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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44393 ***
+
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+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.
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+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The ligature oe is represented by [oe].
+
+      The dagger sign has been marked as [dagger].
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      single character following the carat is superscripted
+      (XIV^e).
+
+      [=a] represents a letter (in this instance a lower case
+      "a") with a macron above it.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: "THE GRAPE-GATHERERS"
+(_Tapestry from Cartoon by Goya. El Escorial_)]
+
+
+The World of Art Series
+
+THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN
+
+by
+
+LEONARD WILLIAMS
+
+Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy,
+of the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts;
+Author of "The Land of the Dons"; "Toledo and Madrid"; "Granada," etc.
+
+In Three Volumes, Illustrated
+
+VOLUME III
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Chicago
+A. C. McClurg & Co.
+Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis
+1908
+
+American Edition
+Published October 10, 1908
+
+
+
+
+                         CONTENTS OF VOLUME THREE
+
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+                                                                  PAGES
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                     1-38
+
+  SPANISH SILK                                                   38-105
+
+  CLOTHS AND WOOLLENS                                           105-125
+
+  EMBROIDERY                                                    125-137
+
+  TAPESTRY                                                      137-159
+
+  LACE                                                          159-175
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+  APPENDICES                                                    177-258
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                  259-268
+
+  INDEX                                                         271-282
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                             _VOLUME THREE_
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+
+    PLATE                                                         PAGE
+
+          "The Grape-Gatherers"; Tapestry from Cartoon
+          by Goya; El Escorial                          _Frontispiece_
+
+       I. The "Banner of Las Navas"; Monastery of Las Huelgas,
+          Burgos                                                    22
+
+      II. Fragment of the Burial Mantle of Ferdinand the Third;
+          Royal Armoury, Madrid                                     26
+
+     III. King Alfonso the Learned; from "The Book of Chess," MS.
+          in the Escorial Library                                   28
+
+      IV. Spanish Velvet; about A.D. 1500                           30
+
+       V. The Tunic of Boabdil el Chico; National Museum of
+          Artillery, Madrid                                         36
+
+      VI. The "Banner of Saint Ferdinand"; Seville Cathedral        40
+
+     VII. Velvet made at Granada                                    56
+
+    VIII. The Daughters of Philip the Second; Prado Gallery,
+          Madrid                                                    98
+
+      IX. A _Charra_ or Peasant Woman of Salamanca, in the
+          year 1777                                                102
+
+       X. Embroidered Priest's Robe; about A.D. 1500               118
+
+      XI. Embroidered Priest's Robe; about A.D. 1500               120
+
+     XII. Embroidered Chasuble; Palencia Cathedral                 122
+
+    XIII. Embroidered Case of Processional Cross; Toledo Cathedral 124
+
+     XIV. Embroidered Altar-Front                                  126
+
+      XV. Embroidered Altar-Front; Toledo Cathedral                128
+
+     XVI. Embroidered Altar-Front; Palencia Cathedral              130
+
+    XVII. Embroidered Altar-Fronts; Palencia Cathedral             132
+
+   XVIII. Costume of Woman of the Balearic Islands; about
+          A.D. 1810                                                134
+
+     XIX. The "Genesis Tapestry"; Gerona Cathedral                 138
+
+      XX. _Tapiz_ of Crimson Velvet worked in gold tissue;
+          Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos                         144
+
+     XXI. "The Spinners," by Velazquez; Prado Gallery, Madrid      148
+
+    XXII. Tapestry made at Brussels from Granada Silk              150
+
+   XXIII. "A Promenade in Andalusia"; Cartoon for Tapestry,
+          by Goya                                                  152
+
+    XXIV. Tapestry; Arras-Work, from Italian Cartoons; Zamora
+          Cathedral                                                156
+
+     XXV. Flemish Tapestry; Collection of the late Count of
+          Valencia de Don Juan                                     158
+
+    XXVI. The Marchioness of La Solana, by Goya                    160
+
+   XXVII. A Spanish _Maja_; A.D. 1777                              162
+
+  XXVIII. A _Maja_, by Goya                                        164
+
+    XXIX. A Lady of Soria; about A.D. 1810                         166
+
+     XXX. Handkerchief of Catalan Lace, presented to Queen
+          Victoria of Spain on her marriage                        168
+
+    XXXI. Curtain of Spanish Lace; Point and Pillow Work, modern   170
+
+   XXXII. Point Lace Fan, of Mudejar Design, modern                172
+
+
+
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+                              INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Our earliest intelligence respecting textile fabrics of old Spain
+derives almost exclusively from Moorish sources, and shows, together
+with the silence of Saint Isidore, that until the subjugation of the
+Visigoths, the occupants of the Peninsula attached no great importance
+to this industry. Under the Moors, the south and east of Spain grew
+rapidly famous for the manufacture of all kinds of textile stuffs, and
+in particular those of silk. The origin of these silks, or of the most
+luxurious and artistic of them, may be traced to Almería. According to
+Al-Makkari, what made this Andalusian capital superior to all other
+cities of the world was her "various manufactures of silks and other
+dress materials, such as the _dibaj_, a silken fabric of many colours,
+surpassing, both in quality and durability, all other products made
+elsewhere, and also the _tiraz_, a costly stuff whereon are inscribed
+the names of sultans, princes, and other personages, and for making
+which there used to be no fewer than eight hundred looms. Inferior
+fabrics were the _holol_ (a kind of striped silk), and brocades woven
+upon a thousand looms, while as many more were employed continually in
+making the scarlet stuffs called _iskalaton_. Another thousand produced
+the robes called _al jorjani_ (or 'the Georgian'), and yet another
+thousand the Isbahani robes, from Isfahan, and yet another thousand the
+robes of Atabi. The making of damask for gay-coloured curtains and
+turbans for the women kept busy as many persons as the articles
+above-mentioned."
+
+Edrisi, a chronicler of the twelfth century, says of the same capital
+that she was the principal city belonging to the Moors in the time of
+the Moravides. In fact, she was then a great and prosperous industrial
+centre, possessing, together with other kinds of looms, eight hundred
+which produced the fabrics known as _holla_, _debady_, _siglaton_,
+_espahani_, and _djordjani_, curtains with a flowered decoration, cloths
+of a smaller size, and the stuffs which were denominated _attabi_ and
+_mi djar_.
+
+A similar notice is contained in the _Chronicle of Rassis the Moor_.
+Referring to the end of the tenth century, this author wrote that
+"Almería is the key of profit and of all prosperity. Within her walls
+dwell cunning weavers who produce in quantities magnificent silken
+cloths inwoven with gold thread." Other important centres of this trade
+and craft were Málaga, Baeza, Alicante, Seville, and Granada. Rassis
+wrote of Málaga: "She has a fertile territory, wherein is made the
+finest _sirgo_ in the world. From here they trade in it with every part
+of Spain. Here too is made the finest of all linens, and that which the
+women best esteem." Of Baeza he wrote: "She manufactures excellent and
+famous silken cloths of the kind which are called _tapetes_"; and of
+Alicante, "This city lies in the Sierra de Benalcatil, which in its turn
+is situated in the midst of other ranges containing prosperous towns
+where silken cloths of finest quality were made in other days; and the
+weavers of these cloths were skilled exceedingly."
+
+Málaga is described by the Cordovese historian Ash Shakandi (thirteenth
+century) as "famous for its manufactures of silks of every colour and
+design, some of them so costly that a suit is sold for thousands; such
+are the brocades of beautiful pattern, inwoven with the names of
+caliphs, emirs and other wealthy personages.... As at Málaga and
+Almería, there are at Murcia several manufactories of silken cloth
+called _al washiu thalathat_, or 'the variegated.' This town is also
+celebrated for the carpets called _tantili_, which are exported to all
+countries of the east and west, as well as for a sort of bright-coloured
+mat with which the Murcians cover the walls of their houses."
+
+The ancient Illiberia or Illiberis, believed to have been situated not
+far from where is nowadays Granada, is described in Rassis' chronicle as
+"a city great and flourishing by reason of the quantity of silk that she
+exports to every part of Spain. She lies at sixty thousand paces
+distance from, and on the southward side of Cordova, and six thousand
+paces from, and to the north of the Frozen Sierra" (_i.e._ the Sierra
+Nevada).
+
+Another chronicle--that of El Nubiense, who visited Spain towards the
+twelfth century--states that in the kingdom of Jaen alone were six
+hundred towns which produced and carried on a trade in silk.
+
+The foregoing extracts show that under the Spanish Moors the manufacture
+of textile fabrics attained in mediæval times a very great importance.
+It is also certain that during the same period the textile fabrics in
+use among the Christian Spaniards were strongly and continually
+influenced, and even to a large extent produced, by Spanish Moors,
+while, as the Moorish cities fell into the power of the enemy, the
+Christian rulers encouraged their newly-sworn Mohammedan lieges to
+prosecute this industry with unabated zeal. A privilege is extant which
+was granted by Jayme the Conqueror in the year 1273, to a Moor named Ali
+and his sons Mohammed and Bocaron, empowering these artificers to
+manufacture silk and cloth of gold at Jativa, in the kingdom of
+Valencia. The fabrics produced by Mussulman weavers such as these, found
+ready purchase with the wealthier classes of the Christian Spaniards.
+The dress and other materials thus elaborated possessed a great variety
+of names, whose meaning cannot always be determined at the present day.
+Among the fabrics most in vogue were those denominated _samit_ (also
+_xamed_ or _examitum_), _ciclaton_, _tabis_ or _atabi_, _zarzahan_,
+_fustian_ or _fustan_, _cendal_ or _sendat_, _camelote_ (also
+_chamelote_ or _xamellot_), _drap imperial_, and _bougran_ (also
+_bouckram_, _buckram_), stated by Dr Bock to be derived from Bokhara,
+and which was of a quality far superior to the buckram of more modern
+times. These Saracenic or semi-Saracenic stuffs were manufactured from
+an early period, but modern experts are not agreed as to their
+character. Miquel y Badía and some other authorities believe that
+_samit_ was a costly material which was sometimes coloured green, and
+shot with gold or silver thread. Others believe it to have been a kind
+of velvet. In either case it is known to have been used for shrouding
+the bodies of the wealthy. _Ciclaton_ was a strong though flexible
+material used for robes and also for wall-hangings. _Tabis_ or _atabi_
+was a kind of taffeta, and probably consisted, as a general rule, of
+silk, though sometimes it was mixed with cotton. _Chamelot_ was an
+oriental fabric of rich silk, coloured white, black, or grey. It is
+mentioned, together with velvets, taffetas, and _cendal_ or _sendat_
+(another silken stuff) in a law passed by the Cortes of Monzón in 1375,
+and which is quoted in Capmany's _Memorias_.[1] Fustian is thought to
+have been first produced in Egypt. It was woven of thread or cotton, and
+was largely used in England from at least as early as the twelfth
+century. From about the same time buckram was also popular in northern
+countries.
+
+  [1] "Perco con los draps d'or é d'argent, é de seda axi brocats d'or é
+      d'argent con altres é velluts, xamelots, tafetanes, é sendats se
+      usen molt de vestir en lo dit Principat d'alguna generalitat ne
+      dret no y sia posat, mes solament vi liners per liura per la
+      entrada."
+
+Early in the fourteenth century a number of other costly stuffs began to
+be made in various quarters of the civilized world, including Spain.
+Among these fabrics were _zatonin_ or _zatony_ (perhaps the same as
+_zetani_, _aceituni_, or _aceytoni_--that is, satin), several kinds of
+_drap d'aur_ or cloth of gold, several kinds of velvet, _sarga_ or
+serge, and _camocas_, which is stated by Miquel y Badía to have been a
+strong material used for lining curtains, coats of mail, etc. The same
+writer observes that the stuff called by the name _zatonin_ and its
+variations is the same as the Castilian raso and the Catalan _setí_ or
+_satí_, a favourite though expensive and luxurious fabric in the
+fourteenth and succeeding centuries. Under the name _aceytoni_ it is
+mentioned in a work in the Catalan language titled _Croniques
+d'Espanya_, by Pedro Miguel Carbonell, in which we read that at the
+coronation of Don Martin of Aragon this monarch's consort, Doña María,
+was "dressed in white cloth of gold and a long mantle ... and rode upon
+a white horse covered with trappings of white _aceytoni_."
+
+Miquel y Badía has discovered the names of other fabrics which are known
+from documentary evidence to have been used in older Spain, and which
+were called _aducar_, _alama_, _tela de nacar_, _primavera_ or
+_primavert_, _almexia_, _picote_, and _velillo_. It is probable that
+_alama_ and _tela de nacar_ had silver interwoven with their texture.
+The _primavera_ or "spring fabric" was so named from the flowers which
+adorned it. _Almexía_ is mentioned in the _Chronicle of the Cid_. It was
+a costly and elaborate stuff, and is believed by Miquel to have taken
+its title from the city of Almería. _Picote_ was a kind of satin
+manufactured in the island of Majorca, and _velillo_ a thin, delicate
+fabric decorated with flowers and with silver thread.
+
+The devices on all these stuffs were very varied. Prominent types among
+them were the _pallia rotata_, containing circles which are commonly
+combined with other ornament, the _pallia aquilinata_, in which the
+dominant motive was the eagle, and the _pallia leonata_, in which it was
+the lion. Other beasts, birds, and monsters were also figured with great
+frequency, such as griffins, peacocks, swans, crows, bulls, tigers, or
+dogs; but the emblem most in favour, especially throughout the tenth,
+eleventh, and twelfth centuries, was the eagle, owing to the numerous
+and illustrious qualities attributed to it, such as majesty, victory,
+valour, and good omen. These creatures, too, were frequently represented
+face to face or back to back, in pairs; nor were they so disposed in
+textile fabrics only, but on ivory, wood, or silver caskets, and on
+numerous other objects, as well as on the painted friezes of a place of
+worship.[2]
+
+  [2] "We have seen many instances of such opposed animals and birds on
+      the metal-work and carving of the thirteenth century, and there is
+      no doubt that the design is much older than Mohammedan times, and
+      goes back to the productions of the old artists of Mesopotamia and
+      Persia. We read in Quintus Curtius of robes worn by Persian satraps,
+      adorned with birds beak to beak--_aurei accipitres veluti rostri in
+      se irruerunt pallam adornabant_. Plautus mentions Alexandrian
+      carpets ornamented with beasts: _Alexandrina belluata conchyliata
+      tapetia_. There is indeed reason to believe that the notion of such
+      pairs of birds or beasts may have originated with the weavers of
+      ancient Persia, and have been borrowed from them by the engravers of
+      metal-work; for the advantage of such double figures would be
+      specially obvious to a weaver. The symmetrical repetition of the
+      figure of the bird or animal, reversed, saved both labour and
+      elaboration of the loom. The old weavers, not yet masters of
+      mechanical improvements, were obliged to work their warp up and down
+      by means of strings, and the larger the design the more numerous
+      became these strings and the more complicated the loom. Hence, to be
+      able to repeat the pattern in reverse was a considerable economy of
+      labour, and could be effected very simply on a loom constructed to
+      work _à pointe et à reverse_. Examples of such repetitions of
+      patterns, especially of symmetrical pairs of animals within circles,
+      are common in Byzantine and Sassanian woven work, and the Saracens
+      followed these models."--Stanley Lane-Poole, _The Art of the
+      Saracens in Egypt_, p. 288.
+
+The colours of these fabrics also varied very greatly. That which was
+most admired was probably red, crimson, or carmine, used by preference
+as a ground, with the pattern inwoven or super-woven in gold, silver, or
+otherwise. Velvets, too, were not invariably in monochrome, but would
+contain two or three colours such as purple, crimson, blue, or yellow,
+besides gold and silver. Miquel y Badía mentions a magnificent velvet
+pluvial in gold and three colours, belonging to a church in Cataluña.
+The following observations are by the same authority, who himself
+possesses a valuable collection of early textile fabrics, many of which
+are Spanish. "The same prevailing colours are found in the Mudejar
+textile fabrics as in those of the Spanish Moors--the same ground of red
+inclining to carmine, of dark blue, or of bluish green, with a pattern
+in yellow, green, blue, or red, according to the colour which combines
+with it. I have seen copies of Mudejar stuffs in which there is no
+white, because this was wanting in the fragments which the copying
+artist had before him. And it is a fact that from some cause, which we
+cannot now determine, white silk is that which disappears soonest from
+among the textile fabrics of the Spanish Moors and Mudejares, so that by
+far the greater part of them contain no white at all, or only traces of
+it."
+
+In Spain these handsome stuffs were used by all the wealthier classes,
+and some idea of their prevalence and popularity may be formed from the
+voluminous mass of sumptuary laws which deal with them at almost every
+stage of Spanish history. Thus, an edict of Jayme the First of Aragon
+established, in the year 1234, that neither the monarch nor any of his
+subjects were to decorate their clothes with gold and silver, or fasten
+their cloaks with gold or silver clasps. The _Ordenamiento_ of Alfonso
+the Tenth, subscribed at Seville, February 27th, 1256, provides that no
+woman is to carry _aljofar_-work, trim her dress with gold or silver, or
+wear a _toca_ decorated with those metals, but only a plain white one,
+the price of which is not to exceed three _maravedis_. It is also
+provided by this edict that on the celebration of a wedding, the cost of
+the bridal clothes must not exceed sixty _maravedis_, nor may the number
+of guests who sit down to the marriage banquet exceed five women and
+five men, besides the witnesses of the ceremony and relatives of the
+bride and bridegroom. This absurd law was so extensively neglected that
+two years later the Cortes of Valladolid took up the matter afresh, and
+even resolved that the expenses of the king's table, without the cost of
+his invited guests, were not to exceed a daily total of a hundred and
+fifty _maravedis_.
+
+In A.D. 1286 the Council of Cordova decreed that knights and squires,
+upon the celebration of their marriage, were not to present their brides
+with more than two dresses, one of these to be of scarlet, without
+trimming of ermine or grey fur, or decoration of gold, silver, or
+_aljofar_. A law of Alfonso the Eleventh, dated May 6th, 1338,
+proclaimed that the women of the upper classes were not to clothe
+themselves in any silken fabric decorated with gold thread. Similar
+restrictions were laid upon the other sex. "No man, whatever be his
+condition (excepting only Us, the King), shall wear cloth of gold, or
+silk, or any stuff adorned with gold lace, _aljofar_, or any other
+trimming, or with enamel: only his cloak may bear _aljofar_ pearl-work,
+or fillets without pearls." Other dispositions signed by the same
+monarch show that the Spaniards of his time were in the habit of wearing
+costly cloth adorned with gold and silver, pearls, gold buttons, enamel,
+and other ornament, while even the squires wore furs and gilded shoes.
+The _ricos-hombres_ loaded their saddles with gold and with
+_aljofar_-work, and their wives were licensed to bear on each of their
+dresses the same _aljofar_-work or strings of tiny pearls, to the value
+of four thousand _maravedis_.
+
+Provisions of the same tenor are contained in the prolix sumptuary
+pragmatic of Pedro the Cruel, signed in the year 1351 at Valladolid, as
+well as in that of Juan the First, A.D. 1385, which ordained, together
+with other vexatious prohibitions, that "neither man nor woman, whatever
+be their condition or estate, shall wear cloth of gold or any
+silk-stuff, gold or silver _aljofar_, or other precious stones,
+excepting the Infante and Infantas, who may wear whatever pleases them."
+
+The extravagance of Isabella the Catholic in dress and personal
+adornment generally, was illustrated in an earlier chapter of this work.
+A further instance is recorded by Clemencin. According to this
+chronicler, in 1476 and 1477, upon her reception at Alcalá of two
+embassies from France, the queen was dressed in a magnificent robe,
+which drew upon her a sharp rebuke from her confessor, the virtuous and
+austere Hernando de Talavera. From this charge Isabella defended herself
+with more spirit than truthfulness. "Neither myself nor my ladies," she
+wrote in her letter of reply, "were dressed in new apparel. All that I
+wore on this occasion I had already worn in Aragon, and the French
+themselves had seen me wearing it. I only used one robe at all, and that
+of silk with three marks of gold, the plainest I could find: in this was
+all my festival. I say this much in that my clothing was not new; nor
+did we deem that error could dwell therein."[3]
+
+  [3] _Elogio de la Reina Católica_, p. 374.
+
+Although their own extravagance is past all question, on September 30th,
+1499, Ferdinand and his consort issued a proclamation at Granada, in
+which it was commanded that "no persons shall wear clothing of brocade,
+or silk, or silk _chamelote_, or _zarzahan_, or taffeta, or carry
+linings of the same upon the trappings of their horses, or upon hoods,
+or the straps and scabbards of their swords, or bits, or saddles, or
+_alcorques_[4] ... nor shall they wear embroidered silk-stuffs
+decorated with gold plates, whether such gold be drawn or hammered, spun
+to a thread, or interwoven with the fabric."
+
+  [4] These are defined by the Count of Clonard as "a kind of clog
+      (_chapín_) with a cork sole, and which was introduced by the Moors
+      under the name _al-kork_."
+
+These prohibitions, or others of their import, were ratified by Doña
+Juana at the Cortes of Burgos, and, in 1533, by Charles the Fifth at
+Valladolid. In 1551 the Emperor again prohibited "all brocaded stuffs,
+or gold or silver cloth, whether embroidered or enriched with gold or
+silver thread, or bound with cord or edging of the same;" and a royal
+edict of January 12th, 1611, forbade the wearing of brocade and every
+other costly stuff to all except the clergy and the military.
+
+The clergy, indeed, had always been notorious for extravagance, and not
+a few of all these sumptuary laws are aimed specifically at them. In
+A.D. 1228 the Council of Valladolid prohibited the use by priests of
+sleeved robes, or gilded saddles, bits, spurs, or poitrels. In 1267 the
+Synod of León repeated these prohibitions, further insisting that the
+garments of the clergy, besides being sleeveless, were not to be red or
+green, and were to have a moderate length ("_non muy largas, non muy
+cortas_"), and that their cloaks were not to fasten with a clasp or
+cord; these regulations to be rigidly adhered to _en sennal de
+honestidat_--"as a sign of honesty."
+
+We also know that at this time (thirteenth century) the shirts of many
+of the wealthier Spaniards were woven of finest linen imported from the
+East, embroidered and picked out with gold and silver thread, and that
+the clergy were at least the equals of the laity in their craze for
+costly clothing. In A.D. 1273, an inventory was made of the effects
+belonging to Don Gonzalo Palomeque, on his election to the bishopric of
+Cuenca. It mentions _almadraques_ and Murcian _tapetes_, _carpitas
+viadas_ from Tlemcen, fine Murcian blankets (_alhamares_), silk
+_xamedes_, Murcian matting for covering walls and daïses ("_para paret
+et para estrado_"), and stuffs from Syria. Another inventory, that of
+Don Gonzalo Gudiel, archbishop of Toledo, is dated A.D. 1280, and
+mentions, as included with his property, quantities of oriental fabrics
+which are designated by the general name _tartaricas_.[5] Among them
+were "unus pannus operatus ad aves de auro et campus de serica viridi,
+item unus alius pannus tartaricus cum campo de seta alba et vite aurea,
+item unus pannus tartaricus de seta rubea cum pinis aureis, item unus
+pannus tartaricus de seta viridi."[6]
+
+  [5] Specifically, _tartari_ was a costly fabric, heavily embroidered.
+      Ducange considers that it came, or came originally, from Tartary.
+      We read of it twice in the _Chronicle of the Cid_, and again, in
+      the _Chronicle of Ferdinand the Fourth_:--"tiraron los paños de
+      marhega que tenia vestidos por su padre é vistiéronle unos paños
+      nobles de tartari."
+
+  [6] Quoted by Fernandez y Gonzalez, _Mudejares de Castilla_, p. 231,
+      from the originals in the Archiepiscopal Library of Toledo.
+
+A number of mediæval textile fabrics, some in fragments, some intact,
+have been preserved in Spanish private collections or museums. It is,
+however, seldom easy to determine whether they were made in this
+Peninsula, or whether in Sicily, Byzantium, Venice, or the East. Among
+the most remarkable of all these interesting specimens are, a strip
+which was extracted from the mausoleum of a Spanish bishop, Don Bernardo
+Calbó, a native of Vich in Cataluña, and which is now in the museum of
+that town; other fragments in the same collection, including one of
+_holosericum_ or pure silk, which was formerly in the neighbouring
+church of San Juan de las Abadesas, and is commonly known as the
+_pallium_ or altar front "of the witches" (owing to certain beasts or
+monsters figuring in the design), a Moorish _tiraz_, now in the Academy
+of History at Madrid, the celebrated Moorish "banner of the battle of
+Las Navas," now in the Monastery of Santa María la Real de las Huelgas
+at Burgos, the banner (also Moorish) of the battle of the River Salado,
+the chasubles "of the Constable" and of Chiriana, preserved respectively
+at Burgos and at Caravaca, a fragment, preserved in the Royal Armoury at
+Madrid, of the shroud of Ferdinand the Third, and the Moorish clothing
+of the son of the same King Ferdinand, the Infante Don Felipe, and of
+Felipe's second wife, Doña Leonor Ruiz de Castro.
+
+The strip of woven material found in the sepulchre of Bishop Calbó, who
+is said to have accompanied Don Jayme the Conqueror in the conquest of
+Valencia (A.D. 1238), is described by Miquel y Badía as belonging to the
+class denominated _pallia rotata_--that is, with circles forming part of
+their design,--and dates most probably from the twelfth century; but it
+is impossible to say whether it was manufactured in the East, or whether
+at Valencia or some other Spanish town. The same remark applies to other
+fragments which are also, as I stated, in the Vich Museum. The one
+discovered in the tomb of Bishop Calbó contains, coloured in green,
+grey, and black upon a carmine ground, a decorative scheme of circles,
+flowers, and gryphons or other monsters in pairs, _affrontés_, and also,
+within the circles, the figure of a man grappling with two lions,
+tigers, dogs, or other beasts, and who is believed to represent Samson
+or Daniel--more probably the latter. Miquel y Badía points out that in
+this fragment the figure of the man recalls Egyptian art, suggested by
+his curious head-dress, and by the crossing of his clothes upon his
+breast.
+
+Another textile fragment in the same collection is coloured black, red,
+and grey upon a yellowish ground. It is decorated with long-tailed birds
+resembling peacocks, and with sphinxes which fill the circles or
+medallions. A third fragment, also in the Vich Museum, belongs to the
+type of _pallia cum aquilis et bestiolis_. The design consists of a
+double-headed eagle with half-extended wings, holding in the claws of
+either foot some kind of quadruped--perhaps a bull. The colour of the
+ground resembles carmine, and on it the design is wrought in greenish
+black--that may have been originally green--relieved at intervals with
+yellow.
+
+The "witches'" _pallium_ in the same collection is decorated with the
+series of extraordinary beasts or monsters that have won for it this
+title with the vulgar, depicted in yellow, white, black, and dark green
+upon a red ground. Miquel believes this fabric to proceed from
+Byzantium, and to date from not much earlier than the eleventh century.
+The devices are disposed in two rows, the lower containing peacocks
+_affrontés_, and the upper a series of fantastic monsters, each of which
+possesses a head, two bodies, and four feet--the head being semi-human,
+semi-bestial, the double body that of a bird, and the claws those of a
+lion or some other formidable quadruped.
+
+The Royal Academy of History at Madrid possesses a fragment of the
+costly fabric known as _tiraz_, an eastern word (corrupted by the
+Spaniards into _taracea_, _i.e._ embroidery on clothing), which means
+the bordering for a royal robe. Such bordering, which contained
+inscriptions, or the sultan's name, or both together, is said to have
+been first used in Spain by Abderrahman the Second, who ruled from A.D.
+825 to 852. "The caliphs of Cordova," says Riaño, "had a place set apart
+in their palaces where this stuff was kept: this custom lasted until the
+eleventh century, when it disappeared, and was re-established in the
+thirteenth century with the kings of Granada." _Tiraz_, in fact, was
+both produced and stored in special departments of the Sultan's
+palaces[7]; or so we must infer from the following passage by
+Ibn-Khaldun. "The places (_almedinas_) where these stuffs were woven
+were situated within the palaces of the caliphs, and were known as the
+'pavilions of the _tiraz_.' The person at the head of these workshops
+was called the superintendent of the _tiraz_: he had charge of both the
+weavers and the looms, administered the salaries, and looked to the
+quality of the work. This post was entrusted by the princes to one of
+the foremost officers of their kingdom, or else to some freedman who
+thoroughly deserved their confidence." The same historian adds that the
+manufacture of _tiraz_ was conducted in Spain in the same manner as in
+the East under the dynasty of the Ommeyades. It is, however, certain
+that among the Spanish Moors _tiraz_ was not produced exclusively in
+royal factories. Al-Makkari states that in the time of the Somadies and
+the Almoravides there were looms at Nerja (and possibly at Almería) for
+weaving this luxurious fabric, as well as _holas_, a fine brocade,
+heavily embroidered, and adorned with figures representing the caliphs
+and other personages. In the time of the Almoravides there were at
+Almería as many as a thousand factories for making _holas_.
+
+  [7] "An interesting parallel to the royal silk factory, or
+      D[=a]r-et-tir[=a]z of Kay-Kub[=a]d, and to that of the F[=a]timy
+      Khalif at Tinn[=i]s, is found in the similar institution at Palermo,
+      which owed its foundation to the Kelby Am[=i]rs who ruled Sicily as
+      vassals of the F[=a]timis in the ninth and tenth centuries, though
+      it maintained its special character and excellence of work under
+      the Norman kings. The factory was in the palace, and the weavers
+      were Mohammedans, as indeed is obvious from a glance at the famous
+      silk cloth preserved at Vienna, and called the "Mantle of Nürnberg,"
+      where a long Arabic inscription testifies to the hands that made it,
+      by order of King Roger, in the year of the Hijra 528, or
+      A.D. 1133."--Stanley Lane-Poole, _The Art of the Saracens in Egypt_,
+      p. 289.
+
+The piece of _tiraz_ which belongs to the Spanish Academy of History
+measures about a yard and a half in length by eighteen inches wide.
+Riaño describes it as of wool, embroidered in silks with "seated figures
+which appear to be a king, a lady, lions, birds, and quadrupeds"; but
+after carefully examining it I cannot but agree with Miquel y Badía that
+this fabric is woven throughout of pure silk, without the slightest
+trace of hand-embroidery. It has two borders containing these
+inscriptions in Cufic letters: "In the name of God, the clement, the
+merciful. (May) the blessing of God and happiness (be) for the Caliph
+Iman Abdallah Hixem, the favoured of God and prince of believers." This
+monarch, second of the name, reigned at the end of the tenth century and
+early in the eleventh, and the _tiraz_ we are noticing was found in a
+casket on the altar of a church at San Esteban de Gormaz, in the
+province of Soria. As Riaño suggests, it was very probably a war trophy.
+
+                            [Illustration: I
+                       THE "BANNER OF LAS NAVAS"
+      (_Monastery of Santa Maria la Real de las Huelgas, Burgos_)]
+
+Another most interesting example of Saracenic textile work is the
+so-called "banner of Las Navas" (Plate i.), which popular tradition
+affirms to have been captured (A.D. 1212) in the memorable battle of Las
+Navas de Tolosa, between the Almohades and the Spanish Christians. Most
+experts now consider that this object is not a military ensign, but a
+curtain or some other hanging for a tent or doorway. The material is
+_sirgo_ or silken serge, and both the decoration and the workmanship are
+purely Moorish. The design is rich and intricate throughout, consisting
+of scrolls, leaves, stems, and inscriptions from the Koran, disposed
+with exquisite effect about the principal and central motive, formed by
+a large eight-pointed star within a circle, and which contains, so as to
+form the angles of the star, eight repetitions of the words in Arabic,
+"_The Empire_." The dominant colour is carmine, and the fabric
+terminates in eight _farpas_ or scallops with red and yellow edges, and
+bearing a series of inscriptions in the African character.
+
+The "_pendon_ of the Rio Salado," a trophy which seems to have really
+been a war-flag, belongs to the cathedral of Toledo. It measures at this
+day about nine feet two inches by seven feet four inches, but is
+believed to have been originally of a square form, with scalloped edges.
+The dominant colours are red, green, and gold. The decorative scheme
+consists of tastefully combined circles and inscriptions in the Cufic
+character, and the lower end concludes in the following sentences, now
+rendered incomplete through the loss of nearly two feet of the
+material:--"... the wise, the victorious, the assiduous, the generous,
+the sultan, the caliph, the famous emir of the Muslims and
+representative of the Lord of the Universe, Abu-Said Otsmin, son of our
+lord and master ... the worshipper of (Allah), the modest, the warlike,
+the emir of the Mussulmans Nassir-li-Din (_defender of the law_), Abu
+Yusuf Yacub, son of Abd-il-Hac. In the Alcázar of Fez (God bless it.
+Praised be God), in the Moon of Moharran of the year twelve and seven
+hundred" (712 of the Hegira, or May 9th-June 7th, A.D. 1312).
+
+Tastefully disposed in white Cufic characters, within four rows of
+circles woven in gold, are the words which sum the Mussulman
+religion,--"There is no God but God: Mahoma is His Messenger"; and on
+other parts of the flag are inscribed these sentences:--
+
+"The prophet believes in the purpose for which he was sent by his Lord,
+and all the faithful believe in God, in His angels, in His writings, and
+in His messengers. We make no distinction between any of His messengers.
+And these declare: 'We hear and do obey. Pardon us, O Lord.'
+
+".... And unto Thee we shall return. God will not lay on any soul but
+such a weight as it can bear; for it or against it shall be the deeds it
+may have done. O Lord, chastise not our forgetfulness or errors. O Lord,
+lay not upon us the burden Thou hadst laid on those that were before us.
+
+".... O Lord, burden us not too heavily. Blot out our faults, and pardon
+them to us, and have mercy on us. Thou art our Lord. Grant us victory
+over the infidel. There came to us a glorious prophet that was born
+among us.
+
+"On him rests the weight of your faults, and full of goodness and of
+clemency he longs ardently for you to believe. If you should be
+forsaken, exclaim, 'God is sufficient for me. There is no God but He. I
+trust in Him, because He is Lord of the throne that is on high.'"
