +<i>Charitas</i>.</p> + +<p>(8) <i>Increase of true worth</i>, represented by a figure holding +in one hand a bough of mustard, that is wont to grow +and multiply exceedingly from a tiny grain, and in the +other hand a half-moon, receiving greater brightness as +it waxes. The inscription says, <i>Meritorum multiplicatio</i>.</p> + +<p>(9) <i>Firmness and constancy in well-doing</i>, represented +by the figure of a woman holding an anchor in one hand, +and in the other a palm. The inscription says, <i>Constantia</i>.</p> + +<p>(10) <i>The hope that guides us to our celestial home</i>, represented +by a figure holding in one hand a bunch of +flowers (denoting the hope of the fruit that is to come), +and in the other hand a star, as one that guideth to a +haven. The inscription, <i>Deductio in patriam</i>.</p> + +<p>(11) <i>Resurrection</i>, represented by the figure of a beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +woman, holding in one hand a snake, and in the other +an eagle; creatures that renew themselves by casting +off the slough of their old age. The inscription says, +<i>Resurrectio</i>.</p> + +<p>(12) <i>Life Eternal</i>, represented by a figure holding a +palm in one hand, and a crown in the other. The inscription +says, <i>Vita æterna</i>.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p>The devices contained in this order, and in the middle +of the frieze, are as follows:—</p> + +<p>(1) A bunch of grapes upon a wand, surrounded with +ears of wheat. The inscription says, <i>Cœlestis patriæ +specimen</i>. This signifies that, as the great bunch of +grapes that was borne by Joshua and Caleb on their +shoulders was a token of the fertile land of promise, so +the greatness and the sweetness of this admirable Sacrament, +which is afforded to us in the guise of bread and +wine, is the living sign and earnest of the abundance +reigning in the kingdom of the blessed.</p> + +<p>(2) A hand extending the index-finger, pointing to a +chalice and the host, with the inscription, <i>Digitus Dei hic +est</i>. This means that the miracle of this holiest of Sacraments +is the work of the eternal wisdom, that cannot be +attained by any wisdom of us humans.</p> + +<p>(3) A rainbow, and above it a chalice with the host, and +the inscription, <i>Signum fœderis sempiterni</i>. Signifying, +that as in the olden time God vouchsafed the rainbow to +Noah in sign of friendship and alliance, so does He now +vouchsafe His own flesh and blood as a true and effective +token of His lasting association with mankind.</p> + +<p>(4) Two rays, crossed, and in their midst an olive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +bough, with the inscription, <i>Recordabor fœderis mei +vobiscum</i>. These are the words that were spoken by +God to Noah, when He made the said alliance with him, +giving to understand the clemency wherewith God +treateth mankind in the lesson of this divinest Sacrament, +forgetting their errors, and establishing perpetual +peace and amity with them.</p> + +<p>(5) The pelican feeding her young with the life-blood +issuing from her breast. The inscription says, <i>Majorem +charitatem nemo habet</i>.</p> + +<p>(6) A dead lion, from whose mouth issueth a swarm +of bees, with the inscription, <i>De forti dulcedo</i>. Giving +to understand, that as from the mouth of so brave a +creature there issued a substance so sweet as honey, so +did the God of vengeance, the brave Lion of the tribe of +Judah, concert such love and peace with man, that He +offered His very body for man's food.</p> + +<p class="title">THIRD ORDER</p> + +<p>The rest of the third order, as far as the summit of +the <i>custodia</i>, represents the Church triumphant: wherefore +was placed in the midst of this order (which is in the +composite style) the history of the Lamb that is upon +the throne, and round about it the four beasts that are +full of eyes, as the Apocalypse relateth.</p> + +<p>Upon the six continuous pedestals of the columns of +this order are graved the following six scenes:—</p> + +<p>(1) The saints who wash their stoles in the blood that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +issues from the Lamb, as is told in the Apocalypse.</p> + +<p>(2) God the Father, with a sickle in His hand, and +angels gathering grapes in the vat, and corn in the +granary, after winnowing out the chaff; signifying the +reward accorded unto men in sowing, and in the harvest +of the vine.</p> + +<p>(3) The saints in joyful procession, each with his sheaf +of wheat.</p> + +<p>(4) The virgins, crowned with vine-tendrils and ears of +wheat, that follow the Lamb.</p> + +<p>(5) The five prudent virgins, that with their lighted +lamps go in to the feast of the Bridegroom.</p> + +<p>(6) The banquet of the blessed.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p>Between the arches of this order are the six hieroglyphs +following, with their inscriptions above, upon +tablets.</p> + +<p>(1) A burning phœnix, with the inscription, <i>Instauratio +generis humani</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) Two cornucopias crossed, with a cross in their +midst. The cornucopias are full of vine-tendrils and ears +of wheat. The inscription says, <i>Felicitas humani generis</i>.</p> + +<p>(3) A kingfisher brooding over her young in a nest of +vine-tendrils and blades of wheat, with the inscription, +<i>Tranquillitas immutabilis</i>. This signifies the calm state +of the blessed, whereof a token is the nest of the kingfisher, +which bird, when it crosses the water, causes all +storms to cease.</p> + +<p>(4) A car with flames, rising to heaven, with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +inscription, <i>Sic itur ad astra</i>. Signifying that this +divinest Sacrament is the harbinger of those that travel +heavenward, in that Elijah was so swept away, after God +had sent him bread by the angel and the raven.</p> + +<p>(5) Two dolphins, whose tails are crossed, and in the +middle a chalice and the host, with the inscription, <i>Delitiæ +generis humani</i>. By this device is signified the love and +the delight bestowed by God on men by means of this +Sacrament.</p> + +<p>(6) An altar adorned with festoons of vine-tendrils and +blades of wheat, with flames upon it, and bearing the +inscription, <i>Æternum sacrificium</i>.</p> + +<p class="title">FOURTH ORDER</p> + +<p>In this order is represented the Holy Trinity upon a +rainbow, surrounded by many rays of splendour, and in +the fifth order is a bell, surmounted by a simple cross.</p> + +<p>Thus are all the parts of the <i>custodia</i> adorned with the +foregoing beautiful decoration, having regard to their +proportions and their symmetry, according to the rules +of good architecture, and to the movements and position +of the statuary, designed after nature, as was prescribed +by the inventor of histories. “<i>Et in his omnibus sensum +matris Ecclesiæ sequimur, cujus etiam juditium reveremur.</i>”</p> + +<p>Such is the description, written by Arfe himself, of +this wonderful masterpiece of silver-work. Unfortunately, +since his time the <i>custodia</i> has been much meddled +with by profane hands, and has been subjected to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +various impertinent “restorations” and “improvements.” +Thus, the original statuette of Faith, seated on her throne, +has been replaced by another of the Virgin, and the +twelve child-angels, holding the instruments of the +passion, by the same number of figures of a larger size +and far inferior workmanship. Further, some simple +pyramids which crowned the fourth order were foolishly +replaced by badly executed statuettes of children, and +the Egyptian obelisk, resting on four small spheres, +which surmounted the whole <i>custodia</i>, by an unwieldy +statue representing the Catholic Faith.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Description of the <i>Custodia</i> of Cordova Cathedral</span><br /> +(From <i>Córdoba</i>, by <span class="smcap">Pedro de Madrazo</span>)</p> + +<p>As I have stated in Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>, the author of this +<i>custodia</i> was Enrique de Arfe, Juan de Arfe's grandfather. +“The base, supported on small wheels placed in the interior, +is in the form of a regular dodecagon, each side of +which measures a foot. On the twelve-sided plate which +forms the base and which has well executed heads of +seraphs at each corner, is an order consisting of three +tiers. The first, which has projecting and receding +angles, leaves, about six sides of the dodecagon, a free +space for the handles by which the <i>custodia</i> is raised. +The first tier forms a kind of socle with six buttresses, +on the surface of which are represented allegorical +scenes, alternated in rows with graceful designs in relief,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +grotesque and pastoral dances, and scenes from Bible +history relative to the carriage of the Tabernacle. This +tier is surmounted by a gilded balustrade of elegant +design. The bas-reliefs are wrought alternately in gold +and silver.</p> + +<p>“The second tier is formed by a small socle, crowned +by a band of leaves and diminutive figures. Over this is +a gilded balustrade, and finally another and a broader +frieze containing gilded figures, together with delicate +foliage wrought in dull silver. This second tier grows +gradually narrower, and sustains the third, whose base +projects, serving as cornice to the frieze of the tier +below, and decorated with a gilded balustrade. Upon it +rises a mass or body with twelve sides, following the +same arrangement of projecting and receding angles +as the lower tiers. In each of its receding spaces this +order contains three compartments, and in each of its +salient faces it has a small tower or buttress, which +springs from the base and rests upon a delicate plinth +carved with a gilded ornamental band. Thus, the order +we are describing has six salient faces behind the six +towers or buttresses, and six spaces containing three +open compartments. In these compartments, separated +one from another by diminutive buttresses with delicate +pinnacles, there is the same number of sunken spaces, +one inch deep, on which are represented, in high relief, +scenes of the life and passion of our Lord. The figures, +admirably executed, are two inches high. Above this +order is a projecting cornice, decorated along its lower +part with a band of dull silver. It should be noted, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +as the <i>custodia</i> narrows gradually as it rises, the receding +spaces grow proportionally larger, thus affording +room for the spacious inner order on which is raised +the <i>viril</i>. This order is formed by a crystal cylinder +(containing the host) resting on a base which is also +cylindrical, the lower part of which is decorated with +a broad hexagonal band, narrower at the top than at the +bottom, and wrought with delicate foliage and figures, as +are the bands which lie beneath it. Above the transparent +cylinder enclosing the <i>viril</i> rises a Gothic vault, +drooping over in the manner of a plume, and resting +on the buttresses which fill the projecting spaces on +the base of the principal order. These buttresses have +a similar arrangement to, and coincide with, the other +ones which spring from the base of the third tier of +the first order, and are joined one to another by means +of fine cross-buttresses surmounted by statuettes. The +circular vault which holds the crystal cylinder containing +the <i>viril</i>, and which resembles that of the rotunda +dedicated as a sepulchral chapel by the emperor Constantine +to the memory of his daughter, saint Constance, +supports other and finer buttresses, alternated with +those beneath; but instead of rising from the salient +spaces of the base, these rise from the receding spaces +and support another vault, of smooth open-work, beneath +which is a graceful statuette of Nuestra Señora de la +Asunción. Over this vault is a kind of open-work +dome, consisting of an effective series of pinnacles and +buttresses in the shape of segments of a circle, which +bridge over the summits of the pinnacles. Upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +dome is a crown surmounted by a statuette of Christ +triumphant, with the cross. The two vaults—that which +encloses the <i>viril</i>, and the other one above it, enclosing +the image of the Virgin—are masked on the outside by +arches of elegant design, crowned by an elaborate +balustrade. The turrets or buttresses which rise upon +the lowest and the principal orders are decorated with +numerous statuettes, resting on plinths of exquisite +design, covered by open-work canopies.</p> + +<p>“This masterpiece of art is made of gold, and polished +and unpolished silver. The weight is 532 marks…. +Unfortunately, it lacks its original purity of style, having +been restored in the year 1735, when it is probable that +certain details were added which now disfigure it.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p> + +<h3>APPENDIX D</h3> + +<p class="title">THE IMPERIAL CROWN OF THE VIRGEN DEL SAGRARIO, TOLEDO</p> + +<p>This was the most elaborate and costly crown that had +ever been produced in Spain for decorating an image of +the Virgin. The following is a sketch of it:—</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_205.jpg" width="315" height="350" + alt="crown" + title="crown" /> +</div> + +<p>Before it was enlarged to the imperial shape, this crown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +was executed by a silversmith named Fernando de +Carrión, who finished it in the year 1556, and was paid +for his labour 760,000 <i>maravedis</i>. It then consisted of +a gold diadem adorned with rows of pearls, emeralds, +rubies, and enamelled devices of various colours, in the +style of the Renaissance.</p> + +<p>The superstructure, which converts it into what is +known as an imperial crown, was added by Alejo de +Montoya, another silversmith of Toledo, who began it +in 1574, and completed it twelve years later. The +addition consisted of a number of gold statuettes of +angels, covered with enamel, measuring in height from +two inches to two and a half, distributed in pairs, and +supporting decorative devices attached to the body of +the crown. From behind these angels sprang gold +bands thickly studded with precious stones, and terminating +towards their union at the apex of the crown in +seated allegorical figures grouped about a globe surmounted +by a cross. This globe consisted of a single +emerald, clear, perfect both in colour and in shape, +and measuring an inch and a half in diameter. The +inside of the hoop was covered with enamels representing +emblems of the Virgin, disposed in a series +of medallions, and the dimensions of the entire crown +were eleven inches high by nine across the widest +part.</p> + +<p>The crown was examined and reported upon by two +goldsmiths of Madrid, who declared it to contain the +following precious stones:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p> + +<table summary="stones"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Two balas rubies,</td> + <td class="tdl">valued at</td> + <td class="tdl">150,000</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>maravedis</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Twelve rubies,</td> + <td class="tdl">valued at</td> + <td class="tdl">403,528</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>maravedis</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Twelve emeralds,</td> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">237,500</td> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Fifty-seven diamonds,</td> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">555,396</td> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">One hundred and eighty-two pearls,</td> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">397,838</td> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The precious stones were thus valued at a total of +1,744,262 <i>maravedis</i>. Besides this, the value of the gold +and silver contained in the crown was estimated to +amount to 405,227 <i>maravedis</i>, while 3,097,750 <i>maravedis</i> +were allowed for the workmanship. These figures relate +to the part which was made by Alejo de Montoya +only. That which had previously been executed by +Fernando de Carrión was valued at 1,954,156 <i>maravedis</i>, +making a grand total, for the whole jewel, of +7,201,395 <i>maravedis</i>. At the present day the intrinsic +value of the crown would be from nine to ten thousand +pounds sterling.</p> + +<p>In 1869 this splendid specimen of Renaissance jewellery +was stolen from a cupboard in the cathedral of Toledo, +sharing thus the fate of many other precious objects +which have been entrusted to the slender vigilance or +slender probity of Spanish church authorities.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p> + +<h3>APPENDIX E</h3> + +<p class="title">GOLD INLAY ON STEEL AND IRON</p> + +<p>The inlaying of iron or steel with gold is often thought +to be a craft particularly Spanish, and to have been +inherited directly by the Spanish Christians from the +Spanish Moors. This work, however, although we may +assume it to have been of Eastern origin in a period of +remote antiquity, was quite familiar to the ancient +Romans, including, probably, such as made their home +in Spain. The Memoirs of Benvenuto Cellini contain +the following notice of the work in question:—</p> + +<p>“I met with some little Turkish daggers, the handles +of which were of iron as well as the blade, and even the +scabbard was of that metal. On these were engraved +several fine foliages in the Turkish taste, most beautifully +filled up with gold. I found I had a strong inclination +to cultivate this branch likewise, which was so different +from the rest; and finding that I had great success in it, +I produced several pieces in this way. My performances, +indeed, were much finer and more durable than the +Turkish, for several reasons: one was, that I made a +much deeper incision in the steel than is generally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +practised in Turkish works; the other, that their foliages +are nothing else but chicory leaves, with some few flowers +of echites: these have, perhaps, some grace, but they do +not continue to please like our foliages. In Italy there +is a variety of tastes, and we cut foliages in many +different forms. The Lombards make the most beautiful +wreaths, representing ivy and vine-leaves, and others +of the same sort, with agreeable twinings highly pleasing +to the eye. The Romans and the Tuscans have a much +better notion in this respect, for they represent acanthus +leaves, with all their festoons and flowers, winding in a +variety of forms; and amongst these leaves they insert +birds and animals of several sorts with great ingenuity +and elegance in the arrangement. They likewise have +recourse occasionally to wild flowers, such as those +called Lions' Mouths, from their peculiar shape, accompanied +by other fine inventions of the imagination, +which are termed grotesques by the ignorant. These +foliages have received that name from the moderns, +because they are found in certain caverns in Rome, +which in ancient days were chambers, baths, studies, +halls, and other places of a like nature. The curious +happened to discover them in these subterranean caverns, +whose low situation is owing to the raising of the surface +of the ground in a series of ages; and as these caverns +in Rome are commonly called grottos, they from thence +acquired the name of grotesque. But this is not their +proper name; for, as the ancients delighted in the composition +of chimerical creatures, and gave to the supposed +promiscuous breed of animals the appellation of monsters,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +in like manner artists produced by their foliages +monsters of this sort; and that is the proper name for +them—not grotesques. In such a taste I made foliages +filled up in the manner above mentioned, which were far +more elegant and pleasing to the eye than the Turkish +works.</p> + +<p>“It happened about this time that certain vases were +discovered, which appeared to be antique urns filled with +ashes. Amongst these were iron rings inlaid with gold, +in each of which was set a diminutive shell. Learned +antiquarians, upon investigating the nature of these +rings, declared their opinion that they were worn as +charms by those who desired to behave with steadiness +and resolution either in prosperous or adverse fortune.</p> + +<p>“I likewise took things of this nature in hand at the +request of some gentlemen who were my particular +friends, and wrought some of these little rings; but I +made them of steel well tempered, and then cut and +inlaid with gold, so that they were very beautiful to +behold: sometimes for a single ring of this sort I was +paid above forty crowns.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p> + +<h3>APPENDIX F</h3> + +<p class="title">OLD SPANISH PULPITS</p> + +<p>The earliest pulpits of the Spaniards were similar to +those of other Christian nations. One of them was the +<i>tribuna</i> or <i>tribunal</i>, so called, according to Saint Isidore, +“because the minister delivers from it the precepts for +a righteous life, wherefore it is a seat or place constructed +upon high, in order that all he utters may be heard.” +The ambo, too, although it is not mentioned by Saint +Isidore, was probably not unknown among the Spaniards.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> +Then there were various desks, such as the <i>analogia</i>, +<i>legitoria</i>, or <i>lectra</i>, on which the scriptures were deposited +in church, or carried in procession, and from which the +latter were read aloud by the priest. Saint Isidore remarks +of the <i>analogium</i>; “It is so called because the +word is preached therefrom, and because it occupies the +highest place.”<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> Ducange, quoting from old authors, remarks +in his Glossary that these desks were often adorned +with gold and silver plates or precious stones. Thus it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +is extremely probable that Tarik's celebrated “table” +(see Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a> <i>et seq.</i>) was merely some elaborate +and bejewelled <i>analogium</i> of the Christians; such as +was, in fact, the predecessor of the modern lectern or +“hand-pulpit.”</p> + +<p>According to Amador de los Ríos, sermons in those +early times were delivered from the <i>analogium</i> only. +Towards the twelfth century, the Isidorian liturgy was +abolished in Spain, and the furniture of Spanish temples +underwent some change. In the same century and +throughout the century following, the Spanish Peninsula +was invaded by the Order of Preachers, while, coinciding +with, or closely consequent upon, this movement, the +primitive ambo was succeeded by the <i>jubé</i>, and wood, as +the material of which the pulpit was constructed, by +marble, iron, stone, or plaster.</p> + +<p>Two Mudejar pulpits of great interest are preserved at +Toledo, in the church of Santiago del Arabal (thirteenth +century), and in the convent, erected in the reign of +Pedro the Cruel, of Santo Domingo el Real. The +substance of these ancient objects is a brick and plaster +foundation, with panels of the stucco known as <i>obra de +yesería</i>, produced from wooden moulds. The pulpit of +the church of Santiago is traditionally affirmed to be the +one from which, in 1411, Saint Vincent Ferrer delivered +a sermon to the Toledan Jews. Whether this be so or +not, the date of its construction is undoubtedly the +second half of the fourteenth century, or early in the +fifteenth. The shape is octagonal—a very common form +with Gothic pulpits. It is divided into four <i>cuerpos</i> or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +orders, including the sounding-board. The decoration, +which is chiefly floral, is a combination of the Gothic +and the Moorish styles.</p> + +<p>The pulpit of Santo Domingo el Real stands in the +refectory of that convent. It dates from the same period +as the one belonging to the church of Santiago, but +unlike this latter, bears no trace of former gilding, painting, +or enamelling upon the surface of the stone or +plaster. It has three tiers or compartments, and, as in +the other pulpit, the decoration consists of leaves and +flowers, blended with geometrical patterns and Moorish +<i>lacería</i>.</p> + +<p>The Moorish <i>mimbar</i> or pulpit of the mosque of +Cordova was very wonderful. According to Sentenach, +its situation was near the archway leading to the <i>mihrab</i>, +and on its desk rested the sacred copy of the Koran +which had belonged to the Caliph Othman, and which +was stated to be stained with his blood.</p> + +<p>This <i>mimbar</i>, sacrificed long years ago to Christian +barbarism and neglect, was the richest piece of furniture +in all that mighty building, seven years of unremitting +labour being exhausted by Al-Hakem's craftsmen in +constructing it of the richest and most aromatic woods, +inlaid with silver, ivory, gold, and precious stones. +Ambrosio de Morales called it “King Almanzor's chair,” +describing it quaintly as a four-wheeled car of richly-wrought +wood, mounted by means of seven steps. “A +few years since,” he adds, “they broke it up, I know +not wherefore. So disappeared this relic of an olden +time.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p> + +<h3>APPENDIX G</h3> + +<p class="title">SPANISH CUTLERS</p> + +<p>In former times excellent cutlery, such as knives, +scissors, daggers, spearheads, and surgical instruments, +was made in Spain, at Seville, Albacete, Toledo, Valencia, +Pamplona, Ronda, Peñíscola, Guadix, Ripoll, Mora, +Olot, and Tolosa. Rico y Sinobas has given an +interesting description of the workshop and apparatus +of one of these old Spanish cutlers—his graduated set +of hammers, weighing from a few ounces to five pounds, +his hand-saws, bench-saw, chisels, pincers, files, and +drills, his forge, measuring from a yard square to a yard +and a half, his two anvils of the toughest iron, the larger +with a flat surface of three inches by ten inches, for +ordinary work, the smaller terminated by conical points +for making the thumb and finger holes of scissors.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> +The method of tempering and forging practised by +these cutlers was much the same as that of the Toledo +swordsmiths.</p> + +<p>Rico y Sinobas also embodied in his essay the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +following list of cutlers and cutler-armourers, who +manufactured knives, penknives, scissors, parts of firearms, +or heads and blades for lances, halberds, and +the like. The following is a summary of the list in +question:—</p> + +<table id="p215" cellpadding="4" summary="cutler_list"> + <tr> + <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Name.</span></td> + <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Date.</span></td> + <td class="td2"><span class="smcap">Worked at</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Acacio</td> + <td class="td3">17th century</td> + <td class="td4">He made spearheads and fittings for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Aguas, Juan de</td> + <td class="td3">Early in 18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Guadix.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Alanis</td> + <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td> + <td class="td4">? Maker of fittings for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Albacete</td> + <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td> + <td class="tdl">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Ambrosio</td> + <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Mora. Maker of large scissors for sheep-shearing.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Arbell, Ramón</td> + <td class="td3">17th century (?)</td> + <td class="td4">Olot. Knife-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Azcoitia (the elder)</td> + <td class="td3">Late 15th century and early 16th</td> + <td class="td4">Guipúzcoa (?). A celebrated maker of pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Azcoitia (Cristóbal)</td> + <td class="td3">16th century</td> + <td class="td4">? Also a maker of pieces for crossbows. He was the fourth descendant of the family who worked at this branch of the cutler's craft.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Azcoitia (Juan)</td> + <td class="td3">16th century</td> + <td class="td4">? Perhaps a member of the same family. He also made pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Beson, Manuel</td> + <td class="td3">18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid. Knife-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Bis, Francisco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></td> + <td class="td3">18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (see Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>). Maker of knives and arquebuses.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Blanco, Juan</td> + <td class="td3">16th century</td> + <td class="td4">Maker of crossbows, and of pieces for the same.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Castellanos (the elder)</td> + <td class="td3">18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Castellanos (the younger)</td> + <td class="td3">18th century and early 19th</td> + <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Castillo, Gregorio</td> + <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td> + <td class="td4">Cataluña (?). Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Cerda, Miguel de la</td> + <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid and Segovia. He made scissors and other cutlery.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Criado, Juan</td> + <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td> + <td class="td4"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Diaz, Pedro</td> + <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Escobar, Cristóbal</td> + <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Escobar, Juan</td> + <td class="td3">17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Son of the preceding, and also a maker of pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Fernandez Manso de Payba, José</td> + <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Guadalajara. A Portuguese, naturalized in Spain. He was a scissors-maker of considerable fame.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Fuente, Pedro de la</td> + <td class="td3">Late 15th century or early 16th</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of crossbows and their pieces.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">García, Domingo</td> + <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid. Arquebus-maker and cutler.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">García de la Torre, Teodoro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></td> + <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Guadalix and Alcorcón. Cutler. In company with Manuel Beson, he invented a method of converting iron into steel.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Garijo</td> + <td class="td3">18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Garro, Martín</td> + <td class="td3">Early 15th century</td> + <td class="td4">Pamplona. Cutler and swordsmith. A letter dated October 31st, 1406, records that he was paid five <i>escudos</i> for making a sword, and one <i>escudo</i> for a dagger.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Gomez, Mateo</td> + <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Grajeras</td> + <td class="td3">17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Grande, Juan</td> + <td class="td3">17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of lanceheads.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Gutierrez</td> + <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Chinchilla. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Hernandez, Juan</td> + <td class="td3">16th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Herraez, Andres</td> + <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td> + <td class="td4">Cuenca. Arquebus-maker and cutler.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Herrezuelo (the elder)</td> + <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td> + <td class="td4">Baeza. Cutler.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Herrezuelo (the younger)</td> + <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Baeza. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Horbeira, Angel</td> + <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid. Cutler; a native of Galicia, and reputed to be one of the best craftsmen of his time. He was known as <i>El Borgoñon</i>, and passed his early life in Flanders.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Hortega<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></td> + <td class="td3">Early 16th century</td> + <td class="td4">? Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Lallabe, Juan de</td> + <td class="td3">Early 19th century</td> + <td class="td4">? Cutler, locksmith, and maker of surgical instruments.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Lastra, Juan</td> + <td class="td3">17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows. He was one for crossbows. He was one of the latest and most celebrated of these craftsmen.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Leon</td> + <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Llorens, Pablo</td> + <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Olot. Cutler.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Marcoarte, Simon</td> + <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid. Arquebus-maker and cutler. He was the son of another craftsman of the same name, who settled in Spain in the reign of Charles the Fifth (see Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Martinez, Juan</td> + <td class="td3">Early 16th century</td> + <td class="td4">? Maker of darts and lancesfor crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Mendoza, Francisco and Manuel</td> + <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Trigueros (Old Castile). Cutlers.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Moreno, Luis</td> + <td class="td3">Late 15th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Moro, El</td> + <td class="td3">Late 18th century and early 19th</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid. Cutler.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Muñoz of Getafe</td> + <td class="td3">16th century and early 17th</td> + <td class="td4">? Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Óipa, Juan</td> + <td class="td3" align="center">?</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid. Maker of crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Perez de Villadiego, Juan</td> + <td class="td3">16th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Perez, Julian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span></td> + <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of darts and lances for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Puebla (the elder)</td> + <td class="td3">Early 16th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid. Maker of parts of crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Ramirez, Juan</td> + <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td> + <td class="td4">? Cutler. He emigrated to the city of Puebla de los Angeles, in Mexico, where he continued to make knives, scissors, and weapons of good quality.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Renedo (the elder)</td> + <td class="td3">Early 16th century(?)</td> + <td class="td4">? Maker of darts and lances for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Renedo (the younger)</td> + <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td> + <td class="td4">? Son of the preceding. He made the same objects as his father.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Romero</td> + <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Rosel</td> + <td class="td3" align="center">?</td> + <td class="td4">Mora. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">San José, Brother Antonio</td> + <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Jaen. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Santamaría</td> + <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Selva, Juan</td> + <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Cartagena and Madrid. Cutler and iron-founder.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Segura</td> + <td class="td3">Late 18th century and early 19th</td> + <td class="td4">Mora. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Sierra, Juan</td> + <td class="td3">18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Soler, Isidro</td> + <td class="td3">Late 18th century and early 19th</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid. Arquebus-maker, cutler, and author of <i>An Historical Essay on making Arquebuses</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Sosa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></td> + <td class="td3">17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of weapons, especially the heads of lances.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Targarona, Francisco</td> + <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid. Arquebus-maker to Charles the Third and Charles the Fourth, and one of the most skilful craftsmen of his day.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Tijerero, El (Domingo Sanchez)</td> + <td class="td3" align="center">?</td> + <td class="td4">Toledo. Maker of swords and scissors.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Torres</td> + <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Ucedo</td> + <td class="td3">Late 16th century and perhaps early 17th</td> + <td class="td4">? Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">V....</td> + <td class="td3">16th century (?)</td> + <td class="td4">Toledo (?). Scissors-maker. The rest of this craftsman's name is not known.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Valderas, Pedro de</td> + <td class="td3">16th century</td> + <td class="td4">Madrid and Valladolid. Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Vicen-Perez, Pedro</td> + <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Vilarasa, Antonio</td> + <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">? Cutler and razor-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Vilarasa, Antonio</td> + <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">? Cutler and razor-maker.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">... Emt.., Julian</td> + <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td> + <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker. Only a fragment of his name has been preserved upon a blade. Rico y Sinobas suggests that the entire surname may have been <i>Vicen-Perez</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Zeruantes, Francisco</td> + <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td> + <td class="td4">Toledo. Maker of blades for halberds.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td5">Zamora (“the deaf”)</td> + <td class="td5">Late 16th century and early 17th</td> + <td class="td6">Castile. Cutler,</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span></p> + +<h3>APPENDIX H</h3> + +<p class="title">SPANISH TRADE-GUILDS</p> + +<p>The <i>gremios</i> of Spain were copied from the guilds of +France and other countries, and may be traced originally +to the <i>corpora</i> and <i>collegia</i> of the Romans and Byzantines. +The earliest which were formed in the Peninsula were +those of Barcelona<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> and Soria, succeeded, not long +after, by Valencia, Seville,<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> and Toledo. Prior, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +to the institution of these trade-guilds proper, whose +purpose was pre-eminently mercenary,<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> there existed, +in the case of several cities, <i>cofradías</i> or religious +brotherhoods, that is, associations of a philanthropic +character, composed of tradesmen or artificers who +pledged themselves to assist each other in poverty or +sickness, or to defray the burial expenses of such members +as should die without resources.</p> + +<p>The formula of admission to a Spanish brotherhood +was very quaint in its punctilious and precise severity. A +notice of this ceremony, relating to the Cofradía of Saint +Eligius, or Silversmiths' Brotherhood of Seville,<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> is quoted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +by Gestoso from the venerable <i>Regla de Hermandad</i> or +statutes of the members, preserved in a codex dating +from the first half of the sixteenth century. It was required +that the candidate for admission should be a +silversmith, married in conformity with the canons of the +church, a man well spoken of among his neighbours, and +not a recent convert to the Christian faith. The day +prescribed for choosing or rejecting him was that which +was consecrated to Saint John the Baptist, coinciding +with the festival of Saint Eligius or San Loy, “patron +and representative” of silversmiths, and who in life +had been a silversmith himself. The regulations of the +Cofradía decreed the following method of election. “In +the chest belonging to the Brotherhood shall be kept a +wood or metal vessel with space sufficient to contain +some fifty beans or almonds; and the said vessel shall +be set in our chapter-room, in a spot where no man is. +Each of the brothers that are present shall next be given +one of the beans or almonds, and, rising from his seat, +arrange his cloak about him so as to conceal his hands, in +order that none may witness whether he drops, or does +not drop, the almond or the bean into the vessel. Then, +with due dissimulation, he shall proceed to where the +vessel lies, and if he deem that he who seeks to be +admitted as our brother be an honourable man, and such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +as shall contribute to the lustre of our Brotherhood, then +shall he drop in a bean or almond, and return to his seat, +still covering his hands with his cloak. But if, upon the +contrary, he deem that the said candidate be a sinner, +and a riotous fellow and bad Christian, that should prove +a source of evil and vexation to our chapter, or that hath +wronged another of our brethren, then shall he not cast +in the bean or almond, but secretly reserve the same, +and once more seat himself. Lastly, when all shall have +crossed over to and from the vessel, they shall bear it to +the table where the officers sit, and void it in the sight +of all the company, and count the beans or almonds; +and if the number of these be full, then is it clear that +we do receive the other for our <i>Hermano</i>. But if there +be a bean or almond wanting, in that a brother hath +retained it in his fingers, then shall our <i>Alcaldes</i> speak +to this effect. ‘Señores: here wants a bean or almond’ +(or two, or any number, as may be). ‘Within eight +days from now let him that kept it back present himself +to us, or to any one of us, and give account why he that +sought admission to our Brotherhood deserves to be rejected.’ +And if the brother that kept back the bean or +almond should not present himself within the appointed +time, then shall the Brotherhood admit the other: but if +he appear, and state a lawful cause against the other's +entry, then our <i>Alcaldes</i>, when this last presents himself +to learn their resolution, shall urge him to have patience, +in that not all the brothers are content with him, albeit, +if such cause consisteth in a quarrel between a brother and +the candidate for entry, peace may be brought about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +between the two, and afterward the <i>Cofradía</i> may admit +him of their number.”</p> + +<p>Similar ceremonies and customs were observed in old +Toledo (see the Ordinances of this city, dated June 24th, +1423, renewed and amplified in 1524).<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> Here also the +silversmiths agreed to meet and celebrate the festival of +their patron saint upon one day in every year, “for ever +and for ever” (<i>para siempre jamás</i>). On these occasions +the image of the saint was carried in procession, and a +repast was given to the brothers themselves, as well as +to all persons who were “willing to receive it for the +love of God.” Every brother who failed to present +himself at this solemnity was fined one pound of candle-wax; +but if he were merely unpunctual, and arrived +“after the singing of the first three psalms,” the fine was +only half a pound. A pound of candle-wax was also +the statutory tribute for admission to the Brotherhood, +together with a hundred <i>maravedis</i> and other unimportant +sums in cash.</p> + +<p>The history of the <i>gremios</i> of Valencia has been traced +in an instructive essay by Luis Tramoyeres Blasco. +Early in the fifteenth century guilds were established +here of nearly thirty trades, including tailors, millers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +carpenters, shoemakers, silversmiths, weavers, tanners, +dyers, swordsmiths, and bonnet-makers. These guilds +developed greatly in the sixteenth century, expanding +into powerful and wealthy bodies, who practically controlled +the entire commerce and commercial products of +their native town. Among the <i>gremios</i> instituted at a +later date were those of the firework-makers, basket-makers, +twisters of silk, stiffeners of dress fabrics, bell-founders, +and painters of chests and boxes, each of these +corporations being enrolled by law, and possessing a +code of regulations for the government and guidance of +its members. Sometimes, however, owing to diminution +in its trade, a guild became extinct, as happened +with the <i>guadamacileros</i> (see Vol. II., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i>), and +with the clothmakers, of whom, in 1595, but three remained +in all Valencia. Or else a <i>gremio</i> would purposely +amalgamate with, or merge insensibly into, another. Thus +in 1668 the tailors and the makers of trunk-hose united +in a single corporation, just as, at other times, the glovers +and the parchment-dressers, the clog-makers and the +shoemakers.</p> + +<p>Those of the Valencian guilds which possessed the +greatest influence and resources, and enjoyed the highest +privileges from the city or the crown, were called <i>colegiados</i>. +Among them were the velvet-makers, hatters, +bronze-founders, wax-makers, confectioners, dyers, and +makers of silk hose. The earliest to obtain this +coveted and honourable title were the booksellers, in +1539, followed by the wax-makers in 1634, the confectioners +in 1644, the velvet-makers also in this year,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +and others in succession, terminating with the dyers in +1763, the hatters in 1770, the bell-founders in 1772, and +the makers of silk stockings in 1774.</p> + +<p>According to Tramoyeres, most of the Valencian trade-guilds +owned a building in fee-simple, and often gave +the title of their craft to the entire street in which that +edifice was situated. Nor did the <i>gremios</i>, in their +evolution from the simpler and less mercenary form of +brotherhood or <i>cofradía</i>, wholly abandon the religious +ceremonies of their prototype. In almost every instance +the guild erected and maintained a chapel within its +private <i>domicilio</i>, chose a particular saint to be its patron, +and held, with fitting pomp and liberality, a yearly +celebration of that patron's holy-day.</p> + +<p>On these occasions masses and other services were +said or sung, and the embroidered banner of the guild, +together with the image (which was often of silver) of its +tutelar saint, was carried in procession through the +streets of this bright city of the south, abounding at all +seasons in flowers and sunshine, and famed, from the +remotest days of Spanish history, for the splendour and +munificence of her public festivals.</p> + +<p>Our earliest record of the formal attendance of the +<i>gremios</i> of Valencia at one of her <i>fiestas</i>, goes back to +the visit to this capital of King Pedro the Second, in 1336, +when the guilds were marshalled in military fashion, +company by company, each headed by its pennon “<i>á la +saga dels primers</i>,” that is, next to the group or company +immediately in front of it. In 1392, upon the visit of +another monarch, Juan the First, who was accompanied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +by his queen, Violante, a more elaborate character was +given to the welcome. Jongleurs and dancers were +hired to perform, while several of the <i>gremios</i> constructed +decorative scenes or allegorical tableaux on a platform +or a waggon, which was wheeled along the street in slow +procession, surrounded by the marching members of the +guild. One of these structures represented the winged +dragon or <i>drach-alat</i> which figures so conspicuously in +the records of Valencia (see Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>), and was +attacked and overcome in mimic combat by a body of +knights armed cap-à-pie. The mariners of the port built +two large galleys, also moved on wheels and simulating +an attack, and the <i>freneros</i> or bit-makers presented a +gathering of folk disguised as savages. Nor was the +bullfight—that most characteristic of Spanish sports—omitted +from the entertainment, judging from the +following entry in the city archives: “Item. Sien +aemprats los prohomens carnicers a procurar e haver +toros e fer per sos dies feta la dita entrada joch ab +aquells specialment en lo mercat com sia cert quel +Senyor Rey se agrada e pren plaer de tal joch.”