+
+Miquel y Badía considers that when it was intact this object must have
+measured eleven feet square. Attention was first drawn to its merit and
+antiquity when it was shown at the Exposición Histórico Europea of 1892.
+
+The chasubles of Chirinos (Caravaca) and of the Chapel of the Constable
+in Burgos cathedral are both considered to be of Spanish-Moorish
+workmanship. The former is woven of silk of various colours, but without
+admixture of gold thread, and bears an inscription in Arabic which
+Amador de los Ríos has interpreted as, "Glory to our Sultan
+Abul-Hachach." The same authority deduces that the fabric dates from the
+fourteenth or the fifteenth century--that is, from the time of the
+Sultan Abul-Hachach (Yusuf the First) or of his immediate successors.
+
+The chasuble preserved at Burgos is also woven of variegated silk
+without gold thread, and may originally have been a _tiraz_, since it
+bears, in African letters, the inscription, "Glory to our lord the
+Sultan." The date is probably the fifteenth or sixteenth century.
+Fragments of similar material are in the collections of Señores Osma and
+Miquel y Badía.
+
+                           [Illustration: II
+          FRAGMENT OF THE BURIAL MANTLE OF FERDINAND THE THIRD
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The object represented in Plate ii. is described in the Catalogue of the
+Royal Armoury at Madrid as _A fragment of the royal mantle in which was
+buried the king and saint, Ferdinand the Third of Castile_ (A.D.
+1217-1252). Gestoso, in the course of his researches into the history of
+old Seville, has found that in the year 1579 Philip the Second caused an
+examination to be made at that city of the remains, enshrined in her
+cathedral, of Saint Ferdinand. The body was found "with a ring with a
+blue stone on a finger of the right hand, and wearing sword and spurs."
+In 1677 Charles the Second sent for the ring in question, and eleven
+years later a fresh examination was made, when the mummy of the saint
+was stated to be wrapped in "clothing of a stuff the nature of which
+cannot now be recognised, but which is chequered all over with the royal
+arms of Castile, and with lions." A third examination was made in 1729,
+when the "holy body of Señor San Fernando" was reported to be "covered,
+the greater part, with a royal mantle, of a stuff which could not be
+recognised for its decay: only it was seen to be embroidered with
+castles and lions."
+
+Probably, therefore, this fragment was taken to Madrid at the same time
+as the ring--that is, in the year 1677. It has an irregular shape, and
+measures eighteen inches long by thirteen and a half in breadth. The
+material is a woven mixture of silk and gold thread, and the decoration
+consists of castles and lions in gold and red respectively, upon a
+ground of carmine and dirty white. Count Valencia de Don Juan points out
+that this strip belonged to the lower end of the mantle, since it
+includes a portion of the border, formed by a series of horizontal
+stripes, blue, yellow, red, and gold. The character of the whole
+fragment is decidedly Mohammedan, and indicates a Mudejar fabric, made
+at Seville in the thirteenth century.
+
+I find that in the _Book of Chess_ of Alfonso the Learned (an
+illuminated Spanish manuscript executed in the thirteenth century, and
+now preserved at the Escorial), Alfonso himself is represented (Plate
+iii.) as wearing a mantle with this very pattern of lions and castles
+contained in squares. Therefore it seems extremely probable, either that
+this device was not uncommon on the robes of Spanish kings, or else that
+at some time the body of San Fernando was enveloped in a mantle
+belonging to, and which perhaps had been inherited by, his son.
+
+                           [Illustration: III
+                        KING ALFONSO THE LEARNED
+       (_From "The Book of Chess"; MS. in the Escorial Library_)]
+
+The clothing of the Infante Don Felipe and of Doña Leonor, his wife,
+consists of the prince's cloak, which is nearly intact, a piece of his
+_aljuba_, his cap, and a strip of silken cloth inwoven with gold. The
+latter fragment is thought to have belonged to the robe of the Infanta.
+
+These objects, discovered in 1848, in the tomb of Don Felipe and Doña
+Leonor, at Villalcazar de Sirga, near Palencia, are now in the National
+Museum. The cloak or mantle is richly wrought in silk and gold, and
+bears the word _Blessing_, woven in Cufic characters upon the ground.
+The _aljuba_ is also of silk and gold, showing a delicate combination of
+blue and yellow, and the style and workmanship of all these fragments
+are unmistakably Mohammedan.
+
+Therefore, in textile crafts, the Spanish Moors supplied the wants and
+the caprices both of themselves and of their enemies the Christians.
+
+The relationship between certain under-garments of the two peoples is
+evident from the very titles of those garments. Thus, the Spanish
+_joquejo_ or _soquejo_, a scarf for winding round a woman's body, is
+obviously derived, or merely corrupted, from the Arabic _jocob_; the
+Spanish _arrede_ or _arrelde_, a kind of cloak, from the Arabic
+_arrida_, and the Spanish shirt or tunic for ordinary wear, called the
+_casot_, _quesote_, or _quizote_ (which was sometimes white and
+sometimes coloured) from the Arabic _al-kuesnat_. The _Chronicle of Juan
+the Second_ (A.D. 1410) tells of a mountain covered with Moorish troops,
+"and all of them had red _quesotes_."
+
+                           [Illustration: IV
+                             SPANISH VELVET
+               (_Red upon Gold Ground. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+Among the cities of Moorish Spain, Almería and Granada were undoubtedly
+those which produced the handsomest stuffs--Almería from comparatively
+early in the days of Muslim domination, Granada from a somewhat later
+time.[8] Notices are extant of Christian princes who directly ordered
+these materials from Granada; _e.g._ in 1392 Don Juan the First caused
+to be purchased there, as a present to his daughter on her marriage,
+"una cambra de saya orlada ab son dozer e cobertor de color vermella,
+blaua, ó vert, ù otro que fuera de buena vista" (_Archives of the Crown
+of Aragon_). The manufacture of velvet was probably introduced into
+Aragon in the reign of Pedro the Fourth. Excellent silks and cloth of
+gold were also made at Málaga, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia. Indeed, no
+better source exists for studying the character of this important
+industry in older Spain than the Ordinances of the cities I have just
+enumerated.[9] We learn from these municipal provisions, most of which
+were framed or ratified in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, that the
+mingling of fine with base material was forbidden in the strictest
+terms, and that the styles and classes of even the luxurious and
+elaborate stuffs, which bore an infinite variety of devices, were very
+numerous. Thus, there were satins, taffetas, _azeytunis_, double and
+single velvets (Plates iv. and vii.), brocades, and silken serges; as
+well as fabrics interwoven with gold and silver thread, including the
+_gorgoranes_, _restaños_, _sargas_, and _jergas de filigrana de plata_.
+The Ordinances of Toledo mention the following fabrics as manufactured
+in that city in the reigns of Ferdinand and Isabella, and of Charles the
+Fifth:--
+
+  "Stuffs of gold and silver made in the same manner as satin.
+
+  "Satins woven with gold.
+
+  "Satins brocaded with silk and gold, or silver flowers.
+
+  "Silver serges with double filigree.
+
+  "Silver and gold materials, which are made like _gorgoran_ or serge.
+
+  "Silver and gold stuffs which are made like taffetas, or in silver
+   with silk flowers.
+
+  "Embroidered stuffs.
+
+  "Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or _berguilla_.
+
+  "_Lama_, cloth of silver, shaded with watering in silver.
+
+  "Plain silk-stuffs woven with silver or gold, and called _restaño_.
+
+  "Silk-stuffs woven with gold or silver, and called _relampagos_.
+
+  "Serges woven with gold and silver for church vestments.
+
+  "Plain filigree serges.
+
+  "_Velillo_ of silver.
+
+  "Satin woven with gold and silver.
+
+  "Brocades of different kinds.
+
+  "Church vestments.
+
+  "Silver _primaveras_.
+
+  "Serges for church vestments."
+
+  [8] The Alburquerque inventory mentions, in 1560, "two Almería sheets,
+      one with green and purple edging, and the other with white and red";
+      also "two _short_ holland shirts for sleeping in at night."
+      Commenting on the word _short_, Señor de la Torre de Trassierra
+      aptly recalls the thrifty proverb of the Spaniards,--"A shirt which
+      reaches below the navel is so much linen wasted."
+
+  [9] See particularly _Las Ordenanzas de los tejedores de seda de
+      Sevilla_ (officially proclaimed on March 2nd, 1502), and also _Las
+      Ordenanzas para el buen régimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy
+      leal, é imperial cuidad de Toledo_. (_Tit._ cxxxv: "silk-weavers.")
+
+It was usual for ladies of the Christian-Spanish aristocracy to trim
+their clothes, in Moorish fashion, with strings of larger pearls or of
+_aljofar_-work--a custom which continued until the extinction of the
+House of Austria. The Alburquerque inventory includes "a _marlota_ of
+crimson satin, trimmed with pearls and with _aljofar_, as to the hem,
+the sleeves, and the hood; with twelve buttons of _aljofar_-pearls in
+the front thereof, that on a time were thirteen; but one is missing
+_which was ground up for the said Duchess when she was sick_, and six
+buttons on each sleeve, and the same where each sleeve meets the
+shoulder."
+
+Early in the seventeenth century, Pinheiro da Veiga mentions the same
+fashion at Valladolid:--"At the sale of the Marchioness of Mondejar, I
+saw twelve of her _sayas_ with long trains to them, and satin bodices,
+all of embroidered silk, and some with _aljofar_-work, besides a number
+of all kinds of _diabluras_."
+
+It is stated by Ibn-Said, Al-Makkari, Al-Khattib, and Ibn-Khaldun, that
+the Moors of Granada occasionally adopted Christian clothing, and we
+know that the Sultan Mohammed, a contemporary of Alfonso the Learned of
+Castile, was assassinated by Abrahim and Abomet, the sons of Osmin,
+because he was so clothed, and because he had further violated the
+precepts of the Koran by eating at Alfonso's table.[10] But as a rule
+the costume of the Spanish Moors was almost wholly that of orientals.
+Where they were tolerated in a city under Christian rule, a certain
+dress was sometimes forced upon them by their subjugators, as by the
+_Ordenamiento_ (A.D. 1408) of Doña Catalina, issued on behalf of her
+son, Juan the Second, and which prescribed for the Moorish men a _capuz_
+of yellow cloth with a mark upon it in the form of a blue half-moon
+measuring an inch from point to point, and which was to be worn on the
+right shoulder. The garments of the women were to be similarly marked,
+on pain of fifty lashes administered publicly, together with the
+forfeiture of all such clothes as lacked this necessary and humiliating
+token.
+
+  [10] On the other hand, Rosmithal recorded in his narrative of a tour of
+       Spain that Henry the Second of Castile affected the costume of the
+       Mohammedans.
+
+But where the Spanish Moors were in possession of the soil, their
+clothes were similar in most respects to those of eastern peoples.
+Detailed notices of these costumes are furnished us by Ibn-Said and
+other writers. Fray Pedro de Alcalá explains in his _Vocabulary_ that,
+among the Granadinos, the use of one garment in particular was limited
+to royalty, or nobles of high rank. This was the _libas_ (or, in the
+Granadino dialect, _libis_), shaped like roomy breeches, and greatly
+resembling the _zaragüelles_ worn until this hour by the peasants of the
+Huerta of Valencia. Ibn-Said, quoted by Al-Makkari (see Gayangos,
+_History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain_, Vol. I., p. 116) says
+that the dress of the Moors of Andalusia was not identical with that of
+the Asiatic Mussulman. The former, he declares, would often discard the
+turban; especially those who lived towards the eastern frontier. In the
+western region the turban continued to be generally worn by the upper
+classes and by the leading State officials. Thus, at Cordova and Seville
+every _cadi_ and _alfaqui_ would wear a turban, while at Valencia and
+Murcia even the nobles went without it, and among the lower classes it
+had fallen into absolute disuse. Neither officers nor soldiers of the
+army wore the turban.
+
+We learn from Casiri (_Bibl. Arabico-Hispana_, II., p. 258) that the
+_imama_[11] was the only form of head-dress used by the _cheiks_,
+_cadis_, and _ulemas_ of Granada. At this capital red was the
+distinctive colour of the sovereigns of the Alahmar dynasty, who took
+their very title from this circumstance, the Arabic word _alahmar_
+meaning "red." The distinctive colour of the Nasrite sultans was purple,
+which was replaced by black in time of mourning. In this last fashion
+the sultans were probably influenced by the Christian usage, for
+Ibn-Khaldun remarks that black was not a colour approved of by the
+orientals, who considered it to be related with the spirits of evil.
+However this may be, the manuscript _History of the House of Cordova_
+quoted by Eguilaz Yanguas, says that when Boabdil el Chico entered that
+city as a prisoner, "the captive monarch was dressed in black velvet, in
+token of his adverse fortune and defeat. He rode a richly caparisoned
+charger, whose coat was black and glossy."
+
+  [11] This was a large form of turban. In the well-known painting in the
+       Hall of Justice of the Alhambra, the head-dress is the _aharim_ or
+       _almaizar_.
+
+The Moors regarded green or white as pleasant and well-omened colours,
+symbolic of the angels and of all good fortune. Perhaps this preference
+was suggested to them by the cool oasis in the desert. Nevertheless,
+when Ibn-Hud became ruler of Andalusia, his shields and banners were
+black, as well as his costume. Black, too, was the colour adopted by the
+Abbaside Sultans, to whom Ibn-Hud was subject. Under the Beni-Nasr and
+Beni-Alahmar, this gloomy hue was changed, as we have seen, to purple or
+to scarlet, though black continued to be used in sign of mourning.
+
+                            [Illustration: V
+                     THE TUNIC OF BOABDIL EL CHICO
+               (_National Museum of Artillery, Madrid_)]
+
+The chronicle says that Abu-Said, "the Red," who was assassinated at
+Tablada, under the walls of Seville, by Pedro the Cruel, was clothed in
+scarlet at the time of that atrocious deed. Boabdil was also clothed in
+red at the battle of Lucena. The _History of the House of Cordova_, from
+which I have already quoted, says: "Il était armé d'une forte cuirasse à
+clous dorés, doublée de velours _cramoisi_, d'un morion teint de
+_grenat_ et doré.... Sur sa cuirasse était passé un caban de brocart et
+de velours cramoisi" (Plate v.). Eguilaz quotes a further passage from
+Hurtado de Mendoza, to prove that red continued to be the official
+colour of the Moorish rulers of Granada; for when the Moriscos had risen
+in the Alpujarra, and met together to invest their leaders, Aben-Abu and
+Aben-Humeya, with the insignia of royalty, they clothed the former in a
+red costume and the latter in purple, "passing about his neck and
+shoulders a red token in the form of a scarf."[12]
+
+  [12] Eguilaz Yanguas, _Les Peintures de l'Alhambra_.
+
+As I remarked in speaking of the _tiraz_, the clothing of the Moorish
+kings of Spain was of the richest quality obtainable, massively wrought,
+embroidered in colours and in gold, and bearing "sometimes a prince's
+name, sometimes his device or motto, or even a portrait of himself
+embroidered on the right breast of his _caban_ or robe, thus following
+the fashion of the monarchs of Assyria and Persia."
+
+
+                              SPANISH SILK
+
+A very fair idea of the magnitude of the craft and trade of Spanish silk
+in bygone epochs may be formed by tracing chronologically the production
+and treatment of the raw material in various parts of the Peninsula.
+During the centuries of Moorish rule, Spain's principal silk-producing
+centre was the kingdom of Granada, which then embraced a large extent of
+coast, together with Málaga and other thriving ports. In proof of this,
+and in his interesting memorial on the silk factories of Seville,[13]
+Ulloa quotes old Spanish ordinances of the weavers, stating that
+quantities of this substance were exported from "tierra de Moros" for
+use by Christian craftsmen, and also the _Chronology of the Kings of
+Granada_, concluded by Al-Khattib in the year 1364. A fragment of this
+chronicle is preserved at the Escorial, and states, in the well-known
+version of Casiri, that the silk produced at Granada was both abundant
+and of excellent quality, surpassing even the Assyrian.
+
+  [13] Don Martin de Ulloa, _Discurso sobre las fábricas de seda de
+       Sevilla_.
+
+The growing of mulberry trees and rearing of silkworms was also busily
+pursued in the kingdom of Aragon, which formerly included Cataluña,
+Valencia, and the Balearic Islands. Hence, though somewhat gradually, it
+seems to have spread to Seville. In the ordinances of this town relating
+to her weavers of silks and velvets, and which are dated 1492, it is
+stated that her _oficiales de texer sedas_ were so few that, as a
+stimulus to augment their number, all who wished might join them in the
+practice of this craft without examination. Between that year and 1502
+they evidently multiplied, since subjects of examination of no easy
+character are formulated in the ordinances of this later date, examined
+and confirmed by Ferdinand and Isabella. Nevertheless, it is impossible
+to credit the assertion of some authors that by the year 1519 Seville
+possessed no less than sixteen thousand looms, affording occupation to
+one hundred and fifty thousand persons. As Ulloa suggests, it is far
+more reasonable to suppose that her silk trade grew in proportion as the
+Spaniards continued to discover, and to open up to commerce, new regions
+of America; and that it reached the maximum of its development in the
+reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second. The same writer
+attributes its decline and downfall to the "piracies and insults" of
+Spain's foreign enemies and rivals.
+
+The price of Seville silks was also raised and the trade injuriously
+affected, by the imposition, at the close of the reign of Philip the
+Second, of the onerous _millones_ tax, as well as of the minor dues
+denominated _alcavalas_ and _cientos_; while finally, when Philip the
+Third was on the throne, the expulsion of the Moriscos precipitated the
+utter ruin of this industry.
+
+                           [Illustration: VI
+                    THE "BANNER OF SAINT FERDINAND"
+                         (_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+The Spanish government proved quite incapable of grappling with these
+wrongs and difficulties. There were, however, numerous attempts to
+legislate in the direction of reform. Measures forbidding the
+introduction of silk proceeding from abroad received the royal signature
+in 1500, 1514, 1525, 1532, and 1552. A petition to the same effect,
+framed by the procurators of the Cortes, was presented to the king in
+1618, urging that no skein or twisted silk proceeding from the
+Portuguese Indies, China, or Persia should be imported into Spain in
+view of the damage thus inflicted on the silk-producing regions of
+Granada, Murcia, and Valencia. At the same time the petitioners
+suggested that if it should be found impracticable to suppress such
+importation altogether, the foreign silk should be required to be in the
+form of stuffs already woven.
+
+Matters grew steadily worse all through the reign of Philip the Fourth.
+The principal cause of this additional decline lay in the constant
+depreciation of the national currency, which kept at an intolerable
+pitch of dearness the price of home-grown silk, and enabled foreign
+traders to undersell the Spaniard. This will be better understood if we
+consider that the composition of the copper and silver coinage was often
+tampered with by Crown and Parliament in such a way as to allow the
+foreigner to rid the country of nearly all her gold and silver, leaving
+in exchange only the baser metal. At intervals of a few years,
+proclamations were issued altering the values of the coinage in the most
+capricious and disastrous terms, and Ulloa mentions as still in
+circulation in the eighteenth century, _ochavos_ of Philip the Third
+which bore inscribed the value of twelve _maravedis_ in Roman numerals,
+and also (owing to the restamping of the coins by order of the Crown),
+the second and successive value of eight _maravedis_, marked in ordinary
+numerals. In fact, so grave were these abuses, that the arbitrary value
+imposed upon the coins in question grew to be six times that of the
+actual value of the metal.
+
+At the close of the seventeenth century, when Charles the Second was on
+the throne, a couple of well-meant and not completely ineffectual
+attempts were made to bring about a fresh revival in the growth of
+Spanish silk. On November 18th, 1683, the silk-makers of Toledo,
+Seville, Granada, and Valencia were summoned to a council at Madrid, and
+the dispositions they then agreed upon received the royal signature and
+became law on January 30th of the following year, the pragmatic which
+embodied them being issued to the public ten days later. It was
+commanded by this document that all the silk produced at the above-named
+towns should be examined and approved by the _veedores_ or _mayorales_,
+and bear the official stamp which guaranteed their quality. The effect
+of these ordinances was further strengthened by a Crown _cedula_ of July
+15th, 1692, confirming other dispositions dated 1635; and later still,
+in June of 1699, a law was passed prohibiting the exportation of all
+home-made silks to other countries.
+
+The accession of the Bourbon kings heralded a further slight
+improvement. Philip the Fifth had barely mounted the throne when the
+Junta de Comercio was revived by his command, and drafted various laws
+for bettering this and other industries. Royal decrees of June 20th and
+September 17th, 1718, renewed in June of 1728 and in April and August of
+1734, forbade the introduction of silk and certain other stuffs from
+China and the rest of Asia--a measure which was made more strict as time
+went on, the prohibition being extended to linens and cottons produced
+and printed in Africa or Asia or imitated in Europe. In the meantime
+another _cedula_, signed at the Escorial on November 10th, 1726, had
+ordered that every Spanish citizen of either sex should dress
+exclusively in silks or cloths of Spanish manufacture.
+
+These laws, though founded on mistaken principles, undoubtedly restored
+the national silk trade for a while. In 1713 the silk looms of Seville
+had increased to four hundred and five, and by 1732--in which year the
+Court resided at that capital--to a thousand; but on the return of the
+royal family to Madrid, and the declaration of war against England in
+1739, the number dropped to a hundred and forty. In 1743 an effort was
+made to remedy this by exempting Seville silks from payment of the
+_alcabalas_ and _cientos_, and further support was rendered in 1749 by
+Ferdinand the Sixth, who lowered to eighty _maravedis_ per pound weight
+the tax on Spanish silks exported from the kingdom, and issued, in 1752,
+1753, and 1756, additional decrees intended to encourage and protect
+this industry. In 1748 the same ruler established the celebrated silk
+factories of Talavera de la Reina, sparing no pains to bring their
+products to a level with the best in Europe, and choosing as director of
+the works a thoroughly proficient Frenchman named Jean Roulière, a
+native of Nîmes, who was assisted by a carefully selected staff of
+experts, also principally foreigners.
+
+About the end of the century Laborde described this enterprise as
+follows:--"The manufactures of silks, gildings, and galloons are highly
+useful and important.... There has also been raised at Cervera, a
+village two leagues from Talavera, another large edifice, in which are
+twelve mills for twisting the silk, four large windles for winding it,
+and six machines for doubling it. This complicated machinery is put in
+motion by four oxen, and the various processes of twisting, winding, and
+doubling seven thousand and seventy-two threads of silk are thus
+performed at once.
+
+"This establishment was rapidly augmented under the direction of
+Roulière and the other French mechanics who succeeded him in its
+superintendence. So successful were their labours that, in a short time,
+stuffs were fabricated in Spain not unworthy of competition with those
+of France, the demand for which was found to diminish. In 1762, Roulière
+being obliged to withdraw from this manufactory, the care of it was
+committed to a company to the exclusion of almost all the French who had
+previously assisted in its establishment. The consequences of this
+change were soon discovered; the manufacture declined, the stuffs
+deteriorated, and the consumption diminished; the artisans were
+discharged from the loom, and everything threatened the total subversion
+of the establishment, when the king interposed, and again extended to it
+his care and protection, It has since been yielded to the incorporated
+society of the Gremios at Madrid, but has never recovered its former
+splendour and prosperity.
+
+"Taffetas, satins, silk cloths, and serges are fabricated here, as are
+silk ribbons, plain and figured velvets, stuffs of silk and silver,
+stuffs of silk and gold, galloons, gold and silver fringes, and silk
+stockings. The factory employs three hundred and sixty-six looms, and
+affords occupation to two thousand persons. There are annually consumed
+in it about a hundred thousand pounds of silk, four thousand marks of
+silver, and seventy marks of gold.
+
+"Some of the stuffs issuing from the manufactory are beautiful and good,
+but they want the gloss and lustre of the French stuffs; and as they are
+dearer than those, with all the contingent expense of commission and
+transportation, they are far from being able to maintain a competition
+with them. The stockings are of the vilest quality, being thin, shaggy,
+and ill-dressed. The greater part of these articles are exported to the
+Spanish colonies."
+
+Further efforts to improve the quality of Spanish silk were made by
+Charles the Third, in whose reign the silk looms of Seville increased to
+four hundred and sixty-two for weaving larger pieces, sixty-two for
+silver and gold galloons, three hundred and fifty-four for finely-worked
+ribbons, twenty-three for small pieces of gold and silver stuffs, eight
+for fringes and _cintas de rizo_, sixty-three for stockings, sixty-five
+for _redecillas_, three for caps, and one thousand three hundred and
+ninety-one for ordinary ribbon. At the same time, according to Ulloa,
+one hundred thousand pounds of silk required to be annually brought to
+Seville to supply these factories.
+
+"In its fortunate days," wrote Alexander de Laborde, "Seville had many
+splendid manufactures; it wove silks of every kind, gold and silver
+tissues, linens, and cottons.[14] A memoir presented in 1601 by the
+seventeen companies of arts and trades of this city gives us an idea of
+the brilliant state of those manufactures: the amount of the silk looms
+is there stated to be 16,000, and the persons of both sexes employed at
+them, 130,000. These manufactures had greatly declined even in the last
+century. We learn from Francisco Martínez de la Mata, in his
+_Discursos_, published in 1659, according to a memoir presented to the
+king by an _alcalde_ of the silk manufactures of Seville, that there
+were no more, at that time, than sixty-five looms, that a great number
+of persons having no work had quitted the town, that the population had
+decreased a third, and that many houses were shut up, uninhabited, and
+going to ruin. The silk manufactures began to look up again in the
+eighteenth century, but they are very far below the brilliant state they
+formerly displayed: in 1779 there were 2318 silk looms in Seville,
+including those for stockings, slight stuffs, and ribbons."[15]
+
+  [14] In former times, linens and cottons painted, stencilled, or stamped
+       with decorative patterns from an iron or boxwood matrix, were
+       considered to be luxurious fabrics, and are denounced as such in
+       the sumptuary pragmatic (quoted by Miquel y Badía) issued by Jayme
+       the Conqueror in A.D. 1234: "Item statuimos quod nos nec aliquis
+       subditus noster non portet vestes _incisas_, _listatas_, vel
+       trepatas."
+
+       Latterly, these kind of stuffs were made in great quantities at
+       Barcelona, and exported to other Spanish provinces, as well as to
+       America. "Several manufactures of printed linens are established
+       here," wrote Swinburne, in 1775, "but have not yet arrived at any
+       great elegance of design or liveliness of colour." The manuscript
+       (dated about A.D. 1810) attached to my copy of Pigal's plates of
+       Spanish costume, says that the _pañoleta_ or _fichu_ (neckerchief)
+       of the women of Cartagena in their gala-dress was at that time of
+       "mousseline blanche, quelquefois brodé, et três souvent n'est
+       qu'un mouchoir d'indienne des fabriques de Barcelonne, avec une
+       brodure en fleurs rouges, le fond blanc et parsemé de petits
+       bouquets." The same manuscript describes the dress of a cook at
+       Granada:--"Le jupon (_refajo_), qui est toujours três court, est
+       en hiver de laine avec une garniture au bas: en été il est en
+       indienne. Cette _indienne_ est une sorte de percale ou toile de
+       coton peinte, dont il y a plusieurs fabriques en Catalogne. On en
+       exportait autrefois une quantité, immense que l'on portait dans
+       les Amériques Espagnoles; c'est ce qui lui a fait donner le nom
+       d'indienne."
+
+       From the same source we learn respecting another cotton fabric,
+       which might easily be thought by the unwary reader of to-day to
+       have been of Spanish manufacture, that "l'habitant de Mahon fait
+       en été un grand usage de l'étoffe des Indes appelée _nankin_.
+       Cette étoffe n'est connue dans plusieurs parties de l'Espagne que
+       sous le nom de _Mahon_."
+
+  [15] In 1799 the Marquis of Monte-Fuerte declared the silk of Seville
+       to be of as fine a quality as that of Valencia and Carmona.
+       (_Discurso sobre el plantío de moreras en Sevilla y sus
+       inmediaciones._)
+
+Turning our attention from Seville to Granada, we find that the fame of
+the silks produced in this latter city, or rather kingdom (for silk was
+raised in great quantities throughout the entire region) extended as far
+abroad as Constantinople, and that they were used in Greece in the reign
+of Comnenus. The Muzarabs, who petitioned Alfonso el Batallador to bring
+an expedition to their rescue and wrest Granada from her Mussulman
+lords, reported to him in enthusiastic terms the quality and abundance
+of the silk of that locality, and many a document and chronicle record
+its vogue among the Spanish Christians of the Middle Ages.
+
+The Alcaicería or silk-market of Granada is referred to by various of
+the older writers, including Marineus Siculus, Navagiero, Lalaing,
+Bertaut de Rouen, and Alvarez de Colmenar. The name itself is stated in
+Fray Pedro de Alcalá's _Vocabulario_ to be derived from the Arabic
+_al-aqqisariya_, meaning "an exchange for merchants." Buildings, or
+groups of buildings, of this kind existed both in Spain and in Morocco.
+Early in the eighteenth century a Spanish friar wrote of Fez; "The
+Moorish portion of this city is the Alcaicería. It stands nearly in the
+centre of the level part of the town, and near the principal mosque,
+resembling a town in itself, with solid walls and doors, and chains
+across it to keep out the horses. It consists of fifteen streets of
+wealthy shops, stretching without a break, and what is sold in
+them--whether of linen, silk, or cloth--is of the richest and the
+noblest quality."
+
+Very similar are the descriptions relative to the Alcaicería of Granada
+in the olden time. Bertaut de Rouen wrote of it, and of the adjoining
+Zacatin; "En retournant devers la porte d'Elvire est le _Zacatin_, qui
+est une rue paralelle au Canal du Darro, longue et assez estroite, qui
+vient de la place de la Chancellerie à la place de _Vivarambla_. Dans
+cette rue sont tous les orfévres, les marchands de soie, de rubans, de
+vermillon, qui croist assez près de Grenade, dont on fait là grand
+trafic. C'est une plante semblable à celle du Safran, dont il y a
+beaucoup dans ces quartiers-là.
+
+"Dans cette mesme rue du _Zacatin_ donne d'un costé l'_Alcayzerie_, qui
+est une espèce de Halle couverte à la manière de la Foire Saint Germain,
+où sont plusieurs boutiques remplies des Marchandises les plus
+curieuses. Ils disent que cette place, aussi bien que beaucoup d'autres
+des autres Villes d'Andalousie, se nomme ainsi à cause d'un privilege
+que donnerent les Cesars aux Arabes de travailler en Soye."
+
+Alvarez de Colmenar wrote of the same edifice, a few years later than
+Bertaut; "Vis-à-vis de la Chancellerie on voit une maison fort longue,
+nommée Alcacéria (_sic_), partagée en près de deux cent boutiques, où
+les Marchands ètalent tout sorte de marchandises, particulièrement des
+étoffes en soie." On the authority of the same writer, the makers and
+the dyers of silk-stuffs inhabited another quarter of the town. "Le
+dernier quartier de la Ville, nommé Antiqueruela, est dans une plaine,
+peuplé de gens venus d'Antechera, d'où lui vient le nom qu'il porte. Ses
+habitants sont pour la plupart ouvriers en soie, tisseurs de satin, de
+tafetas, de damas; teinturiers qui teignent en pourpre, en écarlate, et
+autres ouvriers semblables." He adds; "Il s'y fait grand commerce
+d'étoffe de soie; et la Ville et les environs sont pour cet effet
+plantés d'un si grand nombre de meuriers, que le seul impôt sur les
+feuilles de ces arbres vaut annuellement trente mille écus au Roi."
+
+About the beginning of the nineteenth century Laborde wrote: "The
+Alcaicería is in the Bivarambla: it is merely an immense edifice,
+without ornament, covering a considerable extent of ground. The Moors
+used it as a bazaar, and a good many tradesmen still carry on their
+business there. It contains about two hundred shops." It remained, in
+fact, in much the same condition as when the Moors possessed it, until
+the year 1843, when a fire, which broke out on the night of July 20th of
+that year, reduced it almost totally to ashes. To-day the historic silk
+trade is no more; but the Alcaicería, consisting of a chapel and a
+street which call to mind the graceful and effective decoration of its
+predecessor, has been rebuilt with taste and accuracy from the model of
+the old.
+
+The _Ordenanzas_ of Granada city, the first edition of which was
+published in 1552, and the second in 1678, inform us very closely of the
+silk trade of that region in the times immediately succeeding the
+reconquest. Having regard to the fact that the silk was now spun in
+skeins in an imperfect manner, "with much deceit and trickery," and that
+its quality was of the worst (Ordinance of A.D. 1535), nobody was
+allowed henceforth to spin silk in or about Granada without being
+qualified through examination by the _veedores_ or inspectors appointed
+for this purpose by the corporation. The inspector might charge for this
+examination a fee of twenty-five _maravedis_, and if the candidate were
+successful he was permitted to set up his loom forthwith, and engage two
+lads or girls, not less than twelve years old, to fetch and carry at his
+wheel, "so that the work may be continued all day long."
+
+Minute instructions follow as to the method of spinning the silk, wages,
+the treatment of apprentices, and other detail. Many of these narrow
+points of city law were troublesome and senseless, and must have tended
+to destroy the trade. For instance, the earnings of a master-spinner,
+after paying the lads or girls who worked for him, were limited to a
+maximum of two _reales_ and a half per day. Women were allowed to spin
+upon the following conditions: "Also, seeing that there be some honest
+women here who have no access to a public wheel, but work within their
+dwellings only, we (_i.e._ the city councillors) command that these may
+spin per thousand of cocoons, or at a daily wage, not to exceed two
+_reales_ and a half." The silk was not to be spun with an _escobilla_ or
+brush, but with the hand, obedient to the rhyming Spanish proverb which
+says, or used to say, _con escobilla el paño, y la seda con la mano_
+("brush cloth with a brush, and silk with the hand").
+
+The laws affecting the dyers of silk contain the following provisions.