</p> + +<p>A typical <i>fiesta</i> and procession of these trade-guilds +is described by Tramoyeres. “Formed in two long +lines, the members of the guild advanced along the +tortuous and narrow highways of the town, adorned +with tapestries and altars. Each <i>gremio</i> was preceded +by a band of cymbal-beaters, pipers, and jongleurs, +sometimes accompanied by a <i>comparsa</i> allusive to the +ceremony now being celebrated. Next came the +standard of the master-craftsmen and apprentices, each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +group of whom attended its <i>divisa</i> or distinguishing +emblem. Close after followed the banner of the craft +in general, carried by one or two of the <i>oficiales</i>, who +made display of their dexterity and strength by supporting +the staff of the banner upon their shoulder, the palm +of the hand, or the under-lip. The cords of the banner +were held by the officers of the guild, denominated +<i>mayorales</i>, <i>clavarios</i> and <i>prohombres</i>; behind these came +the masters, and last of all, a triumphal car on which +were represented scenes relating to the craft. Thus, in +the year 1655, at the commemoration of the second +centenary of the canonization of Saint Vincent Ferrer, +the <i>gremios</i> showed particular ingenuity and novelty +in these devices.” Don Marco Antonio Ortí, who wrote +an account of the festival in question, thus describes a +few of them. “The millers were preceded by a waggon +drawn by four mules and covered with boughs and +flowers. On it was the imitation of a windmill, wheel +and every other part, contrived so cunningly that +although the wheel went round at a great speed, the +artifice which caused it to revolve was kept from view, +and in the time that the procession lasted, it ground to +flour a whole <i>caliz</i> of wheat.” Another invention, says +the same chronicler, was that of the masons. “The +scene devised by these was a triumphal car, handsomely +adorned, on which was borne the great tower (of the +cathedral),<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> imitated so skilfully that it seemed to have +been rooted from its foundation, and replanted in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +car aforesaid; and so enormous was its size that a +special spot required to be chosen in which to set it +up. This was in the garden of La Punta; and when +the tower was finished and ready to be taken forth, a +breach for its passage had to be opened in the garden +wall. It even contained a peal of bells, which rang by +turning round and round, and this invention of the bells, +besides its ingenuity, was rarely fitted to this festival, +seeing that the clock-bell of the cathedral (that is the +greatest of them all) was given, when it was baptized, +the name of San Vicente's bell, as well as of Saint +Michael the Archangel; whence the tower itself is +called the Micalet, this, in the language of Valencia, +being the diminutive for Michael. It were impossible to +imagine the stir and the applause excited in all quarters +of the city by the passage of this tower.”</p> + +<p>The same writer describes the decorative car or +waggon of the flax-weavers. “Upon it were a woman +seated beneath a canopy, weaving at a frame, and +representing Santa Ana, the child Jesus making +<i>cañillas</i>, and an aged man, for San Antonio, dressed as +a hermit, with a live sucking-pig at his side. Before +these went Our Lady riding on a jennet, with a child +in her arms, her right hand held by a man of venerable +age representing Saint Joseph. This artifice was symbolic +of the weavers' trade, receiving for this reason +great applause, as well as for the lavish decoration of, +and curious details that were in, the car.”</p> + +<p>Tramoyeres further explains that the guild which +took first place in the procession was that which had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +been most recently created, the oldest and most +honoured coming last. At Valencia this proud position +was held from the remotest period by the clothmakers; +but from time to time, when these for any cause were +absent from the festival, their place was taken by one or +other of two companies almost as ancient and as honourable—the +tanners or the tailors.</p> + +<p>Each guild selected an official dress or livery, distinguished +from the others by its colour or design:—the +tailors, purple and white; the weavers, rose with black +sleeves; the cutlers, crimson with green sleeves and +sprinkled with golden roses; the millers, white with +crimson-striped sleeves; the silversmiths, crimson with +silver trimming; and so forth. Their banners, too, were +quite in harmony with the rich apparel of the vain +<i>agremiados</i>. According to an author of the seventeenth +century, these flags were “not of war, but of a different +workmanship, and greatly larger. All are of damask, +most being coloured crimson, and the poles sustaining +them, and terminated by an image of the sainted patron +of the guild, are longer than the longest pike of war. +Truly, a splendid show these banners make, displayed +with fringes of drawn gold, and shields embroidered with +the same material.”</p> + +<p>The image in which the pole of the banner concluded +was not, however, invariably that of a saint, or of a saint +alone. In the case of the cask-makers it was a golden +tun surmounted by a cross, with figures of Saint Helen +and the Emperor Constantine standing on either side of +it. That of the armourers was a bat (the <i>rat-penat</i> or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +“winged rat” contained in the <i>escudo</i> of Valencia); that +of the cloth-shearers, a pair of scissors with a golden +crown and the image of Saint Christopher; of the fishermen, +a boat containing Saint Peter and Saint Andrew; +of the clothmakers, a sphere inscribed with the name of +Jesus; of the stonemasons, a silver millwheel and a silver +image of the Virgin. Similarly, each <i>gremio</i> displayed +upon its coat-of-arms some kind of emblem such as the +implement, or implements, associated with its trade:—the +silversmiths, a square and compass; the carpenters, a +hatchet and a saw; the lock-smiths, a pair of hammers +and an anvil.</p> + +<p>Quaintly instructive are the dispositions of the guilds +relating to apprenticeship. The <i>maestro</i> of a trade, +described by the Count of Torreánaz as “the principal +worker in the workshop,” agreed to feed, clothe, and +instruct his apprentice or <i>discípulo</i>, and treat him generally +as a member of his own family. He was permitted +to punish his apprentice for misconduct, but not to employ +excessive physical violence; and a law of Jayme +the First decreed that if the apprentice lost one or both +of his eyes from a blow inflicted by his master, the latter +was to “make good the injury” (<i>sia tengut del mal que +li haura feyt</i>).</p> + +<p>The number of apprentices allowed in any one +workshop was often (and subsequently to the fifteenth +century, nearly always) regulated by the law. The first +disposition of this kind discovered by Tramoyeres dates +from the year 1451, and refers to the shoemakers, +whose apprentices might not outnumber three to each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +<i>maestro</i>.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> Similarly, by provisions issued at a later date, +the mattress-makers and the builders were allowed no +more than two apprentices, and the silk-weavers three, +although sometimes the master might admit an extra +<i>aprenent</i> or so, on payment of a certain sum per head.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> +The term of the apprenticeship was also often fixed +by law. In most of the trades it was four years; but +in the case of the makers of ribbons and of boxes it +was five years; while stocking-makers were apprenticed +for six, and wax-makers and confectioners for eight +years.</p> + +<p>Before the father or the guardian of a lad could +sign his papers of apprenticeship, it was required +(during and after the sixteenth century) to prove before +the guild, by means of his certificate of baptism, or on +the declaration of witnesses, that he was the child of +parents who were “old Christians,” and not the offspring +of Moor, Jew, slave, convert, or (in the fierce +expression of the stocking-makers) “any other infected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +race.” Still more absurd and savage was an ordinance, +dated 1597, of the shoemakers, prohibiting any master +of this trade from admitting to apprenticeship in any +form, “a black boy, or one of the colour of cooked +quince, slave or Moor … so as to avoid the harm +which might befall our brother shoemakers from the +ridicule that would be stirred among the populace, if +they should see in our processions and other public acts, +a slave, or the son of a black slave, or a lad of the +colour of cooked quince, or a Moor; as well as the rioting +and scandals that would be caused by the spectacle of +creatures of this nature mixing with decent, well-dressed +people.”</p> + +<p>These statutes are selected from the mass of local +legislation which concerned Valencia only. Turning to +Spanish guilds at large, the study of these institutions +throws considerable light upon the customs of the +Spanish nation in the past, and more especially upon the +social and financial standing of the older Spanish craftsman. +As in other countries, the principal and primal +object of the <i>gremio</i> was to organize a system of defence +against the military and nobility, or even against the +crown. Presently, however, and long before their evolution +is completed, errors become apparent in the statutes +or proceedings of these bodies which denote, very instructively +and very plainly, the typical defects or weaknesses +of the Spanish character. Foremost of all was thriftlessness. +Although it is a fact that several of the Spanish +guilds owned houses or even land, none of them (except +the silversmiths of two or three large towns) were really<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +affluent;<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> and indeed, in a country racked by incessant +foreign wars or civil strife, there was every reason why +they should not be affluent. Yet, notwithstanding this, in +celebrating any kind of public festival, the poor <i>agremiado</i> +made no scruple to vie in prodigal disbursements with +the moneyed aristocracy, clothing himself in fanciful +and costly stuffs,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> constructing shows and spectacles on +wheels, raising elaborate altars in the streets, contracting +for expensive services, performances, and tableaux. More +than once, the <i>gremios</i> were obliged to borrow funds to +celebrate the festival of their patron saint.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> So also with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +regard to dress. The costumes of the guildsmen of +Valencia have been already noticed. An equal recklessness +and foppery prevailed in other Spanish towns; for +instance, at Barcelona, where, on a visit of Ferdinand +and Isabella in 1481, the silversmiths formed part of the +procession “dressed in the richest manner, with robes +and mantles all covered with silver, and some of them +with bonnets that were all of silver plate with jewels and +silver foliage, while others wore silver chains about their +necks.”</p> + +<p>Two of the most conspicuous faults among the Spanish +race are pride and envy. Yet these defects may be +explained without much puzzling, and, in a measure, +pardoned. Spaniards, through all the process of their +national development, have clung by preference to the +calling of the soldier or the priest; that is, the only +occupations which directly dissipate the revenue of the +commonwealth. Since, therefore, they were thus inclined +from earliest antiquity, as well as tutored by a crafty +priesthood to believe that might or violence alone +is right, the haughtiness of the Spanish people is a +logical, and indeed inevitable, outcome of their history. +Moreover, side by side with this erroneous theory that +the only prowess and decorum of a people must consist +in armed aggressiveness, as well as in a truculent and +militant intolerance in matters of religion (or rather, of +superstition), there arose the equally as mischievous and +erroneous theory that the arts of peace were venal, +despicable, and effeminate, or, in the current phrase +of our contemporaries, “unworthy of a gentleman.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +“The Spaniards,” wrote Fernández de Navarrete, “are +so proud-hearted that they do not accommodate themselves +to servile labour.” Therefore this people chose +their favourites and heroes in a semi-savage freebooter; +never in a craftsman of gigantic merit, like the elder +Berruguete, or Juan de Arfe, or Alonso Cano. Sometimes, +as happened with the <i>reja</i> of the Chapel Royal +of Granada, they did not even trouble to record the +surname of her best artificers. These men, in fact, +exceptions to her universal rule, were coldly looked +upon, or even persecuted.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Abundant proof is yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +extant of this humiliation of her merchants, craftsmen, +shopkeepers, as distinguished from her soldiery and +clergy, gentry and nobility. Undoubtedly, beneath +such scorn the former of these groups were sensitive to +their position, and all the more acutely sensitive because +of their inherent Spanish pride. In fact, so sensitive +were they, that now and then the crown esteemed it +prudent to appease their wounded vanity by certain +declarations or emoluments. Thus, the <i>Repartimiento +de Sevilla</i> tells us that in the year 1255 Alfonso the +Tenth rewarded several craftsmen of his capital of Seville +with the title of <i>Don</i>, “a dignity,” says Amador, “rarely +bestowed at that time.”<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> In 1556 Charles the Fifth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +resolved, in favour of the corporation of <i>artistas-plateros</i> +or “artist-silversmiths,” that the masters of this craft, +together with their wives, might dress in silk, “in that it +was an art they exercised, and not an office” (Gestoso,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +<i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, Vol. I., p. lx.), while +Philip the Fourth decreed that they should not be forced +to contribute to the equipment of his troops, but should +only be invited to contribute, <i>just as with the nobles</i>. +Nevertheless, Rico y Sinobas points out (<i>Del vidrio y +de sus artífices en España</i>) that Philip the Fifth and +Ferdinand the Sixth, on founding the royal glass +factory of San Ildefonso, did not dare to ennoble the +Castilian workmen.</p> + +<p>“I bestow the name of craftsmen in silver (<i>artífices +plateros</i>), not upon all who handle silver or gold, but +only upon such as draw, and grave, and execute in relief, +whether on a large or small scale, figures and histories +from life, just as do the sculptors.” These words are +quoted from a book, the whole of which was written +with the aim of proving that certain classes of Spain's +older craftsmen were less abject than the rest.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> It is +not so long ago that the expression <i>viles artesanos</i> (“vile +artisans”) was banished from the legal phraseology of +Spain. “That prejudice,” wrote Laborde, “which regards +the mechanic arts as base, is not extinguished in Spain, +but only abated: hence it happens that they are neglected +or abandoned to such unskilful hands that they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +wonderfully backward in these matters. The influence +of this cause is striking: in Catalonia, laws, customs, +and opinions are favourable to artisans, and it is in this +province that these arts have made the greatest progress.”</p> + +<p>Townsend commented as follows on what he called +the <i>national prejudice</i> against trade. “Whilst the Jews +were merchants, and the mechanic arts were left either to +the Moors or to the vilest of the people, the grandees or +knights were ambitious only of military fame. After the +conquest of Granada, the Moors continued to be the +principal manufacturers, and excelled in the cultivation +of their lands. When these, with the Jews, were banished, +a void was left which the high-spirited Spaniard was +not inclined to fill. Trained for many centuries to the +exercise of arms, and regarding such mean occupations +with disdain, his aversion was increased by his hatred +and contempt for those whom he had been accustomed +to see engaged in these employments. He had been +early taught to consider trade as dishonourable; and +whether he frequented the theatre, or listened to the discourses +of the pulpit orators, he could not fail to be confirmed +in his ideas. Even in the present day, many, +who boast their descent from noble ancestors, had rather +starve than work, more especially at those trades by +which, according to the laws, they would be degraded, +and forfeit their nobility.”—(<i>Journey through Spain in +1786 and 1787</i>, pp. 240, 241.)</p> + +<p>Laborde endorsed these assertions by uncharitably +remarking that “the Spaniard had always fortitude +enough to endure privations, but never courage enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +to encounter work.” In our time judgments of a still +severer kind have been passed upon the Spaniards by +various of their own countrymen—among others, Unamuno, +Ganivet, and Pompeyo Gener.</p> + +<p>It is evident, too, that the cause of the relentless +exclusion, by the Spanish guilds, of Moors, Moriscos, +Jews, or converts—men who, owing to the unsubstantial +taint of heresy, were hated and derided by +the Spanish nation almost to a man—resided also in +this morbid sensitiveness. Had not the Moorish +prisoner been formerly considered as the merest chattel, +legally equivalent to a beast of burden?<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> How, then, +should he be ever equalled with the Christian Spaniard? +These haughty and extravagant notions operated, in +the seventeenth century, to bring about the general +ruin of Spanish trades and manufactures. Bertaut de +Rouen wrote at this time:—>“L'acoûtumance qu'avoient +les Espagnols de faire travailler les Morisques, qui<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +estoient libres parmi eux, et les Mores esclaves, dont +il y a encor quelques-uns qu'ils prennent sur leurs +costes et sur celles d'Afrique, les a entretenus dans +la faineantise et dans l'orgueil, qui fait qu'ils dédaignent +tous de travailler. Ce qui achève de les y plonger, +c'est le peu de soucy qu'ils prennent de l'avenir, et +l'égalité du menu peuple et de tous les moindres +marchands et artisans qu'ils nomment <i>officiales</i>, avec les +gentilshommes, qui demeurent tous dans les petites +villes.”</p> + +<p>In the same century the Countess d'Aulnoy recorded +comical instances of the pride of the tradesmen of +Madrid. “One morning,” she says, “we stopped awhile +in the Plaza Mayor to await the return of a servant +whom my aunt had sent with a message to some place +not far away. Just then I saw a woman selling some +slices of salmon, crying them aloud and proclaiming +their freshness in tones which positively molested the +passers-by. Presently a shoemaker came up (I knew +him to be such, because they called him the <i>señor +zapatero</i>), and asked for a pound of salmon; since here +they sell everything by the pound, even to coal and +firewood. ‘You have not been through the market,’ +cried the woman who sold the fish, ‘because you fancy +that my salmon is cheap to-day; but let me tell you +that it costs an <i>escudo</i> the pound.’ Furious that his +poverty should thus be hinted at in public, the shoemaker +exclaimed in angry tones: ‘It is true that I was +not aware of the price of fish to-day. Had it been cheap, +I would have bought a pound of it; but since you say it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +is dear, give me three pounds.’ With these words, he +held out his hand with the three <i>escudos</i>, jammed his hat +upon his eyebrows (tradesmen in this town wear small +hats, and persons of quality hats of great size), and then, +twisting the ends of his mustachios, and clapping his +hand to his rapier, the point of which bobbed upward, +carrying with it a fold of his ragged cloak, caught up his +purchase and strode home, looking at us with an arrogant +air, as though he had performed some heroic deed and +we had witnessed it. Yet the drollest part of it all was +that beyond doubt the fellow had no money left at home, +but had spent his week's wages upon the salmon, so that +his choleric and haughty act would keep his wife and +children famishing for all those days, after supping once +upon abundant fish. Such is the character of this +people; and there are gentlemen here who take the feet +of a fowl and hang them so as to show beneath the hem +of their cloak, to make it appear as though they really +bore a fowl. But hunger, in truth, is all they carry with +them.</p> + +<p>“You never see a shopman here who does not clothe +himself in velvet, silk, and satin, like the king; or who +is not the owner of a mighty rapier, which dangles from +the wall, together with his dagger and guitar. These +fellows work as little as they may, for, as I said, they are +by nature indolent. Only in case of extreme necessity +do they work at all, and then they never rest, but labour +even throughout a feast-day; though when they have +finished what was needed to procure them money, they +deliver the product of their toil, and with its value<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +relapse into fresh idleness. The shoemaker who has +two apprentices, and who has only made one pair of +shoes, hands to his lads a shoe apiece and makes them +walk before him as though they were his pages; he that +has three apprentices is preceded by all three; and when +occasion rises, the master-<i>zapatero</i> will hardly condescend +to fit upon your feet the shoes which his own hands had +put together.”</p> + +<p>It seems that the shoemakers of Madrid were distinguished +for their insolence and vanity above the rest +of her tradespeople. In 1659 Bertaut de Rouen wrote +of the two <i>corrales</i> or theatres of this town, that they +were “toujours pleines de tous les marchands, et de tous +les artisans, qui quittant leur boutique s'en vont là avec la +cappe, l'épée, et le poignard, qui s'appellent tous <i>cavalleros</i> +jusques au <i>çapateros</i>; et ce sont ceux qui décident si la +comedie est bonne ou non, et à cause qu'ils la sifflent ou +qu'ils l'applaudissent, et qu'ils sont d'un costé et d'autre +en rang, outre que c'est comme une espèce de salve, on +les appelle <i>Mosqueteros</i>, en sorte que la bonne fortune +des autheurs dépend d'eux.”</p> + +<p>The foregoing narratives sound absurd, and are particularly +prone to be considered so from being of +foreign authorship. Their tenor, notwithstanding, is +supported by the following declarations, gravely set +down in writing by a Spaniard, within some half a +dozen years of the visit to Madrid of the Countess +d'Aulnoy. The name of this author is Alonso Nuñez +de Castro, and the title of his work (published towards +the close of the reign of Philip the Fourth), <i>El</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +<i>Cortesano en Madrid</i>. “What man,” demands this +<i>madrileño</i> of a bygone century, “eminent in any of +the arts, has belonged to other nations, but has sought +in Madrid the applause and gain which his native +country would not, or could not, bestow upon him? +Thus, either he in person, or else his master-works, visit +with frequency this court of ours, wherein they meet a +better fate than in their birthplace, since only at Madrid +is properly esteemed the value of illustrious effort. Let +London manufacture as she may her famous cloths, +Holland her cambrics, Florence her satins, India her +castors and vicunas, Milan her brocades, Italy and the +Netherlands the statues and oil-paintings which seem to +breathe the very life of the original: our Court enjoys +these products one and all, proving hereby that other +nations generate artists for Madrid, who is, in sooth, the +supreme Court of Courts, seeing that she is served by +all, yet in her turn serves none.