+They were not to dye with pomegranate or sumach, and if the rind of the
+former fruit were found in their houses, they were liable to a fine of
+six thousand _maravedis_ and thirty days' imprisonment. Dyeing with
+Brazil-wood was also prohibited in the case of silks of finer quality
+exposed for sale in the Alcaicería. Elaborate directions follow as to
+the manner of applying the dye. In the case of silks dyed blue or
+purple, the dyer, before he drew the fabric from the vat, was required
+to show it to the _alamin_ or inspector of the silk, or else to one of
+the _veedores_ nominated by the city councillors. The fines imposed upon
+the dyers who were found to contravene these regulations were
+distributed in the following proportion: one-third towards repairing the
+ramparts or _adarves_ of Granada; another third between the _alamin_,
+the _veedores_, and the other officials who discovered and denounced the
+culprit; and the remaining third between the magistrates and other
+authorities who tried and sentenced him.
+
+Further, each silk-dyer was to have six _tinajas_, or large jars (see
+Vol. II., pp. 120 _et seq._), kept continually full of dye, well
+settled, and liable at any hour to be analyzed by the _veedores_. In
+dyeing fabrics black, each pound of silk was to be treated with ten
+ounces of foreign galls of fine quality, two ounces of copperas, and two
+ounces of gum-arabic.
+
+It is evident that nearly all this legislation was of a mischievous
+character, nor can it cause surprise that certain of the silk-makers of
+this locality should have been in the habit of committing many kinds of
+fraud, such as mixing salt or oil with the raw material, in order to
+increase its weight. Thus, at the same time that the laws themselves
+were made more numerous and stringent, the more elaborate and various
+were the shifts invented by the citizens as a means to violate those
+laws. The inspectors were empowered to enter a shop and examine its
+contents at any hour. Sometimes, we read, such ingress was denied them,
+and the door was kept closed, or slammed in their faces. The penalty for
+this resistance was a fine of two thousand _maravedis_ and twenty days
+imprisonment. No silk-spinner was allowed to possess more than two
+spinning-wheels (Ordinance of November 18th, 1501), or to keep these
+working after midnight, for we are told that in this way the _veedores_
+were impeded from paying their official visit in the small hours of the
+morning, and much "deceit and insult" was the consequence. This
+Ordinance was confirmed by a royal rescript of 1542.
+
+                           [Illustration: VII
+                         VELVET MADE AT GRANADA
+                         (_Late 15th Century_)]
+
+Another group of _Ordenanzas_ concerns the weavers and the
+silk-merchants of the Alcaicería, determining that no silk was to be
+imported from the kingdoms of Valencia or Murcia, and that no merchant
+was to buy the raw material in order to resell it at a profit, but might
+only trade in the productions of his own factory. Minute instructions
+are appended for weaving the various stuffs which had a silk foundation,
+such as several kinds of damask, scarlet velvet[16] many kinds of satin,
+velvet dyed with Brazil-wood, taffeta of four leishes, taffeta of two
+leishes, and _sargas_, or silken serge. Other fabrics mentioned in the
+Ordinances are _tocas_ called "San Juanes," _campuses moriscos_
+(elsewhere "las tocas moriscas que se llaman _campuzas_"), "las tocas
+moriscas labradas que se dizen _coninos_," _quinales_ and _alfardillas_,
+_alcaydias_, _tocas de Reyna_, and _espumillas_. Most of these names are
+of obscure meaning at the present day; but I find that _espumillas_ were
+silken crape, while _alfardillas_ are defined in the old dictionary of
+Fathers Connelly and Higgins as "an ancient kind of silken ribbon, or
+tape."
+
+  [16] Granada was especially renowned for her velvets (Plate vii.),
+       grounded or relieved, in the oriental manner, with gold or silver.
+
+No weaver was allowed to be the owner of more than four looms for making
+velvet, satin, damask, taffeta, or silken serges. The apprentice to a
+satin-maker required to be bound for a minimum term of three years, the
+apprentice to a damask-maker for five years, the apprentice to a
+taffeta-maker for three years. No weaver was to have more than three
+apprentices at one time, except in the case of the damask-makers, who
+might have four. No weaver might dismiss his apprentice without deponing
+to the cause before the city officers, nor might he accept money, or
+anything in lieu of money, from an apprentice. Master-weavers were
+required to pass their examinations in Granada; no other city would
+suffice.
+
+We further learn that many of the apprentices were "of evil character,"
+and damaged velvet stuffs "maliciously, though knowing perfectly how to
+weave the same." If any worker at this craft fell sick, the guild or
+_oficio_ was to defray the expenses of his cure, including physic "until
+he be recovered, provided his be not a venereal ailment, or a wound
+inflicted with a knife." If he succumbed, the guild was to bury him; and
+when a master-weaver died, his apprentices were compelled to serve out
+the rest of their indentures with his widow, or his sons. No slave might
+learn to weave, even though he should be made a _horro_ or freedman.
+
+Other ordinances refer to the officers known as Xelizes and Almotalefes
+of the silk, the privilege of appointing whom had been conferred upon
+the town-council by Ferdinand and Isabella. It was the business of the
+_almotalefe_ or _motalefe_ to collect silk throughout the _alcarias_ or
+villages of the surrounding districts, and convey it, on behalf of the
+owner, to a _xeliz_ or "superintendent of the market," attached to one
+or other of the three Alcaicerías of the kingdom of Granada. The
+_xeliz_, in his turn, was required to see that the parcel was put up for
+sale by public auction and disposed of to the highest bidder, after
+which he handed to the _motalefe_ a certificate of the price obtained,
+together with the corresponding cash, less certain fees deducted for
+himself and calculated on a reasonable scale. The number of _motalefes_
+throughout this region was evidently large, because in the year 1520 the
+town-council resolved to appoint as many as "one or two in every town
+and district."
+
+Ordinances to the above effect were notified to the city of Almuñecar,
+and the towns of Motril, Salobreña, and the Alpujarras; from which we
+must infer that, though subordinated to the capital herself, these
+places also were silk-producing centres of no slight importance.
+
+Further laws relating to the Xelizes were passed in 1535. On August
+13th, the mayor of Granada (described as the "very magnificent" Señor
+Hernan Darias de Saavedra) summoned before him these officials in order
+to admonish them respecting certain fresh decisions that had been
+adopted by the councillors. The said Xelizes were six in all, known
+severally as Juan Ximenez, Hernando el Comarxi, Juan Infante Zaybona,
+Juan de Granada, Lorenzo el Mombatan, and Francisco Hernandez
+Almorox--names which are of interest, as showing that the Morisco
+element was still of weight among the manufacturers and merchants of
+Granada. From this time forth, and by the resolution of the town
+authorities, the Xelizes in question were called upon to lodge a deposit
+of one thousand ducats as security for the value of the silk entrusted
+them for sale. Besides this, the silk was to be sold in the
+Zaguaque--that is, by public auction "as in the time of the Moors," from
+two in the afternoon onward. The buyer was required to settle his
+account before ten in the morning of the day next following his
+purchase. Failing this, the silk was to be again put up for sale, and
+the costs of this new operation were charged to the defaulting first
+purchaser, who was further obliged to pay a daily compensation of two
+_reales_ to the _motalefe_ who had brought the silk to market. Xelizes
+were strictly forbidden to traffic on their own account, and the fines
+for infringing any of these laws were heavy. If the infraction were
+repeated once, the fine was doubled; if twice, in addition to the same
+amount in money, the transgressor was banished for all his lifetime from
+Granada.
+
+All pieces of stuff which measured ten yards long and upwards, and which
+it was desired to sell within the capital or district of Granada,
+required to be marked with the weaver's stamp. If three pieces were sold
+together, or sent abroad to other places to be sold, they required to be
+stamped with the city seal at a fee for stamping of two _maravedis_ the
+piece. This was to be performed by the _veedores_, who were also to keep
+a register of all the city looms, and pay them a visit of inspection
+once at least in every month.
+
+Finally, one of the most ridiculous and noxious of these ordinances
+forbade the planting of more mulberry-trees in or about Granada;
+notwithstanding that it was also forbidden to deal in silk imported from
+Valencia or Murcia, as the merchants were said to mingle these foreign
+silks with that of Granada herself, to the detriment of the latter.
+
+Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the silk-trade of
+this capital remained in much the same condition. In 1747 a company was
+formed at Granada titled the "Compañía Real de Comercio y Fábricas de
+Granada," and the formal prospectus of this society, of which document a
+printed copy is in my possession, was embodied in a royal _cedula_ dated
+in the same year. The preliminary remarks attached to this certificate
+explain that the people of Granada were now reduced to "the most unhappy
+state of poverty, insomuch that nowhere is there memory of a greater
+horde of mendicants." The principal cause of this distress is stated to
+be the ruin of the silk-trade, in which disaster may be recognised the
+consequences of the senseless legislation I have instanced in the
+foregoing paragraphs. The fifteen thousand looms which once upon a time
+existed there had dwindled to six hundred, and the production of raw
+silk, from one million pounds a year to one hundred thousand. The new
+Company was floated with the professed ambition of restoring Granada to
+a measure of her old prosperity. The capital was half a million _pesos_,
+divided into shares of two hundred _pesos_ each; but silk and woven
+fabrics generally, whose value had been suitably appraised by the
+authorities, were admissible in payment of a share. The holder of each
+five shares enjoyed one vote, except in the case of founders, who were
+privileged, as "instruments of this important establishment," to vote
+upon possession of a single share. If a shareholder wished to sell his
+interest, the Company was to have the first refusal. It further
+possessed initially in cash a sum exceeding one hundred and twenty
+thousand _pesos_--sufficient to construct and work three thousand looms
+in all; and it engaged, in return for certain favours and exemptions
+under royal warrant, to set up twenty looms for making serges of fine
+quality, and eight more in each year, for the space of ten years, for
+making _carros de oro_, _medios carros_, _anascotes finos_,
+_christales_, "and every other kind of stuff that is not manufactured in
+this kingdom."
+
+The favours and exemptions thus solicited were of a very mischievous
+character; for the political mind of Spain was not yet shrewd enough to
+grasp the fact that where all competition is removed, quality cannot but
+decline. The products of the Company were freed from paying taxes for
+ten, or in the case of stuffs whose price amounted to six _reales_ per
+yard, for twenty years. Similarly, all of its merchandise exported to
+America "in _flotas_, _galeones_, _registros_, or other craft of those
+that are permitted," was freed from all except the royal dues on
+loading, although if shipped to other parts it was to pay a tax of fifty
+_maravedis_ for each Castilian pound of sixteen ounces. All the
+materials and ingredients required by the Company in the preparation of
+its fabrics were exempted from customs and other dues. The Company
+enjoyed a preferential right to purchase silk throughout the kingdom of
+Granada, and such as it abstained from purchasing was to be sold by
+public auction in the Alcaicerías of Granada and Málaga, that of Almería
+being henceforth suppressed. The Company was also empowered to introduce
+silk from Murcia and Valencia, and the determination to crush all
+private enterprise is clearly expressed by the twenty-second heading of
+this document, which says; "All manufacturers and traders who do not
+associate themselves with this body shall pay the full tariff of dues at
+present established." The Company was further empowered to compel the
+inhabitants of this locality to plant new lots of mulberry-trees, "in
+view of the notorious fact that not the one-hundredth part remains of
+all that were delivered by the Royal Census to the occupants of the
+kingdom of Granada at the time of the reconquest." The Company might
+further open shops and erect warehouses wherever it chose. Its assets
+were to enjoy perpetual immunity from seizure by the city council,
+whether as a loan or otherwise, and none of its servants might be called
+upon to serve the Crown in the event of war.
+
+Very shortly after its foundation, this Company united (each bringing
+half the capital) with another powerful association titled the
+Commercial Company of Estremadura, with a view to securing a conjoint
+Crown monopoly or "exclusive privilege" for Portugal, "to the effect
+that only these two companies may traffic there in silk, and none other
+of my vassals or the inhabitants of my dominions may do business,
+whether in pure silk, or silk mixed with silver or with gold, in the
+kingdom of Portugal aforesaid."
+
+The privilege was granted in these terms, and bears the royal signature,
+attached at Aranjuez, June 17th, 1747. Its provisions were to last for
+ten years, and, in return for their concession, the two Companies
+engaged for a like term of ten years to set up fifty silk-looms annually
+at Toledo, "over and above the looms at present working in that city."
+
+I have not been able to trace, in writing or in print, the subsequent
+records of the Royal Commercial and Manufacturing Company of Granada,
+although I have been told that it existed for some time, and that on one
+occasion there was a riot among the townsfolk in opposition to its
+tyranny.[17] In 1776 Swinburne wrote of the same region: "The annual
+produce of silk in this province, before the year 1726, seldom fell
+short of two millions six hundred thousand pounds weight, whereas now it
+does not exceed one hundred thousand." Judging from this, the Company
+does not appear to have prospered. In 1775 the same author wrote of
+other and more fertile silk-producing districts: "The manufacturers of
+silk are the cause of a population (_i.e._ in Valencia) that may be
+reckoned considerable, if compared to that of other provinces of Spain.
+The produce of this article came this year to one million pounds, but
+one year with another the average quantity is about nine hundred
+thousand pounds, worth a doubloon a pound in the country. The crop of
+silk this last season was very abundant. Government has prohibited the
+exportation of Valencian raw silk, in order to lay in a stock to keep
+the artificers constantly employed in bad years; for it has happened in
+some, that half the workmen have been laid idle for want of materials.
+As they are not so strict about Murcian silk, which is of an inferior
+quality, I am told that some from Valencia is sent out of Spain under
+that denomination. The great nurseries of mulberry-plants in this plain
+(the Huerta of Valencia) are produced from seed obtained by rubbing a
+rope of _esparto_ over heaps of ripe mulberries, and then burying the
+rope two inches under ground. As the young plants come up, they are
+drawn and transplanted. The trees, which are all of the white kind, are
+afterwards set out in rows in the fields, and pruned every second year;
+in Murcia, only every third year, and in Granada never. The Granadine
+silk is esteemed the best of all; and the trees are all of the black
+sort of mulberry."
+
+  [17] Similar companies were formed at Toledo, Zaragoza, Burgos, Seville,
+       and Zarza. For the Crown _cedula_, dated February 10th, 1748,
+       authorizing the Real Compañía de Comercio y Fábricas of Toledo,
+       see Larruga's _Memorias_, Vol. VII., p. 63.
+
+According to Laborde, who wrote some twenty-five years later; "The
+cultivation of silk was formerly very flourishing in Andalusia; the
+kingdoms of Granada, Seville, and Jaen produced immense quantities of
+it, but after the conquest of those countries it was burdened with heavy
+taxes: silk was made subject to ecclesiastical tithes payable in kind;
+the royal tenth it paid under the Moors was retained, estimated at three
+_reales vellon_ each pound of silk. To these were added a duty of
+_tartil_ of seventeen _maravedis_ per pound and duties of _alcabalas_
+and _cientos_, fixed at eleven _reales_ thirty-two _maravedís_. There
+accrued from it a tax of fifteen _reales_ fifteen _maravedís_ for the
+king, and six _reales_, or thereabouts, for the ecclesiastical tithe,
+making together twenty-one _reales_ fifteen _maravedís_, or about four
+shillings and sixpence the pound, which at that time sold only for
+thirty _reales_, or six shillings and three pence English. The
+speculators were consequently discouraged, most of them relinquished a
+labour from which they derived so little profit, and this branch of
+industry entirely failed in the kingdoms of Cordova and Seville, and
+afterwards in those of Granada and Jaen. For some time it has been
+looking up in the two latter kingdoms, but it is very far from what it
+was under the Moors. The mulberries of Granada and Jaen are black; they
+are suffered to grow without any care or management, are never lopped or
+dressed, and look as if they were planted by chance."
+
+Of Murcia he wrote; "This province has the raw materials of other
+manufactures no less important. In the first place, it has a prodigious
+quantity of silkworms, which are not turned to advantage; most of the
+raw silks are sold to the neighbouring provinces, and manufactured silk
+is imported from foreign looms, though the inhabitants might manufacture
+their own materials, and make it an article of considerable exportation.
+The town of Murcia is the only place where they work some small
+quantity; there they manufacture a few slight silks, chiefly taffetas
+and velvets, but of an inferior quality; and the whole is confined to a
+small number of looms. They make a much greater quantity of ribbons, in
+which twelve hundred looms are employed; but they are badly dyed, and
+have not a good gloss. The Murcians likewise prepare the raw silk, spin,
+and twist it; they have even a warden, and a great number of masters in
+this business, and, in spite of its importance, they carry it on without
+being subject to any superintendence, everyone doing as he pleases. The
+consequence is that the silk is badly prepared and spun unequally. The
+threads are collected without any method, sometimes more, sometimes
+less, and then twisted unequally. They are of course unfit to make fine
+stuffs, and the trade of Murcia is therefore declining.... Silk stuffs,
+satins, velvets, and taffetas are made here, but there is no great
+manufactory of them. They are wrought at private houses, and are but of
+a middling quality."
+
+Toledo silk, including the delicate and costly _cendal_ (see pp. 5, 6)
+which is mentioned in the sumptuary law, dated 1348, of Alfonso the
+Eleventh, was largely in demand from early in the Middle Ages till about
+the sixteenth century. The statements of the older writers as to this
+neighbourhood are contradictory. According to Damián de Olivares,
+himself a native of Toledo, this city in the sixteenth century possessed
+between five thousand five hundred and six thousand looms, consuming
+annually more than six hundred thousand pounds of raw silk. Other
+authors estimate the number of her looms at twenty, thirty, or even
+forty thousand. Writing in our own time, Count Cedillo is responsible
+for declaring that after the revolt of the Communities, the persons
+occupied in weaving silk amounted to fifty thousand, all of whom were
+natives of Toledo and the neighbouring villages; and he adds, perhaps a
+little rashly, that the velvets, damasks, satins, and taffetas of this
+locality were "unrivalled, even in comparison with the admirable
+products of Seville, Cordova, and Granada."[18] Certainly, the silk
+stockings of Toledo enjoyed a wide-spread fame, and were used, among
+other distinguished patrons, by the Duke of Guise and by Philip the
+Second. They were also exported in quantities to America. Banners,
+altar-fronts, and vestments for religious worship were also made here in
+large numbers, and of excellent quality, both in silk alone, and in this
+substance mixed with gold and silver.
+
+  [18] _Toledo en el Siglo XVI._ Miquel y Badía says that in the fifteenth
+       century Toledo, together with Genoa and Venice, manufactured superb
+       velvets, coloured crimson, blue, purple, or yellow, and figured
+       with pineapples or pomegranates (Plate iv.). The latter tree and
+       fruit are commonly related, in Spain, with the city of _Granada_;
+       but quite apart from this, the pomegranate was formerly regarded as
+       a symbol of fecundity and life. (See Goblet d'Alviella, _La
+       Migration des Symboles_, p. 184, and also Madame Errera's
+       Catalogue, No. 50.) In these velvets the gold thread is woven with
+       consummate skill, and forms, in the costliest and most elaborate
+       specimens, a groundwork of exceedingly small rings. These fabrics
+       were used as hangings for beds and walls, as well as for the
+       clothing of great lords and ladies. Touching the use of silk for
+       certain articles of dress, an amusing story is told in the MS.
+       account of Valladolid, published by Gayangos in the _Revista de
+       España_. "One day, Don Pedro de Medicis is reported to have paid
+       a visit to a married lady, to whom he had presented some damask
+       curtains, and he was wearing at the time some taffeta hose which
+       made a creaking as he walked. The lady came out of her room, and,
+       finding him in one of the lower apartments, exclaimed, 'Why do you
+       come here at such an hour, and with that silk on you which creaks
+       so loudly? Take care my husband does not hear it.' Whereto the
+       gentleman replied; 'Good God, madam, is it possible that the two
+       hundred yards of damask which I gave you for that curtain have
+       made no noise at all, but that a mere four yards of simple taffeta
+       about my breeches should put you in such consternation?'"
+
+Laborde wrote of all these manufactures at the time of their decline;
+"It is easy to estimate their former importance from the loss they
+sustained by the introduction of foreign merchandise. The memorial
+states that the consumption of silk was materially diminished, and
+computes the loss sustained by thirty-eight thousand artisans, from the
+interruption of their occupation, at 1,937,727 ducats. Symptoms of decay
+continued to increase till the middle of the sixteenth century, when
+every vestige of commerce was effaced.
+
+"Toledo remained in this state of listless despondence till the present
+archbishop made a noble effort to revive the love of industry, and to
+open an asylum for the tribes of mendicants, accustomed from infancy to
+subsist on precarious bounty. The measure adopted by this prelate was to
+establish in the Alcazar various branches of manufacture, such as linen,
+ribbons, cloths, serges, woollen stuffs, and silk stuffs of every
+description. He introduced also another branch of occupation,
+appropriated solely to the production of sacerdotal ornaments. In 1791
+there were a hundred and twelve manufactories in Toledo, ten for lawns
+and canvas, twelve for ribbons, fifty-five for silk, and seven for
+sacerdotal ornaments. At this period the indigent class employed in them
+amounted to six hundred people, who were instructed in various
+processes, and were led insensibly to acquire the useful habits of
+industry. They were taught to draw, to prepare the materials, and to
+perform the manufacture; and each was destined to pursue some occupation
+suitable to his age, his inclination, and his abilities."
+
+In 1786 Townsend, himself a clergyman, had written of Toledo in far less
+hopeful terms. "This city, which contained two hundred thousand souls,
+is now reduced to less than twenty-five thousand. The citizens are fled;
+the monks remain. Here we find twenty-six parish churches, thirty-eight
+convents, seventeen hospitals, four colleges, twelve chapels, and
+nineteen hermitages, the monuments of its former opulence." Townsend's
+good taste, unusual for a traveller of that time, was horrified at the
+profanation of the Alcazar, whose "magnificent apartments are now
+occupied with spinning-wheels and looms, and instead of princes they are
+filled with beggars. The good archbishop here feeds seven hundred
+persons, who are employed in the silk manufactory; but unfortunately,
+with the best intentions, he has completed the ruin of the city; for by
+his weight of capital, he has raised the price both of labour and of the
+raw material, whilst, by carrying a greater quantity of goods to the
+common market, he has sunk the price of the commodity so much, that the
+manufacturers, who employed from forty to sixty workmen, now employ only
+two or three, and many who were in affluence are now reduced to penury.
+
+"These people are so far from earning their own maintenance, that over
+and above the produce of their labour they require forty thousand ducats
+a year for their support."
+
+Alvarez de Colmenar, Ricord, Bourgoing, Laborde, and other writers,
+Spanish and non-Spanish, of the eighteenth century, inserted full
+descriptions of the silk trade of Valencia and Barcelona. "On y fait,"
+wrote Alvarez de Colmenar of the former of these towns, "de très bonnes
+draperies, fortes, d'un bon et long usage, et propres à résister à la
+pluie, et grande quantité d'étoffes de soie; delà vient que les
+meuriers, dont les feuilles servent à nourrir les vers à soie, y font
+d'un fort gros revenu pour les habitans." Ricord, in his scarce
+pamphlet, printed at Valencia in 1793, gives valuable statistics
+relating to this industry and locality, prefacing his figures arranged
+in tabular form by the following remarks: "The silk factories of this
+province form the principal basis of her commerce. They not only consume
+all the silk which is raised in the kingdom (of Valencia), and which, in
+1791, amounted to 581,688 pounds of fine silk, 93,800 of that of
+Alducar, and 26,115 of _hiladillo_, but they also require to provide
+themselves from Aragon and other parts of Spain, or even from abroad,
+seeing that in the year aforesaid more than 37,000 pounds were imported
+from foreign countries." The tabular statement appended to these
+observations tells us that in the region of Valencia the looms for
+making fine and silken fabrics such as velvets, _anascotes_, stockings,
+handkerchiefs, scarves, garters, and ribbons, gave employment to a total
+of 9,668 workmen, and were distributed among the towns or villages of
+Valencia, Alcira, San Felipe, Alcoy, Vilanesa, Denia, Ruzafa, Alicante,
+Peniscola, Beniganim, Pego, Olivo, Liria, Asuevar, Orihuela, Gandia,
+Elche, Castellon, and Vall de Almonacid. Riaño admits, however, that
+this manufacture might have prospered even more, if means had been
+adopted to suppress certain acts committed by the weavers, spinners, and
+twisters of the silk.
+
+More curious and instructive is the description of the same industry by
+Jean-François Bourgoing, whose observations, evidently secured at
+first-hand, are worth translating _in extenso_:--
+
+"What attracted us still more than the fine-art works were the stuffs
+produced at the silk-factories, which constitute the principal glory of
+Valencia and contribute to her prosperous condition. We followed all the
+process of this manufacture, from the cultivation of the mulberry-tree
+to the weaving of the richest fabrics. I will try, therefore, to give a
+comprehensive account of them.
+
+"Spain, and particularly the kingdom of Valencia, could well export her
+silk to foreign parts, even after setting apart a quantity sufficient
+for her factories. Government, however, does not appear to be convinced
+of this, because it offers constant hindrance to such exportation, or
+else, when it consents to it, imposes heavy dues. These dues consist of
+nine _reales_ and a _quartillo_, or nearly two _livres_ seven _francs_
+per each Valencian pound of silk, which only weighs twelve ounces, and
+is worth at least fifteen _livres_ when it is in the raw state. When the
+silk harvest has been scanty, as in the year 1784, it has been known to
+fetch eighty _reales_ or twenty _livres_. This year, too, the yield of
+silk has been so small that the manufacturers of Valencia petitioned
+Government to allow the introduction, duty-free, of two hundred thousand
+pounds of it from Italy and France.
+
+"In ordinary years, the pound of (raw) silk costs eight _reales_ for
+twisting and three _reales_ for dyeing in green, blue or other common
+colours; so that this material, ready to use, costs altogether about
+seventy-one _reales_ the pound, or seventeen to eighteen francs of our
+money.
+
+"Of course this price varies according to circumstances. One of the
+causes which exercise the greatest influence on this fluctuation is the
+harvest of the mulberry. These valuable trees are thickly planted over
+the champaign of Valencia, and all of them are of the white-leaved kind.
+This distinction, which would be superfluous in France, is by no means
+so in Spain, where, in several provinces, as, for instance, the kingdom
+of Granada, the leaves of the black mulberry are used to nourish the
+silkworms, and yield almost as handsome a silk as those of the
+white.[19]
+
+  [19] "The mulberry of Valencia is the _white_, as being most suitable to
+       a well-watered plain. In Granada they give the preference to the
+       _black_, as thriving well in elevated stations, as more durable,
+       more abundant in leaves, and yielding a much finer and more
+       valuable silk. But then it does not begin bearing till it is about
+       twenty years of age. In this province they reckon that five trees
+       should produce two pounds of silk.
+
+       "I had the curiosity to examine their method of feeding the
+       silkworms. These industrious spinners are spread upon wicker
+       shelves, which are placed one above the other, all round, and
+       likewise in the middle of each apartment, so as to leave room only
+       for the good woman to pass with their provisions. In one house I
+       saw the produce of six ounces of seed, and was informed that to
+       every ounce, during their feeding season, they allow sixty
+       _arrobas_ of leaves, valued at two pounds five. Each ounce of seed
+       is supposed to yield ten pounds of silk, at twelve ounces to the
+       pound. March 28th, the worms began to hatch, and May 22nd they went
+       up to spin. On the eleventh day, from the time that they were
+       hatched, they slept; and on the fourteenth, they awoke to eat
+       again, receiving food twice a day till the twenty-second day.
+       Having then slept a second time, without interruption, for three
+       days, they were fed thrice a day; and thus alternately they
+       continued eating eight days and sleeping three, till the
+       forty-seventh day; after which they ate voraciously for ten
+       days, and not being stinted, consumed sometimes from thirty to
+       fifty _arrobas_ in four and twenty hours. They then climbed up
+       into rosemary bushes, fixed for that purpose between the shelves,
+       and began to spin.
+
+       "Upon examination, they appear evidently to draw out two threads
+       by the same operation, and to glue these together, covering them
+       with wax. Thismay be proved by spirit of wine, which will dissolve
+       the wax, and leave the thread. Having exhausted her magazine, the
+       worm changes her form and becomes a nymph, until the seventy-first
+       day from the time that the little animal was hatched, when she
+       comes forth with plumage, and having found her mate, begins to
+       lay her eggs. At the end of six days from this period of existence,
+       having answered the end of their creation, they both lie down and
+       die. This would be the natural progress; but, to preserve the silk,
+       the animal is killed by heat, and the cones being thrown into
+       boiling water, the women and children wind off the
+       silk."--Townsend; _Journey through Spain in the years 1786 and
+       1787_; Vol. III., pp. 264-266.
+
+"The leaves to these mulberry-trees are sold by the load of ten
+_arrobas_; and the Valencian _arroba_, which is about equal to
+twenty-seven French pounds, cost, in 1783, about thirty _sols tournois_.
+
+"The mulberry leaves are gathered once, twice, or, at most, three times
+in each year; but it is not often that the two last crops are of as fine
+a quality or as abundant as the first. The greater part of the year is
+suited for harvesting the leaves, and this harvesting is carried out
+progressively as the silkworms copulate, steadily increasing in quantity
+up to the moment when they build their cocoons. As a rule only the
+leaves are plucked, the branches being spared as far as possible. Thus
+despoiled of its verdure in the middle of the finest times of year,
+although surrounded by a dazzling vegetation, the tree looks like a dry
+log floating on a green expanse of waters, while the mass of naked
+trunks which seem to be completely sterile, and which grow more numerous
+as the season advances, combine to render cheerless a prospect otherwise
+so fertile and so smiling. Still worse becomes their state when the
+trees are pruned entirely of their branches--an operation which is
+performed upon them at least once in every three years.
+
+"In the space of ten years the kingdom of Valencia has yielded six
+million pounds of silk, which makes a yearly average of six hundred
+thousand pounds; and as the whole of Spain produces a million pounds per
+annum, we see from this that Valencia alone supplies more than half of
+the entire quantity. The silks of Valencia are the finest of the whole
+Peninsula, and fit to be compared with the best of Europe generally, but
+the spinning is still imperfect, because in Spain there are not, as in
+France and elsewhere, houses where the women who spin are gathered
+together under the eye of an inspector to see that all the silk is spun
+evenly. In the kingdom of Valencia the spinning is distributed among
+several thousand hands, who introduce six, seven, eight, or even more
+ends in a thread of silk which should always have the same number; hence
+the unevennesses in the fabrics which are woven from them, while for the
+same reason we do not utilize for any delicate work the raw material
+which we import from Spain. The silk we employ for our costlier fabrics
+is of the kind which we import from Piedmont and the southern provinces
+of France. Also, for the last few years we have felt less need of the
+Valencian silk. The laws prohibiting the exportation of this Spanish
+silk have stimulated the cultivation of mulberry-trees in Languedoc,
+where the peasantry, alive to the profit which these trees could render
+them, have preferred them to other kinds for planting round their
+property. This is why, in the year 1783, French silk could be bought for
+a lower price than the Valencian silk purchased in that region, plus the
+dues levied upon its exportation. I know of a merchant who at this time
+enjoyed the privilege of exporting for six years a hundred thousand
+pounds free of all dues, but who throughout the year 1783 was unable to
+find a purchaser in France. Spain could perhaps remedy the egress of her
+raw material by further increasing (as, indeed, she daily does) the
+number of her looms, and by exporting a greater number of her products
+to her American possessions; but her silk-stuffs will never be perfected
+until she markets them in foreign countries, where the taste of her
+customers may tend to better that of her manufacturers.
+
+"The silk raised in the kingdom of Valencia is estimated, during an
+average year, to be worth six or seven millions of _piastres_ (nineteen
+to twenty-two millions of _livres_.) At the time of my visit to this
+city, she only employed one half this quantity, although her looms of
+every size amounted to four thousand. The rest, in spite of the
+prohibitions laid upon its extraction, is smuggled off to foreign
+countries, escaping, sometimes to France by way of Barcelona, and
+sometimes to Portugal by way of Seville and Extremadura. Nevertheless,
+there is probably more silk in Spain to-day than formerly, and measures
+have been earnestly adopted to encourage the industries which make use
+of it. For some time past, silk-looms have been scattered over the whole
+of Cataluña, and in the kingdoms of Granada, Cordova, Seville, etc.,
+producing handkerchiefs, ribbons, and other stuffs in sufficient
+quantity to supply, or nearly so, the national market: nevertheless this
+still left a large market for our stocking-factories of Languedoc. The
+Spanish Government, by the law of 1778, limited itself to excluding
+these stockings from forming part of the foreign cargoes to the
+Colonies, but as they continued to be imported into Spain, this law was
+readily evaded, since it sufficed to stamp the French article with the
+mark of a Spanish factory. It would have required an excessive
+vigilance, almost a positive inquisition, to guard against a fraud of
+this kind, prompted by the avarice of traders. The Spanish Government
+next sought, by the law of 1785, to put a stop to it by totally
+excluding our silk stockings, and this measure, together with the
+establishment of a number of new looms in Spain, has produced an almost
+absolute stagnation in the market which our factories of Languedoc had
+formerly enjoyed in the Peninsula. But let me return now to the
+Valencian factories.
+
+"This city has no one building in which might be performed the whole of
+the processes through which the silk must pass. Any person who wishes to
+examine them, must visit several workshops; and this was the course
+which we adopted, under the guidance of a manufacturer as intelligent as
+he is amiable, named Don Manuel Foz, a gentleman who has travelled
+extensively in order to perfect his knowledge of handling silk, and who,
+among other secrets, has brought from Constantinople the art of watering
+silken stuffs. As a reward for his activity, he has been appointed
+_Intendente_ of all the factories of Valencia.
+
+"There are hardly any merchants at Valencia who are not more or less
+concerned in silk-making: indeed, they look upon this industry as quite
+a _point d'honneur_. Some of them supply with silk no more than four or
+five looms, which work at their expense, while others have under their
+control as many as several hundred.