</p> + +<p>“Yet not at slight expense does she enjoy this +sovereignty, showering upon other hands her gold and +silver, that they may recreate her mouth with choicest +drinks and viands, her nostrils with delicious essences, +her eyes with wondrous works of painting and of statuary, +her hearing with the skill of world-renowned musicians, +her luxury with expensive fabrics and with precious +stones; albeit these disbursements mark her, not as +prodigal, but as prudent in discovering the proper use +of gold, together with the fitting aim and purpose of all +riches. Who was possessor of more gold than Midas?—seeing +that not he alone, but all he laid his hand upon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +was gold; or who so wretched?—seeing that he was +powerless to keep himself alive on gold, though all he +touched was golden. Truly that man is rich that maketh +gold to minister to his wants, and he a miserable pauper +that to gold himself is slave, not knowing how to turn +its uses to his good. Therefore let other peoples +accumulate wealth at ease, heaping up the gold wherewith +Madrid repays their ministration to her needs. +Whereas her courtiers prove possession of their gold, in +that they amassed it formerly, those foreigners show the +evil and the mischief of their own by jealously confining +it with lock and key: nay, who shall even tell if it be +theirs, seeing that they enjoy it not, although they seem +to be the lords thereof?</p> + +<p>“You will declare that other courts enjoy the same +conveniences with less expense, because their magistrates +are stricter to restrain the tradesman from +establishing his prices at caprice. Truly, it may happen +that elsewhere the price of foods and luxuries be less +than in Madrid; yet it is certain that Madrid makes +fair comparison in cheapness with the other cities of +Castile. Nay, more, without there seeming to be cause, +her courtiers daily find that by a marvel articles are +cheaper here than in the soil which generated them, +or in the town where they were wrought. The fact that +in comparison with other kingdoms Madrid is in some +ways the dearer, proves that she hath the money for +rewarding labour; and that in other capitals the sweat +of the artificer is worthless, because money is worth +more. Always have I remarked that the province or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +the realm that is awarded the name of <i>happy</i>, because all +things are purchasable there at next to no expense, is +wrongly titled so, since here is evidence, either that +money lacks, or that there is no purchaser.”<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> + +<p>In the eighteenth century, when better sense prevailed +among the statesmen and economists of Spain, the +greedy and corrupt administration of her guilds began +to be awarded greater notice. Among the enlightened +and progressive Spaniards who outspoke their minds +upon this theme, were Florez Estrada and the Count +of Campomanes. These, among others of less mark, saw +and proclaimed that the harm inflicted by the <i>gremios</i> +in some directions was incalculable, while the good +they were supposed to bring about in others was rather +nominal than real.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> Apart, however, from the judgment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +uttered by these two authorities, men of acknowledged +probity and consequence who held the public ear, as well +as by the patriotic Jovellanos in his spirited appeal in +favour of the <i>libre ejercicio de las artes</i>, a number of causes, +such as the propagation of the principles of individual +liberty by the French Revolution, contributed to give +the <i>gremios</i> an archaic air, and finally to bring about their +downfall. The views concerning them which gradually +filled the popular mind, prior to their extinction as an +act of government in the year 1834,<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> are well expressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +by Townsend. “In all the trading companies or <i>gremios</i>,” +wrote this traveller, “religious fraternities are formed, +some incorporated by royal authority and letters patent, +others by connivance of the crown, but both in violation +of the laws.</p> + +<p>“Every fraternity is governed by a mayor and court +of aldermen, who make laws, sit in judgment on +offenders, and claim in many cases exemption from the +common tribunals of the country. None but the +members of these communities may exercise mechanic +arts, or be concerned in trade; and to be admitted as a +member is both attended with a heavy fine, and entails +upon each individual a constant annual expense.</p> + +<p>“This, however, is not the greatest evil, for the mayor +and officers, during their year of service, not only neglect +their own affairs, but from vanity and ostentation run +into expenses, such as either ruin their families, or at +least straiten them exceedingly in trade.</p> + +<p>“These corporations, being established in the cities, +banish, by their oppressive laws, all the mechanic arts +from towns and villages. In the cities likewise they +tend only to monopoly, by limiting the numbers in every +branch of business, and fixing within unreasonable +bounds the residence of those who are concerned in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +trade. This they do either by assigning the distance +between shop and shop, under pretence that two shops +vending the same commodities must not be so near +together as to interfere, or by assembling all the +mechanics of the same profession, such as silversmiths, +and confining them to one street or quarter of the city, +under the plausible pretext that thus the proper magistrate +may with ease pay attention to their work, and see +that the due standard be observed.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p> + +<p>“In many cases the various <i>gremios</i> bear hard upon +each other. Thus, for instance, the carpenter must not +employ his industry on mahogany, or any other wood +but deal, nor must he invade the province of the turner. +The turner must confine his ingenuity and labour to soft +wood, and must not presume to touch either ivory or +metals, even though he should be reduced to poverty for +want of work. The wheeler, in similar distress, must +not, however qualified, extend his operations beyond the +appointed bounds, so as to encroach on the business of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +the coach-maker, who is equally restrained from either +making or mending either cart or waggon wheels. The +barber may shave, draw teeth, and bleed, but he must +not fill up his leisure time with making wigs.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> As +mechanics are obliged to keep exactly each to his +several line, so must shopkeepers confine themselves +to their proper articles in trade, and under no pretence +must the manufacturer presume to open magazines, that +he may sell by retail.</p> + +<p>“But neither are these abuses the only evils which call +for reformation. Many corporations have been impertinently +meddling, and have absurdly bound the +hands of the manufacturer by regulations with respect +to the conduct of his business and the productions of +his art, such as, being too rigidly observed, would preclude +all improvements, and would be destructive to his trade, +by giving to foreigners a manifest advantage in favour +of their merchandise.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> + +<p>“The incorporated fraternities in the kingdoms of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +Castile and Aragon are 25,581, and their corporate expenses +amount to 11,687,861 reals. Their revenue is +not altogether consumed in feasting, nor in salaries to +officers, nor in pensions to their widows, nor yet in lawsuits, +which are said to be both numerous and expensive; +but considerable sums are expended for religious purposes, +in procuring masses to be said, either for departed +spirits and the souls in Purgatory, or for the benefit of +the fraternity in which each individual has a proportionable +interest. For this reason, these communities enjoy +the protection of the ecclesiastical courts, to which, in +cases of necessity, they frequently appeal.</p> + +<p>“The chartered corporations claim their exclusive +privileges by royal grant, and on this plea they resist a +formation, not considering, as Count Campomanes with +propriety remarks, the essential condition of these grants, +<i>Sin perjuicio de tercero</i>, or that nothing therein contained +shall be to the <i>prejudice of others</i>, or injurious to the +citizens at large.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p> + +<h3>APPENDIX I</h3> + +<p class="title">CLASSES OF POTTERY MADE AT ALCORA<br /> +(From <span class="smcap">Riaño</span>'s <i>Industrial Arts in Spain</i>)</p> + +<p>Towards the middle of the eighteenth century:—</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Vases of different shapes.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Small pots (Chinese fashion).</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Teapots and covers (Chinese fashion).</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Cruets, complete sets (Chinese style).</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Entrée dishes.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Salt-cellars (Chinese style).</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Escudillas</i> (bowls), of Constantinople.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Barquillos</i> (sauce bowls), Chinese style.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Bottles (in the Chinese manner).</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds, with +good painted borders in imitation of lace-work +(<i>puntilla</i>). Some were designed in the Chinese +manner, and especial care was taken with fruit-stands, +salad-bowls, and dishes.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Trays and refrigerators.</p></div> + +<p>A document, discovered by Riaño, and dated 1777, +says that in that year the following kinds of pottery +were manufactured at Alcora:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p> + +<table summary="figures_1"> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Figures of Demi-Porcelain.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Figures</td> + <td class="tdl">of tritons.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of soldiers (two sizes).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of soldiers, one-third of a <i>palmo</i> high.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of the four seasons (two sizes).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of dancers.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of tritons in the form of children.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">with brackets.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of different animals.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Dancing figures in the German style.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Figures</td> + <td class="tdl">of Neptune.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of shepherd and shepherdess.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of the Moorish king, Armenius.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of the four parts of the world (two sizes).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of peasant and his wife.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Small figures holding musical instruments.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Figures</td> + <td class="tdl">representing different monarchies.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">representing historical personages.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">representing the history of Alexander the Great (two sizes).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">representing Martius Curtius (two sizes).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of elephants.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of a man mounted on an elephant.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">representing Chinese figures.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of Heliogabalus.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of a general on horseback.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large figures representing Julius Cæsar.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets. Groups of Chinese figures.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Snuff-boxes, sugar-basins, inkstands.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rabbits, horns, and pug-dogs for holding scent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Small scent-bottles.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Needle-cases.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large vases with foot and cover.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Brackets.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Walking-stick handles.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Knife handles.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Teaspoons.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Figures of white Biscuit China.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures representing Spanish costumes (two sizes).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Groups of two figures.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures of the four seasons (two sizes).</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>We find also, says Riaño, the following figures of +painted and glazed porcelain:—</p> + +<table summary="figures_2"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Four seasons (two sizes).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Groups of two figures.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Figure</td> + <td class="tdl">of a Moorish king.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of musicians and huntsmen.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of peasants.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">of Chinese.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Small figures of a gardener and female companion.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures of soldiers in the German style.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>From 1789 to 1797, continues Riaño, the following<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> +kinds of pottery were made at Alcora:—</p> + +<table summary="figures_3"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hard paste porcelain (French).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain of pipeclay (English).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Blue pipeclay porcelain.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Marbled pipeclay porcelain..</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><i>Bucaros</i>, painted and gilt.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Strasburg ware.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain painted <i>en froid</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Porcelain (Frita).</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Porcelain</td> + <td class="tdl">painted with gilt lines.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">painted without gold.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">(<i>frita</i>), canary colour.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Boxes</td> + <td class="tdl">in relief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">plain.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain (<i>frita</i>), painted with marble wares.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plain boxes of the same kind.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain (<i>frita</i>), of blue and brown ground.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cups and saucers of a similar kind.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Biscuit Porcelain.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Vases.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pedestals.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">White</td> + <td class="tdl">porcelain (<i>frita</i>) cups of different kinds.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">„</td> + <td class="tdl">porcelain, ornamented and plain.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Boxes with busts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Boxes with ornamentations in relief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large figures of the four seasons.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Flower vases with rams' heads.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plain boxes.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Boxes with ornaments in relief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>White Porcelain.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plates, cups, etc.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures of different kinds.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Painted Porcelain.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cups, saucers, plates, etc.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cream-pots.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plain snuff-boxes, or in the shape of a dog.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fruit-stands in relief.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> The following passage from Townsend's Journey through Spain (Vol. +II., p. 56), is curious as showing where jet was formerly found in this +Peninsula. “When I returned to Oviedo, a gentleman gave me a collection +of amber and of jet, of which there is great abundance in this province: +but the two most considerable mines of it are in the territory of Beloncia, +one in a valley called Las Guerrias, the other on the side of a high mountain +in the village of Arenas, in the parish of Val de Soto. The former is found +in slate, and looks like wood: but when broke, the nodules discover a white +crust, inclosing yellow amber, bright and transparent. Jet and a species of +kennel coal, abounding with marcasites, universally accompany the amber.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> As for the clothing of sacred images in Spain, even these are subject to +changes in the fashion of costume. Ford makes merry over “the Saviour in +a court-dress, with wig and breeches.” Swinburne wrote in 1775, from +Alicante: “We have been all the morning in great uneasiness about Sir +T. G.'s valet de chambre, who, till within this hour, was not to be found in +any of the places he usually frequents. His appearance has quieted our +apprehensions; and it seems he has been from sunrise till dinner-time +locked up in the sacristy of the great church, curling and frizzling the flaxen +periwig of the statue of the Virgin, who is to-morrow to be carried in +solemn procession through the city.”</p> + +<p>A similar passage occurs in one of the letters of Lady Mary Wortley +Montagu. “I was particularly diverted,” she wrote from Nuremberg in +1716, “in a little Roman Catholic church which is permitted here, where +the professors of that religion are not very rich, and consequently cannot +adorn their images in so rich a manner as their neighbours. For, not to +be quite destitute of all finery, they have dressed up an image of our +Saviour over the altar in a fair, full-bottomed wig, very well powdered.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> “Ambo, pulpitum ubi ex duabus partibus sunt gradus.” Ugutio, +quoted by Ducange.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>Originum</i>, Book XV., Chap. iv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> <i>Noticia Histórica de la Cuchillería y de los Cuchilleros Antiguos en +España</i> (<i>Almanaque de El Museo de la Industria</i>, Madrid, 1870).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> See Pérez Pujol, <i>Condición social de las personas á principios del siglo +V</i>. “The ironsmiths of Barcelona,” says Riaño, “formed an extensive guild +in the thirteenth century; in 1257, four of its members formed part of the +chief municipal council; this guild increased in importance in the following +centuries.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> The history of the Sevillian trade-guilds begins properly with the +fifteenth century, although Gestoso states in his <i>Diccionario de Artífices +Sevillanos</i> that he has found a few documents which seem to point to their +existence in the century preceding.</p> + +<p>When the Spanish Christians pitched their camp before this city, prior +to their victorious assault upon its walls, the besieging army was divided +according to the various trades of its component soldiery: the spicers in one +part of the camp, the apothecaries in another, and so forth. It is therefore +probable that the Sevillian trade-guilds were instituted shortly after the +re-conquest. The wages of smiths, shoemakers, silversmiths, armourers, +and other craftsmen were decreed by Pedro the First in his <i>Ordenamiento +de Menestrales</i>. The ordinances of the silversmiths, in particular, are so +old that Gestoso believes them to have been renewed and confirmed by +Juan the Second, in the year 1416. However this may be, it is certain +that the Seville guilds were regularly constituted in the reign of Ferdinand +and Isabella.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Barzanallana defines the word <i>gremio</i> “as it came to be understood in +Spain,” as “any gathering of merchants, artisans, labourers, or other +persons who practised the same profession, art, or office; and who were +bound to comply with certain ordinances, applicable to each individual +of their number.”</p> + +<p>It is well, however, to distinguish broadly between actual manufacturers +or producers (<i>menestrales de manos</i>) and merchants or shopkeepers +(<i>mercaderes de tienda y de escriptorio</i>), who merely trafficked in what was +executed by another.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> This guild, as all the others, held an annual convocation of its +members, and possessed a chapel of its own in the convent of San +Francisco. It exercised a strict and constant supervision upon the gold +and silver work produced throughout the city. On April 15th, 1567, the +inspectors appointed and salaried by the guild visited the shop of Antonio +de Cuevas, and seized an <i>Agnus Dei</i> and a faultily executed cross, both of +which objects were destroyed forthwith. On February 8th, 1569, they +repeated their visit to the same silversmith, and seized an <i>apretador</i>, which +was likewise broken up. On February 9th, 1602, they entered the shop +of Antonio de Ahumada, and took away “two rings, a gold <i>encomienda</i>, +a cross of Saint John, some small cocks, a toothpick, and a San Diego of +silver.” Similar notices of fines, confiscations, and other punishments +exist in great abundance, and may be studied in Gestoso's dictionary. +See also Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>, of the present work.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> The foremost in importance of the <i>gremios</i> of Toledo was that of the +silk-weavers (<i>arte mayor de la seda</i>), whose earliest ordinances date from +<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1533.</p> + +<p>Interesting particulars of the old Toledan <i>gremios</i> generally will be found +in the municipal archives of this city, in the <i>Ordenanzas para el buen +régimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy leal é imperial ciudad de Toledo</i> +(reprinted in 1858); in Martín Gamero's <i>History of Toledo</i>; and in the +Count of Cedillo's scholarly monograph, <i>Toledo in the Sixteenth Century</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> That is, the ponderous structure known as the Miguelete, which stands +unfinished to this day.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> The Count of Torreánaz quotes an earlier instance, relative to another +city, from the shoemakers' ordinances of Burgos, confirmed by the emperor +Alfonso in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1270. These laws decreed, obviously with the purpose of +limiting the number of apprentices, that every master-craftsman who engaged +an apprentice was to pay two thousand <i>maravedis</i> “for the service of God +and of the hospital.” Similar legislation, lasting many centuries, was in +force elsewhere, for Larruga says that at Valladolid, although the city +produced fourteen thousand hats yearly, most of the master-hatters had no +apprentices in their workshops, and only one <i>oficial</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i>, the silk-weavers (Statute of 1701). “Que ningun collegial de dit +collegi puixa matricular francament mes de tres aprenents y si volgués +tenirne mes, hatja de pagar á dit collegi deu lliures, moneda real de Valencia +per cascú dels que excedirá de dit numero.