+
+"After the silkworm has cleverly built its cell, the first thing to be
+done is to stifle it before it can pierce the cocoon in search of a new
+existence. For this purpose the cocoons are thrown into a moderately
+heated oven; and then, when once the worm is killed, they can be kept
+without being spun for as long as may be needed.
+
+"In order to strip them of their covering of silk, they are thrown into
+hot water, after which the women workers pick up, and with surprising
+quickness, the threads of several of them, join them, and deal them out,
+thus joined, on wheels constructed for this object. On the design of the
+wheels depends the degree of thoroughness with which the silk is spun;
+but those which are employed in Spain are generally the most imperfect,
+as I shall presently explain.
+
+"I have already said that the slip of silk should be drawn from at least
+four cocoons, and even then it only serves for making slender fabrics,
+such as taffeta or ribbon. We were shown, indeed, a skein which was
+assured to contain no more than two cocoons; but so slight a slip is of
+no use at all. Most of them are made from seven or eight cocoons, and
+two of the former are joined in order to form a thread sufficient to be
+placed upon the loom.
+
+"My readers are sure to know that all woven fabrics consist of two
+distinct parts, the woof and the warp. The woof is that which is passed
+by the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other, and which is
+enchased between the two surfaces formed by the warp. As the woof is
+subjected to more wear and tear than the warp, it should be stouter. For
+this reason each of the two ends of which it is composed is twisted
+separately before the two are twisted together, while for the warp the
+latter of these processes is sufficient. The result of this difference
+is that, when looked at beneath the microscope, the thread of the woof
+has an uneven look, as though it were a small cable, while that of the
+warp looks flat and smooth, and is therefore adapted to reflect the
+light, receiving the shiny look which makes a silk-stuff so attractive.
+
+"But the beauty of these fabrics depends, above all else, upon the way
+in which the silk is divided as it is drawn from the cocoon. This first
+stage of the spinning is performed in one or other of three ways,
+according to the kind of wheel which is employed for it. The method
+which the Spaniards have adopted from an early period has the following
+drawback; that the small threads of six, seven, and eight cocoons which
+are stripped at the same time, go to form a single thread, and are
+deposited upon a small spindle without the thread rubbing against
+another one, which friction serves to lay the little hairs which bristle
+up, so that the slip of silk thus formed retains a hairy nap and is
+easily frayed. In the Piedmontese method, on the other hand, each slip
+is joined to another, and is not drawn apart until it has been twisted
+round it four or five times.
+
+"The third method, known as that of Vaucanson, is more expensive than
+the one last mentioned. In the wheel invented by Vaucanson, the two
+silk-slips are reunited after the first twisting, in order to be twisted
+once again. This operation is called the 'double _croissade_.'
+
+"If these threads, thus placed on bobbins, are intended for the woof,
+they are enchased perpendicularly in a machine consisting of several
+compartments, in which they are twisted separately. Thence they are
+transferred to another machine, in which they are twisted all together;
+after which they are ready for the loom. Those which are destined for
+the web are not twisted (as I have explained above) until the moment
+when they are united. Both at Valencia and at Talavera de la Reina these
+machines, so precious to the weaver's craft, and which economise manual
+toil, are not unknown.[20]
+
+  [20] They certainly were not unknown at Valencia. I have before me a
+       copy of the work, _Disertacion descriptiva de la Hilaza de la Seda,
+       segun el antiguo modo de hilar y el nuevo llamado de Vaucanson_,
+       written by the priest Francisco Ortells y Gombau, and published at
+       Valencia in 1783, by order of the Royal Council of Commerce and
+       Agriculture. This book, which clearly sets forth the superiority
+       of Vaucanson's method over those which had preceded it, states
+       that at first the Valencians were strongly opposed to the
+       Vaucanson wheel, believing that it caused a loss and waste of
+       silk. Probably the real reason was that it prevented the
+       manufacturers from adding spurious weight to the silk by mixing it
+       with oil. This practice, says Ortells, was then "so widespread an
+       evil in the kingdom of Valencia, that there is hardly anybody who
+       does not resort to it: notwithstanding it has been so often
+       prohibited by His Majesty, yet openly, where all the world may
+       witness, do the workers spin with much oil added to the silk."
+
+       The Vaucanson form of wheel was also more expensive. In the region
+       of Valencia its cost was about thirty _pesos_, that of the older
+       wheels being only fifteen or sixteen _pesos_. However, this
+       difficulty was not insuperable, for in the year 1779 the Royal
+       Council of Commerce presented a hundred and twenty Vaucanson
+       wheels to the peasants who had raised a minimum crop of a hundred
+       pounds of silk, requiring, in return, that the recipients of the
+       gift should spin not less than fifty pounds of silk per annum.
+
+"At the latter of these towns I had already seen a single toothed-wheel,
+which set in motion up to a thousand of these tiny bobbins on which are
+wound the twisted slips of silk. The wheels I saw at Valencia were
+smaller, because in this city there is not, as there is at Talavera, a
+royal factory self-contained within a single building. At Valencia each
+manufacturer, in order to carry out these various processes, requires to
+deal with workmen and machines distributed through several quarters of
+the town, and chooses from among them such as he best prefers.
+
+"Nothing can be simpler than the working of these silk-twisting
+machines, when once the toothed-wheel has set them going. The
+perpendicular movement of all these little bobbins is looked after by
+women, and even children.[21]
+
+  [21] At the time when Vaucanson's wheels began to be used in Spain, silk
+       was spun by men all over the Peninsula, except in the immediate
+       neighbourhood of Valencia (Orteils; _Hilaza de la Seda_, pp. 134
+       _et seq._) In every other region devoted to this industry such as
+       the valley of the Jucar and the Huertas of Orihuela and Murviedro,
+       as well as in the factories of Toledo, Seville, Granada, Cordova,
+       Jaén, Baeza, Talavera, and Priego, the spinning was performed by
+       men exclusively. Women, however, were often engaged in harvesting
+       the cocoons.
+
+"If they should happen to clog, a touch of the finger disengages them.
+If one of the slips should break, the harm is mended in a trice: the
+practised fingers of the machinist pick up the broken ends with
+marvellous despatch, tie them together by an imperceptible knot, and the
+bobbin which was thus delayed loses no time in overtaking its
+neighbours.
+
+"The slips of silk, before being twisted two by two, are put through
+another process which I ought to mention. When they are still in skeins
+they are spread upon a large tub in which is a quantity of viscous
+substances heated to boiling point, the gases from which tend to make
+them adhere to one another. This is termed _passer à la brève_.
+
+"Thence they are removed to the machine for twisting them. The silk, on
+issuing from this machine, is called organzine; and it is only when it
+is in this state that it can be exported from Piedmont, where the
+twisting process was better executed than elsewhere, until the time when
+it was rendered yet more perfect by Vaucanson.[22] This clever mechanic
+has combined all possible advantages relating to the business of the
+silk-weaver. His system, and no other, is practised in the Lyons
+factories; but these wheels _à double croissade_ are only available for
+silk produced in France; since that which is exported from abroad and
+which is principally used in these factories, requires to be reduced to
+organzine before it can again be taken out of the country.
+
+  [22] "I should here remark that the silk which is spun and twisted
+       according to the method of Vaucanson, forms a fabric a third part
+       closer and stronger than ordinary silk-stuffs."
+
+"In this respect Spain possesses a sensible advantage over other
+manufacturing nations; since she raises a greater quantity of silk than
+she is able to consume, and could easily put it through the most
+advanced and perfect processes; in spite of which she has clung for ages
+to her faulty method. The present government has attacked this method by
+the only means efficient to bring about a change; that is, the slow but
+certain influence of persuasion. In 1781 the Count of Floridablanca
+contracted with a French merchant settled in Madrid, that he should
+supply a hundred _tours_ of the Vaucanson pattern for spinning silk,
+first to the Murcian factories (of which province the Count was a
+native), next to the Valencian, and subsequently to any others that
+might wish for them; and with this object he granted to the merchant in
+question the privilege of exporting, free of duty, six hundred thousand
+pounds of silk in six years. Nevertheless, it is possible that this
+measure may yet remain fruitless for many years owing to the apathy of
+the Spanish manufacturers, who were loth to use a finer, closer quality
+of silk, because it must be woven with greater care owing to its
+containing three ends instead of two, the work being greater on this
+account without a corresponding increase in the gain. It has also been
+found necessary to employ Frenchmen in the earliest trials made in Spain
+of this new method.
+
+"The success of the Spaniards should not be counted on, if we are to
+judge of it by a factory, which was founded some years since at _La
+Milanesa_, a league's distance from Valencia, by an intelligent man
+named La Payessa.[23]
+
+  [23] This man, Joseph Lapayese or La Payessa, did not initiate
+       Vaucanson's method in this region. He succeeded a Frenchman named
+       Reboul, who, in 1769, and holding privileges from the Crown, began
+       to work with Vaucanson wheels at Vilanesa, near Valencia--the same
+       place which Bourgoing calls _La Milanesa_. Both the king and his
+       minister of finance, Don Miguel de Muzquiz, were keenly interested
+       in these experiments, and Muzquiz, who owned an estate near the
+       town of Sueca, in the same neighbourhood, imported four more of
+       the new wheels there, under Reboul's direction. This craftsman,
+       however, was not successful. Lapayese, who came after him and
+       enjoyed the same Crown privileges, made considerably better
+       progress, his efforts being seconded by the Royal Junta, the
+       archbishop, and other bodies or individuals of Valencia, who
+       awarded prizes of wheels and money to the best workers in the new
+       style.
+
+"He introduced the method of Vaucanson, but when I went to see his
+factory he had not seen his way to recover the money which this
+improvement had cost him. He employed barely two hundred persons for the
+most important work; nothing more was done than to spin the silk, divide
+it, and convert it into organzine. Thus treated, it cost from fifty to
+sixty _reales_ more per pound than that which is prepared according to
+the Spanish method, so that its success was but small.
+
+"I shall not describe in detail either the method of dyeing the silk, or
+that of weaving it. The first of these operations is readily imagined;
+the second is hard to understand, and still more so to explain, unless
+one is assisted by engravings. I will merely observe that all silk is
+dyed in skeins, just before it enters the loom. If it be required
+occasionally to dye it after it is woven, this is only when the silk is
+spotted, or when the dyeing of the skeins has proved a failure. At the
+time of my visit to Valencia, there were a hundred and seventeen
+master-dyers in that city, but not all of them were working.
+
+"The stuffs in which the factories of Valencia are most successful are
+principally of the smooth sort; they also make there handsome damask
+_brochés_ with large flowers for wall-hangings; but generally all that
+is undertaken is by order of the Court, Madrid, and the provinces. The
+Valencians follow as closely as possible the rapidity with which the
+French designs are changed, and those who profess to invent new ones are
+but copying the French ones in a greater or less degree.
+Notwithstanding, the Valencian Fine-Arts Academy is taking serious steps
+to form designers, and a school has been founded which has already
+developed able pupils--amongst others, a young man called Ferrers, who
+had died a short while before our arrival at the city, and some of whose
+designs of flowers we had occasion to admire.
+
+"But the process in which the Valencians particularly excel is that of
+watering stuffs, which M. Foz has rendered absolutely perfect. He gave
+us a clear account of this process, which consists in passing a cylinder
+over the stuff to be watered, this cylinder being pressed upon by a
+heavy mass moved to and fro by a mule which draws a lever round and
+round. The stuff is folded in the manner of a closed jalousie, and these
+folds require to be often varied so as to distribute the undulations
+evenly. M. Foz admitted that the shape and the arrangement of these
+undulations are more or less a matter of chance, but he proved to us
+that it is possible to influence them to some extent by moistening the
+stuff in a certain manner and direction, and this is the particular
+secret which he alone possesses in the whole of Spain. The excellence of
+this method is demonstrated by the beauty of the watered silk which
+issues from these presses. M. Foz himself set us to judge of this by
+asking us to compare the blue ribbon of the Order of Charles the Third,
+watered by himself, with those of the Order of the Holy Spirit. The
+comparison, I must admit, was far from advantageous to these last."
+
+The subsequent vicissitudes of the Valencian silk trade are indicated by
+Laborde, who wrote, some few years later than the conscientious and
+observant author of the _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_:--
+
+"The mulberry-trees are of great importance; the fields of Valencia are
+covered with them, particularly in the environs of that town, in the
+dale of Elda, in the county of Carlet, in almost all the places situated
+on the sea coast, etc. There are white mulberry-trees, which are lopped
+every two years.
+
+"The leaves of these trees serve as nourishment to silkworms, which are
+raised almost everywhere in the kingdom of Valencia. Algemesi, Alcira,
+Carcagente, Castillo of San Felipe, the county of Carlet, Undasuar,
+Gandia, Denia, Orihuela, and all the villages near the sea are places
+which produce the greatest quantity.
+
+"The silk made from them is the finest in Spain. It would be equal to
+the best and finest silks of Europe, if the Valencians, in spite of the
+vivacity of their imagination, did not obstinately persist in their old
+routine in the skeining; for in the skein they put an undetermined
+number of threads. The government has hired a man who has the most
+experience in this kind of work; but in vain does he endeavour to
+instruct them, since the manufacturers continue their bad custom just
+the same. The quantity of silk wound annually is, on an average, about
+1,500,000 pounds of twelve Valencian ounces (1,312,500 pounds of sixteen
+ounces avoirdupois). It is commonly sold raw for fifty reals of vellon a
+Valencian pound, which gives a total of 75,000,000 reals of vellon
+(£731,250)....
+
+"Silk is twisted in different places in the kingdom of Valencia, for
+which purpose machines and mills are established at Gandia, San Felipe,
+Carcagente, Orihuela, and Valencia. The most important establishment of
+this kind is at La Milanesa, near the last mentioned town. Nevertheless,
+these machines are not able to furnish as much as the manufactures of
+the country require. Part of the silk is sent to Priego and Toledo in
+Andalusia, whence it is returned into the kingdom of Valencia to be
+worked....
+
+"A great many impediments are thrown in the way of the exportation of
+silk, which is only allowed for six months after the harvest. If in that
+period the national manufacturers want it, they are at liberty to take
+it from the merchants who have bought it, on reimbursing them the
+purchase-money together with six per cent. interest. The consequence is
+that the merchants, uncertain whether they will be allowed to export the
+silk which they have purchased, no longer take any foreign commissions
+for it, and so this branch of exportation has fallen. Besides this, a
+duty has been laid upon the silk sent out of the kingdom, of nine reals
+of vellon and one quartillo (1s. 11-1/4d. sterling) on every pound of
+twelve Valencian ounces, which is almost a fifth of its value. This is
+another obstacle to the exportation of it. A very small quantity,
+twisted and dyed, is sent into Portugal.
+
+"Generally 1,500,000 pounds of silk are made annually, of which
+1,100,000 are consumed in the province, and 400,000 pounds are exported
+to Talavera de la Reina, Requeña, Toledo, Granada, Seville, Priego, and
+Cataluña. From this results a product of 20,000,000 reals (£208,333,
+6s.)."
+
+Of the city of Valencia, Laborde wrote:--
+
+"The manufactories of silk are the most considerable. They employ nearly
+25,000 persons, and make taffetas, serges, silks, satins, plain damasks,
+striped, printed, of one colour and of mixed colours, full velvets,
+flowered velvets, plain and of various colours. The plain stuffs are
+those in which they succeed best. There are also fine damasks made and
+worked with large flowers."
+
+According to the same writer, the manufacture at Valencia of silk
+stockings, galloons, silk ribbon, handkerchiefs, and sashes revived to
+such an extent, that in the year 1799 the looms for producing these
+articles were 423 more than they had been in 1769. "There are 3618 silk
+looms, which work about 800,000 pounds of silk annually; the
+handkerchiefs, sashes, and other little articles of lace consume 100,000
+pounds."
+
+                          [Illustration: VIII
+                   THE DAUGHTERS OF PHILIP THE SECOND
+                 (_By Sanchez Coello. Prado Gallery_)]
+
+Equally as instructive is Laborde's account of Barcelona.[24] After
+remarking that the decay in her manufactures lasted from the end
+of the sixteenth century till the middle of the eighteenth, he
+continues:--"They are at present in a very flourishing state, and are
+more numerous and varied than ever.... There are 524 looms of silk
+stuffs, and 2700 of ribbons and silk galloon. The silk works consist of
+taffetas, twilled and common silks, satins, and velvets of every kind
+and colour. These are mixed with gold and silver. Gold cloths and
+brocades are also made there.[25] The manufactures are not carried on by
+companies, but dispersed among the workmen themselves, by which perhaps
+the qualities may in some degree be injured. It is remarked that the
+stuffs would be better if they were closer, for their texture is
+commonly loose; they are also different in the gloss, which is seldom
+fine, and is never equal to that in the manufactures of France. Another
+fault in all these stuffs is the imperfect preparation of the silk,
+which leaves it nearly always shaggy: the cause of this is the silk
+being spun or twisted in an uneven manner. The same unpleasant effect is
+observed in the silk stockings. They cannot be fine, their stitches
+being uneven, and often large and shaggy. They do not last long, and are
+as dear as the French stockings after the duty on their entrance into
+Spain has been paid.
+
+  [24] The art of weaving silk appears to have found its way into
+       Barcelona comparatively late, for the veil-makers did not form a
+       guild of their own till A.D. 1553, the velvet-makers till 1548,
+       the silk-twisters till 1619, and the dyers of silk till 1624.
+
+  [25] Brocade (Spanish _brocado_ or _brocato_) may be generally described
+       as a silk-stuff woven with devices or raised figures in gold and
+       silver thread, or either of these metals separately (Plate viii.).
+       This costly fabric, which may be said to have superseded the
+       earlier kinds of cloth of gold, was greatly in vogue in older
+       Spain, especially throughout the fifteenth, sixteenth, and
+       seventeenth centuries. It is constantly referred to by her writers
+       ("No siendo nueva la que prohibe las telas de oro, los _brocados_,
+       y tabies."--Fernandez Navarrete; _Conservacion de Monarquías_,
+       p. 231), and denounced by her priests (Fray Luis de León, "Y ha de
+       venir la tela de no sé donde, y _el brocado de mas altos_, y el
+       ambar que bañe el guante"), or in the pragmatics of her kings
+       (_e.g._ that of September 2nd, 1494, and of 1611: "Está prohibido
+       todo género de colgaduras, tapicerias sillas, coches, y literas de
+       _brocados_, telas de oro ó plata.... Asi mismo se prohiben
+       bordaduras en el campo de los doseles y camas; pero no en las
+       cenefas, que podrán llevar alamares, y fluecos de oro, ó plata,
+       ó _brocado_").
+
+       Brocade was made in Spain at Toledo, Barcelona, Seville, Valencia
+       and elsewhere, but as a rule it could not be compared in quality
+       with that of Genoa or Venice. A cheaper, though showy and
+       attractive modification of brocade was brocatel, in which the silk
+       was mixed with common thread or flax. According to the Dictionary
+       of the Spanish Academy, this commoner fabric was used for hangings
+       for churches, halls, beds, etc., and a document of 1680 tells us
+       that the price of brocatel made at Granada, and containing two
+       colours, was twenty-two _reales_ the yard.
+
+"At Barcelona, laces, blonds, net-work, and tapes employ about twelve
+thousand persons. Galloons, laces, and gold and silver fringes, are
+likewise made here; but these are of no great importance. Silk, gold,
+and silver embroideries are very common, and the embroiderers are so
+numerous that they are to be found in every street.
+
+"_Silk Stuffs._--These are manufactured at Manresa, Cardona, and Mataró,
+which has forty-eight looms; but principally at Barcelona, where there
+are five hundred and twenty-four. There they make velvets, satins,
+damasks, silks, taffetas, and gold and silver stuffs. The town of
+Barcelona alone uses annually 300,000 pounds of raw silk.
+
+"_Taffetas, Handkerchiefs, and silk sashes._--They make a great quantity
+of these at Barcelona, where there are a good many little manufactories
+of this kind. There are a hundred and fifty looms at Reus, and six
+hundred at Manresa. At the last place sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs
+are made, which take about seventy thousand pounds of raw silk.
+
+"_Silk twisters._--There are some of these in several towns, and a great
+many in Barcelona. There are eighteen frames at Mataró, which twist, one
+year with another, one hundred and twenty-four quintals of silk; and
+thirty-seven at Tarragona, which twist eleven thousand quintals."
+
+Elsewhere in the course of his exhaustive tomes, Laborde sums up the
+general revival of the Spanish silk-trade in the following terms:--
+
+"Silk stockings are woven at Málaga, Zaragoza, Valencia, and at various
+other places in the kingdom of Valencia; at Valdemoro, and at Talavera
+de la Reina in New Castile; also in different parts of Cataluña, more
+especially at Mataró, Arenys del Mar, and Barcelona. The most extensive
+manufacture is carried on at the latter city, where the number of frames
+amounts to nine hundred. In the city of Mataró are fifty-two, in
+Valencia one hundred and fifty, and nearly as many in Talavera. The
+stockings made in Spain are of a loose texture; owing to the improper
+method in which silk-throwsting is conducted, they are badly dressed and
+worse glossed. The Spanish people themselves prefer French stockings,
+and most of those manufactured in the country are exported to America.
+
+"Ribbons hold a distinguished place among the manufactured articles of
+Spain. Some few are woven at Jaen, Granada, and Cordova; but more at
+Talavera. Cadiz has but twenty ribbon-looms, Manresa five hundred,
+Mataró eighty, Vich twenty-two, Requeña two hundred, Valencia four
+hundred, Murcia twelve hundred, and Barcelona nearly three thousand.
+These looms are not in factories, but individually dispersed. The
+Spanish ribbons are in general thin and flimsy, have little lustre, and
+their colours are neither brilliant nor permanent. Ribbons are made of
+floss-silk at Toledo, where there are about twelve looms, and at
+Manresa, where there is a greater number.[26]
+
+  [26] Towards the nineteenth century, ribbon was a great deal worn upon,
+       or together with, the regional costumes of the Spanish women; for
+       instance, on the gala bodice or _cotilla_ of the _hortelana_ of
+       Valencia, who further used it to make fast her _alpargatas_ or
+       sandals, described in the manuscript account attached to Pigal's
+       plates as "espèce de cothurnes, attachés avec des rubans en soie
+       ou fil bleu ou rouge." The same fabric served the peasant woman
+       of Carthagena for securing the sleeves of her gala camisole, for
+       lacing the bodice of the woman of Iviza, and in the other Balearic
+       Islands, for tying the _rebocillo_ or _rebociño_ beneath the chin.
+       Also it was with ribbon that the servant-girls of Granada suspended
+       a cross round their necks, that the _charra_ of Salamanca
+       (Plate ix.) trimmed her hat, that the women of Madrid, La Mancha,
+       and Andalusia bound up their knots of hair (_moños
+       con cinta_), and that, in some localities, even ladies of the
+       highest class secured their shoes about the lower leg and ankle.
+
+                           [Illustration: IX
+                      A _CHARRA_ OR PEASANT WOMAN
+                       (_Salamanca, A.D. 1777_)]
+
+"Silk taffetas, serges, and other articles, such as common and figured
+satins, damasks, and plain and flowered velvets, are made at Jaen,
+Granada, Murcia, Valencia, and the adjacent villages; at Málaga,
+Zaragoza, Toledo, Requeña, Talavera de la Reina, Mataró, Manresa,
+Cardona, and Barcelona. The silk-trade of Jaen and Granada is at present
+in a very languishing state; the manufacture of Murcia is dwindled to a
+few individual looms. At Toledo are fifty looms, fifty at Mataró, forty
+at Málaga, six hundred at Requeña, four hundred at Talavera, which
+consume annually two hundred thousand pounds of silk; five hundred at
+Barcelona, which annually manufacture, in conjunction with those of
+Cardona and Manresa, about three thousand pounds weight of silk; and in
+the city of Valencia are three thousand, whose annual demand of silk is
+eight hundred thousand pounds, while twenty-two thousand persons are
+employed in the trade. In Zaragoza are sixty looms, which consume fifty
+thousand pounds of silk; but taffetas only are manufactured there. The
+cities of Toledo and Talavera de la Reina are the only places where the
+looms are collected together in factories: in all other places they are
+separated, and are found individually at the houses of the respective
+weavers.
+
+"A great portion of the silks manufactured in Spain are stout and
+excellent, but they are destitute of the brilliancy observable in French
+silks. The damasks made at Valencia are extremely beautiful, and in that
+city they excel in the art of mixing silk and mohair, and produce mohair
+stuffs which appear to be superior to those of France and England.
+
+"Quantities of silk handkerchiefs and bands are manufactured at Reus,
+Manresa, and Barcelona. Reus had five hundred looms, Manresa six
+hundred, and annually made sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs;
+Barcelona, a much larger quantity.
+
+"At Barcelona is a very considerable manufacture of white, coloured,
+plain, and figured gauzes.
+
+"The art of silk-throwsting tends greatly to improve the silk
+manufactures in Spain. Machines invented in other countries have been
+adopted here, and in many places profitable changes and corrections have
+taken place in the trade. Silk is principally thrown at Priego, Toledo
+in Andalusia, at Murcia in the kingdom of the same name, at Cervera near
+Talavera de la Reina in New Castile, at Valencia, at Milanesa near that
+city, at Gandia, San Felipe, and Carcagente in the kingdom of Valencia.
+The silk-throwsters, who work at their own houses, and are paid in the
+great, that is, according to the quantity of work they perform, are very
+numerous in Murcia; but they perform the business there in a very
+slovenly way. In the city of Murcia a factory is established, where silk
+is thrown in an excellent manner by means of an ingenious machine, which
+has been already described. The establishment at La Milanesa is a very
+important one, and well administered. At Cervera are a dozen silk-mills,
+each having four large dividers, and six machines for doubling and
+twisting, by which seven thousand and seventy-two threads are divided,
+doubled, and twisted at the same time."
+
+
+                          CLOTHS AND WOOLLENS
+
+Although the history of Spanish cloths and woollens is not of great
+importance, I think it well to briefly sketch their history. Sails and
+other fabrics of the coarsest kind are said to have been made, almost in
+prehistoric times, at Sætabi (the modern Játiva) and at Saguntum
+(Murviedro). From the thirteenth century cloths of good quality were
+made at Barcelona, Lerida, San Daniel, Bañolas, Valls, and other towns
+of Cataluña. A privilege of Alfonso the Learned, dated May 18th, 1283,
+contains the following technical disposition relative to the cloth-looms
+of the city of Soria: "Que la trenza cuando sea ordida que haya 88
+varas, que pese una aranzada é 5 libras de estambre; é cualquier que la
+fallare menor, que peche 5 sueldos. Que todos los tejedores é tejedoras
+de la dicha cibdad é de su tierra, que pongan en las telas de lino 42
+linnuelos é en las de estopazo 32 linnuelos; é en las de marga é de
+sayal 32 linnuelos."
+
+Segovia was another ancient centre of this manufacture, which Larruga
+considers to have been transferred hither upon the extinction of the
+factories of Cameros, Burgos, and Palencia. However this may be, the
+_fuero_ of Sepúlveda, signed by Alfonso the Sixth, tells us that
+clothworks existed here as early as the eleventh century. Towards the
+end of the fourteenth, when Catherine of Lancaster was married to the
+Infante Don Enrique, the English princess brought over, as part of her
+dowry, a flock of merino sheep. These are believed to have pastured near
+Segovia--a city where Catherine made her home for many years. In any
+case, Segovian cloths improved considerably from about this time, and by
+the reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second, when thirty-four
+thousand persons were employed in the manufacture and twenty-five
+thousand pieces of cloth were produced annually, were thought
+(especially the baizes and the serges) to be unsurpassed in Europe.[27]
+Sovereigns, including Charles the Second and Charles the Fifth of Spain,
+and Henry the Eighth of England, were among the patrons of these
+fabrics, while as late as the year 1700 the Franciscan friars engaged in
+redeeming captives from the Turks, reported that "at Constantinople,
+whither they had carried Segovian cloths as presents to the principal
+rulers of that country, those cloths were spoken of in terms of high
+approval."
+
+  [27] Colmenares, who wrote a history of Segovia down to the reign of
+       Philip the Second, says that in his time the clothmakers of this
+       town were "true fathers of families, who within and without their
+       houses sustain a multitude of persons (in many cases two and three
+       hundred), producing, with the aid of other people's hands, a great
+       variety of finest cloth: an employment worthy to be ranked with
+       agriculture, and that is of the utmost profit to any city, or to
+       any kingdom."
+
+Early in the seventeenth century, and owing to a series of causes such
+as impertinent or improvident legislation, heavy taxes, and the
+importation of foreign cloths, the trade showed symptoms of decay.[28]
+Bertaut de Rouen wrote in 1659, referring to the Spanish character at
+this time: "Bien souvent le pain leur manque, comme j'ay veu dans
+_Almagro_, petite ville située dans le meilleur pays d'Andalousie, et
+dans _Segovie_, qui est une des grandes villes d'Espagne, et où il y
+avoit autrefois des plus riches marchands à cause des draps et des
+chapeaux que l'on y faisoit, qui a esté longtemps le sejour des Roys de
+Castille, et qui n'est qu'environ à douze ou quatorze lieuës de Madrid,
+où il n'y avoit point de pain dans toute la ville le jour que j'y
+arrivay, et il n'y en eut qu'à quatre heures après midy, que l'on le
+distribua par ordre du _Corregidor_, aussi bien qu'à Almagro."
+
+  [28] An amusing passage in Fernandez Navarrete's _Conservación de
+       Monarquías_ (A.D. 1626) tells us that most of the costlier
+       dress-materials used in Spain about this time proceeded from
+       abroad, and that they were "of so fine a texture that the heat of
+       an iron scorches them and wears them out in a couple of days;
+       while a great number of men employ themselves in the effeminate
+       office of dressing collars, who, ceasing also to be men, forsake
+       the plough or warlike exercises; for it is certain that when the
+       Spaniards kept the world in awe, this land produced a greater
+       number of armourers, and less persons who busied themselves with
+       looking after womanish apparel" (p. 232).
+
+The rise, decay, and subsequent revival of the Spanish cloth industries,
+and particularly the Segovian, are well described by Laborde, Bourgoing,
+and Townsend. According to the first of these authorities, "at so early
+a period as 1629 the merchants (of Segovia) complained that there was
+every year a reduction in the fabrication of cloth, to the amount of
+five thousand five hundred pieces; and that there resulted from this
+deficiency an annual loss of 2,424,818 ducats and 2 reals, or about
+£274,000 sterling. In the eighteenth century it appeared, from the
+observations of the Economical Society, that the fabrication of stuffs
+and cloths employed but one hundred and twenty looms, in which only four
+thousand three hundred and eighteen quintals of washed wool were
+consumed.
+
+"About forty years ago these manufactures began to revive, the looms
+were multiplied, and the consumption of wool considerably augmented. A
+single individual, Don Lorenzo Ortiz, has for some years accelerated
+their progress. In 1790 there was an addition of sixty-three looms,
+which employed eight or nine hundred quintals of wool, and afforded
+occupation to two thousand four hundred manufacturers."
+
+The same author wrote that early in the nineteenth century, "the woollen
+manufactures of New Castile are the most numerous and important. Cloths
+are made at Toledo, Chinchon, Brihuega, Guadalajara; serges, stuffs, and
+flannels at Toledo and Cuenca. The cloths of Brihuega are of an
+excellent quality, but those of Guadalajara are still superior to them;
+in particular, the cloth of Vigonia. There are twenty-eight looms at
+Toledo, forty at Guasmenia, a hundred at Brihuega, and six hundred and
+fifty-six at Guadalajara."
+
+Bourgoing wrote, a dozen years or so before the close of the eighteenth
+century: "Spanish wool is eagerly demanded by manufacturing peoples of
+the rest of Europe. Nevertheless, it is not turned to so much advantage
+as it might be. French, Dutch, and English come to Spain to purchase the
+wools of Segovia and León at the ports of Bilbao and Santander.[29] Not
+even so much as the commission on their sale is left in power of the
+Spaniards, for the foreigners buy up the wool straight from the
+shepherd, and wash it on their own account. Out of one million of
+_arrobas_[30] of fine wool which Spain produces annually, she exports
+more than half in washed wool, and a lesser quantity, by far, of
+unwashed. It has been estimated that the export duties on this wool and
+which it has not been hitherto thought prudent to curtail, produce a sum
+of close upon five millions for the King of Spain. Here, therefore, is
+another reason for not suppressing the 'abusive measure' of which the
+patriotic Spaniards complain so loudly; since it is far from easy to do
+away with so appreciable a source of revenue unless one has at hand a
+swift and sure alternative measure by which it may be substituted. All
+the same, government is endeavouring to derive a greater fiscal profit
+from the exportation of these wools, and at the same time to bring about
+a greater use of them in the Peninsula. For a long time past, all kinds
+of common woollen fabrics, such as clothing for the soldiery and lower
+classes, have been made in Spain. The exportation of these fabrics is
+prohibited. As for the finer wools, these also are employed in several
+places, but more than anywhere else at Guadalajara, where I visited the
+factories towards the end of the year 1783. I was surprised to remark
+that in several respects the manufacture had reached a great pitch of
+perfection. I say _I was surprised_, because I had heard, times without
+number, that the Spaniards were completely ignorant of these processes,
+and did not know how to card, or spin, or weave, or dye, or full, or
+calender; that their stuffs grew loose and wore badly; that the price
+was exorbitant, etc. How many prejudices of this nature was I able to
+throw aside after fair and deliberate examination of the stuffs in
+question! I will only quote a single point to prove that the censures
+which are aimed at the Spaniards respecting the quality of their cloths
+are not applicable to them all, and that they are well upon the road to
+being entirely undeserving of them. I was shown at Guadalajara a piece
+of scarlet cloth, which, both for its excellent quality and for its
+skilful dyeing, seemed to me to be quite comparable with the best cloths
+of Julienne. These latter cost at their place of manufacture as much as
+thirty-nine _livres_ the ell. At Guadalajara, I noted from the tariff
+established in the factory, that the price of the finest scarlet cloth
+was only from thirty-one to thirty-two _livres_ the ell. Comparing these
+and other figures on the tariff, I came to the conclusion that there was
+about the same difference in price between Spanish cloths and French
+cloths, in favour of the former. What seems more singular still is that
+the factories which work at the King's expense are generally
+administered in a thriftless fashion, and that the factory of
+Guadalajara was being greatly mismanaged at the time in question.
+However, subsequently to my visit, changes for the better have been
+introduced, which will improve the quality of, as well as cheapen, its
+products, though, even when I saw it, this factory was one of the most
+perfect to be seen anywhere. Within a space by no means large, it
+contained all the machines and apparatus required for clothmaking,
+except the thin, polished pasteboards which are placed between the
+folds of a piece of cloth as it is passed through the press. These were
+still brought from England; but everything else was prepared upon the
+spot, even to the large scissors used in the shearing. There were eighty
+looms for the finest cloths, whose proper name is _cloths of San
+Fernando_, from the town where they were first produced; a hundred for
+cloths of the second quality; and five hundred and six for making
+serges, in which, in course of time, hopes are entertained of excelling
+those of England.[31] All these looms were contained in two buildings,
+and kept employed three thousand eight hundred and twenty-five persons,
+all of them paid by the King,[32] without counting some forty thousand
+more dispersed all over the Castilian and Manchegan tableland, engaged
+in spinning the wool which is made up into stuffs at Guadalajara. It
+would be difficult, I am sure, to find a factory better organized. Even
+the town in which it is, presents a striking contrast with others of
+that neighbourhood. I did not see one single mendicant or idler among
+all its fifteen or sixteen thousand inhabitants. Such are the good
+results of its manufactures, and, above all, those of cloth, including
+many small and detailed processes which women, children, aged people, or
+even the sick are able to perform. Here, where Nature seemed to have
+condemned these ailing folk to a tedious and useless existence, art, as
+it were, steps in and finds employment and relief for them.
+Nevertheless, it must be owned that the Spaniards (as they themselves
+admit) are still a little behindhand in the method of dyeing and
+fulling their cloths, though when a people possess (as they) the raw
+materials needed, both for making and for dyeing, a few men skilled in
+these processes are all that is wanted to perfect several branches of
+this industry; especially when, as is the case in Spain, government
+spares no effort to achieve this end. Guadalajara is further the only
+place in Spain which produces the celebrated Vicuña cloth; an admirable
+fabric for which the rest of the world has cause to envy Spanish
+America.[33] As the use of this cloth has not as yet become general, it
+is not continually manufactured, nor is it easy to obtain a few ells of
+it without ordering them several months in advance. This stuff is also
+manufactured for the King of Spain, who makes presents of it to various
+other monarchs. In the year 1782, after concluding a treaty with the
+Porte, he sent twenty pieces of it to the Sultan of Turkey. They gave
+great satisfaction. It has been imagined from this circumstance that
+Spain would not be loth to supply the Turkish market with her cloths;
+and other of the manufacturing nations have felt some measure of alarm,
+perhaps unnecessarily. The Spanish government has too much sense to
+enter upon such a competition with other peoples as long as Spain does
+not supply the whole of the two and twenty million citizens who live
+beneath her rule. The same government, too, is well aware how remote is
+this degree of prosperity. The clothworks of Guadalajara have a kind of
+branch factory at Brihuega, four leagues distant. At Brihuega there are
+a hundred looms, all used for making fabrics of the finest quality.
+
+  [29] This recalls the statement made, centuries before, by Alonso de
+       Cartagena at the Council of Bâle: "And if the English should vaunt
+       the cunning of their cloth-makers, then would I tell them somewhat;
+       for if our country lack the weavers to make a cloth so delicate as
+       the scarlet cloths of London, yet is that substance titled _grana_
+       (the kermes, or scarlet grain), from which the scarlet cloth
+       receives its pleasantness of smell and brilliancy of hue, raised
+       in the kingdom of Castile, and thence conveyed to England, and
+       even to Italy."--Larruga, _Memorias_, Vol. XIV., p. 167.
+
+  [30] "The weight of an _arroba_ is twenty-seven pounds. The average
+       price is from twenty-three to twenty-seven _livres_ the _arroba_
+       of unwashed wool of the best quality, which pays five _livres_ ten
+       _sols_ of export duty. The _arroba_ of washed wool pays double."
+
+  [31] "It has been calculated that Spain, about this time, paid annually
+       to England two million pounds sterling per annum, solely on account
+       of her woollens."
+
+  [32] "His Majesty maintained this factory by a monthly payment from his
+       treasury of one hundred and fifty thousand _livres_; an exorbitant
+       amount, which very possibly would not be covered by the sales of
+       cloth."
+
+       Townsend wrote in 1787 "Royal manufactures and monopolies have a
+       baneful influence on population: for, as no private adventurers
+       can stand the competition with their sovereign, where he is the
+       great monopolist, trade will never prosper. The Spanish monarch is
+       a manufacturer of
+
+            Broad cloth, at Guadalajara and Brihuega;
+            China, at the palace of the Buen Retiro;
+            Cards, at Madrid and Málaga;
+            Glass, at San Ildefonso;
+            Paper, in Segovia;
+            Pottery, at Talavera;
+            Saltpetre, at Madrid and various other places;
+            Stockings, at Valdemoro;
+            Swords, at Toledo;
+            Tapestry, at Madrid;
+            Tissue, at Talavera.
+
+       He has the monopoly of brandy, cards, gunpowder, lead, quicksilver,
+       sealing-wax, salts, sulphur, and tobacco."--(_Journey through
+       Spain_, Vol. II., p. 240.)
+
+  [33] "It is made from wools of Buenos Aires and Peru. The wool of the
+       former of these regions is the longer, but the Peruvian is the more
+       silky."
+
+"Segovia, famous at all periods for the excellence of her wool, was
+formerly not less so for the number and perfection of her clothworks.
+Now, every patriotic Spaniard must lament to see how she has fallen. In
+the year 1785 the number of her looms did not exceed two hundred and
+fifty. The most important factory was that of Ortiz, founded in 1779
+under the title of _Real Fábrica_: the King possessed an interest in it.
+In 1785 Ortiz was still employing three thousand workers in and about
+Segovia, and manufactured every quality of cloth in sixty-three looms,
+from the pieces which contained the two thousand threads prescribed by
+the _Ordenanzas_, to those which should contain four thousand. His
+energy was only hampered by the indolent character of the Segovians. The
+privileges wherewith the government has sought to stimulate his first
+experiments in this craft are not at all injurious to the other
+manufacturers. They all concur to sell their goods, and at a reasonable
+price. In September of 1785, the most expensive cloths cost only ninety
+reals the _vara_; that is to say, about thirty-one _livres_ and ten
+_sols_ the ell."
+
+                            [Illustration: X
+                         PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH
+       (_Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+Townsend wrote, precisely at the same time as Bourgoing: "Segovia was
+once famous for its cloth, made on the King's account; but other nations
+have since become rivals in this branch, and the manufacture in this
+city has been gradually declining. When the King gave it up to a private
+company, he left about three thousand pounds in trade; but now he is no
+longer a partner in the business.[34] In the year 1612 were made here
+twenty-five thousand five hundred pieces of cloth, which consumed
+forty-four thousand six hundred and twenty-five quintals of wool, and
+employed thirty-four thousand one hundred and eighty-nine persons; but
+at present they make only about four thousand pieces. The principal
+imperfections of this cloth are, that the thread is not even, and that
+much grease remains in it when it is delivered to the dyer; in
+consequence of which the colour is apt to fail. Yet, independently of
+imperfections, so many are the disadvantages under which the manufacture
+labours, that foreigners can afford to pay three pounds for the _arroba_
+of fine wool, for which the Spaniard gives no more than twenty
+shillings, and after all his charges can command the market even in the
+ports of Spain.
+
+"In the year 1525, the city contained five thousand families, but now
+they do not surpass two thousand--a scanty population this for
+twenty-five parishes; yet, besides the twenty-five churches, together
+with the cathedral, they have one and twenty convents. When the canal is
+finished, and the communication opened to the Bay of Biscay at
+Santander, the trade and manufactures of Segovia may revive; but,
+previous to that event, there can be nothing to inspire them with hope."
+
+  [34] A report presented by the Council of Commerce to the Marquis of la
+       Ensenada, put forward, in 1744, the absurd pretence that the king
+       of Spain maintained his factories "not for any State convenience
+       or _ad lucrum captandum_, but in order to augment our own products,
+       and diminish those which are imported from abroad."--Larruga's
+       _Memorias_, Vol. XV., pp. 70 and 247. Also see the conference
+       delivered by the Count of Torreánaz in 1886, in the Royal Spanish
+       Academy of Moral and Political Science; p. 27, note.
+
+       Several of the Spanish Crown factories were finally taken over by
+       the association--immensely wealthy at one period--known as the Five
+       Chief Gremios of Madrid (_Los Cinco Gremios Mayores de la Villa de
+       Madrid_), and it is clear that the investment of a large amount of
+       capital, subscribed by many shareholders, would of itself be
+       calculated to destroy the narrow ideals and what I may term the
+       individually greedy spirit which hitherto had ruled within the
+       craftsman's private family. Private interests, in short, were
+       superseded by the larger interests of a powerful company. That
+       which I have mentioned was composed of the five _gremios_ of the
+       capital of Spain which subscribed the largest sums in taxes to the
+       national exchequer; namely, the drapers, haberdashers, spicers and
+       druggists, jewellers, cloth-merchants, and linen-drapers. For many
+       years this association administered, on government's behalf, the
+       _alcabalas_, _tercias_, and _cientos_ of the town and district of
+       Madrid, and subsequently (A.D. 1745) the _millones_ tax, together
+       with other important dues, and ultimately, as I have stated, took
+       over, on a liberal scale of purchase, the royal cloth and silk
+       factories of Talavera de la Reina (A.D. 1785), San Fernando,
+       Guadalajara, Brihuega, Ezcaray, and Cuenca. The decay and downfall
+       of the company was due to gross mismanagement, and indeed, the
+       idiosyncrasies of the Spanish character render this people, even
+       at the present day, but little fitted to embark upon commercial
+       schemes requiring competent directors, heavy capital, and confident
+       assistance, moral and material, from a large body of investors.
+       Spaniards, as I have insisted elsewhere, do not pull well together;
+       and so, early in the nineteenth century, the association of the
+       five great _gremios_, which had possessed at one time many millions
+       of _pesetas_, suspended payment of all dividends. It is fair to
+       add, however, that this collapse was partly owing to the wars
+       between France and Spain.
+
+Swinburne had written of the same city ten years earlier (1776): "The
+inhabitants do not appear much the richer for their cloth manufactory.
+Indeed, it is not in a very flourishing condition; but what cloth they
+make is very fine."
+
+                           [Illustration: XI
+                         PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH
+       (_Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+The Ordinances of Granada (A.D. 1532), from which we learn that cloth
+was also manufactured at that capital, contain the usual dispositions
+relative to the stamping of this product by the city officers. The
+stamps were in a box which was kept in a corner of the cathedral and
+closed by two keys, guarded severally by a councillor and an inspector
+of the trade, or _veedor_. On every day except a public festival,
+between the hours of ten and eleven of the morning, and three and four
+of the afternoon, it was the duty of these two authorities to proceed to
+the Alcaicería, and ascertain if any cloth required stamping. If so, the
+stamps were fetched forthwith from the cathedral, the cloth was marked,
+and the stamps were solemnly restored to their chest beneath the double
+key.
+
+Among the woven fabrics other than those of silk, and which are
+specified in the Ordinances of Granada relative to the _tundidores_ or
+shearers, are cloths of Florence, Flanders, London, Valencia, Zaragoza,
+Onteniente, Segovia, and Perpignan; _velarte_ (a fine cloth manufactured
+at Granada), red _burel_ (kersey) of Baeza, black kersey of Villanueva
+and La Mancha, _ruan_ (Roan linen), fustians, friezes, and _cordellate_
+(grogram) of Granada, Valencia, Toledo, Segovia, and Cuenca. According
+to Capmany, cloths of the commoner kind, and which were popular about
+this time, were the _granas treintenas_ and black cloths of Valencia,
+the white or yellow _veintiseiseno_ cloths of Toledo, the white cloths
+of Ciudad Real, the green _palmillas_ of Cuenca, and green
+_dieciochenos_ of Segovia, the _contrayes_ of Cazalla, and the
+_pardillos_ of Aragon. Spanish cloth was also manufactured at Vergara,
+Cordova, Jaen, Murcia, Palencia, Tavira de Durango, and Medina del
+Campo.
+
+                           [Illustration: XII
+                          EMBROIDERED CHASUBLE
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+Laborde says: "In the archives of the Crowns of Aragon and Castile there
+is a notice of the duties paid from the thirteenth to the end of the
+seventeenth century for foreign cloths sold in Spain, and for other
+articles of consumption coming from abroad. The principal cloths came
+from Bruges, Montpellier, and London; the velvets from Malines,
+Courtrai, Ypres, and Florence. This trade became so injurious to Spain,
+that Ferdinand and Isabella thought themselves bound to limit it
+entirely to the stuffs required for ornaments of the church, which of
+itself was a considerable quantity. Their prohibition is the subject of
+the rescript of September 2nd, 1494, for the provinces of the Crown of
+Castile. Even so far back as the Ordinances of Barcelona in 1271,
+mention is made of the taxes levied on the cloths of Flanders, Arras,
+Lannoy, Paris, Saint Denis, Chalons, Beziers, and Reims."[35]
+
+  [35] In the reign of Francis the First, the importation of Catalan cloth
+       into France was prohibited altogether.--Levasseur, _Histoire des
+       classes ouvrières en France_, Vol. II., p. 73.
+
+       Among the various cloths (exclusively or chiefly of the less
+       expensive kinds) which were manufactured in the capital and country
+       of Cataluña, we read of those of pure scarlet, scarlet tinted with
+       light or dark purple, ash-coloured, carmine, and rose; of cloth of
+       combed wool, _medias lanas_ (half-woollens), serges, and _cadinas_
+       or _banyolenchs_. But before the close of the fifteenth century
+       the production of these fabrics had suffered a serious decline
+       caused by the tactless government of Ferdinand the Catholic, and
+       above all, by the introduction of the Inquisition into Barcelona.
+       A privilege of Ferdinand, granted on November 4th, 1493, to the
+       Barcelonese clothmakers, admits that this was the foremost and
+       most useful local manufacture ("no y ha altre art ni offici que mes
+       util done"), adding, however, that it had fallen into a state of
+       sad prostration "owing to the indisposition of these times."
+       (Capmany, _Memorias_, Vol. II., _Doc._ ccxliv).
+
+       This was undoubtedly the case; for in a report of the city council
+       drawn up in 1491, it is stated that good cloth can only be
+       manufactured from good wool, but that this had now become a
+       difficult matter at Barcelona, because the clothmakers were without
+       the money to purchase such wool. In consequence, they appealed to
+       the city (then even more resourceless than themselves) to help
+       them.
+
+       Although it has become fashionable in some quarters to deny that
+       the Inquisition contributed in a sensible degree to the decline of
+       Spanish arts and industries, the following passage, quoted from the
+       municipal archives of Barcelona, places the fact beyond all
+       argument as far as this locality is concerned. The city councillors
+       declared in 1492 that "by reason of the Inquisition established in
+       this city, many evils have befallen our commerce, together with the
+       depopulation of the said city, and much other and irreparable
+       damage to her welfare; and as much more harm will occur in the
+       future, unless a remedy be applied, wherefore the said councillors
+       entreat of the king's majesty that of his wonted clemency he order
+       the said Inquisition to cease; or else that he repair the matter in
+       such wise that _the merchants who departed because of the
+       Inquisition_ may return, and continue in the service of their God,
+       their king, and of the general welfare of the city aforesaid."
+
+                          [Illustration: XIII
+           EMBROIDERED _MANGA_ OR CASE OF PROCESSIONAL CROSS
+               (_Early 16th Century; Toledo Cathedral_)]
+
+In 1809 the same author remarked: "The kingdom of Valencia produces
+little wool, yet there are five manufactories of woollens and coarse and
+fine cloths: they are at Morella, Enguera, Bocairente, Onteniente, and
+Alcoy. The small woollen stuffs are principally made at Enguera; nothing
+but the coarsest cloths are made at Morella, Bocairente, and Onteniente.
+The manufactory at Alcoy is the most considerable: the cloths, though
+finer, are generally of an inferior quality. The woof of them is thick,
+with little nap upon it. The finest are scarcely superior to the
+beautiful cloths of Carcassonne."
+
+
+                               EMBROIDERY
+
+The art of embroidering, and especially of embroidering with the aid of
+gold and silver thread, was communicated to the Spaniards by the Spanish
+Moors, who doubtless had derived it from the East. By about the
+thirteenth century, the needle of the Spanish embroiderer had become, in
+the picturesque phrase of one of his compatriots, "a veritable painter's
+brush, describing facile outlines on luxurious fabrics, and filling in
+the spaces, sometimes with brilliant hues, or sometimes with harmonious,
+softly-graduated tones which imitate the entire colour-scheme of
+Nature." Nevertheless, it was not until the fifteenth and the sixteenth
+centuries that this art attained, in the Peninsula, its topmost summit
+of perfection.
+
+It is not at all surprising that embroidery should have made great
+progress among a people so devoted to the outward and spectacular forms
+of worship as the Spaniards; nor have the chasubles, copes, and other
+vestments of the Spanish prelacy and priesthood ever been surpassed for
+costly splendour[36] (Plates x., xi., xii.). But generally where the
+Spanish embroiderer excelled was in the mere manipulation of the needle.
+In fertility of design he was far outdistanced by the Germans and
+Italians, and was even to a large extent their imitator; for Spanish
+embroidery, as occurred with Spanish painting, was influenced, almost to
+an overwhelming degree, firstly by northern art, and subsequently by the
+art of the Renaissance.
+
+  [36] The cathedrals of Toledo and Palencia are particularly rich in
+       sets of magnificently embroidered vestments. "Each set," says
+       Riaño, "generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope, altar
+       frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces.
+       The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of
+       saints, are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MSS."
+
+                           [Illustration: XIV
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT]
+
+These tendencies or characteristics will be found in nearly all the
+masterpieces of Spanish embroidery that have been preserved until
+to-day, of which perhaps the most remarkable specimens are the _manga_
+or case of the great processional cross presented by Cardinal Cisneros
+to Toledo cathedral, and the "_Tanto Monta_" embroidered tapestry
+belonging to the same temple. The _manga grande_, known as that of the
+Corpus (Plate xiii.), is in the Gothic style, with reminiscences of
+German art, and consists of the following four scenes arranged in panels
+thirty-seven inches high, and hung successively about the handle of the
+cross:--
+
+  (1) The Ascension of the Virgin Mary, who is supported by six angels.
+
+  (2) The Adoration of the Magi.
+
+  (3) San Ildefonso in the act of cutting off a piece of the veil of
+      Santa Leocadia, patron of Toledo.
+
+  (4) The Martyrdom of San Eugenio, another patron of the city of Toledo.
+
+The ground of this elaborate "sleeve" is a fabric of rich silk, on which
+the embroidery is worked in gold and silver thread and coloured silks,
+principally blue and red, combined in delicate, harmonious tones. The
+figures are outlined with fine gold cord, which forms a kind of frame or
+fencing to confine the stretches of smooth silk. The careful copying of
+architectural detail is stated by Serrano Fatigati to be strongly
+characteristic of Spanish industrial art in the fourteenth, fifteenth,
+and even sixteenth centuries. The same writer considers that this
+"sleeve" was executed towards the year 1514, when embroiderers of great
+renown, such as Alonso Hernández, Juan de Talavera, Martin Ruiz,
+Hernando de la Rica, Pedro de Burgos, and Marcos de Covarrubias were
+engaged on similar work in the venerable city of the Tagus. Two out of
+the four panels, says Serrano Fatigati, may possibly be from the hand of
+Covarrubias, who was a famous craftsman of his time, and held the post
+of master-embroiderer in Toledo cathedral. In any case, the four panels
+are evidently not all by the same artist, nor do they appear to have
+been executed at precisely the same period.
+
+                           [Illustration: XV
+       EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT, WITH THE ARMS OF CARDINAL MENDOZA
+                  (_15th Century. Toledo Cathedral_)]
+
+The gorgeous embroidered tapestry which also belongs to this cathedral
+(where it serves as a hanging or _colgadura_ for the altar on the day of
+Corpus Christi), and which is known as the "Tanto Monta" _tapiz_, is
+stated by some authorities to have been the _dosel_ or bed canopy of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, and to have been purchased, in the year 1517,
+for 900,000 _maravedis_ by Alonso Fernández de Tendilla, steward of
+those sovereigns. Riaño gives the following account of the same
+object:--
+
+"As a fine specimen of embroidery on a large scale, must be mentioned
+the _dosel_ or canopy called the tent of Ferdinand and Isabella, which
+was used in the reception of the English envoys, Thomas Salvaige and
+Richard Nanfan, who were sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage
+of Prince Henry with the Infanta Doña Catalina." The ambassadors
+describe it in the following manner: "After the tilting was over, the
+kings returned to the palace, and took the ambassadors with them, and
+entered a large room; and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of
+rich crimson velvet, richly embroidered with the arms of Castile and
+Aragon, and covered with the device of the King which is a ... (blank
+in original),[37] and his motto, written at length, which is 'Tanto
+Monta.'" ("Memorials of King Henry the Seventh," Gairdner, London, 1858,
+p. 348).
+
+  [37] The device of Ferdinand the Catholic was a yoke; the sheaf of
+       arrows, that of Isabella. (See Vol. II., p. 147, etc.).
+
+Riaño also describes the mantle of the Virgen del Sagrario at Toledo.
+"It is completely covered with pearls and jewels forming a most
+effective ornamentation. This embroidery was made in the beginning of
+the seventeenth century, during the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who
+presented it to the church." Señor Parro, in his exhaustive work _Toledo
+en la Mano_ (Vol. I., p. 574), gives the following account of it: "It is
+made of twelve yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is
+entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre there is a
+jewel of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each side,
+of enamelled gold, emeralds, and large rubies. A variety of other jewels
+are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part are the
+arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on gold and studded with sapphires
+and rubies. The centre of this mantle is covered with flowers and
+pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of different sizes. Round the
+borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the gems which are employed in
+this superb work of art, no less than two hundred and fifty-seven ounces
+of pearls of different sizes were used, three hundred ounces of gold
+thread, a hundred and sixty ounces of small pieces of enamelled gold,
+and eight ounces of emeralds."
+
+                           [Illustration: XVI
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+As in other countries, embroidery in Spain was executed in the bygone
+time, both by paid embroiderers, and as a domestic occupation by the
+ladies of the aristocracy. The work of the professional embroiderer
+consisted principally of paraments or altar-fronts (Plates xiv., xv.,
+xvi., xvii.), and ecclesiastical vestments. Among the former of this
+class of objects, nothing is finer than the _frontal_ of the Chapel of
+Saint George in the Audiencia of Barcelona. It is believed to have been
+wrought by Antonio Sadurni, a Catalan embroiderer who flourished in the
+middle of the fifteenth century. The scene represented is the combat
+between Saint George (patron of Cataluña) and the dragon. The saint has
+rescued a damsel from the monster's claws, and her parents are looking
+on from a _mirador_ of their palace. This central episode is surrounded
+with borders and arabesques of extraordinary richness.
+
+Riaño gives a list, compiled from Cean, Martinez, Suarez de Figueroa,
+and other authors, of forty-seven Spanish embroiderers of the fifteenth,
+sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. More recently, Ramírez
+de Arellano has discovered, among the municipal archives of Cordova, the
+names of sixteen others, who resided at that city towards, or early in,
+the seventeenth century. The craftsmen in question were Diego de
+Aguilar, Juan Bautista, Bernardo Carrillo, Luis Carrillo de Quijana,
+Andrés Fernández de Montemayor, Hernán Gómez del Río, Diego Fabián de
+Herrera, Diego del Hierro, Diego López de Herrera, Diego López de
+Valenzuela, Antonio de Morales, Gonzalo de Ocaña, Mateo Sanguino, Manuel
+Torralbo, Cristóbal de Valenzuela, and Martin de la Vega.
+
+Documents in the same archive contain additional particulars respecting
+two or three of these artificers. Thus, on February 10th, 1607, Hernán
+Gómez del Río engaged himself to embroider for the convent of the
+Trinity at Cordova, "a bordering for a chasuble and four _faldones_ for
+dalmatics, with their collars and _sabastros_ and _bocas mangas_. The
+said _bocas mangas_ to be four in number, and the collars two; also the
+_collaretes_ which may be necessary for the two dalmatics, and which I
+am to embroider in silk and gold upon white satin. The _collaretes_ also
+to be embroidered by me in silk and gold to match a bordering of white
+satin for a cloak in possession of the said convent." Further, the
+convent was to supply the artist with the quantity of white satin
+required, and pay him two hundred and ten ducats, secured by certain of
+the convent's revenues, for the gold, the silk, and the workmanship.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVII
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONTS
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+Manuel Torralbo contracted to embroider a velvet altar-front and its
+corresponding _fronteleras_ for the parish church of Luque, at a price
+of three hundred _reales_; and Cristóbal de Valenzuela (on September
+25th, 1604) to embroider two frontals for the altar of the church of
+Obejo. One of them was to be of purple velvet worked in gold, and the
+other of "black velvet, with borders and _caidas_ embroidered in yellow
+satin and white satin, with skulls and bones embroidered in gold."[38]
+
+  [38] The skull and crossbones were a favourite design upon these
+       objects. The Church of the Escorial possesses four paraments so
+       decorated, which were shown, in 1878, at the Parisian Exhibition
+       of Retrospective Art.
+
+Turning our attention to the embroidery which was executed, principally
+as a recreation, by highborn Spanish ladies of some centuries ago, the
+romance of _El Compte Arnau_, quoted by Miquel y Badía and written in
+Catalan and Provençal, contains the following lines:--
+
+             "¿ Ahout teniu las vostras fillas--muller leal?
+              ¿ Ahout teniu las vostras fillas--viudeta igual?
+                A la cambra son que _brodan_--Compte l'Arnau
+                A la cambra son que _brodan_--seda y estam."
+
+Isabella the Catholic presented to the Chapel Royal of the cathedral of
+Granada an ecclesiastical robe embroidered by her own hands for the
+festival of Corpus Christi. The material was black satin brocade, with a
+fringe of white silk, and the letters IHS in white damask.[39]
+
+  [39] Gómez Moreno; _Apuntes que pueden servir de historia del bordado
+       de imagineria en Granada_ (_El Liceo de Granada_; 6th year,
+       No. 18).
+
+                          [Illustration: XVIII
+                      WIFE OF WELL-TO-DO MERCHANT
+             (_Palma, Balearic Islands. About A.D. 1810_)]
+
+The same usage continued in the seventeenth century. Countess d'Aulnoy
+says: "Young ladies of great beauty and of noble blood engage themselves
+to wait on ladies of the aristocracy, and spend most of their time
+embroidering the collars and sleeves of shirts in gold, silver, and
+coloured silk, although, if they be suffered to follow their liking,
+they work but little, and gossip a great deal." The same writer refers
+repeatedly to the sumptuous embroideries in use among the upper classes
+of the Spaniards of that time. Thus, the bed-pillows of the Princess of
+Monteleón were embroidered with gold. The sleeves of the coat of Charles
+the Second were of white silk, very large, opening towards the wrist,
+and embroidered with blue silk and jet, the rest of his costume being
+embroidered in white and blue silk. In the palace of the same monarch,
+the daïs of the throne-room was covered with "a wondrous carpet, and the
+throne and its canopy were embroidered with pearls, diamonds, rubies,
+emeralds, and other precious stones." The cloaks of the chevaliers who
+belonged to the Military Orders of Santiago, Calatrava, and Alcántara
+were embroidered with gold. The gentlemen of Madrid covered their horses
+with silver gauze, and trappings embroidered with gold and pearls.[40]
+The same gentlemen wore coats whose sleeves were of coloured satin,
+embroidered with silk and jet, and even their lackeys, when they
+attended their masters in a procession, wore uniforms of cloth
+embroidered with gold and silver. Unmarried girls and brides wore
+gold-embroidered bodices. The chairs in which the ladies of Madrid paid
+visits were made of cloth embroidered in gold and silver, stretched upon
+the wooden frame. In the train of the Duchess of Terranova went six
+litters covered with embroidered velvet. "In the parish church of San
+Sebastián," wrote Countess d'Aulnoy, "I have seen a hand-chair made by
+order of the queen-mother, for carrying the Sacrament to sick persons in
+bad weather. It is lined with crimson velvet embroidered in gold and
+covered with hide studded with gilt nails: it has large window-glasses,
+and a kind of small belfry full of golden bells."
+
+  [40] A similar usage prevailed at Valladolid. The account of this city
+       as it existed in 1605, published by Gayangos in the _Revista de
+       España_, describes Don Juan de Tassis, Count of Villamediana, as
+       "riding in the finest clothes imaginable; his cloak, jacket,
+       breeches, shoes, and the trappings, harness, reins, etc., of his
+       horse, being all embroidered with the finest twisted silver thread.
+       Even his horse's blinkers were of the same material."
+
+With the succession of a French line of sovereigns to the throne of
+Spain, a taste for French embroideries passed into the Peninsula, and
+these, in course of time, were imitated by the Spanish craftsmen.[41]
+"We find," says Riaño, "that Madrid was the principal centre of this
+industry, and that French designs were universally copied, as was the
+case in the whole of Europe. The splendid curtains and embroidered
+hangings for apartments which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the
+Escorial, and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens."
+
+  [41] The use of embroidery was, however, greatly curbed by sumptuary
+       pragmatics, issued early in this century (see Vol. I., pp. 287,
+       289). A similar pragmatic had appeared in 1622; but it is clear
+       from the passages I have quoted, that little or no attention was
+       paid to it.
+
+I may mention here the embroidery, often of a rich and highly ornate
+character, which is, or used to be, applied to the regional costumes of
+Spain. Plate ix. is reproduced from a rare print in my possession,
+showing the gala dress, as it existed in the year 1777, of the _charra_
+of Salamanca, with full, white sleeves ornamented in black embroidery
+with animals and other devices. A similar costume is still worn in that
+neighbourhood. Plate xviii., also copied from a print in my collection,
+dating from about the year 1810, shows the costume worn by the women of
+the well-to-do middle class of the island of Majorca. "Le jupon ou
+_guardapies_," says the manuscript description prefixed to this series
+of plates, "en mousseline, complete le costume de cette insulaire: il
+est orné au bas de riches broderies, mais assez court pour laisser voir
+un joli petit pied chaussé d'un bas de coton ou de soie et d'un élégant
+soulier de satin."
+
+
+                                TAPESTRY
+
+There is a dim tradition, derived from or supported by a Latin poet
+("Tunc operosa suis _Hispana tapetia_ villis") that carpets or
+tapestries of some kind were made in the Spanish Peninsula in the time
+of the Romans. Undoubtedly this craft was practised by the
+Spanish-Moors, particularly in the regions of Valencia, Alicante,
+Cuenca, and Granada. This statement is confirmed by two laconic notices
+which occur in the _Description of Africa and Spain_ of Edrisi, a
+Mohammedan geographer of the twelfth century. Of the town of Chinchilla,
+in Alicante province, he wrote,--"woollen carpets are made here, such as
+could not be manufactured anywhere else, owing to the qualities of the
+air and water"; and of Cuenca, "excellent woollen carpets are
+manufactured at this town."
+
+"En Espagne," says Müntz, "l'industrie textile ne tarda pas à prendre
+également le plus brilliant essor, grâce à la conquête maure. Les
+étoffes d'Almeria acquirent rapidement une réputation européenne; il est
+vrai que c'étaient des brocarts, des damas, et autres tissus analogues,
+non des tapisseries: l'influence qu'elles furent appelées à exercer au
+dehors se borna donc au domaine de l'ornementation."
+
+                           [Illustration: XIX
+                         THE "GENESIS TAPESTRY"
+                  (_12th Century; Gerona Cathedral_)]
+
+Of a similar composition to the foregoing fabrics specified by
+Müntz--that is to say, not genuine tapestries, although requiring for
+several reasons to be classed with these--is the celebrated "Genesis"
+(Plate xix.) of the cathedral of Gerona. This primitive yet complicated
+work of art, dating from the twelfth century, is embroidered in crewels
+upon linen, and represents the creation of the world. Its dimensions are
+about four yards high by four and a half yards wide; but the bordering
+has been torn away in places. The design is thus described by
+Riaño:--"In the centre is a geometrical figure formed by two concentric
+circles. In the lesser circle is a figure of Christ holding an open
+book, on which appear the words _Sanctus Deus_, and on each side _Rex
+fortis_, surrounded by the inscription, _Dixit quoque Deus, Fiat lux, Et
+facta est lux_. In the larger circle are the words, _In principio
+creavit Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia quæ in eis sunt, et vidit
+Deus cuncta quæ egerat et erant valde bona_.
+
+"The space between the two circles is divided by radiating lines into
+eight portions, in which are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of
+light and darkness: the division of land from water, the creation of
+sun, moon, and stars, of birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve.
+In the angles outside the larger circle are the four winds, and the
+whole is surrounded by a border, imperfect in parts, containing
+representations of the months, and apparently of certain scriptural
+incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out."
+
+The royal palaces of Spain and many of her noble houses have possessed,
+from about the fifteenth century, splendid collections of the costliest
+tapestries, consisting principally of _paños de Ras_, or "Arras cloths"
+(as they were called among the Spaniards, and especially in Aragon).
+Until a later period all, or very nearly all, these objects were
+imported from the Flemish workshops.[42] At the palace of a nobleman in
+Madrid, Bertaut de Rouen observed "les plus belles tapisseries du
+monde." The same author tells us that in the seventeenth century, when
+he visited Spain and wrote his entertaining _Journal_, it was customary
+for the walls of the royal palace to be hung with tapestry in winter,
+these hangings being removed for greater coolness in the summer months.