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> It is not often, for instance, that we meet with notices of Spanish craftsmen +such as Miguel Jerónimo Monegro, a silversmith of Seville, who at +his death, towards the middle of the sixteenth century, was in a position to +bequeath the following money and effects: 15,000 <i>maravedis</i> to his servant, +Catalina Mexia, 6000 <i>maravedis</i> to Juan Ortiz, “a boy that was in my +house, that he may learn a trade,” 6000 <i>maravedis</i> yearly to his slavewomen, +Juana and Luisa, and a black mule to his executor, Hernando de +Morales.—Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanas</i>, Vol. II., p. 256.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> This did not happen only at Valencia. The Cortes assembled at Valladolid +in 1537 complained that it was “tolerable that costly stuffs should +be worn by lords, gentlemen, and wealthy persons; but such is become our +nation, that there is not an hidalgo, squire, merchant, or <i>oficial</i> of any +trade, but wears rich clothing; wherefore many grow impoverished and lack +the money to pay the <i>alcabalas</i> and the other taxes owing to His Majesty.”</p> + +<p>Fernandez de Navarrete stated, in 1626, that “the wives of common +<i>mecánicos</i> (<i>i.e.</i> craftsmen) furnish their dwellings more luxuriously than +titled personages of the realm were wont to furnish theirs some few +years ago,” and that hangings of taffeta or Spanish <i>guadamecíes</i> were now +regarded with contempt, being replaced, even in the homes of the moderately +well-to-do, by sumptuous fabrics of Florence and Milan, and by the +costliest Brussels tapestry.—(<i>Conservación de Monarquías</i>, p. 246).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Larruga, in Vol. XVIII. of his <i>Memorias</i>, inserts an account of the +heavy debts incurred by the <i>gremios</i> of Valladolid, upon the celebration of +various of their festivals.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The treatment of distinguished craftsmen by the Spanish church was +often sheerly villainous. A document, inserted by Zarco del Valle among +his collection of <i>Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de las Bellas Artes +en España</i>, p. 362, and in the handwriting of “Maestre” Domingo (see +Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>), states that after making the choir-<i>reja</i> for Toledo +cathedral, “so richly wrought, that in the elegance and rarity thereof it +far surpasseth all that has been witnessed in our time, whether in his +majesty's dominions or abroad,” and expending on it “all the money I +had earned in my youth,” this eminent <i>rejero</i> found himself by now +“owing a great quantity of <i>maravedis</i>, seeing that I am utterly without +resources,” concluding by an appeal to the archbishop to “take heed how +that I shall not perish through such poverty, and my wife and children in +the hospital.”</p> + +<p>In another document the same artificer complains that in producing the +aforesaid <i>reja</i>, he had sacrificed “not only my labour, but my property +to boot, having been compelled to sell my house and my inheritance to +compensate me for my losses,” adding that the cathedral authorities had +violated their engagement with him.</p> + +<p>In answer to a series of petitions such as this, the archbishop tardily +gave orders for the payment to Domingo of a lump sum of fifteen thousand +<i>maravedis</i> and a pension for the rest of his life of two silver <i>reales</i> of +Castilian money, “to aid him to support himself.” This was in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> +1563. By 1565 death had ended the miseries of the master-craftsman, +and again we find his widow and children knocking at the archbishop's +door, pleading that “extreme is our necessity,” and declaring that +Domingo had succumbed overburdened with debt, <i>affirming on his deathbed +that the cathedral owed him three thousand ducats, being half the value +of a reja he had made</i>.</p> + +<p>In answer to this terrible appeal, the thrifty prelate ordered that <i>since it +was found to be true that Master Domingo had lost his maravedis in making +the rejas of the choir</i>, his widow and children should receive a daily pension +of one <i>real</i>, and that a suit of clothes should be given to each of his sons +and his two daughters.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> So rarely, that Salazar de Mendoza affirms in his book upon <i>Castilian +Dignities</i> that this “high prenomen” (<i>alto prenombre Don</i>) might properly +be used by none but kings, <i>infantes</i>, prelates, and the <i>ricos-homes</i> of the +realm.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1626, Fernández de Navarrete complained of the tendency prevailing +among the Spaniards generally to usurp the title <i>Don</i>. “Nowadays +in Castile,” he wrote (<i>Conservación de Monarquías</i>, p. 71, etc.), “exists a +horde of turbulent and idle fellows that so style themselves, since you will +hardly find the son of a craftsman (<i>oficial mecánico</i>) that does not endeavour +by this trick to filch the honour that is owed to true nobility alone; and so, +impeded and weighed down by the false appearance of <i>caballeros</i>, they are +unsuited to follow any occupation that is incompatible with the empty +authority of a <i>Don</i>.”</p> + +<p>Some of the reasons why these rogues or <i>pseudonobles</i> (as Fernández de +Navarrete called them), attempted to pass for <i>hidalgos</i> or “sons of somebody,” +are disclosed by Townsend, writing a century and a half later. +“Numerous privileges and immunities enjoyed by the <i>hidalgos</i> or knights, +sometimes called <i>hijos dalgo</i>, have contributed very much to confirm hereditary +prejudices to the detriment of trade. Their depositions are taken in +their own houses. They are seated in the courts of justice, and are placed +near the judge. Till the year 1784, their persons, arms, and horses were +free from arrest. They are not sent to the common jails, but are either +confined in castles or in their own houses on their parole of honour. They +are not hanged, but strangled, and this operation is called <i>garrotar</i>, from +<i>garrote</i>, the little stick used by carriers to twist the cord and bind hard +their loading. They cannot be examined on the rack. They are, moreover, +exempted from the various taxes called <i>fechos</i>, <i>pedidos</i>, <i>monedas</i>, <i>martiniegas</i>, +and <i>contribuciones reales</i> and <i>civiles</i>: that is, from subsidies, +benevolence, and poll tax, or taille paid by the common people, at the +rate of two per cent., in this province, but in others at the rate of four. +They are free from personal service, except where the sovereign is, and +even then they cannot be compelled to follow him. None but the royal +family can be quartered on them. To conclude, the noble female conveys +all these privileges to her husband and her children, just in the same +manner as the eldest daughter of the titular nobility transmits the titles of +her progenitors.</p> + +<p>“The proportion of <i>hidalgos</i> in the kingdom of Granada is not considerable; +for out of six hundred and fifty-two thousand nine hundred and ninety +inhabitants, only one thousand nine hundred and seventy-nine are noble; +whereas, in the province of León, upon little more than one-third that +population, the knights are twenty-two thousand. In the province of +Burgos, on four hundred and sixty thousand three hundred and ninety-five +inhabitants, one hundred and thirty-four thousand and fifty-six are entitled +to all the privileges of nobility; and in Asturias, of three hundred +and forty-five thousand eight hundred and thirty-three, nearly one-third +enjoy the same distinction.”—(<i>Journey through Spain in the years 1786 +and 1787</i>: Vol. III., pp. 79, 80.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los Ríos, <i>Noticia general para la +estimación de las Artes y la manera en que se conocen las liberales de las que +son mecánicas y serviles</i>. Madrid, 1600. I again have occasion to mention +this curious work in my chapter on Spanish tapestries.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> It is stated in the Fuero of Nájera (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1076) that the price of the +blood of a Moorish slave was twelve <i>sueldos</i> and a half, while the Fuero +Viejo of Castile (Book II., Tit. III., Ley IV.) contains the significantly +contemptuous phrase, “If a man demand of another a beast or a Moor” +(<i>si algún ome demanda á otro bestia ó moro</i>). The Countess d'Aulnoy +wrote in 1679;—“There are here (at Madrid) a large number of Turkish +and Moorish slaves, who are bought and sold at heavy prices, some of them +costing four hundred and five hundred <i>escudos</i>. Until some time ago the +owners of these slaves possessed the right to kill them at their pleasure, as +though they had been so many dogs; but since it was remarked that this +usage tallied but poorly with the maxims of our Christian faith, so +scandalous a license was prohibited. Nowadays the owner of a slave +may often break his bones without incurring censure. Not many, however, +resort to so extreme a chastisement.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> To further show the extravagant way of thinking and behaving of the +Spaniard of the seventeenth century, the same author sets aside the sneering +objection justly made by foreign writers to the river Manzanares at +Madrid—namely, that it has no water—by remarking with exquisite +complacency, that here precisely lies the crowning merit and advantage of +the Manzanares over rival streams; in that it amuses people without +endangering their lives. In the reigns of Philip the Fourth and Charles +the Second, a favourite promenade of the Madrid aristocracy was the waterless +channel of this river, in which, according to this work, “coaches and +carriages do duty for a gondola, and form a pleasant imitation of the boats +and palaces of Venice.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> The object avowedly pursued by Campomanes was not, however, the +absolute suppression of the Spanish trade-guilds, but merely their reconstruction +upon a sounder basis. He still believed that admission to a guild +should be preceded by a formal period of apprenticeship, as well as that +the title and the privileges of the master of a trade should be hereditary. +An instance of the grossly fraudulent methods employed by the <i>gremios</i> +in order to retain the privilege of manufacture in a certain family, is quoted +by Larruga (<i>Memorias</i>, Vol. II., p. 201), who states that the silk-cord +makers of Madrid conferred the title of <i>master-craftsman</i> on a babe only +twenty-two months old.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Barzanallana says that the earliest sign of a movement in the direction +of emancipating the Spanish people from the thraldom of the <i>gremios</i> is +contained in the royal <i>cedula</i> of May 17th, 1790, abolishing several of the +noxious prerogatives which had hitherto been enjoyed by the families of +master-craftsmen. A further crown decree, dated the same month and +year, empowered the Audiencias and Chancillerías to authorize persons to +pursue a craft (provided they were reasonably competent) without the +necessity of approval from the <i>gremios</i> and their <i>veedores</i>. Three years +later, the same monarch (Charles the Fourth) suppressed the <i>gremios</i> and +<i>colegios</i> of the silk-twisters, and declared this craft to be open to all such +persons, of either sex, as wished to practise it. In 1797 it was permitted +to all foreigners who should be competent in any art or industry (except +Jews) to establish themselves in Spain or her dominions, nor were they +to be molested in their religious theories if they should happen not to be +Roman Catholics.</p> + +<p>At a later time the Cortes annulled, or very nearly so, the <i>ordenanzas</i> +of the <i>gremios</i>, and allowed the exercise of any lawful trade or craft to +everybody, Spaniards and foreigners alike, without the requisite of +special license or examination, or approval by the officers of the guilds +(decree of June 8th, 1813). This measure was revoked in 1815, but again +became law in 1836, and two years before this latter date was issued the +decree of Queen María Cristina prohibiting associations which, under the +semblance of a <i>gremio</i>, should aim at converting any craft or office into a +monopoly.</p> + +<p>The Spanish <i>gremios</i> still exist, but all their sting has departed. To-day +they may be said to spring from the natural and beneficial interdependence +of persons working together in the same groove, and seeking mutual support +by means of peaceable association. Thus the abuses which rendered +them so terrible and evil in the olden time are fortunately now no more.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> This custom was borrowed from the East, and explains why, in many +of the older Spanish cities, a number of their streets have taken their title +from the trades that formerly were plied in them, or (in some instances) +that still are so. Especially was this the case at Valencia and Toledo. In +the latter capital there are, or used to be, the streets, <i>plazas</i>, or <i>barrios</i>, of +the silversmiths, armourers, bakers, old-clothes vendors, potters, esparto-weavers, +dyers, chairmakers, and many more. Martín Gamero, in his +excellent <i>History of Toledo</i> (Introduction, p. 60), says that in the centre of +the city were located the quiet crafts, such as those of the jewellers, silversmiths, +chandlers, and clog-makers, as well as the shops of the silk, brocade, +and tissue-vendors. Noisy trades, such as the swordsmiths', tinsmiths', +boiler-makers', chairmakers', and turners', were practised on the outskirts +of the town.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Colmeiro has published <i>memoriales</i> presented by the hatters of +Zaragoza, in which they pray to be allowed to line, by their own hands, or +by those of their wives, the hats which they had manufactured, instead of +being required to give up this finishing and accessorial process to the makers +of silk cord.—<i>Historia de la Economía Política en España</i>, and <i>Biblioteca +de los economistas españoles de los siglos XVI., XVII., y XVIII</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> This meddlesomeness almost exceeds belief. It was at its worst, +perhaps, in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, who decreed that the +wicks of candles were to be made of the same kind of tow, and horse-shoes +and nails to be of the same weight in every part of their dominions. It was +required that machines, which might have been to great advantage moved +by mules or horses, should only be worked by the hand of man, however +lengthy and exhausting this might prove. The Count of Torreánaz, who +quotes these ridiculous dispositions from the <i>Libro de bulas y pragmáticas</i> +of Juan Ramírez, further recalls that, as late as the middle of the eighteenth +century, costly woven stuffs of Seville and Valencia used to be confiscated +because, although the ground of the fabric was of a colour which the law +allowed, the flowers or other devices which formed the decoration were of +a forbidden shade. On one occasion the chief lady-in-waiting of the queen +was prohibited from wearing a dress which she had ordered from a weaver +of Valencia, because the flowered pattern was contrary to the <i>ordenanzas</i>.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></h2> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p> + +<p>The following is a fairly complete list of the works I have +consulted for the preparation of these volumes.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abdón de Paz.</span> <i>La España de la Edad Media.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Academia de San Fernando, Real.</span> <i>Colección de Antigüedades +Arabes de Granada y Córdoba</i>; 2 vols.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alba, Duchess of Berwick and.</span> <i>Catálogo de las colecciones +expuestas en las vitrinas del Palacio de Liria.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alderete.</span> <i>Antigüedades de España.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alzola y Minondo, Pablo.</span> <i>El Arte Industrial en España.</i> +Bilbao, 1892.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amador de los Ríos.</span> <i>El Arte Latino-Bizantino en España +y las Coronas Visigodas de Guarrazar.</i> Madrid, 1861.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Antón, Francisco.</span> <i>Estudio sobre el Coro de la Catedral de +Zamora</i>; 1904.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Argote de Molina.</span> <i>Nuevos Paseos Históricos, Artísticos, +Económico-Políticos por Granada y sus Contornos.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arphe y Villafañe.</span> <i>Varia Conmensuración para la Escultura +y Arquitectura.</i> Seventh edition; Madrid, 1795.</p> + +<p><i>Arte en España, El</i>; 8 vols.</p> + +<p><i>Arts italiens en Espagne, Les, ou histoire des artistes italiens +qui contribuerent à embellir les Castilles.</i> Rome, 1825.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Balsa de la Vega.</span> <i>Las Industrias Artísticas en Madrid</i> +(Lace, etc.). Articles published in <i>El Liberal</i>, 1907.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Barrantes.</span> <i>Barros emeritenses.</i> Madrid, 1877.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bertaut de Rouen.</span> <i>Journal du Voyage d'Espagne.</i> Paris, +1669.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Birch, Samuel.</span> <i>History of Ancient Pottery.</i> London, 1873.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bock.</span> <i>Die Kleinodien des heil. römischen Reichs deutscher +Nation, nebst den Kroninsignien Böhmens, Ungarns, und +der Lombardei.</i> Vienna, 1864.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Geschichte der liturgischen Gewänder des Mittelalters.</i> Bonn, 1871.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bonsor, Georges.</span> <i>Les Colonies pre-Romaines de la Vallée du +Bétis.</i> Paris, 1899.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bourgoing, Jean-François de.</span> <i>Nouveau Voyage en Espagne.</i> +3 vols.; Paris, 1789.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Breñosa y Castellarnau.</span> <i>Guía y Descripción del Real Sitio +de San Ildefonso.</i> Madrid, 1884.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caballero Infante, Francisco.</span> <i>Aureos y barras de oro y +plata encontrados en el pueblo de Santiponce.</i> Seville, 1898.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Campos Munilla, Manuel.</span> <i>Mosaicos del Museo Arqueológico +Provincial de Sevilla.</i> 1897.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capmany y Montpalau, Antonio.</span> <i>Memorias históricas sobre +la marina, comercio, y artes de la ciudad de Barcelona.</i> +Madrid, 1779.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carrasco y Sáinz, Adolfo.</span> <i>Catálogo de los recuerdos históricos +existentes en el Museo de Artillería.</i> Part I.; Madrid, +1893.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cascales, Francisco.</span> <i>Discursos históricos sobre Murcia.</i> +Murcia, 1624.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cean Bermudez, Juan Agustin.</span> <i>Descripción Artística de la +Catedral de Sevilla.</i> Seville, 1863.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Diccionario de las Bellas Artes en España.</i></p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cedillo, Count of.</span> <i>Toledo en el siglo XVI.</i> Madrid, 1901.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Clonard, Count of.</span> <i>Memorias para la historia del traje</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +<i>español</i>; published in the <i>Memorias de la Real Academia +de la Historia</i>, Vol. IX. Madrid, 1879.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Conferencias leidas en el Ateneo Barcelonés sobre el estado +de la cultura española y particularmente catalana, en el siglo +XV.</i> Barcelona, 1893.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cole, Alan S.</span> <i>Ornament in European Silks.</i> London, 1899.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Contreras, Rafael.</span> <i>Recuerdos de la Dominación de los +Arabes en España.</i> Granada, 1882.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cox.</span> <i>L'Art de décorer les Tissus.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cruzada Villaamil.</span> <i>Los tapices de Goya.</i> Madrid, 1870.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Danvila y Collado.</span> <i>Trajes y Armas de los Españoles.</i> +Madrid, 1877.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Davillier, Baron.</span> <i>Recherches sur l'orfévrerie en Espagne.</i> +Paris, 1879.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Les arts decoratifs en Espagne au moyen âge et à la +Renaissance.</i> Paris, 1879.</p> + +<p><i>Nota sobre los cueros de Cordoba, Guadameciles de +España</i>, etc. (Spanish edition.) Gerona, 1879.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diaz y Perez, Nicolás.</span> <i>Historia de Talavera la Real.</i> +Madrid, 1879.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dozy.</span> <i>Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne.</i> Leyden, 1881.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dupont-Auberville.</span> <i>L'Ornement des Tissus.</i> Paris, 1877.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Echeverría.</span> <i>Paseos por Granada y sus Contornos</i>. 2 vols.; +Granada, 1814.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Eguilaz Yanguas, Leopoldo.</span> <i>Reseña Histórica de la +Conquista del Reino de Granada por los Reyes Católicos.</i> +Granada, 1894.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Errera, Madame Isabelle.</span> <i>Collection d'Anciennes Étoffes</i> +(Catalogue). Brussels, 1901.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fernandez y Gonzalez, Francisco.</span> <i>Estado social y político +de los mudéjares de Castilla.</i> Madrid, 1866.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Florez.</span> <i>España Sagrada.</i> (2nd edition). Madrid, 1824.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ford, Richard.</span> <i>Handbook for Travellers in Spain.</i> 2 vols.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +London, 1845.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gayangos, Pascual de</span> (edited by). <i>History of the Mohammedan +Dynasties in Spain.</i> London, 1843.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p>(annotated by). <i>Chronicle of Rassis the Moor.</i> Madrid, +1850.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gayet.</span> <i>L'Art Persan.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gestoso y Perez, José.</span> <i>Documentos relativos á la historia de +la Armería de Sevilla.</i> Seville, 1887.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Ensayo de un Diccionario de los artífices que florecieron +en Sevilla desde el siglo XIII al XVIII inclusive.</i> 2 vols.; +Seville, 1899.</p> + +<p><i>Historia de los barros vidriados sevillanos desde sus +orígenes hasta nuestros días.</i> Seville, 1903.</p> + +<p><i>Curiosidades antiguas sevillanas.</i> Seville, 1885.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Goblet d'Alviella, Comte.</span> <i>La Migration des Symboles.</i> +Paris, 1891.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gómez Moreno, Manuel.</span> <i>Apuntes que pueden servir de +historia del bordado de imaginería en Granada</i> (published in +the magazine <i>El Liceo de Granada</i>; 6th year, No. 18).</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Guía de Granada.</i> Granada, 1892.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Góngora.</span> <i>Antigüedades Prehistóricas de Andalucía.</i> Madrid, +1868.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Granada, Ordinances of.</span> <i>Titulo de las Ordenanças que los +muy Ilustres y muy magníficos Señores Granada mandaron +que se guarden para la buena governacion de su República. +Las quales mandaron imprimir para que todos las sepan y +las guarden.</i> 1552.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Ordenanzas que los Muy Ilustres y Muy Magnificos +Señores Granada mandaron guardar, para la buena +governacion de su Republica, impressas año de 1552. Que +se han buelto a imprimir mandado de los Señores Presidente,</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +<i>y Oydores de la Real Chancilleria de esta ciudad de +Granada, año de 1670. Añadiendo otras que no estauan +impressas. Impressas en Granada. En la Imprenta +Real de Francisco de Ochoa, en la Calle de Abenamar. +Año de</i> 1678.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guillen Robles, Francisco.</span> <i>Málaga musulmana.</i> Málaga, +1880.