+In reading descriptions of Spanish life referring to the same period,
+one is struck by the craze which prevailed among the Spaniards for
+displaying tapestries and other gay-coloured fabrics in all kinds of
+places and on every possible occasion. Thus, Bertaut de Rouen relates
+that when he saw a play performed in the Alcázar, "le long de ces deux
+costez de la salle estoient seulement deux grands bancs couverts de
+tapis de Perse"; that the boxes at the bull-fights, both at Madrid and
+in the country, were "tapissées de brocatelle de soye"; and that the
+lower part of the dome in one of the chapels of Seville cathedral was
+decorated with the same material. At the haunted castle of Quebaro, on
+the road from Galareta to Vitoria, Countess d'Aulnoy saw upon the walls
+of a large chamber, some tapestries representing the amours of Don Pedro
+the Cruel and of Doña María de Padilla. "This lady was depicted seated,
+like a queen, among various other ladies, while the king crowned her
+with a chaplet of flowers. Elsewhere Doña María was reposing in a
+forest, as the king offered her a falcon. I also saw her dressed as a
+warrior while the king, in armour, offered her a sword. This set me
+thinking whether she had ever accompanied Don Pedro in one of his
+campaigns. All the figures in these tapestries were badly drawn, but Don
+Fernando assured me that all well-executed likenesses of Doña María de
+Padilla represented her to be a woman of rare charm, the loveliest of
+her century."
+
+  [42] "A côté de l'Italie, il faut citer l'Espagne, tributaire comme
+       elle des ateliers flamands. Les résidences royales regorgeaient
+       de ces précieux tissus, qui aujourd'hui encore, à Madrid ou à
+       l'Escurial, se chiffrent par centaines. Parmi les présents que le
+       roi de Castille envoya à Tamerlan ([dagger] 1405), on remarquait
+       des tapisseries dont les portraits étaient faits avec tant de
+       délicatesse, dit un chroniqueur persan, que si on voulait leur
+       comparer les ouvrages merveilleux autrefois exécutés par le
+       peintre Mani sur la toile d'Artène, Mani serait couvert de honte
+       et ses ouvrages paraîtraient difformes."--Müntz, _La Tapisserie_,
+       p. 172.
+
+Pinheiro da Veiga says that at Valladolid in 1605, a banquet was
+celebrated in "a large gallery, completely covered with the richest silk
+brocade, as were most of the other apartments." He also says that cloths
+of similar richness were employed as street-awnings. "Upon the ninth was
+the Corpus procession, at which the king was to assist; and a
+proclamation was issued that none should promenade on horseback or in
+coaches. I found nothing remarkable in this procession, unless it were
+the hangings and the awnings to keep off the sun, which were of the
+richest damask and brocade." Of the same _fiesta_ Countess d'Aulnoy
+wrote in 1679: "The streets through which the procession has to pass are
+adorned with the finest tapestries in all the world, since in addition
+to those belonging to the Crown, many of the greatest beauty are
+displayed by private persons. The _celosías_ of all the balconies are
+replaced by elaborate canopies and hangings, and the whole roadway is
+covered with an awning to ward off the sun, and which, for the sake of
+greater freshness, is moistened with a little water." Nearly identical
+with this account is that of Alexander de Laborde, who wrote, a century
+and a quarter later than the Countess; "On Corpus Christi day there is a
+grand procession composed of the regular and secular clergy of Madrid,
+followed by the king, his ministers, and court, each bearing in his hand
+a wax taper. Magnificent awnings of tapestry are raised in the streets
+through which the procession is to pass; the balconies are decorated
+with splendid hangings; the seats are covered with cushions, and
+occasionally surmounted with a daïs; in some of the streets the face of
+day is darkened by canopies which stretch from one side to the other.
+Altars are placed at regular intervals; the balconies are thronged with
+ladies superbly dressed, who sprinkle scented water, or scatter fragrant
+flowers on the passing multitudes."
+
+Pinheiro da Veiga also describes a set of remarkable tapestries,
+evidently Flemish, which he saw in the Chapter-room of the Convent of
+Cármen Calzado at Valladolid. "It was hung with the richest tapestry,
+silk, and paintings that had belonged to the Duke of Lerma. I greatly
+admired some cloths of green velvet, worked all over with the _Bucolics_
+of Virgil, in _tarjas_ embroidered in silk and gold, as though they were
+_sebastos_[43] of ecclesiastical vestments, but these were old, of great
+value, and extraordinary merit. Finer still were certain cloths of
+recent workmanship, such as I had never seen equalled, of a white
+material painted in tempera, with the borders, dresses, and faces of the
+personages on them wrought in twisted gold. I never saw anything so
+brilliant or so novel. The cloths were eight in number, with four
+embroidered _guardapuertas_. The persons figured upon them wore belts of
+real pearls, rings set with diamonds and rubies on their fingers, and
+gold chains and medals studded with precious stones, just as living
+people wear them."
+
+  [43] A Portuguese word meaning a strip of silk upon the back of a
+       chasuble.
+
+The fashion of collecting foreign tapestries seems to have reached its
+height at the Spanish capital in the first half of the seventeenth
+century. "Nowadays," wrote Fernandez de Navarrete, in his _Conservacion
+de Monarquías_, published in 1626, "gentlemen are not contented with
+hangings which a few years ago were considered good enough to adorn a
+prince's palace. The Spanish taffetas and guadamecíes, so highly
+esteemed in other provinces, are held of no account in this one
+(Madrid). The _sargas_ and _arãbeles_ wherewith the moderation of the
+Spanish people was satisfied in former days, must now be turned into
+injurious _telas rizas_ of Florence and Milan, and into costliest
+Brussels tapestry."
+
+                           [Illustration: XX
+            _TAPIZ_ OF CRIMSON VELVET WORKED IN GOLD TISSUE
+          (_16th Century. Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos_)]
+
+It is perhaps allowable to include among the oldest makers of Spanish
+tapestry the names of Gonzalo de Mesa and Diego Roman, who, in the year
+1331, were paid respectively one thousand _maravedis_ and eighteen
+hundred _maravedis_, for decorating the tents of King Sancho the Fourth.
+There also exists the following entry, dating from the same period; "To
+Boançibre, master of the tents; XXX _maravedis_ for his food, for
+fifteen days."[44]
+
+  [44] Manuel G. Simancas, _Artistas Castellanos del Siglo XIII_ (_Boletín
+       de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_ for January, 1905.)
+
+Far clearer than these laconic excerpts is a document preserved in the
+library of the Academy of History at Madrid, in the form of a memorial
+presented to Philip the Second by a Spanish tapestry-maker of Salamanca,
+named Pedro Gutierrez,[45] and setting forth, in pessimistic language,
+the unhappy condition of this craft in the Peninsula. Pedro relates of
+himself that in twenty-four days he made for the Cardinal-archduke no
+less than a hundred and twenty _reposteros_; and that in order to
+exhibit his cleverness as a tapestry-weaver, he set up a loom in the
+royal palace (being officially the _tapicero_ to the Crown), and worked
+for forty days where all might criticise the product of his toil.
+Gutierrez also states that the township of Madrid had provided him with
+six hundred ducats to enable him to establish there a tapestry-factory
+for the space of ten years, together with six hundred and fifty ducats
+from the Cortes for supporting his apprentices, and a thousand ducats
+from the king to defray the cost of certain voyages he had made to
+Lisbon, Monzón, and Barcelona, and of removing his residence from
+Salamanca to the capital of Spain. He complains, however, that the house
+he dwells in at Madrid is not large enough to contain his loom, and
+replies to the objections of such persons as opposed his opening the
+tapestry-works at all (on the ground that this craft was practised
+better and more cheaply in Flanders), by asserting that Spanish makers
+of _reposteros_ were now accustomed to receive a daily wage of no more
+than three _reales_ and "a miserable meal." This, he urges, should
+render Spanish tapestries at least as inexpensive to produce as those of
+Flanders; although, upon the other hand, he admits that the colouring of
+the former is likely to prove inferior to the Flemish cloths in purity
+and durability. "Common tapestry," he says, "seldom keeps its colour
+upward of a couple of years, so that, if such were used in open sunlight
+on the backs of beasts of burden, or to cover carts, exposed to sun,
+wind, dust, and mire, or else for cleaning shoes upon, as now is
+practised with the _reposteros_, their imperfections would become
+apparent all the sooner."
+
+  [45] At about the same time that this petition was presented by
+       Gutierrez, another tapestry-maker named Pedro de Espinosa, a native
+       of Iniesta, was living at Cordova. On February 2nd, 1560, he
+       married Leonor de Burgos, and received as dowry from his bride the
+       sum of thirty-five thousand _maravedis_. (Ramírez de Arellano,
+       _Artistas Exhumados_, published in the _Boletín de la Sociedad
+       Española de Excursiones_.)
+
+Mention of these typically Spanish objects known as _reposteros_,[46]
+induces me to quote an interesting notice relating to the visit of
+Philip the Second to Cordova, in the year 1570. The train of the Duke of
+Medina Sidonia, who journeyed to this city in order to receive his
+sovereign, consisted of a hundred and three mules covered with "new
+_reposteros_ of wool, and of six mules covered with _reposteros_ of
+purple velvet, embroidered with silver and gold, and bearing the duke's
+arms."
+
+  [46] "_Reposteros_," says Riaño, "is the ancient name given to the
+       hangings which are placed outside the balconies on state occasions
+       in Spain. Several splendid examples of the sixteenth and
+       seventeenth centuries may still be seen at the houses of Spanish
+       grandees, of which those belonging to the Conde de Oñate and
+       Marques de Alcañices at Madrid are the most remarkable for their
+       artistic design."
+
+       It is surprising that Riaño should insert so incomplete a
+       definition of this word, whose primitive and proper meaning,
+       according to the Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, is "a square
+       piece of cloth with the arms of a prince or Señor, which serves for
+       covering baggage carried by beasts of burden, and also for hanging
+       in antechambers." See also Vol. II., p. 16 (note) of the present
+       work.
+
+If, as seems most likely, the woollen _reposteros_ above referred to
+were of woven work containing a device, this passage would demonstrate
+that the manufacture of the cloths in question was sometimes the
+province of the tapestry-maker and sometimes that of the embroiderer.
+Ramírez de Arellano, from whose instructive studies on the craftsmen of
+older Spain I quote the foregoing extract, says that the making of
+_reposteros_ constitutes a branch of craftsmanship distinct from
+embroidery of the common class, and that the men who produced them
+deserve to be included among artists of real merit. He gives the names
+of two, Hernán Gonzalez and Juan Ramos, who worked at Cordova in the
+middle of the sixteenth century. A document relating to the former of
+these men tells us that in those days the price of a _repostero de
+estambre_ measuring sixteen palms square, with a coat-of-arms worked in
+the centre, and a decorative border, was ninety _reales_.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXI
+                              THE SPINNERS
+                    (_By Velazquez. Prado Gallery_)]
+
+Riaño says: "I do not find any information of a later date which
+suggests the existence of the manufacture of tapestries in Spain during
+the Middle Ages." Davillier, however, affirms that in the year 1411 two
+master-makers of tapestry were living at the court of the King of
+Navarre, and that other craftsmen, holding the same title, were
+established at Barcelona in 1391 and 1433. This notice is accepted by
+Müntz: "A la fin du XIV^e et au commencement du XV^e siècle, les
+Espagnols tentèrent de fonder dans leur patrie quelques ateliers de
+haute lisse. A Barcelone, en 1391 et en 1433, plusieurs tapissiers
+(_maestros de tapices_) firent partie du grand Conseil. Mais ces
+tentaves ne semblent pas avoir eu de résultats durables. Il était plus
+commode de recourir aux manufactures flamandes, si merveilleusement
+organisées. Peut-être même ce système était-il plus économique. Ne
+voyons-nous pas aujourd'hui jusqu'à l'extrême Orient tirer, pour raison
+d'économie, des fabriques de Manchester et de Birmingham les tissus
+courants dont il a besoin?"
+
+The history of tapestry-making at Madrid may be said to date from the
+establishment in this town of a small factory by Pedro Gutierrez, whose
+petition to Philip the Second I have already quoted, and who received
+protection both from that monarch and from the queen, Doña Ana. In 1625
+Gutierrez was succeeded by Antonio Ceron, who formally styled himself
+"tapicero de nuevo, sucesor de Pedro Gutierrez" ("maker of new
+tapestries, successor to Pedro Gutierrez"), and petitioned the king for
+the grant of a meal a day, "in recompense of having taught his trade to
+eight lads, and of having mounted eight looms in (the factory of) Santa
+Isabel." This factory of Santa Isabel was so called from the street in
+which it lay, and part of it is represented in the celebrated painting
+by Velazquez called _Las Hilanderas_ ("The Spinners," not, as it is
+translated in Riaño's handbook, "The Weavers." Plate xxi.).
+
+This factory was unsuccessful, and declined by degrees until it ceased
+completely, in spite of the efforts made to revive it in 1694 by a
+Belgian named Metler, and in 1707 by a Salamanquino, Nicholas Hernández.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXII
+              TAPESTRY MADE AT BRUSSELS FROM GRANADA SILK
+              (_16th Century. Spanish Crown Collection_)]
+
+A new tapestry-factory--that of Santa Barbara--was founded shortly
+afterwards in a building known as the Casa del Abreviador. The first
+director, engaged in 1720 by order of Philip the Fifth, was Jacob Van
+der Goten, a native of Antwerp,[47] who died in 1724, and was succeeded
+at the factory by his sons, Francisco, Jacobo, Cornelius, and Adrian.
+These craftsmen worked with _basse lisse_ looms till 1729, in which year
+a _haute lisse_ loom was mounted by a Frenchman, Antoine Lenger.
+
+  [47] The royal contract with the elder Van der Goten, dated July 30th,
+       1720, was the result of secret negotiations, and largely brought
+       about by the influence of Philip's minister, Cardinal Alberoni.
+
+In 1730, when the court removed to Seville, a tapestry-factory was
+established at this city also. The director was Jacob Van der Goten the
+younger, assisted by the painter Procaccini. At the end of three years
+this factory closed its doors, and Van der Goten and Procaccini,
+returning to Madrid, established themselves at the old factory of Santa
+Isabel, from which, in 1744, they again removed to the factory of Santa
+Barbara.[48]
+
+  [48] "On Saturday, May 27th, passing through the gate of Saint Barbara,
+       I visited the tapestry manufactory, which resembles, and equals
+       in beauty, the Gobelins, whence it originally came. I found a
+       Frenchman at the head of it, who was civil and communicative.
+       This fabric was brought into Spain, and established here under
+       the direction of John de Van Dergoten, from Antwerp, in the year
+       1720. They now employ fourscore hands, and work only on the king's
+       account, and for his palaces, making and repairing all the tapestry
+       and carpets which are wanted at any of the _Sitios_, or royal
+       residences."--Townsend, in 1786.
+
+       "The elegant manufacture of tapestry is carried on without Saint
+       Barbe's gate, at the entrance of the promenade of Los Altos, or
+       Chamberi; it was established in 1720 by Philip the Fifth, at whose
+       invitation John Dergoten, of Antwerp, was induced to undertake its
+       superintendence, an office at present filled by his descendants.
+       The productions of this manufactory are carpets and tapestry, the
+       subjects of which are often drawn from fable or history; it
+       sometimes copies pictures executed by superior artists, and affords
+       daily employment to eighty persons, including dyers, drawers,
+       designers, and all its various branches."--Laborde (about 1800).
+
+In 1774, when, with the exception of Cornelius, who was considered the
+most skilful of them all, the family of the Van der Gotens had died out,
+the direction of the Santa Barbara factory was entrusted to several
+Spanish artists, named Manuel Sanchez, Antonio Moreno, Tomás del
+Castillo, and Domingo Galan. Sanchez, who acted as general
+superintendent of the works, died in 1786, and was succeeded in this
+office by his nephew, Livinio Stuck, whose son resumed the directorship
+in 1815, after the factory had been paralysed by the invasion of the
+Peninsula, and destroyed by the French in 1808. Since then it has never
+ceased working, and descendants of the Stucks continue to superintend it
+at the present day.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIII
+                        A PROMENADE IN ANDALUSIA
+                   (_Cartoon for Tapestry. By Goya_)]
+
+The collection of tapestry belonging to the Crown of Spain is probably
+the finest in the world. As far back as the reign of Ferdinand and
+Isabella the walls of the royal palace were hung with decorative textile
+cloths or _paños de Ras_, and among the officers in the household of
+their son, the youthful Prince Don Juan, we find included a keeper of
+the tapestry and _reposteros_. But it was not until the reigns of
+Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second that the royal collection was
+enriched with numerous sets of celebrated tapestries produced in Italy
+and Flanders--countries which were then subjected to the yoke of Spain.
+Frequent additions were also made throughout the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, both from abroad and subsequently (when the
+Brussels industry declined) from the Spanish factories of Santa Isabel
+and Santa Barbara.
+
+As early as the year 1600 a Spaniard wrote enthusiastically of "the rich
+and cunning tapestries belonging to His Majesty, to whom it would be
+easier to win a kingdom than to get them made anew."[49] At the present
+day it is impossible to estimate with any certainty the number of these
+tapestries, the greater part of which are locked away. Only on certain
+festivals, such as the days of Corpus Christi and the Candelaria
+(Purification), a few are unfolded and displayed in the upper galleries
+of the palace at Madrid. Their total number is believed to be not far
+short of one thousand pieces;[50] but Señor Tormo calculates that were
+they no more than five hundred, they would, if placed end to end, cover
+more than two miles of ground.
+
+  [49] Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los Ríos, _Noticia general para la
+       estimación de las Artes y de la manera en que se conocen las
+       liberales de las que son mecánicas y serviles_.
+
+  [50] Riaño estimates them at this number. See his _Report on a
+       collection of photographs from tapestries of the Royal Palace of
+       Madrid_; London, 1875; and also _Tapices de la Corona de España_,
+       with 135 plates in phototype, and text by Count Valencia de Don
+       Juan; Madrid, Hauser and Menet, 1903.
+
+Among the sets which form this wonderful collection, distributed between
+the palaces of Madrid, the Prado, and the Escorial, none is of greater
+merit or magnificence than the series of twelve cloths depicting the
+_Conquest of Tunis_ (Plate xxii.), designed for Charles the Fifth by his
+Court painter, Jan Vermay or Vermeyen, of Beverwyck, near Haarlem, and
+executed by William Pannemaker, of Brussels. It was agreed by Pannemaker
+in 1549 that the materials employed upon this tapestry should consist of
+the finest wool, Granada silk, and, for the woof, the choicest Lyons
+_fillet_--the very best that money could procure. The Emperor himself
+was to provide the gold and silver thread. Accordingly, Pannemaker was
+supplied with five hundred and fifty-nine pounds and one ounce of silk,
+dyed and spun in the city of Granada, where one of Charles' agents
+resided for two years seven months and twenty-five days, for the purpose
+of superintending its preparation. The cost of this silk, exclusive of
+the agent's expenses, amounted to 6,637 florins. Nineteen colours were
+employed in the dyeing, each colour consisting of from three to seven
+shades, and a hundred and sixty pounds of the finest silk were consumed
+in trying to obtain a special shade of blue.
+
+After receiving these materials, Pannemaker kept seven workmen
+constantly engaged upon each _paño_ of this tapestry, or eighty-four
+workmen in all. As soon as any one of the pieces was concluded, he
+submitted it to experts who pointed out such details as they recommended
+for correction. The entire work required a little more than five years,
+and was therefore terminated in 1554. The price paid for it was twelve
+florins per ell, and the number of these was 1246, representing a total
+cost of 14,952 florins, while Pannemaker, subject to the Emperor's being
+satisfied with the work, was further promised a yearly pension of a
+hundred florins.[51]
+
+  [51] Müntz, _La Tapisserie_, pp. 217, 218. Wauters, _Les Tapisseries
+       Bruxelloises_, pp. 76, 77. Houdoy, _Tapisseries représentant la
+       Conqueste du Royaulme de Thunes par l'empereur Charles-Quint_.
+
+Equally remarkable are the spirited design and the flawless execution of
+this series of elaborate cloths, recalling, in their swarms of armed
+figures and the lofty point of view, which reduces the sky to a mere
+strip, the vivacious war and camp pictures of Snyders. The titles of the
+subjects, forming, as it were, a pictured epitome of the expedition led
+by Charles in person against the Barbary pirates, are as follows: (1) A
+map of the Spanish coast; (2) The review of the troops at Barcelona; (3)
+The landing of the forces; (4) A skirmish; (5) The camp; (6) Foraging;
+(7) The capture of La Goleta; (8) The battle of Los Pozos, Tunis; (9) A
+sortie of the besieged; (10) The sack of Tunis; (11) The victors
+returning to the harbour; (12) The forces embarking.
+
+According to Müntz, this tapestry has been copied at least on two
+occasions; once in the eighteenth century by Josse de Vos, of Brussels,
+and also, in the same century, in Spain, partly at Seville, and partly
+at the factories of Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIV
+              TAPESTRY. ARRAS WORK, FROM ITALIAN CARTOONS
+           (_First half of 15th Century. Zamora Cathedral_)]
+
+Other most valuable and beautiful tapestries belonging to the Spanish
+Crown are the series titled _The History of the Virgin_, believed to be
+from cartoons by Van Eyk, _The Passion_, from cartoons attributed to Van
+der Weyden, the _History of David_ and _History of Saint John the
+Baptist_, the _Mass of Saint Gregory_, and the _Founding of Rome_. All
+of these series date from the fifteenth century and early in the
+sixteenth. Belonging to a later period are the reproductions of rustic
+scenes and hunting subjects by Teniers and others, executed in Spain
+between 1721 and 1724, the _Scenes from Don Quixote_, made at Santa
+Barbara from Procaccini's cartoons, and the eminently national series
+produced at the same factory from designs by Francisco Goya y Lucientes.
+This latter group amounts to several dozen pieces, including the
+well-known _Blind Man's Buff_, _A Promenade in Andalusia_ (Plate
+xxiii.), _The Crockery-seller_, _The Grape-Gatherers_ (_Frontispiece_),
+and other spirited and charming scenes of popular Spanish life--"tout
+cela," as Lefort describes it, "spirituel, vif, pittoresque, très
+mouvementé, bien groupé, s'élevant sur des fonds champêtres ou baignant
+gaiement en pleine lumière."
+
+Other tapestry collections of great merit belong to the cathedrals of
+Burgos, Zamora (where they line the walls of the Sacristy; Plate xxiv.),
+Zaragoza, Toledo, Tarragona, and Santiago. The first of these temples
+possesses the following sets, which are displayed to decorate the
+cloisters on the feast of Corpus Christi:--
+
+
+             (1) The History of Cleopatra and Mark Antony.
+             (2) The History of David.
+             (3) The Creation.
+             (4) An Historical Subject.
+             (5) The Theological and Cardinal Virtues.
+             (6) A series of five Gothic tapestries, which represent some
+                 mystery or allegory, and seem to be of Flemish
+                 manufacture. One other _paño_, of a similar character,
+                 accompanies them.
+
+All but the last of the above sets are marked with two B's separated by
+a shield, denoting Brussels workmanship. The _Theological and Cardinal
+Virtues_ were presented to the cathedral about the end of the sixteenth
+century. They are evidently executed from Italian cartoons, and the
+_haute-lisse_ craftsman who made them, in or towards the year 1571, was
+named Francis Greubels.[52]
+
+  [52] See an article on these tapestries by Señor Lamperez y Romea,
+       published in No. 55 of the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de
+       Excursiones_; and also Nos. 156 and 157 of the same publication,
+       for an article on the Crown and other Spanish collections, by
+       Elías Tormo y Monzó.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXV
+                            FLEMISH TAPESTRY
+  (_Late 15th Century. Collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don
+                                Juan_)]
+
+The tapestries which belong to the cathedral of Zaragoza number some
+sixty or seventy pieces, including a series (fifteenth century)
+representing _The Life of Saint John the Baptist_, from designs by Lucas
+of Holland. Good tapestries were also the property of Valencia
+cathedral, but have been dispersed and sold in recent years. The convent
+of the Descalzas Reales at Madrid possesses a set from designs by
+Rubens. Ten pieces of this series formerly belonged to the Count-Duke of
+Olivares, who sent them to his town of Loeches; four passing
+subsequently to the Duke of Westminster's collection. The small though
+valuable collection formed by the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+(Plate xxv.), passed at this nobleman's death to his daughter, Señora de
+Osma, who has presented part of it to the Archæological Museum at
+Madrid. Another collector resident in Spain, Mons. Mersmann, of Granada,
+possesses a series of fine Brussels cloths representing scenes from _Don
+Quixote_, by Van den Hecke.
+
+
+                                  LACE
+
+Although the Spaniards have enjoyed, and still enjoy, a widespread fame
+for lace-making, their written records of this craft are unsubstantial.
+Originally, perhaps, they borrowed it from the Arabs or Venetians.
+Certainly, the earliest Spanish lace was such as is made with a needle,
+that is, point, not pillow lace. In this form, _à la aguja_, and in the
+sixteenth century, the Spaniards possibly conveyed the secrets of its
+manufacture to the Netherlands, receiving from the natives of this
+country, in exchange, the art of making lace by means of bobbins,
+including the characteristic "Flemish net," or _red flandés_.
+
+Towards the sixteenth century the parts of Spain where lace was
+manufactured in the largest quantity were some of the Manchegan towns
+and villages, the coast of Finisterre, and nearly the whole of Cataluña.
+In La Mancha lace was made, and still is so, at Manzanares, Granatula,
+Almagro, and other places. That of Almagro (the celebrated _punto de
+Almagro_, resembling the lace of Cataluña), is mentioned by nearly all
+the older travellers. In _Don Quixote_, Teresa writes to Sancho Panza
+that their daughter Sanchita was engaged in making bobbin-lace at a
+daily wage of eight _sueldos_.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVI
+                      THE MARCHIONESS OF LA SOLANA
+                              (_By Goya_)]
+
+In 1877, at the Exhibition of Sumptuary Arts which was held in
+Barcelona, a magnificent lace _toca_ was shown, which was affirmed by
+its possessor, Señor Parcerisa, to be the work of a Spaniard of the
+later part of the fifteenth century, and to have belonged to Isabella
+the Catholic. The cathedral of the same city owns three thread-lace albs
+of sixteenth century workmanship, and the South Kensington Museum other
+pieces of Spanish lace of a comparatively early date, probably made by
+nuns and subtracted from the convents during the stormy scenes of 1835.
+
+Dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we have a number of
+notices, though scrappy and inexplicit as a rule, relating to Spanish
+lace. One of the more complete and interesting is quoted by Riaño from
+the _Microcosmia y Gobierno Universal del Hombre Cristiano_ (Barcelona,
+1592) of Father Marcos Antonio de Campos. "I will not be silent," wrote
+this austere _padre_, "and fail to mention the time lost these last
+years in the manufacture of _cadenetas_, a work of thread combined with
+gold and silver; this extravagance and excess reached such a point that
+100 and 1000 ducats were spent in this work, in which, besides
+destroying the eyesight, wasting away the lives, and rendering
+consumptive the women who worked it, and preventing them from spending
+their time with more advantage to their souls, a few ounces of thread
+and years of time were wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I ask
+myself, after this fancy shall have passed away, will the lady or
+gentleman find that the chemises that cost them 50 ducats, or the
+_basquiña_ (petticoat) that cost them 300, are worth half their price,
+which certainly is the case with other objects in which the material
+itself is worth more?"
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVII
+                            A SPANISH _MAJA_
+                             (_A.D. 1777_)]
+
+Several of the other notices relating to the lace-makers' craft are from
+the pen of Countess d'Aulnoy. Of the Countess of Lemos this writer says:
+"Her hair was white, but she carefully concealed it beneath a black
+blonde"; and of another Spanish lady, Doña Leonor de Toledo, that she
+wore "a green velvet skirt trimmed with Spanish blonde." In the
+apartments of the young Princess of Monteleón the countess saw "a bed of
+green and gold damask, decorated with silver brocade and Spanish blonde.
+The sheets were fringed with English point-lace, extremely broad and
+handsome." The countess also says that the petticoats of the Spanish
+ladies were of English point-lace,[53] and that these ladies, when they
+visited each other, wore on their heads "a _toca_ of the richest English
+black point-lace, half a yard broad, forming points like the antique
+laces, beautiful to look at, and very dear. This head-dress suits them
+rarely."
+
+  [53] Upon the other hand, a notice dated 1562 says that at that time
+       Spanish-made black lace was largely used at the Court of England.
+
+According to Balsa de la Vega, whose interesting articles on Spanish
+lace (published in the newspaper _El Liberal_) are worth perusal by all
+who are interested in this craft, about the middle of the seventeenth
+century the custom originated in Spain of making lace in broader pieces,
+dividing the pattern into a number of strips or _fajas_ which were
+subsequently sewn together. In Belgium, on the contrary, the design was
+cut out, following the contour of the floral or other decoration.
+
+In former ages gold and silver lace was made in France, and also at
+Genoa. I think it possible that Genoese merchants, many of whom are
+known to have settled in Granada and other Spanish cities, may first
+have introduced this branch of lace-making among the Spaniards. The
+sumptuary laws of Aragon, Castile, León, and Navarre would seem to show
+that lace of these materials, known as _punto_ or _redecilla de oro_ (or
+_plata_) was manufactured by the Spanish Jews between the twelfth and
+fifteenth centuries. During the seventeenth century and part of the
+eighteenth, the quantity produced in the Peninsula was very large. In
+his _Fenix de Cataluña_, a work which was published at Barcelona in
+1683, Feliu de la Peña says that Spanish _randa_ or _réseuil_, of gold
+and silver, silk, thread, and aloe fibre, was better made in Spain than
+in the Netherlands. The journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the
+following notice of this silver lace: "Le Roy y envoya le Lieutenant du
+Maistre des Postes, avec huit postillons, couverts de clinquant, et
+quarante chevaux de poste, dont il y en avoit huit avec des selles et
+des brides du Roy où il y avoit de la dentelle d'argent, que Monsieur le
+Mareschal fit distribuer à environ autant de gens que nous estions, sur
+une liste qu'il avoit envoyée quelques jours auparavant."
+
+                         [Illustration: XXVIII
+                                A _MAJA_
+                              (_By Goya_)]
+
+It is impossible to mention Spanish lace without recalling that most
+graceful article of headwear, the _mantilla_, the use of which is
+gradually dying out. At present we understand by this word a black or
+white head-covering of lace alone (the white being more conspicuous and
+dressy), but about a hundred years ago the _mantilla_ was made of a
+variety of fabrics. Also, it was worn in an easier and more _negligé_
+manner than nowadays, retaining a closer likeness to the _velo_ or
+_manto_ with which the Spanish women of the seventeenth century were
+able, at their pleasure, to completely mask their faces (Plates xxvi.
+and xxvii.). Indeed, as late as the early part of the nineteenth century
+the _mantilla_ was sometimes thrown over the face (Plates xxviii. and
+xxix.). The same usage is referred to by Townsend, who describes the
+_mantilla_ as "serving the double purpose of a cloak and veil."[54]
+To-day it is worn, not hanging loose and open, but a good deal bunched
+up at the bosom. The hair, too, is dressed to an unusual height, with a
+tall comb, and over this the delicate lace covering should droop a
+little to one side. A flower or two (roses or carnations by preference)
+may be worn at one side of the head, and where the _mantilla_ is caught
+up at the breast.
+
+  [54] "Pour les femmes, elles ne sortent point qu'emmantelées d'une mante
+       noire comme le deüil des dames de France, et elles ne se montrent
+       qu'un [oe]uil, et vont cherchant et agaçant les hommes avec tant
+       d'effronterie, qu'elles tiennent à affront quand on ne veut pas
+       aller plus loin que la conversation."--Bertaut de Rouen; _Journal
+       du Voyage d'Espagne_, p. 294.
+
+The manuscript account of Spanish costumes early in the nineteenth
+century, and which is prefixed to my copy of Pigal's coloured
+lithographs, contains some excellent descriptions of the older Spanish
+_mantilla_. We learn, for instance, that at Palma the women of the
+well-to-do middle class wore a _mantilla_ of black taffeta, trimmed with
+blonde (Plate xviii.).[55] In La Mancha, and among the peasants, it was
+of white muslin; at Cordova, in cold weather, "en flanelle ou en bayette
+fine: elle est garnie de rubans à l'extrémité desquels il y a deux gros
+noeuds: en été elle est en mousseline." The small _mantilla_ or
+"mantellina" of the wife of the smuggler of Tarifa was "en flanelle
+blanche, ou noire, ou rose, brodée d'un ruban: elle en fait três souvent
+un usage différent des autres femmes espagnoles, car au lieu de la
+mettre sur la tête attachés avec des épingles, elle s'en sert de schal:
+quelque fois elle la met en baudrier laissant flotter derrière elle les
+deux extrémités qui sont ornées d'un noeud en ruban." The servant-girl
+of Madrid wore a white _mantilla_ in summer, and a black one in winter.
+The same author describes in greater detail the _mantillas_ of the fine
+ladies. "La mantille et la basquigne," he says, "voila de quoi se
+compose principalement le costume du beau sexe en Espagne. Ce costume,
+quoique national, est susceptible de recevoir aussi bien que tout autre
+les divers degrés de luxe que les femmes d'une riche classe et celles du
+plus haut rang peuvent apporter dans leur parure: la classe la moins
+aisée porte la mantille en laine noire ou blanche et la basquigne en
+serge ou autre étoffe de laine noire. Pendant le jour, lorsque les dames
+espagnoles se présentent en public, c'est toujours avec la mantille et
+la basquigne, mais le soir si elles vont au spectacle ou ailleurs, elles
+sortent três souvent habillées à la française."