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gutierrez de la Hacera, Pascual Ramon.</span> <i>Descripción +General y Cronológica de España.</i> 2 vols.; Madrid, 1771.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hübner.</span> <i>Inscriptiones Hispaniæ latinæ.</i> Berlin, 1892.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Inscriptionum Hispaniæ latinarum supplementum.</i> +Berlin, 1892.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jones, Owen.</span> <i>The Alhambra.</i> London, 1842.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lane-Poole, Stanley.</span> <i>The Art of the Saracens in Egypt.</i> +London, 1888.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>The Moors in Spain.</i> London, 1897.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Larruga.</span> <i>Memorias políticas y económicas sobre los frutos, +comercio, y minas de España.</i> Madrid, 1788.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Le Breton, Gaston.</span> <i>Céramique espagnole. Le salon en +porcelaine du Palais Royal de Madrid et les porcelaines de +Buen Retiro.</i> Paris, 1879.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lecea y Garcia.</span> <i>Recuerdos de la antigua industria Segoviana.</i> +Segovia, 1897.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lopez de Arenas, Diego.</span> <i>Carpintería de lo Blanco y Tratado +de Alarifes.</i> (3rd edition.) Madrid, 1867.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Madrazo, Pedro de.</span> <i>Córdoba.</i> Barcelona, 1884.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Martorell y Peña, Juan.</span> <i>Apuntes arqueológicos de, ordenados +por Salvador Samper y Miquel.</i> Barcelona, 1879.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Medina, Pedro de.</span> <i>Primera y Segunda parte de las grandezas +y cosas notables de España.</i> Alcalá de Henares, 1595.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Menendez y Pelayo, Marcelino.</span> <i>Historia de las Ideas +Estéticas en España.</i> Madrid, 1886 and following years.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Morales, Ambrosio de.</span> <i>La crónica general de España del +Maestro Florián de Ocampo, continuada con el libro de las +antigüedades de España.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Moreno de Vargas, Bernabé.</span> <i>Historia de la Ciudad de +Mérida.</i> Merida, 1633; reprinted at Merida, 1892.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Murguía, Manuel.</span> <i>El Arte en Santiago durante el siglo +XVIII., y noticia de los artistas que florecieron en dicho +ciudad y centuria.</i> Madrid, 1884.</p> + +<p><i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i> (many articles in the). Madrid, +1872 and following years.</p> + +<p><i>Noticia de la Fábrica de Espadas de Toledo que por tantos +siglos existió hasta fines del XVII en que acabó, y del +método que tenían aquellos artífices Armeros para forjarlas +y templarlas, aceros de que usaban, y otras particularidades +que las hicieron tan famosas en todo el Mundo como apetecidas +al presente, y de la que por el Rey N.S. que Dios gue. +se estableció en esta Ciudad año de 1760; por Francisco de +Santiago Palomares Escriuano mayor de primeros remates +de Rentas decimales de Toledo y su Arzobispado.</i> MS. in +the Library of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid; +in the volume inscribed <i>Varios de Historia</i>, 8, E, 141.</p> + +<p><i>Ordenanzas de la muy noble é muy leal Cibdad de Sevilla é +su tierra, assi de las tocantes al Cabildo y regimiento della, +que se contienen en la primera parte, como de todos los +oficios mecánicos, de que es la segunda parte. Impressas con +mucha diligencia en la dicha Cibdad de Sevilla por Juan +Varela de Salamanca, vezino della. Acabáronse de imprimir +á catorze dias del mes de Febrero, año de Nuestro Redemptor +Iesu Christo de mil quinientos é veynte y siete años (1527).</i> +The second edition was published, also at Seville, in +1632.</p> + +<p><i>Ordenanzas para el buen regimen y gobierno de la muy noble,</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +<i>muy leal é imperial ciudad de Toledo.</i> Reprinted by the +Town Council. Toledo, 1858.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ortega Rubio.</span> <i>Los Visigodos en España.</i> Madrid, 1903.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Osma, Guillermo J. de.</span> <i>Azulejos sevillanos del siglo XIII.</i> +Madrid, 1902.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Los letreros ornamentales en la cerámica morisca del siglo +XV.</i></p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pérez de Villa-amil.</span> <i>España Artistica y Monumental.</i> +Paris, 1842–1850.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pérez Villaamil, Manuel.</span> <i>Artes é Industrias del Buen +Retiro.</i> Madrid, 1904.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Picatoste, Felipe.</span> <i>Ultimos escritos.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Estudios sobre la grandeza y decadencia de España.</i></p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pigal.</span> <i>Collection de Costumes des diverses Provinces de +l'Espagne.</i> Paris, about 1810.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ponz, Antonio.</span> <i>Viaje de España.</i> 18 vols.; Madrid, 1787.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ramírez de Arellano, Rafael.</span> <i>Ciudad Real Artística.</i> +Ciudad Real, 1894.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Riaño, Juan Facundo.</span> <i>The Industrial Arts in Spain</i> (South +Kensington Museum Art Handbooks). London, 1879.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ricord, Tomás.</span> <i>Noticia de las varias y diferentes Producciones +del Reyno de Valencia, etc.: segun el estado que tenían en el +año 1791.</i> Valencia, 1793.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rodríguez Villa, Antonio</span> (edited by). <i>La Corte y +Monarquía de España en los años de 1636 y 1637.</i> Madrid, +1886.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sanpere y Miquel.</span> <i>La Plateria catalana en los siglos XVI y +XV</i> (article published in the <i>Revista de Ciencias Históricas</i>; +Vol. I.).</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Las Costumbres Catalanas en tiempo de Juan I.</i> Gerona, +1878.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sempere.</span> <i>Historia del lujo en España.</i> Madrid, 1788.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Simonet, Francisco Javier.</span> <i>Descripción del Reino de Granada, +sacada de los autores arábigos.</i> Granada, 1872.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stirling, William.</span> <i>Annals of the Artists of Spain.</i> London, +1848.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Strabo.</span> <i>Geography.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Street.</span> <i>Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain.</i> London, +1865.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Swinburne, Henry.</span> <i>Travels through Spain.</i> London, 1779.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Townsend, Joseph.</span> <i>Journey through Spain.</i> 3 vols.; London, +1792.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Valladar, F. de Paula.</span> <i>Guía de Granada.</i> Granada, 1890 +and 1906.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Van de Put.</span> <i>Hispano-Moresque Ware of the Fifteenth +Century.</i> London, 1904.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vargas y Ponce.</span> <i>Correspondencia epistolar en materias de +Arte.</i> Collected by Cesáreo Fernández Duro. Madrid, +1900.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Villa-amil y Castro.</span> <i>Antigüedades prehistóricas y célticas de +Galicia.</i> Lugo, 1873.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Arqueología Sagrada.</i> Lugo, 1867.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Viñaza, Count of La.</span> <i>Adiciones al Diccionario de Cean +Bermudez.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><i>Goya.</i></p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Viollet-le-Duc.</span> <i>Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français +de l'époque Carlovingienne à la Renaissance.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wallis, Henry.</span> <i>The Oriental Influence on the Ceramic Art +of the Italian Renaissance.</i> London, 1900.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Young, Arthur.</span> <i>Tour in Catalonia.</i> Dublin, 1793.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Zarco del Valle.</span> <i>Documentos inéditos para la Historia de +las Bellas Artes en España.</i> Madrid, 1870.</p></div> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2> + +<ul> +<li>Abd-al-Azis, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>.</li> +<li>Abd-er-Rhaman the First, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li> +<li>Abd-er-Rhaman the Second, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>; III. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> +<li>Abd-er-Rhaman the Third, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>.</li> +<li>Aben-Said, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>.</li> +<li>Abolais, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_226">226</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>.</li> +<li>Abreviador, the Casa del, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> +<li>Abu-Said, III. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> +<li><i>Adargas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>.</li> +<li>Addison, Lancelot, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_18">18</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note).</li> +<li>Alberoni, Cardinal, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a> (note).</li> +<li>Albuquerque, the inventory of the Dukes of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_10">10</a>.</li> +<li>Alcaicería of Granada, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Alcarrazas</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Alcázar of Seville, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>.</li> +<li>Alcora, pottery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Alcoy, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> +<li>Aleman, Cristóbal, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>.</li> +<li><i>Aleros</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>.</li> +<li><i>Alfarge</i> ceilings, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Alfonso the Second, III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> +<li>Alfonso the Third (“the Great”), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_57">57</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> +<li>Alfonso the Sixth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>; III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> +<li>Alfonso the Ninth, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>.</li> +<li>Alfonso the Tenth (“the Learned”), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>; III. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> +<li>Alfonso the Eleventh, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>; III. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> +<li>Alfonso the Eleventh, the Chronicle of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note).</li> +<li>Alfonso the Thirteenth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_42">42</a> (note).</li> +<li>Alfonso the First of Aragon, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>.</li> +<li>Algeciras, the siege of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>.</li> +<li>Al-Hakem the First, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>; III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li>Al-Hakem the Second, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li> +<li>Alhambra, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_64">64</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_154">154</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>.</li> +<li><i>Aliceres</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>.</li> +<li>Al-Jattib, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_77">77</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>.</li> +<li><i>Aljofar</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>; III. <a href="#Page_11">11</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></li> +<li>Al-Khattib, III. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> +<li>Almagro Cardenas, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a> (note).</li> +<li>Almagro, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> +<li>Al-Makkari, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>; III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> +<li>Al-Manzor, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li> +<li><i>Almexía</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> +<li>Almohades, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>; III. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> +<li>Almoravides, the, III. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> +<li>Almotalefes, III. <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Altar-screens (see <a href="#RETABLOS"><i>Retablos</i></a>).</li> +<li>Alvarez de Colmenar, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_110">110</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_199">199</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> +<li>Amador de los Ríos, José, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_59">59</a> (note).</li> +<li>Amador de los Ríos, Rodrigo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>; III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> +<li>Amphoræ, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>.</li> +<li><i>Analogia</i>, III. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> +<li>Ancheta, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>.</li> +<li>Andino, Cristóbal de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_151">151</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Angels, the Cross of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_41">41</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>.</li> +<li>Apocalypse, the Codex of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>.</li> +<li><i>Arabian Nights, The</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_63">63</a> (note).</li> +<li>Aranda, the Count of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_204">204</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Arca Santa</i> of Oviedo, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>.</li> +<li>Arenys de Mar, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> +<li>Arenys de Munt, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> +<li>Arfe, Antonio de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>.</li> +<li>Arfe, Enrique de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>; III. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> +<li>Arfe, Juan de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_96">96</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> +<li>Argote de Molina, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>.</li> +<li>Armouries of Spain, private, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_244">244</a>.</li> +<li>Armoury, Madrid, the Royal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_217">217</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_229">229</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_231">231</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_248">248</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li> +<li>Arnao de Flandes, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>.</li> +<li><i>Arquetas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_48">48</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>“Arras cloths” (see <a href="#PANOS_DE_RAS"><i>Paños de Ras</i></a>).</li> +<li><i>Artesonados</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Ash Shakandi, III. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> +<li>Augusta, Cristóbal de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>.</li> +<li><i>Axorcas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>.</li> +<li><i>Azulejos</i> (see <a href="#TILES">Tiles</a>).</li> +<li> </li> +<li><i>Baculi</i>, ivory, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>.</li> +<li>Balconies, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_154">154</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Balearics, slingers of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>.</li> +<li>Bâle, the Council of, III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> (note).</li> +<li>Balsa de la Vega, III. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> +<li><i>Banyolenchs</i>, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li> +<li>Barcelona, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_98">98</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Barros Saguntinos</i> (see <a href="#SAGUNTINE_WARE">“Saguntine ware”</a>).</li> +<li><i>Barros tarraconenses</i> (see <a href="#SAGUNTINE_WARE">“Saguntine ware”</a>).</li> +<li>Bartholomew, Master, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_149">149</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Barzanallana, III. <a href="#Page_222">222</a> (note), <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).</li> +<li>Bayan Almoghreb, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>.</li> +<li>Becerra, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li> +<li>Becerriles, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>.</li> +<li>Bedclothes, Spanish mediæval, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_4">4</a> (note).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></li> +<li>Benvenuto Cellini, III. <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Berruguete, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>.</li> +<li>Bertaut de Rouen, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_67">67</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>; III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> (note), <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> +<li>Boabdil el Chico, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_227">227</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> +<li>Bocairente, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> +<li>Bonsor, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>.</li> +<li>Bourgoing, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>; III. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Bowles, William, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_4">4</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_23">23</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_263">263</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_196">196</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>.</li> +<li>Brihuega, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> (note).</li> +<li>Brims of Wells (see <a href="#BROCALES"><i>Brocales</i></a>).</li> +<li><i>Brinquiños</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>.</li> +<li>British Museum, The, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> +<li>Brocade, III. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> (note).</li> +<li><a name="BROCALES" id="BROCALES"><i>Brocales</i></a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>.</li> +<li>Bronzes, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_169">169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Brun, Sigismund, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>.</li> +<li><i>Búcaros</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>.</li> +<li>Buckram, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> +<li>Buen Retiro, pottery of the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_212">212</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Buonaparte, Joseph, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>.</li> +<li><i>Burel</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Cadalso, glass of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>.</li> +<li><i>Cadinas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li> +<li>Campomanes, Count, III. <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> +<li><i>Candil</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>.</li> +<li>Cannon, early Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Cano, Alonso, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li> +<li><i>Cántigas de Santa María</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li> +<li>Capmany, III. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note), <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> +<li>Carpentry, artistic, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_46">46</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Carpintería de lo blanco</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>.</li> +<li><i>Carpinteros de lo blanco</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>.</li> +<li>Carrión, Fernando de, III. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> +<li>Casa de los Tíros, Granada, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li>Casiri, III. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> +<li>Cataluña, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li> +<li>Cataluña, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Catherine of Lancaster, III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> +<li>Cato, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_5">5</a>.</li> +<li>Cean Bermudez, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_83">83</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_246">246</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> (note).</li> +<li>Cedillo, Count of, III. <a href="#Page_70">70</a> (note), <a href="#Page_225">225</a> (note).</li> +<li>Celosías, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Celtiberians, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>.</li> +<li><i>Cendal</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> +<li>Chair-makers of Granada, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_28">28</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Chamelot</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> +<li>Charles the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>; III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> (note).</li> +<li>Charles the Third, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>; III. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> +<li>Charles the Fourth, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>; III. <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></li> +<li>Charles the Fifth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> +<li>Chests, makers of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>.</li> +<li><i>Ciclaton</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> +<li>Cid, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>.</li> +<li>Cid, the Chronicle of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>.</li> +<li>Cid, the Poem of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note).</li> +<li>Cisneros, Cardinal, III. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> +<li>Ciudad Real, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>.</li> +<li>Clemencin, III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> +<li>Clonard, Count of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_215">215</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_5">5</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a> (note); III. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_14">14</a> (note).</li> +<li>Cloostermans, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_209">209</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Cloth of Gold, III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> +<li>Cloths, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Cluny, the Museum of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> +<li>Coaches, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>.</li> +<li><i>Cofradías</i>, III. <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Commercial Company of Extremadura, the, III. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> +<li>Compañia Real de Comercio y Fábricas de Granada, the, III. <a href="#Page_61">61</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Contrayes</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Contreras, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>.</li> +<li><i>Cordellate</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Cordova, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Cordova, embroiderers of, III. <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>“Cordova leathers,” II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>.