+
+  [55] Blonde, I need hardly state, is silk-lace. It can always be
+       distinguished by the glossy surface.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIX
+                            A LADY OF SORIA
+                          (_About A.D. 1810_)]
+
+Elsewhere he says: "Nous avons déjà dit qu'un simple ruban, un peigne,
+ou une fleur, est la coiffure adoptée par les dames espagnoles, pour
+faire usage de la mantille: celle-ci est dans l'hiver quelquefois en
+serge de soie, taffetas, etc., noir, garnie en outre de blondes, ou d'un
+large ruban de velours noir en échiquier (_cinta de terciopelo à
+tablero_), mais ce ruban est toujours noir. Il y eut un temps où la
+mode, qui ne fut pas de longue durée, prescrivait que les bouts de la
+mantille se terminassent en trois pointes ornées chacune d'une houppe
+(_borla_) noire, ou d'un lacet de ruban noir. Jamais les mantilles ne
+sont doublées."
+
+The same author remarks of the lady of Madrid; "La mantille de tulle
+brodé ne se porte que dans la belle saison ... elle ne dépasse jamais
+la ceinture"[56]; and of the lady of Granada: "si la mantille est
+blanche, elle est en tulle parsemé de petits bouquets et garnie de
+larges et riches dentelles. Si elle est noire, comme cela arrive plus
+ordinairement, elle est alors en blonde: il y a de ces mantilles qui
+coutent cinq cent, mille, et jusqu'à deux mille francs."
+
+  [56] This is incorrect. It was sometimes worn longer.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXX
+                      HANDKERCHIEF OF CATALAN LACE
+       (_Presented to Queen Victoria of Spain, on her marriage_)]
+
+A good deal of lace, principally of the less elaborate and cheaper
+kinds, was formerly manufactured in the kingdom of Valencia. Cabanillas
+wrote in 1797 that at Novelda, a small town of this region, more than
+two thousand women and children worked at making laces, which were
+hawked about the country by others of the townspeople. Swinburne remarks
+upon the same industry, and Ricord tells us in his pamphlet (1791) that
+cotton lace was made in six factories at Torrente, Alicante, and
+Orihuela.[57] The total product of these factories for the said year was
+1,636,100 yards, which sold at from nine to twelve _reales_ the yard.
+Laborde wrote some years later, in the first volume of his book, that
+lace, and gold and silver fringes were then made at Valencia, and in the
+fourth volume; "Gold and silver laced stuffs, and velvets of all colours
+brocaded and flowered with the same metals, are made at Toledo,
+Barcelona, Valencia, and Talavera de la Reina; and the manufacture at
+the last-named city annually consumes four thousand marks of silver, and
+seventy marks of gold.
+
+  [57] A letter from Vargas y Ponce to Cean Bermudez, dated 1797, says
+       that in this year there existed at Murcia a school for making
+       blondes, owned by one Castilla. "He does good work, teaches well,
+       and has executed blondes for the Queen, which are well spoken of."
+
+"At Barcelona, Talavera de la Reina, and Valencia are also manufactured
+gold and silver edgings, lace, and fringes, though not in a sufficient
+quantity to answer the demands of Spain; and the gold is very badly
+prepared, having too red a cast."
+
+Lace-making was an ancient and important industry of every part of
+Cataluña. Lace articles for ladies' headwear are known to have been made
+throughout this region at least as far back as the fifteenth century,
+and Capmany reminds us that by a _cedula_ dated from the Cortes of
+Monzón, December 16th, 1538, the Emperor Charles the Fifth confirmed the
+Ordinances of the guild, established long before, of the _tejedores de
+velos_ of Barcelona. Technical provisions are embodied in this code,
+concerning various articles of lace employed as headwear, such as
+_alfardillas_, _quiñales_, and _espumilla_, all of which were largely
+exported to America.
+
+The attention of foreigners who travelled in Cataluña towards the
+eighteenth century was constantly attracted by the lace-makers.
+Swinburne mentions "Martorell, a large town, where much black lace is
+manufactured," and "Espalungera (Esparraguera?), a long village, full of
+cloth and lace manufacturers," and wrote of Sarriá and its surroundings,
+close to Barcelona: "The women in the little hamlets were busy with
+their bobbins making black lace, some of which, of the coarser kind, is
+spun out of the leaf of the aloe. It is curious, but of little use, for
+it grows mucilaginous with washing."
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXI
+                        CURTAIN OF SPANISH LACE
+                   (_Point and Pillow Work. Modern_)]
+
+"Martorell," wrote Townsend in 1786, "is one long, narrow street, in
+which poverty, industry, and filth, although seldom seen together, have
+agreed to take up their abode. The inhabitants make lace, and even the
+little children of three and four years old are engaged in this
+employment." Laborde wrote that at the beginning of the eighteenth
+century seventeen manufactories of blondes were established at Mataró,
+and adds of Barcelona province generally at that time: "Laces and
+blondes constitute the employment of women and children. The work is
+principally done at Pineda, Malgrat, San Celoni, Tosa, Canet, Arenys,
+Callela, San-Pol, Mataró, Esparraguera, Martorell, and Barcelona.... The
+laces are almost all shipped for the New World."
+
+The most observant and most entertaining of all these tourists was
+Arthur Young, who wrote, in 1787, of the towns upon the coast of
+Cataluña: "The appearance of industry is as great as it can be: great
+numbers of fishing-boats and nets, with rows of good white houses on the
+sea-side; and while the men are active in their fisheries, the women are
+equally busy making lace." Of Mataró he says: "It appears exceedingly
+industrious; some stocking-frames; lace-makers at every door.... I am
+sorry to add that here also the industry of catching lice in each
+other's heads is well understood.
+
+"Pass Arrengs (Arenys), a large town ... making thread lace universal
+here. They have thread from France; women earn ten to sixteen _sous_ at
+it. Great industry, and in consequence a flourishing appearance. Canet,
+another large town, employed also in ship-building, fishing, and making
+lace.... Pass Malgrat, which is not so well built as the other towns,
+but much lace made in it.... Reach Figueras, whose inhabitants seem
+industrious and active. They make lace, cordage, and mats, and have many
+potteries of a common sort."[58]
+
+  [58] Tour in Catalonia in 1787; Vol. I., p. 644, etc.
+
+Lace-making prevails to-day all through this region of north-eastern
+Spain, particularly in the strip or zone of it including the valley of
+the Llobregat as far as Martorell, and which extends from Palamós to
+Barcelona. The towns which produce the greatest quantities of lace are
+Arenys de Mar, Malgrat, San Pol, Canet, and Arenys de Munt. In the last
+of these places an important Regional Exhibition of Lace was held in
+July of last year, the number of exhibitors amounting to one hundred and
+twenty-five. Due to the increasing production of underlinen and woven
+fabrics generally, or to other causes, lace-making has declined at
+Blanes, Pineda, Calella, and one or two other places. At San Celoni,
+Vallgorguina, San Vicente, San Andrés de Llevaneras, Argentona, Caldeta,
+and San Acisclo de Vilalta, lace is made by women who combine this work
+with dirtier and rougher labour in the field. Most of the lace made in
+these towns is therefore black.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXII
+                   POINT LACE FAN, OF MUDEJAR DESIGN
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+In the spring of last year, an elaborate lace pocket-handkerchief (Plate
+xxx.), designed by Señor Riquer, and executed in a traditional style of
+Cataluña, denominated locally the _ret Catalá_, was made in the
+old-established lace-factory of the widow of Mariano Castells in the
+town of Arenys de Mar, and offered by the Agricultural Institute of San
+Isidro as a wedding-present to Princess Ena of Battenberg. Two
+_encajeras_ worked at this handkerchief under the personal direction of
+the widow Castells, and the time employed by them in making it was two
+months.
+
+Plate xxxi. represents a small portion of a very original and beautiful
+lace curtain, ten feet high, designed by Señor Aguado, and executed,
+partly by Señorita Pilar Huguet (who superintended the work throughout),
+and partly by seventeen of this lady's pupils, at the School of Arts and
+Industries, Toledo. Although it is a hackneyed trope to declare that the
+ornamentation of the Spanish-Moors, whether in ivory, wood or metal,
+stone or plaster, was "delicate enough to seem of lacework," I believe
+this to be the first occasion when such intricate and graceful motives
+have been actually reproduced in lace. The result of the experiment has
+proved surprisingly effective. The design is Spanish-Arabic in its
+purest form, recalling various arabesques upon the walls of the
+Alhambra, and includes thirty-three medallions which constitute the
+principal decorative scheme, a hundred and forty-eight palms or
+_alharacas_, and the Arabic expression "God is all-powerful," repeated
+sixty-six times. The centre of the curtain consists in all of four
+hundred and forty-eight pieces. The broad cenefa or bordering, which
+runs right round the whole, contains, in Arabic, the following
+inscription: "This curtain was begun in the _curso_ (course or series of
+classes) of the year 1903-1904, and terminated in the _curso_ following,
+(Art) School of Toledo." The style adopted throughout is that of
+Brussels, known erroneously as English point, although upon a coarser
+scale than is considered to be proper to this lace, the ground being
+executed by the needle, or in point-work, and the rest by bobbins.
+
+Plate xxxii. represents a covering for a fan, also executed by Señorita
+Huguet, and also in the Brussels style. The design is a combination of
+Mudejar motives, such as conventional foliage and geometrical bordering,
+with a Spanish scutcheon and the double-headed eagle of the Emperor
+Charles the Fifth.
+
+At the present day, and largely owing to the initiative and the skilled
+tuition of Señor Salvi, excellent lace is manufactured at Madrid,
+including reproductions--which have been generally admired in Great
+Britain and elsewhere--of the finest point or bobbin work of Malines,
+Manchester, and Venice.
+
+
+
+
+                               Appendices
+
+                               APPENDIX A
+
+                  THE LEGEND OF SAN MIGUEL IN EXCELSIS
+
+
+Towards the year A.D. 707, when Witiza was king of Spain, there dwelt at
+the castle of Goñi, not far from the city of Pamplona in Navarre, a
+cavalier named Don Theodosio, whose wife, Doña Constanza de Viandra, was
+a lady of remarkable beauty. On one occasion Don Theodosio found himself
+obliged to quit his native country for a time, in order to command a
+military expedition against the Berbers, and before his departure he
+begged his father and mother to cheer his wife's loneliness while he
+should be away, by taking up their residence at his castle. They came
+accordingly, and as a special mark of honour to the parents of her lord,
+Doña Constanza gave up to them her own chamber, together with the
+nuptial couch. After a time, when Theodosio's enterprise was concluded,
+and the warrior, safe and sound, was returning to Navarre, the Devil,
+disguised as a hermit, one evening lay in wait for him at a spot called
+Errotavidea, situated at a few miles' distance from Goñi castle, in the
+wooded and romantic valley of the Ollo. Stepping up to the cavalier's
+side, Satan assured him, in a tone of smooth hypocrisy, that during his
+absence the lady Constanza had been seduced by one of Theodosio's own
+servants. Upon the knight's demanding proof, "proceed," replied the
+Devil, "to your castle, enter your nuptial chamber, and there you will
+find your consort in the very arms of her paramour." Frantic with
+apprehension, the warrior spurred home, broke into his chamber at the
+dead of night, and, passing his hand over the bed, encountered, as Satan
+had malignantly foretold, two bodies; whereupon he drew his sword and,
+in this moment of fatal and irreflective haste, murdered his own father
+and mother. Then, just as he was rushing from the room, he met, carrying
+a lighted lamp, the lady Constanza herself, returning from the chapel in
+which, as was her custom every night, she had been praying for his safe
+return.
+
+Smitten with deep repentance for the crime, whose enormity had been
+discovered by the impetuous lord in so dramatic and dreadful a fashion,
+Theodosio journeyed to Rome, and related what had happened to the Pope,
+who sentenced him to wear a heavy iron collar round his neck, and chains
+about his body, and to wander, in a state of rigorous penance, through
+the loneliest regions of Navarre, without setting foot in any town,
+until, as a sign that divine justice was satisfied, the chains should
+fall from off him. Wherever this should come to pass, he was instructed
+to build a temple in honour of the archangel Michael.
+
+The sentence was patiently performed, and Theodosio had spent some years
+in solitary wandering, when on a day a single link dropped from his
+ponderous chains. This happened on the top of a high mountain called
+Ayedo, in the Sierra de Andía, and accordingly the penitent erected on
+the spot a simple fane in the archangel's honour, known by the name of
+San Miguel de Ayedo, and which, in the form of a little hermitage, still
+exists.
+
+This proof of heavenly grace presaged a further and a more complete
+deliverance. When Theodosio's wandering had lasted seven years, he
+reached one day the summit of Mount Aralar, at two leagues' distance
+from his own castle, and was there met by a ferocious dragon of
+appalling size. Being, as a penitent, unarmed, as well as encumbered by
+his massive chains, the miserable man fell helpless to his knees, and
+called to God to succour him. The prayer was heard. Suddenly the form of
+his patron the archangel flashed out against the sky, the dragon fell
+dead, and all of Theodosio's chains were shattered, and dropped from
+him. Here, therefore, he built another and a larger temple in honour of
+his guardian, and, accompanied by Doña Constanza, passed the remainder
+of his life in peaceful and secluded piety.
+
+The castle of Goñi, which was also called "Saint Michael's palace," and
+"the palace of the cavalier to whom Saint Michael revealed himself," was
+standing as late as the year 1685, but, according to Padre Burgui, by
+the close of another century the walls were crumbling fast. Until about
+the year 1715 there also stood an ancient wooden cross to mark the spot
+where Satan, in a hermit's garb, had appeared to Don Theodosio.
+
+
+                               APPENDIX B
+
+                          JET-WORK OF SANTIAGO
+
+In former times the art of carving jet was largely practised at this
+town. The characteristic form was the _signaculum_ or image of Saint
+James; that is, a more or less uncouth representation of the apostle in
+full pilgrim's dress. The height of these images, which are now
+dispersed all over Europe, varies between four and seven inches. They
+are fully described in Drury Fortnum's monographs, _On a signaculum of
+Saint James of Compostela_, and _Notes on other signacula of Saint James
+of Compostela_, as well as in Villa-amil y Castro's _La azabachería
+compostelana_. These objects were sold in quantities to the pilgrims
+visiting Santiago, who nevertheless were often cheated by the
+substitution of black glass for jet.[59]
+
+  [59] The following passage from Townsend's Journey through Spain (Vol.
+       II., p. 56), is curious as showing where jet was formerly found in
+       this Peninsula. "When I returned to Oviedo, a gentleman gave me a
+       collection of amber and of jet, of which there is great abundance
+       in this province: but the two most considerable mines of it are in
+       the territory of Beloncia, one in a valley called Las Guerrias, the
+       other on the side of a high mountain in the village of Arenas, in
+       the parish of Val de Soto. The former is found in slate, and looks
+       like wood: but when broke, the nodules discover a white crust,
+       inclosing yellow amber, bright and transparent. Jet and a species
+       of kennel coal, abounding with marcasites, universally accompany
+       the amber."
+
+Specimens of this work are in the British and Cluny Museums, and in the
+Archæological Museum at Madrid. An interesting jet figure of the apostle
+on horseback belonged to the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan. Jet
+processional crosses (twelfth and thirteenth century), studded with
+enamel, and which were used at funerals, are preserved in the cathedrals
+of Oviedo and Orense. Rings, rosaries, and amulets were also carved from
+this material.
+
+As to Spanish processional crosses generally (the use of which was
+undoubtedly borrowed from the standard borne at the head of pagan
+armies), I may say that they are commonly fitted with a handle, called
+the _cruz baja_ or "lower cross," though sometimes this handle is
+dispensed with, as, for instance, at the funerals of infants. According
+to Villa-amil y Castro, the typical shape of the Spanish processional
+cross has always been that denominated the _immissa_, consisting of four
+arms terminating in straight edges. The same authority says that within
+this broader definition the primitive form was the Greek cross, that is,
+having four arms of equal length. Another early form was the "Oviedo"
+cross (see Vol. I., Plate II.), with the four arms in the shape of
+trapezia, united at the centre by a disc. Of this latter shape are, or
+were, the crosses of Guarrazar and those which were presented by Alfonso
+the Second and Alfonso the Third to the cathedrals of Oviedo and
+Santiago.
+
+A later form was the _potenzada_ cross, which had a cross-piece fixed at
+the extremity of each arm. As time advanced, this T-shaped termination
+to the arms assumed such decorative and capricious forms as the trefoil
+and the fleur-de-lis. Early in the history of the Spanish church the
+processional cross consisted often of a wooden core, covered with more
+or less profusely ornamented silver plates, and having, between the
+handle and the upper part, an enamelled bulb or _n[oe]ud_. The image of
+Christ, converting the cross into the crucifix, was not attached until a
+later period, because, as Villa-amil y Castro has remarked, the
+primitive Christians considered the essential glory of their faith,
+rather than, as yet, the perils and the pains to which they were exposed
+by clinging to that faith. The cross was thus the symbol of the
+Christian's glory; the crucifix, of his suffering.[60]
+
+  [60] As for the clothing of sacred images in Spain, even these are
+       subject to changes in the fashion of costume. Ford makes merry over
+       "the Saviour in a court-dress, with wig and breeches." Swinburne
+       wrote in 1775, from Alicante: "We have been all the morning in
+       great uneasiness about Sir T. G.'s valet de chambre, who, till
+       within this hour, was not to be found in any of the places he
+       usually frequents. His appearance has quieted our apprehensions;
+       and it seems he has been from sunrise till dinner-time locked up
+       in the sacristy of the great church, curling and frizzling the
+       flaxen periwig of the statue of the Virgin, who is to-morrow to be
+       carried in solemn procession through the city."
+
+       A similar passage occurs in one of the letters of Lady Mary Wortley
+       Montagu. "I was particularly diverted," she wrote from Nuremberg in
+       1716, "in a little Roman Catholic church which is permitted here,
+       where the professors of that religion are not very rich, and
+       consequently cannot adorn their images in so rich a manner as their
+       neighbours. For, not to be quite destitute of all finery, they have
+       dressed up an image of our Saviour over the altar in a fair,
+       full-bottomed wig, very well powdered."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX C
+
+         DESCRIPTION OF THE _CUSTODIAS_ OF SEVILLE AND CORDOVA
+
+The _custodia_ of Seville cathedral is described by its author, Juan de
+Arfe, in the following terms:--
+
+The shape is circular, with projecting friezes and bases. The _custodia_
+is four yards high, and is divided into four orders of symmetrical
+proportions, the second order being smaller by two-fifths than the
+first, the third smaller by the same fraction than the second, and the
+fourth than the third. Each order rests upon four-and-twenty columns,
+twelve of which are of a larger size, and wrought in relief. The other
+and the smaller twelve are striated, and serve as imposts to the arches.
+All these orders are of open work, containing twelve _vistas_
+(prospects) apiece. Six are of full dimensions, and the other six spring
+from half-way up the larger ones, as is shown in the appended design,
+which I will not explain further, as the proportion and harmony can be
+judged of from the plan (see Vol. I., Plate xvii.).
+
+
+                              FIRST ORDER
+
+The first order is in the Ionic style. The columns and frieze are
+adorned with vines containing fruits and foliage, and some figures of
+children holding spikes of wheat, to signify bread and wine. In the
+centre of this, the largest order, is Faith, represented by the figure
+of a queen, seated on a throne, holding in her right hand a chalice with
+the host, and in the other a standard such as is seen in certain ancient
+medals of the emperors Constantine and Theodosius. Beneath her feet is a
+world, and behind her, overthrown and bound with chains, a monster with
+the face of a beautiful woman and the trunk or body of a dragon, to
+represent Heresy, which seems to attract by pleasantness of shape, being
+at bottom poison and deceit.
+
+At one side is the figure of a youth with wings, and a bandage over his
+eyes, representing Intelligence. His hands are shackled, and he is
+kneeling, as one that surrenders himself captive to Faith in all her
+mysteries, and particularly in this one.
+
+Corresponding to this figure, on the opposite side, is that of a
+beautiful woman, likewise kneeling, crossing her hands before her
+breast, and holding a book, to represent Human Wisdom, which
+acknowledges the majesty of the Catholic Faith, and is subservient
+thereto.
+
+On the right hand of Faith is Saint Peter, seated, holding his keys on
+high, and on her left Saint Paul, with naked sword, that is, the
+preaching of the word of God. High up, about the spring of the vault, is
+the figure of the Holy Spirit, assistant in the church.
+
+Between the six _asientos_ of the base are the four doctors of the
+Church, together with Saint Thomas and Pope Urban the Fourth, who
+instituted the festival of the Holy Sacrament.
+
+All these figures are half a yard in height; that is, one half the
+height of the larger columns belonging to this order.
+
+In the six niches that are between the arches, are the figures of six
+Sacraments, in this wise:--
+
+(1) _Baptism_, represented by the figure of a youth holding in one hand
+a bunch of lilies, signifying purity and innocence, and in the other a
+beautiful vessel, showing the act of washing the soul, that is the
+particular virtue of this Sacrament. Over the arch is a scroll
+containing the word BAPTISMUS.
+
+(2) _Confirmation_ is a damsel of spirited mien, armed with a helmet. In
+one hand she has some vessels of holy oil. Her other hand is raised,
+while with the index finger she expresses firm determination to confess
+the name of Christ. Inscribed upon her is the word CONFIRMATIO.
+
+(3) _Penitence_ holds in her right hand a wand, denoting spiritual
+jurisdiction, like the wand wherewith they smite the excommunicated at
+his absolution. In her left hand is a Roman javelin, that was the symbol
+of liberty, to signify the free estate of the captive's soul, and how,
+through absolution, sin is made a slave; together with the word
+P[OE]NITENTIA.
+
+(4) _Extreme Unction_ is represented by an aged woman, holding a vase
+whence issueth an olive bough, and in her other hand a candle, as token
+that this Sacrament is a succour to those that be in the last agony. The
+word inscribed is UNCTIO.
+
+(5) _Order_ is a priest with his vestments, holding an incensory,
+together with a chalice and the host, signifying Oration and Sacrifice.
+The word inscribed is ORDO.
+
+(6) _Matrimony_ is the figure of a youth, holding in one hand a cross
+with two serpents twined about it, in imitation of Mercury's wand. In
+his other hand he bears a yoke, and the inscription MATRIMONIUM.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist, as being most excellent of all,
+occupies a loftier place than all these other Sacraments.
+
+The basement of this order, forming, as it were, a boundary and
+bordering to this holy edifice of the Church, has twelve pedestals
+beneath the columns, making six and thirty sides, which are adorned with
+six and thirty scenes, eighteen whereof are taken from the Old
+Testament, and the other eighteen from the New Testament, or relating to
+the present state of the Church.
+
+(1) The first scene represents how God formed Eve from one of Adam's
+ribs. An inscription at the foot of the pedestal says, _Humani generis
+auspicia_.
+
+(2) Next to the preceding is an image of our Saviour with two angels
+supporting him by the arms, while from his wounded side issue seven rays
+of blood, signifying the Church and Sacraments. The inscription says,
+_Felicior propagatio_.
+
+(3) The tree of Life, with Adam and Eve partaking of its fruit, and the
+inscription, _Perituræ gaudia vitæ_.
+
+(4) A cross adorned with branches and with blades of wheat, surmounted
+by a chalice and the host, and round about it a few prostrate figures,
+eating this holy fruit, and the inscription, _Vitæ melioris origo_.
+
+(5) The angel with the flaming sword, driving our fathers from Paradise,
+without suffering them to reach the tree of Life. The inscription says,
+_Procul, procul esse prophani_.
+
+(6) The parable of the banquet, from which was driven out the man that
+had no wedding garment. The inscription says, _Non licet sanctum dare
+canibus_.
+
+(7) The stream of water that issued from the rock smitten by the rod of
+Moses, and the thirsty people, drinking. The inscription says, _Bibebant
+de spirituali petra_.
+
+(8) Beside the preceding, the figure of Christ, from whose side issues a
+stream of blood, of which some sheep are drinking. The inscription says,
+_Petra autem erat Christus_.
+
+(9) The manna which fell from Heaven. The inscription says,
+_Manducaverunt et mortui sunt_.
+
+(10) The miracle of the five loaves, with the inscription, _Qui manducat
+vivit in æternum_.
+
+(11) The raven bringing bread and meat to Elijah. The inscription says,
+_Non turpat dona minister_.
+
+(12) Next to this, an angel conveying a chalice and the host to the
+saints in the desert, with the inscription, _Sacerdos Angelus Domini
+est_.
+
+(13) Elisha throwing flour in the pot to sweeten the bitterness of the
+colocynth. The inscription says, _Vitæ solamen acerbæ_.
+
+(14) Christ turning the water into wine, with the inscription, _Vertit
+tristes in gaudia curas_.
+
+(15) Tobias frightening away the Devil with the smoke from the liver of
+a fish. The inscription says, _Fumum fugit atra caterva_.
+
+(16) Devils flying from an altar containing a chalice and the host, with
+the inscription, _Fugiunt phantasmata lucem_.
+
+(17) Lot inebriated, sleeping with his daughters. The inscription says,
+_De vinea sodomorum vinum eorum_.
+
+(18) A group of virgins prostrating themselves before the Sacrament upon
+the altar, with the inscription, _Hoc vinum virgines germinat_.
+
+(19) Abraham harbouring the angels and washing their feet. The
+inscription says, _Non licet illotos accedere_.
+
+(20) Christ washing the feet of his disciples before a table. The
+inscription says, _Auferte malum cogitationum vestrarum_.
+
+(21) The supper of the paschal lamb, with the inscription, _Antiqua
+novis misteria cedunt_.
+
+(22) The supper of Christ, with the inscription, _Melioris fercula
+mensæ_.
+
+(23) The throne of God, before which stands the prophet Isaiah, and an
+angel whose mouth is smitten by a lighted brand. The inscription says,
+_Purgavit filios Levi_.
+
+(24) A priest before an altar, in his robes, administering the communion
+to the Christian people. The inscription says, _Probet se ipsum homo_.
+
+(25) Elijah reclining in the shade of the tree, with an angel bringing
+him bread and a vessel. The inscription says, _In pace in idipsum_.
+
+(26) A sick man in his bed, with a priest administering the Sacrament to
+him. The inscription says, _Dormiam et requiescam_.
+
+(27) Habbakuk borne by the angels to the den of lions, to carry food to
+Daniel. The inscription says, _Adjutor in opportunitatibus_.
+
+(28) An angel with a chalice and the host, which he administers to the
+souls in Purgatory. The inscription says, _Emissit vinctos de lacu_.
+
+(29) Noah sleeping beneath the vine, holding a vessel, with his sons
+gathered about him. The inscription says, _Humanæ ebrietatis ludibria_.
+
+(30) Christ with a chalice in his hand, and angels round him, holding
+clusters of grapes, and a cross surrounded with a vine. The inscription
+says, _Calix ejus inebrians quant præclarus est_.
+
+(31) A queen adorned profanely, crowned with a snake. She holds a vessel
+in her hand, and rides upon a dragon with seven heads, some of which are
+drooping, as though they were inebriated. The inscription says,
+_Hæreticæ impietatis ebrietas_.
+
+(32) The figure of a virtuous lady wearing a royal crown. She holds a
+chalice in her hand, and rides in a car borne by the figures of the four
+evangelists. The inscription says, _Ecclesiæ Catholicæ veritas_.
+
+(33) The table with the loaves of propitiation, before the tabernacle,
+with Moses and Aaron standing beside it, and the inscription, _Umbram
+fugit veritas_.
+
+(34) A custodia, with a chalice and the host, borne by angels. The
+inscription says, _Ecce panis angelorum_.
+
+(35) David and his soldiers, who receive bread from the priest's hand.
+The inscription says, _Absit mens conscia culpæ_.
+
+(36) A priest, administering the Sacrament to two persons, each of whom
+has an angel beside him. The inscription says, _Sancta sanctis_.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+And since all Sacraments have virtue and efficacy from the passion of
+Christ our Saviour, which passion is perpetually commemorated by this
+holiest of Sacraments, I placed upon the summit of the twelve columns
+belonging to this order twelve child-angels, naked, bearing the signs
+and instruments of the Passion, as voices to announce this sacred
+mystery.
+
+On the tympanums of the arches are angels bearing grapes and ears of
+wheat, and in the middle of the six sides of the frieze are graven, upon
+some ovals, the following images and devices, the inscription
+corresponding to them being on the largest scroll of the architrave.
+
+(1) A garland of vine-tendrils and ears of wheat, and in the midst
+thereof an open pomegranate, signifying, by the number and cohesion of
+its grains, the Church, guarded within the fortress of this holiest of
+Sacraments. The inscription says, _Posuit fines tuos pacem_.
+
+(2) A hand among clouds, extended over a nest of young ravens that have
+their beaks open and raised, with the inscription _Quanto magis vos_.
+This signifies, that the Lord who taketh care to sustain the infidels
+and pagans, taketh also especial care to sustain His Church with
+abundance of this celestial food.
+
+(3) A fair stalk of wheat, whence issue seven ears of great fatness,
+with the inscription, _Sempiterna satietas_; showing that, not as in the
+seven years in Egypt, but for ever, shall spiritual abundance abide in
+the Church of Christ, owing to this holy table of His body and His
+blood.
+
+(4) A stork upon a nest woven of wheat-ears and vine-tendrils, with the
+inscription, _Pietas incomparabilis_. Showing the piety and fatherly
+love that God affordeth to us in this Sacrament.
+
+(5) A hare smelling at a bough and some ears of wheat, with the
+inscription, _Vani sunt sensus hominis_. The hare signifies the senses,
+which are deceived by the appearance of the bread and wine, unless they
+be fortified by faith.
+
+(6) A hand bearing a wand, the end whereof is turning to a serpent, with
+this inscription, _Hic vita, hic mors_; because this Sacrament is the
+judgment and condemnation of all that receive it unworthily, but life
+for such as receive it with a clean spirit. The device has reference to
+the rod of Moses, that gave health to the people of Israel, affording
+them a passage through the midst of the sea, and making streams of sweet
+water to gush from the rock, but that was ruinous to the Egyptians,
+causing among them terrible sickness and destruction.
+
+
+                              SECOND ORDER
+
+The second order is in the Corinthian style, the columns and frieze
+adorned with foliage in the upper and lower thirds, and the other one
+with fluted columns. This order contains the Holy Sacrament in a
+circular _viril_ ornamented at its ends. Round it are the four
+evangelists with the figures of the lion, bull, eagle, and angel,
+adorning the majesty of the Lord that is within the Sacrament, whereof
+they gave true testimony, according to these words upon a tablet which
+each one holdeth in his hand:--
+
+              Saint Matthew, _Hoc est corpus meum_.
+              Saint Mark, _Hic est sanguis meus_.
+              Saint John, _Caro mea vere est cibus_.
+              Saint Luke, _Hic est calix novi testamenti_.
+
+On the outside are placed these figures, in pairs:--Saint Justa and
+Saint Rufina, patron saints of Seville; San Isidro and San Leandro,
+archbishops of the same city; San Hermenegildo and San Sebastian; San
+Servando and San Germano, martyrs; San Laureano, archbishop of Seville,
+and San Carpóforo, priest; Saint Clement, pope, and Saint Florence,
+martyr.
+
+On the six running pedestals of the columns of this order are six scenes
+or figures of ancient sacrifices, symbolic of this holiest sacrifice of
+the Eucharist, as showing how this one is the consummation and
+perfection of all sacrifices, and that the light thereof dispersed the
+shadows of the others. And these be in the following wise:--
+
+(1) The sacrifice of Abel.
+
+(2) That of Noah, on his leaving the ark.
+
+(3) That of Melchisidech.
+
+(4) That of Abraham, when he sought to sacrifice Isaac.
+
+(5) That of the lamb which was found in the thornbush and placed upon
+the altar.
+
+(6) Solomon's sacrifice at his dedication of the temple.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+On the tops of these columns are twelve figures representing the twelve
+gifts and fruits of this most holy Sacrament, as they are told of by
+Saint Thomas in his treatise on this mystery:--
+
+(1) _The conquest of the Devil_, represented by a maiden beautified and
+adorned with a palm and a cross. The inscription on the pedestal says,
+_Fuga dæmonis_.
+
+(2) _Spiritual cheerfulness and delight_, in the form of another maiden,
+holding a wand wreathed with boughs and tendrils of the vine, and in her
+other hand some ears of wheat. The inscription says, _Hilaritas_.
+
+(3) _Purity of soul_, represented by a heart among flames, suspended
+over a crucible. The inscription, _Puritas_.
+
+(4) _Self-knowledge_, represented by a figure of Reason, holding in one
+hand a mirror, in which she regards herself, and in the other hand a
+leafy bough. The inscription says, _Cognitio sui_.
+
+(5) _Peace, and the appeasing of the wrath of God_, represented by a
+figure holding in one hand an olive bough, and in the other a cornucopia
+filled with grapes and wheat. The inscription, _Reconciliatio_.
+
+(6) _Inward quiet and control of the affections_, represented by a
+figure holding some poppies in one hand, and in the other a lamp, the
+lower wick of which is being extinguished. The inscription says, _Animi
+qui est_.
+
+(7) _Charity, and profound love for God and for our neighbours_,
+represented by a figure holding in one hand a lighted heart that has two
+wings, and with the other pouring from a cornucopia. The inscription
+says, _Charitas_.
+
+(8) _Increase of true worth_, represented by a figure holding in one
+hand a bough of mustard, that is wont to grow and multiply exceedingly
+from a tiny grain, and in the other hand a half-moon, receiving greater
+brightness as it waxes. The inscription says, _Meritorum multiplicatio_.
+
+(9) _Firmness and constancy in well-doing_, represented by the figure of
+a woman holding an anchor in one hand, and in the other a palm. The
+inscription says, _Constantia_.
+
+(10) _The hope that guides us to our celestial home_, represented by a
+figure holding in one hand a bunch of flowers (denoting the hope of the
+fruit that is to come), and in the other hand a star, as one that
+guideth to a haven. The inscription, _Deductio in patriam_.
+
+(11) _Resurrection_, represented by the figure of a beautiful woman,
+holding in one hand a snake, and in the other an eagle; creatures that
+renew themselves by casting off the slough of their old age. The
+inscription says, _Resurrectio_.