</li> +<li>Cordova, <i>rejeros</i> of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>.</li> +<li>Cordova, the Council of, III. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> +<li>Cordova, the mosque of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li> +<li>Cordova, the Ordinances of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>.</li> +<li>Covarrubias, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>; III. <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> +<li>Crossbows, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_220">220</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Crosses, iron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>.</li> +<li>Crown of Spain, tapestries of the, III. <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Cueros de Córdoba</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Cunninghame Graham, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_277">277</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_20">20</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> (note).</li> +<li><i>Cursi</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li> +<li><i>Custodia</i> of Cordova, the, III. <a href="#Page_201">201</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Custodia</i> of Seville, the, III. <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Custodias</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Cutlers, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Dagobert, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>.</li> +<li>Dancart, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>.</li> +<li>Danis, Juan, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>.</li> +<li>D'Aulnoy, Countess, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_107">107</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_25">25</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>; III. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Davillier, Baron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> +<li>Diago, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>.</li> +<li>Diodorus Siculus, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>.</li> +<li>Diptyches, ivory, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_89">89</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Dolfin, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>.</li> +<li>Domingo, “Maestre,” I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>; III. <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a> (note).</li> +<li>Doncel, Guillermo, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>.</li> +<li><i>Don Quixote</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_286">286</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> +<li>Dozy, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>.</li> +<li><i>Drach-alat</i>, the, III. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> +<li>Drury Fortnum, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> +<li>Ducange, III. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> +<li>Duque y Cornejo, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Echeverría, Father, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></li> +<li>Eder, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>.</li> +<li>Edrisi, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>; III. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> +<li>Egilona, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>.</li> +<li>Eguilaz Yanguas, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>; III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> (note).</li> +<li>El Nubiense, III. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> +<li>Embroidery, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_125">125</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Ena of Battenberg, Princess, III. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> +<li>Enguera, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> +<li><i>Entalladores</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>.</li> +<li>Escolano, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>.</li> +<li>Escorial, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>.</li> +<li>Eximenes, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Ferdinand and Isabella, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_69">69</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>; III. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> (note), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> +<li>Ferdinand the Catholic, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_253">253</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>; III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li> +<li>Ferdinand the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>.</li> +<li>Ferdinand the Second, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +<li><a name="FERDINAND_THE_THIRD" id="FERDINAND_THE_THIRD">Ferdinand the Third</a> (San Fernando), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>; III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> +<li>Ferdinand the Sixth, III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> +<li>Ferdinand the Second of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>.</li> +<li>Fernandez de Navarrete, III. <a href="#Page_109">109</a> (note), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> (note), <a href="#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="#Page_237">237</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Fernandez y Gonzalez, III. <a href="#Page_17">17</a> (note).</li> +<li>Fez, III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> +<li>Florez Estrada, III. <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> +<li>Floridablanca, Count of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>; III. <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> +<li>Fonseca, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li> +<li>Fonts, baptismal, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>.</li> +<li>Ford, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_83">83</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_63">63</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>.</li> +<li>Fortuny, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>.</li> +<li>Fouquet, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>.</li> +<li>Foz, Manuel, III. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> +<li>Francés, Juan, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_140">140</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Francis the First, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li> +<li>Frisleva, Cristóbal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>.</li> +<li>Fuero Viejo of Castile, the, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a> (note).</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Gamero, Martin, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> (note).</li> +<li>Ganivet, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> +<li>García Llansó, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_202">202</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>.</li> +<li>Gates, bronze, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>.</li> +<li>Gayangos, Pascual de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>; III. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> (note), <a href="#Page_135">135</a> (note).</li> +<li>Gelmirez, Bishop, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li> +<li>Gener, Pompeyo, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> +<li>George, Master, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>.</li> +<li>Gestoso, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_73">73</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_84">84</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_114">114</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_150">150</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_187">187</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_247">247</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_51">51</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_142">142</a> (note) <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_149">149</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a> (note) <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>; III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> +<li>Giralda, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_177">177</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>.</li> +<li>Goblet d'Alviella, III. <a href="#Page_71">71</a> (note).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></li> +<li>Gomez Moreno, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_172">172</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> +<li>Gonzalo de Cordova, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>.</li> +<li>Goya, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; III. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> +<li>Goyeneche, Juan, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>.</li> +<li>Granada, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_121">121</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Granada, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Granada, the Alcaicería of, III. <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Granada, the Ordinances of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_4">4</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_247">247</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>.</li> +<li><i>Granas treintenas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Gricci, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>.</li> +<li>Guadalajara, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Guadalete, the battle of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>.</li> +<li><i>Guadamacileros</i>, III. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> +<li><i>Guadamacileros</i> of Cordova, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>.</li> +<li><i>Guadameciles</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Guarrazar, the treasure of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_16">16</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Guise, Duke of, III. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> +<li>Gutierrez, Pedro, III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Hannibal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>.</li> +<li>Harness for horses, war, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li> +<li>Henry, Master, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>.</li> +<li>Henry the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li> +<li>Henry the Second, III. <a href="#Page_34">34</a> (note).</li> +<li>Henry the Eighth of England, III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +<li>Hernández, Gregorio, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.</li> +<li>Herranz, Francisco, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>.</li> +<li>Hita, Archpriest of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>.</li> +<li>Hixem, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li> +<li>Hübner, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>.</li> +<li>Hurtado de Mendoza, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>.</li> +<li>Ibn Alwardi, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>.</li> +<li>Ibn Batutah, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>.</li> +<li>Ibn Hayyan, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>.</li> +<li>Ibn Hud, III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> +<li>Ibn Khaldoun, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>; III. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> +<li>Ibn Said, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>; III. <a href="#Page_33">33</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Illiberis, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>.</li> +<li>Inlay on steel and iron, gold, III. <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Inns, furniture of Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_30">30</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Irving, Washington, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>.</li> +<li>Isabel Farnese, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>.</li> +<li>Isabella the Catholic, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_244">244</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> +<li>Isabella the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>.</li> +<li>Isidore, Saint, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_12">12</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_166">166</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Jacquemart, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>.</li> +<li><i>Jaeces colgantes</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li> +<li>Jaen, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Jayme the First of Aragon (“the Conqueror”), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> (note), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> +<li>Jewellery in Spain, Roman, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>.</li> +<li>Jewellery, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_73">73</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Jewellery, Morisco, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_77">77</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Jones, Owen, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_172">172</a> (note).</li> +<li>Jovellanos, III. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> +<li>Juana, Doña, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> +<li>Juan of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_5">5</a>.</li> +<li>Juan the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>; III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> +<li>Juan the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> +<li>Juni, Juan de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Kersey, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Keys of Seville, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Keys, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_124">124</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Laborde, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_116">116</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_34">34</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_131">131</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> (note), <a href="#Page_168">168</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Lace, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>La Granja (or San Ildefonso), the glass factory of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> +<li>La Higueruela, the battle of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>.</li> +<li>Lalaing, III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> +<li>Lambot, Diodonet, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_249">249</a>.</li> +<li>La Milanesa, III. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> +<li>La Moncloa, the porcelain factory of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li> +<li>Lampérez, Vicente, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>; III. <a href="#Page_158">158</a> (note).</li> +<li>Lamps, Roman, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_165">165</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Lamps, ware, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>.</li> +<li>Lane-Poole, Stanley, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>; III. <a href="#Page_9">9</a> (note), <a href="#Page_21">21</a> (note).</li> +<li>La Payessa, Joseph, III. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> +<li>Larruga, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>; III. <a href="#Page_66">66</a> (note), <a href="#Page_111">111</a> (note), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> (note), <a href="#Page_233">233</a> (note), <a href="#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).</li> +<li>Lasteyrie, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>.</li> +<li><i>Latticinio</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>.</li> +<li><i>Lazo</i>-work doors, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Leather, Spanish decorative, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Lefort, III. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> +<li>Lenger, Antoine, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> +<li>León, the Synod of, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> +<li>Lerma, Duke of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li> +<li><i>Libros de Pasantía</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>.</li> +<li>Locks and keys, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li> +<li>Lope de Vega, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a> (note).</li> +<li>Lopez de Arenas, Diego, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_51">51</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>.</li> +<li>Lugo, exhibition of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>.</li> +<li>Luis de León, Fray, III. <a href="#Page_99">99</a> (note).</li> +<li>Luna, Alvaro de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>.</li> +<li>Lustred pottery, Hispano-Moresque, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_161">161</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Machuca, Pedro, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li> +<li>Madrid, the Gremios of, III. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> (note).</li> +<li>Madrid, the National Museum, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_94">94</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; III. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> +<li>Majolica ware, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>.</li> +<li><i>Manillas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>.</li> +<li><i>Mantilla</i>, the, III. <a href="#Page_164">164</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Marckwart, the brothers, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>.</li> +<li>María Cristina, Queen, III. <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).</li> +<li>María de Padilla, III. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> +<li>Marineus Siculus, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>; III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> +<li>Marmol, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>.</li> +<li>Martial, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>.</li> +<li>Martinez de la Mata, III. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> +<li>Martinez Guijarro, Fernan, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>.</li> +<li>Martinez Montañes, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li> +<li>Martin Hume, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_113">113</a> (note).</li> +<li>Martin of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>; III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> +<li>Mary of England, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></li> +<li>Maskell, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_97">97</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Medias lanas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li> +<li>Medina del Campo, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Medina, Pedro de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>.</li> +<li>Mélida, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_175">175</a> (note).</li> +<li>Mena, Alonso de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.</li> +<li>Menandro, Vicente, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>.</li> +<li>Mena, Pedro de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li> +<li>Mendez Silva, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>.</li> +<li>Mendoza, the <i>guión</i> of Cardinal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>.</li> +<li>Micerguillo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>.</li> +<li><i>Mimbar</i> of the Mosque of Cordova, the, III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li><i>Mimbar</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li> +<li>Mines, gold and silver, in Spain, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_1">1</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Mines of Spain, the iron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>.</li> +<li>Miquel y Badía, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> (note), <a href="#Page_70">70</a> (note), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> +<li>Moawia, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li> +<li>Mocarabes, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li> +<li>Mohammed the Third of Granada, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>.</li> +<li>Mondejar, the Marquis of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_286">286</a>.</li> +<li>Monistrol, the Marquis of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>.</li> +<li>Montague, Lady Mary Wortley, III. <a href="#Page_184">184</a> (note).</li> +<li>Monte-Fuerte, the Marquis of, III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a> (note).</li> +<li>Montoya, Alejo de, III. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> +<li>Montserrat, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li>Monzón, the Cortes of, III. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> +<li>Morales, Ambrosio de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li>Morel, Bartolomé, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_183">183</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Morella, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> +<li>Moriscos, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_29">29</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> +<li>Moriscos, the expulsion of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_80">80</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Mosaic-work, Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_128">128</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Müntz, III. <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> (note), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a> (note), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li>Murcia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Murcia, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Muza, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>.</li> +<li>Muzquiz, Miguel de, III. <a href="#Page_92">92</a> (note).</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Nails, decorative, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li> +<li>Napoleon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_141">141</a> (note).</li> +<li>Navagiero, III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> +<li>Nebrija, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>.</li> +<li>Ney, Marshal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>.</li> +<li>Nuevo Baztán, the glass-factory of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_250">250</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Olivares, Damian de, III. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> +<li>Olivares, the Count-Duke of, III. <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> +<li>Ollery, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>.</li> +<li>Onteniente, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> +<li>“Opening images,” II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>.</li> +<li>Order of Preachers, the, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> +<li>Ordinances of Barcelona, the, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> +<li>Ordinances of Burgos, the, III. <a href="#Page_233">233</a> (note).</li> +<li>Ordinances of Cordova, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>.</li> +<li>Ordinances of Granada, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_119">119</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>; III. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></li> +<li>Ordinances of Seville, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_31">31</a> (note).</li> +<li>Ordinances of Toledo, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>; III. <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> +<li>Ortiz de Zúñiga, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>.</li> +<li>Ortiz, Lorenzo, III. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> +<li>Osma, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_140">140</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_161">161</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_188">188</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>.</li> +<li>Othman, the Caliph, III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Pacheco, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li> +<li>Palencia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li><i>Pallia aquilinata</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> +<li><i>Pallia leonata</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> +<li><i>Pallia rotata</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> +<li><i>Palmillas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Pannemaker, William, III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li><a name="PANOS_DE_RAS" id="PANOS_DE_RAS"><i>Paños de Ras</i></a>, III. <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> +<li><i>Pardillos</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li><i>Passo Honroso</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>.</li> +<li>Pedro the Cruel, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>; III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> +<li>Pedro the Second, III. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> +<li>Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> +<li>Pelayo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>.</li> +<li>Petronius, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>.</li> +<li>Philip the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>.</li> +<li>Philip the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>; III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> +<li>Philip the Third, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>; III. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> +<li>Philip the Fourth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>; III. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> +<li>Philip the Fifth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>; III. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> +<li>Pinheiro da Veiga, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>; III. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Pisano, Francesco Niculoso, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_143">143</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Pizarro, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_257">257</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Plato, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>.</li> +<li>Pliny, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_223">223</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a> (note).</li> +<li>Poblet, the monastery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li><i>Poem of the Cid</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note).</li> +<li>Polybius, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>.</li> +<li>Ponz, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>.</li> +<li>Porous pottery, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Porrón</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>.</li> +<li>Potosi, the silver mines of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>.</li> +<li>Pottery, prehistoric Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_111">111</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Primavera</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> +<li>Procaccini, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> +<li>Processional crosses, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> +<li>Procopius, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>.</li> +<li><i>Psephosis fsefysa</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li> +<li>Ptolemy, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>.</li> +<li>Puente del Arzobispo ware, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Pulgar, Hernando del, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>.</li> +<li>Pulpits, iron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_139">139</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Pulpits, old Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_211">211</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Punto de oro</i>, III. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li><i>Rácimos</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li> +<li>Ramírez de Arellano, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_91">91</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_46">46</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_55">55</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>; III. <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> (note), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> +<li>Ramírez, Sancho, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>.</li> +<li>Rapiers, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_259">259</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Rassis, III. <a href="#Page_2">2</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Reboul, III. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> (note).</li> +<li>Recared, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></li> +<li>Recceswinth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>.</li> +<li><i>Red flandés</i>, III. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> +<li><i>Rejas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_141">141</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Relicarios</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Renaissance, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Reposteros</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_16">16</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> +<li><i>Retablo</i> of Gerona Cathedral, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>.</li> +<li><a name="RETABLOS" id="RETABLOS"><i>Retablos</i></a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_82">82</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Ret Catalá</i>, III. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> +<li>Riaño, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a> (note) <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_185">185</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_93">93</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_204">204</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; III. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> (note), <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> (note), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> (note), <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Ricord, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_260">260</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> +<li>Rico y Sinobas, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_228">228</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_259">259</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> +<li>Riotinto, the mines of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_6">6</a>.</li> +<li>Roderick, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>.</li> +<li>Rodrigo, Maese, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>.</li> +<li>Roldan, Pedro, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li> +<li>Rosmithal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>; III. <a href="#Page_34">34</a> (note).</li> +<li>Roulière, Jean, III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> +<li>Rubens, III. <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Sagrado, Diego de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>.</li> +<li><a name="SAGUNTINE_WARE" id="SAGUNTINE_WARE">Saguntine ware</a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_114">114</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Saint Ferdinand (<i>see</i> <a href="#FERDINAND_THE_THIRD">Ferdinand the Third</a>).</li> +<li>Saint Isidore, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_223">223</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> +<li>Saint Isidro, diamonds of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>.</li> +<li>Saint Vincent Ferrer, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> +<li><i>Samit</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> +<li>Sanchez, Martin, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>.</li> +<li>Sancho the Fourth, III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> +<li>Sancho the Great, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>.</li> +<li>Sandoval, Cardinal, III. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> +<li>San Fernando, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> +<li>San Isidro, the burial chest of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>.</li> +<li>San Miguel in Excelsis, the legend of, III. <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Santa Barbara, the tapestry factory of, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li>Santa Isabel, the tapestry factory of, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li>Santiago Cathedral, the treasure of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_53">53</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Santiago, jet-work of, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Santas Creus, the monastery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li>Sculpture in wood, Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Segovia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Segovia, woollens of, III. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Sentenach, III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li>Sepúlveda, the Fuero of, III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> +<li>Serrano Fatigati, III. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> +<li>Seville, the Ordinances of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Shields, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_239">239</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Ships, silver, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></li> +<li>Silk, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Sillerías</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Silos, the Chronicle of the Monk of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a> (note).</li> +<li>Sisenand, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>.</li> +<li>Sit, Ventura, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>.</li> +<li>Soria, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> +<li>South Kensington Museum, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_53">53</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a>; III. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> +<li>Stalactite decoration, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li> +<li>Stirling, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>.</li> +<li>Strabo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>.</li> +<li>Street, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_64">64</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>.</li> +<li>Stuck family, the, III. <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> +<li>Superstitions, Andalusian, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>.</li> +<li>Susillo, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.</li> +<li>Swinburne, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_172">172</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_240">240</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_285">285</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_61">61</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_261">261</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_47">47</a> (note), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> (note).</li> +<li>Swinthila, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>.</li> +<li>Swords, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_244">244</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Swords, spurious Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>.</li> +<li>Symonds, John Addington, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li><i>Tabis</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> +<li><i>Takcht</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li> +<li>Talavera de la Reina, pottery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Talavera de la Reina, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> +<li>Talavera de la Reina, the silk-factories of, III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Tapestry, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Tardwahsh</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_18">18</a> (note).</li> +<li>Tarik, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>.</li> +<li>Tarik's “table,” I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> +<li><i>Tartaricas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> +<li>Tavira de Durango, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Teniers, III. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> +<li>Testaments, the Codex of the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_3">3</a> (note).</li> +<li>Thimbles, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>.</li> +<li>Throne of Don Martin, the silver, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>.</li> +<li><a name="TILES" id="TILES">Tiles</a>, Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Tinajas</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>; III. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> +<li><i>Tiraz</i>, III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> +<li>Tirso de Molina, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li> +<li>Toledo, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Toledo, the Ordinances of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>.</li> +<li>Toledo, the trade-guilds of, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> +<li>Torreánaz, the Count of, III. <a href="#Page_119">119</a> (note), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> (note), <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> (note).</li> +<li>Torre del Oro, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>.</li> +<li>Townsend, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_25">25</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_176">176</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; III. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> (note), <a href="#Page_115">115</a> (note), <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> (note), <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a> (note), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> (note), <a href="#Page_250">250</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Trade-guilds, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Tramoyeres Blasco, Luis, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>et seq.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></li> +<li>Triptych reliquaries, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Turismund, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Ulloa, Martin de, III. <a href="#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Unamuno, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Valencia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> +<li>Valencia, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Valencia, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Valencia, the trade-guilds of, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Valencia, woollens of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> +<li>Valencia de Don Juan, the Count of, III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> (note), <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> +<li>Valladar, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a> (note).</li> +<li>Valladolid, the Council of, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> +<li>Van der Goten, Adrian, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> +<li>Van der Goten, Cornelius, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> +<li>Van der Goten, Francisco, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> +<li>Van der Goten, Jacob, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> +<li>Van der Goten, Jacob (the younger), III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> +<li>Van Eyk, III. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li>Vargas y Ponce, III. <a href="#Page_168">168</a> (note).</li> +<li>Vargüeños, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>.</li> +<li>Vaucanson, III. <a href="#Page_86">86</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><i>Veintiseiseno</i>, cloths, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li><i>Velarte</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Velazquez, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> +<li><i>Velón</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>.</li> +<li>Vergara, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Vermay, Jan, III. <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> +<li>Victory, the Cross of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>.</li> +<li>Vigarny, Philip, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Villa-amil y Castro, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_140">140</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_143">143</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>; III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Villalpando, Francisco de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>.</li> +<li>Villamediana, the Count of, III. <a href="#Page_135">135</a> (note).</li> +<li>Viollet-le-Duc, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_211">211</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_3">3</a> (note).</li> +<li>Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the, crown of the, III. <a href="#Page_205">205</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the mantle of the, III. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> +<li>“Virgin of Battles,” the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>.</li> +<li>Visigothic jewellery, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_15">15</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Wallis, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>.</li> +<li>Washington Irving, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>.</li> +<li>Weathercocks, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>.</li> +<li>Witiza, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>.</li> +<li>Woollens, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Xelizes, III. <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Young, Arthur, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>; III. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> +<li>Yusuf of Granada, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note).</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Zafra, Hernando de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>.</li> +<li>Zaragoza, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>Zaragoza, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> +<li>Zarco del Valle, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_87">87</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_141">141</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_71">71</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_245">245</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_247">247</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p class="title">PRINTED BY<br /> +NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,<br /> +EDINBURGH.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p> + +<p>The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have +been maintained.</p> + +<p>Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked as a misprint.</p> + +<p>This book contains links to other books in the Project Gutenberg collection. +Although we verify the correctness of these links at the time of posting, these +links may not work, for various reasons, for various people, at various times.</p> + +<table summary="corrections"> + <tr> + <td><b>The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.</b></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 6: Cortes of Monzon → Monzón</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 8: <i>Almexia</i> → <i>Almexía</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 15: edging of the same; → edging of the same;”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 33: Al-Makkari, Al-Kattib → Al-Khattib</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 37: in the form of a scarf. → in the form of a scarf.”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 48: il est en indiennne. → indienne.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 51: qui croist assez prés → près</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 51: près de deux cens → cent</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 51: qui est une espece → espèce</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 51: Ses habitans → habitants</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 108: il y avoit autresfois → autrefois</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 109: quatre heures aprés → après</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 123: Chalons, Beziers, and Rheims → Reims</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 129: it to the church. → it to the church.”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 151: invitation John Vergoten → Dergoten</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 154: Madrid, the Pardo → Prado</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 165: Pour les femmes → “Pour les femmes</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 165: Journal du Voyage d Espagne → d'Espagne</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 166: de rubans à l'extremité → l'extrémité</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 166: sur la tête attachée → attachés</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 167: autre les divers dégrés → degrés</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 167: elle ne depasse → dépasse</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 200: inscription, <i>Aeternum</i> → Æternum</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 217: Sebastian. Early → Early.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 217: Madrid. Cutler; a native → native of</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 217: early life in Flanders → Flanders.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 220: Sosa, → Sosa</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 229: in these devices. → in these devices.”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 242: maxims of our Christain → Christian</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 243: through the market, → through the market,’</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 245: that they were “toûjours → toujours</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 249: in the royal <i>cédula</i> → <i>cedula</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 262: Die Kleinodien des heil → heil.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 262: Nation, nebst den Kroninsignen → Kroninsignien</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 264: la buena gouernacion → governacion</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 264: que los Mvy Ilvstres → Muy Ilustres</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 264: mandaron gvardar → guardar</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 264: gouernacion → governacion</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 264: se han bvelto → buelto</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 273: III. 131, 16 → 168</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 276: Granada, cloths of, → Granada, cloths of, III.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 276: Juni, Juan de, 68, 69. → Juni, Juan de, II. 68, 69.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 280: Sepulveda → Sepúlveda</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 281: 20 <i>et seq.</i>; III. → 20 <i>et seq.</i>,</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 281: 276 (note), → 276 (note); II.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 282: Veintiseseno → Veintiseiseno</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN, VOLUME III (OF 3)***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 44393-h.txt or 44393-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/4/3/9/44393">http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/3/9/44393</a></p> +<p> +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p> +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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