+
+(12) _Life Eternal_, represented by a figure holding a palm in one hand,
+and a crown in the other. The inscription says, _Vita æterna_.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+The devices contained in this order, and in the middle of the frieze,
+are as follows:--
+
+(1) A bunch of grapes upon a wand, surrounded with ears of wheat. The
+inscription says, _C[oe]lestis patriæ specimen_. This signifies that, as
+the great bunch of grapes that was borne by Joshua and Caleb on their
+shoulders was a token of the fertile land of promise, so the greatness
+and the sweetness of this admirable Sacrament, which is afforded to us
+in the guise of bread and wine, is the living sign and earnest of the
+abundance reigning in the kingdom of the blessed.
+
+(2) A hand extending the index-finger, pointing to a chalice and the
+host, with the inscription, _Digitus Dei hic est_. This means that the
+miracle of this holiest of Sacraments is the work of the eternal wisdom,
+that cannot be attained by any wisdom of us humans.
+
+(3) A rainbow, and above it a chalice with the host, and the
+inscription, _Signum f[oe]deris sempiterni_. Signifying, that as in the
+olden time God vouchsafed the rainbow to Noah in sign of friendship and
+alliance, so does He now vouchsafe His own flesh and blood as a true and
+effective token of His lasting association with mankind.
+
+(4) Two rays, crossed, and in their midst an olive bough, with the
+inscription, _Recordabor f[oe]deris mei vobiscum_. These are the words
+that were spoken by God to Noah, when He made the said alliance with
+him, giving to understand the clemency wherewith God treateth mankind in
+the lesson of this divinest Sacrament, forgetting their errors, and
+establishing perpetual peace and amity with them.
+
+(5) The pelican feeding her young with the life-blood issuing from her
+breast. The inscription says, _Majorem charitatem nemo habet_.
+
+(6) A dead lion, from whose mouth issueth a swarm of bees, with the
+inscription, _De forti dulcedo_. Giving to understand, that as from the
+mouth of so brave a creature there issued a substance so sweet as honey,
+so did the God of vengeance, the brave Lion of the tribe of Judah,
+concert such love and peace with man, that He offered His very body for
+man's food.
+
+
+                              THIRD ORDER
+
+The rest of the third order, as far as the summit of the _custodia_,
+represents the Church triumphant: wherefore was placed in the midst of
+this order (which is in the composite style) the history of the Lamb
+that is upon the throne, and round about it the four beasts that are
+full of eyes, as the Apocalypse relateth.
+
+Upon the six continuous pedestals of the columns of this order are
+graved the following six scenes:--
+
+(1) The saints who wash their stoles in the blood that issues from the
+Lamb, as is told in the Apocalypse.
+
+(2) God the Father, with a sickle in His hand, and angels gathering
+grapes in the vat, and corn in the granary, after winnowing out the
+chaff; signifying the reward accorded unto men in sowing, and in the
+harvest of the vine.
+
+(3) The saints in joyful procession, each with his sheaf of wheat.
+
+(4) The virgins, crowned with vine-tendrils and ears of wheat, that
+follow the Lamb.
+
+(5) The five prudent virgins, that with their lighted lamps go in to the
+feast of the Bridegroom.
+
+(6) The banquet of the blessed.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Between the arches of this order are the six hieroglyphs following, with
+their inscriptions above, upon tablets.
+
+(1) A burning ph[oe]nix, with the inscription, _Instauratio generis
+humani_.
+
+(2) Two cornucopias crossed, with a cross in their midst. The
+cornucopias are full of vine-tendrils and ears of wheat. The inscription
+says, _Felicitas humani generis_.
+
+(3) A kingfisher brooding over her young in a nest of vine-tendrils and
+blades of wheat, with the inscription, _Tranquillitas immutabilis_. This
+signifies the calm state of the blessed, whereof a token is the nest of
+the kingfisher, which bird, when it crosses the water, causes all storms
+to cease.
+
+(4) A car with flames, rising to heaven, with the inscription, _Sic itur
+ad astra_. Signifying that this divinest Sacrament is the harbinger of
+those that travel heavenward, in that Elijah was so swept away, after
+God had sent him bread by the angel and the raven.
+
+(5) Two dolphins, whose tails are crossed, and in the middle a chalice
+and the host, with the inscription, _Delitiæ generis humani_. By this
+device is signified the love and the delight bestowed by God on men by
+means of this Sacrament.
+
+(6) An altar adorned with festoons of vine-tendrils and blades of wheat,
+with flames upon it, and bearing the inscription, _Æternum sacrificium_.
+
+
+                              FOURTH ORDER
+
+In this order is represented the Holy Trinity upon a rainbow, surrounded
+by many rays of splendour, and in the fifth order is a bell, surmounted
+by a simple cross.
+
+Thus are all the parts of the _custodia_ adorned with the foregoing
+beautiful decoration, having regard to their proportions and their
+symmetry, according to the rules of good architecture, and to the
+movements and position of the statuary, designed after nature, as was
+prescribed by the inventor of histories. "_Et in his omnibus sensum
+matris Ecclesiæ sequimur, cujus etiam juditium reveremur._"
+
+Such is the description, written by Arfe himself, of this wonderful
+masterpiece of silver-work. Unfortunately, since his time the _custodia_
+has been much meddled with by profane hands, and has been subjected to
+various impertinent "restorations" and "improvements." Thus, the
+original statuette of Faith, seated on her throne, has been replaced by
+another of the Virgin, and the twelve child-angels, holding the
+instruments of the passion, by the same number of figures of a larger
+size and far inferior workmanship. Further, some simple pyramids which
+crowned the fourth order were foolishly replaced by badly executed
+statuettes of children, and the Egyptian obelisk, resting on four small
+spheres, which surmounted the whole _custodia_, by an unwieldy statue
+representing the Catholic Faith.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+           DESCRIPTION OF THE _CUSTODIA_ OF CORDOVA CATHEDRAL
+
+                 (From _Córdoba_, by PEDRO DE MADRAZO)
+
+As I have stated in Vol. I., p. 98, the author of this _custodia_ was
+Enrique de Arfe, Juan de Arfe's grandfather. "The base, supported on
+small wheels placed in the interior, is in the form of a regular
+dodecagon, each side of which measures a foot. On the twelve-sided plate
+which forms the base and which has well executed heads of seraphs at
+each corner, is an order consisting of three tiers. The first, which has
+projecting and receding angles, leaves, about six sides of the
+dodecagon, a free space for the handles by which the _custodia_ is
+raised. The first tier forms a kind of socle with six buttresses, on the
+surface of which are represented allegorical scenes, alternated in rows
+with graceful designs in relief, grotesque and pastoral dances, and
+scenes from Bible history relative to the carriage of the Tabernacle.
+This tier is surmounted by a gilded balustrade of elegant design. The
+bas-reliefs are wrought alternately in gold and silver.
+
+"The second tier is formed by a small socle, crowned by a band of leaves
+and diminutive figures. Over this is a gilded balustrade, and finally
+another and a broader frieze containing gilded figures, together with
+delicate foliage wrought in dull silver. This second tier grows
+gradually narrower, and sustains the third, whose base projects, serving
+as cornice to the frieze of the tier below, and decorated with a gilded
+balustrade. Upon it rises a mass or body with twelve sides, following
+the same arrangement of projecting and receding angles as the lower
+tiers. In each of its receding spaces this order contains three
+compartments, and in each of its salient faces it has a small tower or
+buttress, which springs from the base and rests upon a delicate plinth
+carved with a gilded ornamental band. Thus, the order we are describing
+has six salient faces behind the six towers or buttresses, and six
+spaces containing three open compartments. In these compartments,
+separated one from another by diminutive buttresses with delicate
+pinnacles, there is the same number of sunken spaces, one inch deep, on
+which are represented, in high relief, scenes of the life and passion of
+our Lord. The figures, admirably executed, are two inches high. Above
+this order is a projecting cornice, decorated along its lower part with
+a band of dull silver. It should be noted, that as the _custodia_
+narrows gradually as it rises, the receding spaces grow proportionally
+larger, thus affording room for the spacious inner order on which is
+raised the _viril_. This order is formed by a crystal cylinder
+(containing the host) resting on a base which is also cylindrical, the
+lower part of which is decorated with a broad hexagonal band, narrower
+at the top than at the bottom, and wrought with delicate foliage and
+figures, as are the bands which lie beneath it. Above the transparent
+cylinder enclosing the _viril_ rises a Gothic vault, drooping over in
+the manner of a plume, and resting on the buttresses which fill the
+projecting spaces on the base of the principal order. These buttresses
+have a similar arrangement to, and coincide with, the other ones which
+spring from the base of the third tier of the first order, and are
+joined one to another by means of fine cross-buttresses surmounted by
+statuettes. The circular vault which holds the crystal cylinder
+containing the _viril_, and which resembles that of the rotunda
+dedicated as a sepulchral chapel by the emperor Constantine to the
+memory of his daughter, saint Constance, supports other and finer
+buttresses, alternated with those beneath; but instead of rising from
+the salient spaces of the base, these rise from the receding spaces and
+support another vault, of smooth open-work, beneath which is a graceful
+statuette of Nuestra Señora de la Asunción. Over this vault is a kind of
+open-work dome, consisting of an effective series of pinnacles and
+buttresses in the shape of segments of a circle, which bridge over the
+summits of the pinnacles. Upon the dome is a crown surmounted by a
+statuette of Christ triumphant, with the cross. The two vaults--that
+which encloses the _viril_, and the other one above it, enclosing the
+image of the Virgin--are masked on the outside by arches of elegant
+design, crowned by an elaborate balustrade. The turrets or buttresses
+which rise upon the lowest and the principal orders are decorated with
+numerous statuettes, resting on plinths of exquisite design, covered by
+open-work canopies.
+
+"This masterpiece of art is made of gold, and polished and unpolished
+silver. The weight is 532 marks.... Unfortunately, it lacks its original
+purity of style, having been restored in the year 1735, when it is
+probable that certain details were added which now disfigure it."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX D
+
+         THE IMPERIAL CROWN OF THE VIRGEN DEL SAGRARIO, TOLEDO
+
+This was the most elaborate and costly crown that had ever been produced
+in Spain for decorating an image of the Virgin. The following is a
+sketch of it:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Before it was enlarged to the imperial shape, this crown was executed by
+a silversmith named Fernando de Carrión, who finished it in the year
+1556, and was paid for his labour 760,000 _maravedis_. It then consisted
+of a gold diadem adorned with rows of pearls, emeralds, rubies, and
+enamelled devices of various colours, in the style of the Renaissance.
+
+The superstructure, which converts it into what is known as an imperial
+crown, was added by Alejo de Montoya, another silversmith of Toledo, who
+began it in 1574, and completed it twelve years later. The addition
+consisted of a number of gold statuettes of angels, covered with enamel,
+measuring in height from two inches to two and a half, distributed in
+pairs, and supporting decorative devices attached to the body of the
+crown. From behind these angels sprang gold bands thickly studded with
+precious stones, and terminating towards their union at the apex of the
+crown in seated allegorical figures grouped about a globe surmounted by
+a cross. This globe consisted of a single emerald, clear, perfect both
+in colour and in shape, and measuring an inch and a half in diameter.
+The inside of the hoop was covered with enamels representing emblems of
+the Virgin, disposed in a series of medallions, and the dimensions of
+the entire crown were eleven inches high by nine across the widest part.
+
+The crown was examined and reported upon by two goldsmiths of Madrid,
+who declared it to contain the following precious stones:--
+
+    Two balas rubies,                valued at 150,000 _maravedis_
+    Twelve rubies,                       "     403,528      "
+    Twelve emeralds,                     "     237,500      "
+    Fifty-seven diamonds,                "     555,396      "
+    One hundred and eighty-two pearls,   "     397,838      "
+
+The precious stones were thus valued at a total of 1,744,262
+_maravedis_. Besides this, the value of the gold and silver contained in
+the crown was estimated to amount to 405,227 _maravedis_, while
+3,097,750 _maravedis_ were allowed for the workmanship. These figures
+relate to the part which was made by Alejo de Montoya only. That which
+had previously been executed by Fernando de Carrión was valued at
+1,954,156 _maravedis_, making a grand total, for the whole jewel, of
+7,201,395 _maravedis_. At the present day the intrinsic value of the
+crown would be from nine to ten thousand pounds sterling.
+
+In 1869 this splendid specimen of Renaissance jewellery was stolen from
+a cupboard in the cathedral of Toledo, sharing thus the fate of many
+other precious objects which have been entrusted to the slender
+vigilance or slender probity of Spanish church authorities.
+
+
+                               APPENDIX E
+
+                      GOLD INLAY ON STEEL AND IRON
+
+The inlaying of iron or steel with gold is often thought to be a craft
+particularly Spanish, and to have been inherited directly by the Spanish
+Christians from the Spanish Moors. This work, however, although we may
+assume it to have been of Eastern origin in a period of remote
+antiquity, was quite familiar to the ancient Romans, including,
+probably, such as made their home in Spain. The Memoirs of Benvenuto
+Cellini contain the following notice of the work in question:--
+
+"I met with some little Turkish daggers, the handles of which were of
+iron as well as the blade, and even the scabbard was of that metal. On
+these were engraved several fine foliages in the Turkish taste, most
+beautifully filled up with gold. I found I had a strong inclination to
+cultivate this branch likewise, which was so different from the rest;
+and finding that I had great success in it, I produced several pieces in
+this way. My performances, indeed, were much finer and more durable than
+the Turkish, for several reasons: one was, that I made a much deeper
+incision in the steel than is generally practised in Turkish works; the
+other, that their foliages are nothing else but chicory leaves, with
+some few flowers of echites: these have, perhaps, some grace, but they
+do not continue to please like our foliages. In Italy there is a variety
+of tastes, and we cut foliages in many different forms. The Lombards
+make the most beautiful wreaths, representing ivy and vine-leaves, and
+others of the same sort, with agreeable twinings highly pleasing to the
+eye. The Romans and the Tuscans have a much better notion in this
+respect, for they represent acanthus leaves, with all their festoons and
+flowers, winding in a variety of forms; and amongst these leaves they
+insert birds and animals of several sorts with great ingenuity and
+elegance in the arrangement. They likewise have recourse occasionally to
+wild flowers, such as those called Lions' Mouths, from their peculiar
+shape, accompanied by other fine inventions of the imagination, which
+are termed grotesques by the ignorant. These foliages have received that
+name from the moderns, because they are found in certain caverns in
+Rome, which in ancient days were chambers, baths, studies, halls, and
+other places of a like nature. The curious happened to discover them in
+these subterranean caverns, whose low situation is owing to the raising
+of the surface of the ground in a series of ages; and as these caverns
+in Rome are commonly called grottos, they from thence acquired the name
+of grotesque. But this is not their proper name; for, as the ancients
+delighted in the composition of chimerical creatures, and gave to the
+supposed promiscuous breed of animals the appellation of monsters, in
+like manner artists produced by their foliages monsters of this sort;
+and that is the proper name for them--not grotesques. In such a taste I
+made foliages filled up in the manner above mentioned, which were far
+more elegant and pleasing to the eye than the Turkish works.
+
+"It happened about this time that certain vases were discovered, which
+appeared to be antique urns filled with ashes. Amongst these were iron
+rings inlaid with gold, in each of which was set a diminutive shell.
+Learned antiquarians, upon investigating the nature of these rings,
+declared their opinion that they were worn as charms by those who
+desired to behave with steadiness and resolution either in prosperous or
+adverse fortune.
+
+"I likewise took things of this nature in hand at the request of some
+gentlemen who were my particular friends, and wrought some of these
+little rings; but I made them of steel well tempered, and then cut and
+inlaid with gold, so that they were very beautiful to behold: sometimes
+for a single ring of this sort I was paid above forty crowns."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX F
+
+                          OLD SPANISH PULPITS
+
+The earliest pulpits of the Spaniards were similar to those of other
+Christian nations. One of them was the _tribuna_ or _tribunal_, so
+called, according to Saint Isidore, "because the minister delivers from
+it the precepts for a righteous life, wherefore it is a seat or place
+constructed upon high, in order that all he utters may be heard." The
+ambo, too, although it is not mentioned by Saint Isidore, was probably
+not unknown among the Spaniards.[61] Then there were various desks, such
+as the _analogia_, _legitoria_, or _lectra_, on which the scriptures
+were deposited in church, or carried in procession, and from which the
+latter were read aloud by the priest. Saint Isidore remarks of the
+_analogium_; "It is so called because the word is preached therefrom,
+and because it occupies the highest place."[62] Ducange, quoting from
+old authors, remarks in his Glossary that these desks were often adorned
+with gold and silver plates or precious stones. Thus it is extremely
+probable that Tarik's celebrated "table" (see Vol. I., pp. 31 _et seq._)
+was merely some elaborate and bejewelled _analogium_ of the Christians;
+such as was, in fact, the predecessor of the modern lectern or
+"hand-pulpit."
+
+  [61] "Ambo, pulpitum ubi ex duabus partibus sunt gradus." Ugutio,
+       quoted by Ducange.
+
+  [62] _Originum_, Book XV., Chap. iv.
+
+According to Amador de los Ríos, sermons in those early times were
+delivered from the _analogium_ only. Towards the twelfth century, the
+Isidorian liturgy was abolished in Spain, and the furniture of Spanish
+temples underwent some change. In the same century and throughout the
+century following, the Spanish Peninsula was invaded by the Order of
+Preachers, while, coinciding with, or closely consequent upon, this
+movement, the primitive ambo was succeeded by the _jubé_, and wood, as
+the material of which the pulpit was constructed, by marble, iron,
+stone, or plaster.
+
+Two Mudejar pulpits of great interest are preserved at Toledo, in the
+church of Santiago del Arabal (thirteenth century), and in the convent,
+erected in the reign of Pedro the Cruel, of Santo Domingo el Real. The
+substance of these ancient objects is a brick and plaster foundation,
+with panels of the stucco known as _obra de yesería_, produced from
+wooden moulds. The pulpit of the church of Santiago is traditionally
+affirmed to be the one from which, in 1411, Saint Vincent Ferrer
+delivered a sermon to the Toledan Jews. Whether this be so or not, the
+date of its construction is undoubtedly the second half of the
+fourteenth century, or early in the fifteenth. The shape is octagonal--a
+very common form with Gothic pulpits. It is divided into four _cuerpos_
+or orders, including the sounding-board. The decoration, which is
+chiefly floral, is a combination of the Gothic and the Moorish styles.
+
+The pulpit of Santo Domingo el Real stands in the refectory of that
+convent. It dates from the same period as the one belonging to the
+church of Santiago, but unlike this latter, bears no trace of former
+gilding, painting, or enamelling upon the surface of the stone or
+plaster. It has three tiers or compartments, and, as in the other
+pulpit, the decoration consists of leaves and flowers, blended with
+geometrical patterns and Moorish _lacería_.
+
+The Moorish _mimbar_ or pulpit of the mosque of Cordova was very
+wonderful. According to Sentenach, its situation was near the archway
+leading to the _mihrab_, and on its desk rested the sacred copy of the
+Koran which had belonged to the Caliph Othman, and which was stated to
+be stained with his blood.
+
+This _mimbar_, sacrificed long years ago to Christian barbarism and
+neglect, was the richest piece of furniture in all that mighty building,
+seven years of unremitting labour being exhausted by Al-Hakem's
+craftsmen in constructing it of the richest and most aromatic woods,
+inlaid with silver, ivory, gold, and precious stones. Ambrosio de
+Morales called it "King Almanzor's chair," describing it quaintly as a
+four-wheeled car of richly-wrought wood, mounted by means of seven
+steps. "A few years since," he adds, "they broke it up, I know not
+wherefore. So disappeared this relic of an olden time."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX G
+
+                            SPANISH CUTLERS
+
+In former times excellent cutlery, such as knives, scissors, daggers,
+spearheads, and surgical instruments, was made in Spain, at Seville,
+Albacete, Toledo, Valencia, Pamplona, Ronda, Peñíscola, Guadix, Ripoll,
+Mora, Olot, and Tolosa. Rico y Sinobas has given an interesting
+description of the workshop and apparatus of one of these old Spanish
+cutlers--his graduated set of hammers, weighing from a few ounces to
+five pounds, his hand-saws, bench-saw, chisels, pincers, files, and
+drills, his forge, measuring from a yard square to a yard and a half,
+his two anvils of the toughest iron, the larger with a flat surface of
+three inches by ten inches, for ordinary work, the smaller terminated by
+conical points for making the thumb and finger holes of scissors.[63]
+The method of tempering and forging practised by these cutlers was much
+the same as that of the Toledo swordsmiths.
+
+  [63] _Noticia Histórica de la Cuchillería y de los Cuchilleros Antiguos
+       en España_ (_Almanaque de El Museo de la Industria_, Madrid, 1870).
+
+Rico y Sinobas also embodied in his essay the following list of cutlers
+and cutler-armourers, who manufactured knives, penknives, scissors,
+parts of firearms, or heads and blades for lances, halberds, and the
+like. The following is a summary of the list in question:--
+
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+        NAME.         |    DATE.            |         WORKED AT
+  --------------------+---------------------+----------------------------
+  Acacio              |17th century         |? He made spearheads and
+                      |                     |  fittings for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Aguas, Juan de      |Early in 18th century|Guadix.
+                      |                     |
+  Alanis              |Late 16th century    |? Maker of fittings for
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Albacete            |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Ambrosio            |Late 18th century    |Mora. Maker of large
+                      |                     |scissors for
+                      |                     |sheep-shearing.
+                      |                     |
+  Arbell, Ramón       |17th century (?)     |Olot. Knife-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (the elder)|Late 15th century    |Guipúzcoa (?). A celebrated
+                      |and early 16th       |maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (Cristóbal)|16th century         |? Also a maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |  crossbows. He was the
+                      |                     |  fourth descendant of the
+                      |                     |  family who worked at this
+                      |                     |  branch of the cutler's
+                      |                     |  craft.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (Juan)     |16th century         |? Perhaps a member of the
+                      |                     |  same family. He also made
+                      |                     |  pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Beson, Manuel       |18th century         |Madrid. Knife-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Bis, Francisco      |18th century         |Madrid (see Vol. I.,
+                      |                     |p. 273). Maker of knives and
+                      |                     |arquebuses.
+                      |                     |
+  Blanco, Juan        |16th century         |Maker of crossbows, and of
+                      |                     |pieces for the same.
+                      |                     |
+  Castellanos (the    |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+  elder)              |                     |
+                      |                     |
+  Castellanos (the    |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+  younger)            |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Castillo, Gregorio  |Late 16th century    |Cataluña (?).
+                      |                     |Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Cerda, Miguel de la |Late 16th century    |Madrid and Segovia. He made
+                      |                     |scissors and other
+                      |                     |cutlery.
+                      |                     |
+  Criado, Juan        |Early 17th century   |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Diaz, Pedro         |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Escobar, Cristóbal  |Late 16th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |and early 17th       |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Escobar, Juan       |17th century         |Madrid (?). Son of the
+                      |                     |preceding, and also a maker
+                      |                     |of pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Fernandez Manso     |Late 18th century    |Guadalajara.  A Portuguese,
+  de Payba, José      |                     |naturalized in Spain.  He
+                      |                     |was a scissors-maker of
+                      |                     |considerable fame.
+                      |                     |
+  Fuente, Pedro de la |Late 15th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of
+                      |or early 16th        |crossbows and their pieces.
+                      |                     |
+  García, Domingo     |Late 17th century    |Madrid. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |                     |cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  García de la Torre, |Early 18th century   |Guadalix and Alcorcón.
+  Teodoro             |                     |Cutler. In company with
+                      |                     |Manuel Beson, he invented a
+                      |                     |method of converting iron
+                      |                     |into steel.
+                      |                     |
+  Garijo              |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Garro, Martín       |Early 15th century   |Pamplona. Cutler and
+                      |                     |swordsmith. A letter dated
+                      |                     |October 31st, 1406, records
+                      |                     |that he was paid five
+                      |                     |_escudos_ for making a
+                      |                     |sword, and one _escudo_ for
+                      |                     |a dagger.
+                      |                     |
+  Gomez, Mateo        |Late 17th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Grajeras            |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Grande, Juan        |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of
+                      |                     |lanceheads.
+                      |                     |
+  Gutierrez           |Late 17th century    |Chinchilla. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Hernandez, Juan     |16th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Herraez, Andres     |Late 16th century    |Cuenca. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |                     |cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  Herrezuelo (the     |Late 16th century    |Baeza. Cutler.
+  elder)              |and early 17th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Herrezuelo (the     |Early 17th century   |Baeza.
+  younger)            |                     |Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Horbeira, Angel     |Late 17th century    |Madrid. Cutler; a native of
+                      |                     |Galicia, and reputed to be
+                      |                     |one of the best craftsmen of
+                      |                     |his time. He was known as
+                      |                     |_El Borgoñon_, and passed
+                      |                     |his early life in Flanders.
+                      |                     |
+  Hortega             |Early 16th century   |? Maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Lallabe, Juan de    |Early 19th century   |? Cutler, locksmith, and
+                      |                     |  maker of surgical
+                      |                     |  instruments.
+                      |                     |
+  Lastra, Juan        |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows. He was one
+                      |                     |of the latest and most
+                      |                     |celebrated of these
+                      |                     |craftsmen.
+                      |                     |
+  Leon                |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Llorens, Pablo      |Late 17th century    |Olot. Cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  Marcoarte, Simon    |Late 16th century    |Madrid. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |and early 17th       |cutler. He was the son of
+                      |                     |another craftsman of the
+                      |                     |same name, who settled in
+                      |                     |Spain in the reign of
+                      |                     |Charles the Fifth
+                      |                     |(see Vol. I., p. 273).
+                      |                     |
+  Martinez, Juan      |Early 16th century   |? Maker of darts and lances
+                      |                     |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Mendoza, Francisco  |Early 18th century   |Trigueros (Old Castile).
+  and Manuel          |                     |Cutlers.
+                      |                     |
+  Moreno, Luis        |Late 15th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |or early 16th        |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Moro, El            |Late 18th century    |Madrid. Cutler.
+                      |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Muñoz of Getafe     |16th century and     |? Maker of pieces for
+                      |early 17th           |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Óipa, Juan          |       ?             |Madrid. Maker of crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Perez de Villadiego,|16th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+  Juan                |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Perez, Julian       |Early 17th century   |Madrid (?). Maker of darts
+                      |                     |  and lances for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Puebla (the elder)  |Early 16th century   |Madrid. Maker of parts of
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Ramirez, Juan       |Late 16th century    |? Cutler. He emigrated to
+                      |                     |  the city of Puebla de los
+                      |                     |  Angeles, in Mexico, where
+                      |                     |  he continued to make
+                      |                     |  knives, scissors, and
+                      |                     |  weapons of good quality.
+                      |                     |
+  Renedo (the elder)  |Early 16th century(?)|? Maker of darts and lances
+                      |                     |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Renedo (the younger)| Late 16th century   |? Son of the preceding. He
+                      |                     |  and early 17th  made the
+                      |                     |  same objects as his
+                      |                     |  father.
+                      |                     |
+  Romero              |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Rosel               |         ?           |Mora. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  San José, Brother   |Late 17th century    |Jaen. Scissors-maker.
+  Antonio             |                     |
+                      |                     |
+  Santamaría          |Late 16th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |and early 17th       |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Selva, Juan         |Late 18th century    |Cartagena and Madrid. Cutler
+                      |                     |and iron-founder.
+                      |                     |
+  Segura              |Late 18th century    |Mora. Scissors-maker.
+                      |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Sierra, Juan        |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Soler, Isidro       |Late 18th century    |Madrid.  Arquebus-maker,
+                      |                     |and early 19th  cutler, and
+                      |                     |author of _An Historical
+                      |                     |Essay on making Arquebuses_.
+                      |                     |
+  Sosa                |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of weapons,
+                      |                     |especially the heads of
+                      |                     |lances.
+                      |                     |
+  Targarona,          |Late 18th century    |Madrid.  Arquebus-maker to
+  Francisco           |                     |Charles the Third and
+                      |                     |Charles the Fourth, and one
+                      |                     |of the most skilful
+                      |                     |craftsmen of his day.
+                      |                     |
+  Tijerero, El        |         ?           |Toledo. Maker of swords and
+  (Domingo Sanchez)   |                     |scissors.
+                      |                     |
+  Torres              |Early 17th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Ucedo               |Late 16th century and|? Maker of pieces for
+                      |perhaps early 17th   |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  V....               |16th century (?)     |Toledo (?).  Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |The rest of this craftsman's
+                      |                     |name is not known.
+                      |                     |
+  Valderas, Pedro de  |16th century         |Madrid and Valladolid. Maker
+                      |                     |of pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Vicen-Perez, Pedro  |Late 17th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Vilarasa, Antonio   |Late 17th century    |? Cutler and razor-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  ... Emt.., Julian   |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |Only a fragment of his name
+                      |                     |has been preserved upon a
+                      |                     |blade. Rico y Sinobas
+                      |                     |suggests thatthe entire
+                      |                     |surname may have been
+                      |                     |_Vicen-Perez_.
+                      |                     |
+  Zeruantes,          |Late 17th century    |Toledo. Maker of blades for
+  Francisco           |                     |halberds.
+                      |                     |
+  Zamora ("the deaf") |Late 16th century    |Castile. Cutler,
+                      |and early 17th       |
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+                               APPENDIX H
+
+                          SPANISH TRADE-GUILDS
+
+The _gremios_ of Spain were copied from the guilds of France and other
+countries, and may be traced originally to the _corpora_ and _collegia_
+of the Romans and Byzantines. The earliest which were formed in the
+Peninsula were those of Barcelona[64] and Soria, succeeded, not long
+after, by Valencia, Seville,[65] and Toledo. Prior, however, to the
+institution of these trade-guilds proper, whose purpose was
+pre-eminently mercenary,[66] there existed, in the case of several
+cities, _cofradías_ or religious brotherhoods, that is, associations of
+a philanthropic character, composed of tradesmen or artificers who
+pledged themselves to assist each other in poverty or sickness, or to
+defray the burial expenses of such members as should die without
+resources.
+
+  [64] See Pérez Pujol, _Condición social de las personas á principios del
+       siglo V_. "The ironsmiths of Barcelona," says Riaño, "formed an
+       extensive guild in the thirteenth century; in 1257, four of its
+       members formed part of the chief municipal council; this guild
+       increased in importance in the following centuries."
+
+  [65] The history of the Sevillian trade-guilds begins properly with the
+       fifteenth century, although Gestoso states in his _Diccionario de
+       Artífices Sevillanos_ that he has found a few documents which seem
+       to point to their existence in the century preceding.
+
+       When the Spanish Christians pitched their camp before this city,
+       prior to their victorious assault upon its walls, the besieging
+       army was divided according to the various trades of its component
+       soldiery: the spicers in one part of the camp, the apothecaries in
+       another, and so forth. It is therefore probable that the Sevillian
+       trade-guilds were instituted shortly after the re-conquest. The
+       wages of smiths, shoemakers, silversmiths, armourers, and other
+       craftsmen were decreed by Pedro the First in his _Ordenamiento de
+       Menestrales_. The ordinances of the silversmiths, in particular,
+       are so old that Gestoso believes them to have been renewed and
+       confirmed by Juan the Second, in the year 1416. However this may
+       be, it is certain that the Seville guilds were regularly
+       constituted in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+  [66] Barzanallana defines the word _gremio_ "as it came to be understood
+       in Spain," as "any gathering of merchants, artisans, labourers, or
+       other persons who practised the same profession, art, or office;
+       and who were bound to comply with certain ordinances, applicable to
+       each individual of their number."
+
+       It is well, however, to distinguish broadly between actual
+       manufacturers or producers (_menestrales de manos_) and merchants
+       or shopkeepers (_mercaderes de tienda y de escriptorio_), who
+       merely trafficked in what was executed by another.
+
+The formula of admission to a Spanish brotherhood was very quaint in its
+punctilious and precise severity. A notice of this ceremony, relating to
+the Cofradía of Saint Eligius, or Silversmiths' Brotherhood of
+Seville,[67] is quoted by Gestoso from the venerable _Regla de
+Hermandad_ or statutes of the members, preserved in a codex dating from
+the first half of the sixteenth century. It was required that the
+candidate for admission should be a silversmith, married in conformity
+with the canons of the church, a man well spoken of among his
+neighbours, and not a recent convert to the Christian faith. The day
+prescribed for choosing or rejecting him was that which was consecrated
+to Saint John the Baptist, coinciding with the festival of Saint Eligius
+or San Loy, "patron and representative" of silversmiths, and who in life
+had been a silversmith himself. The regulations of the Cofradía decreed
+the following method of election. "In the chest belonging to the
+Brotherhood shall be kept a wood or metal vessel with space sufficient
+to contain some fifty beans or almonds; and the said vessel shall be set
+in our chapter-room, in a spot where no man is. Each of the brothers
+that are present shall next be given one of the beans or almonds, and,
+rising from his seat, arrange his cloak about him so as to conceal his
+hands, in order that none may witness whether he drops, or does not
+drop, the almond or the bean into the vessel. Then, with due
+dissimulation, he shall proceed to where the vessel lies, and if he deem
+that he who seeks to be admitted as our brother be an honourable man,
+and such as shall contribute to the lustre of our Brotherhood, then
+shall he drop in a bean or almond, and return to his seat, still
+covering his hands with his cloak. But if, upon the contrary, he deem
+that the said candidate be a sinner, and a riotous fellow and bad
+Christian, that should prove a source of evil and vexation to our
+chapter, or that hath wronged another of our brethren, then shall he not
+cast in the bean or almond, but secretly reserve the same, and once more
+seat himself. Lastly, when all shall have crossed over to and from the
+vessel, they shall bear it to the table where the officers sit, and void
+it in the sight of all the company, and count the beans or almonds; and
+if the number of these be full, then is it clear that we do receive the
+other for our _Hermano_. But if there be a bean or almond wanting, in
+that a brother hath retained it in his fingers, then shall our
+_Alcaldes_ speak to this effect. 'Señores: here wants a bean or almond'
+(or two, or any number, as may be). 'Within eight days from now let him
+that kept it back present himself to us, or to any one of us, and give
+account why he that sought admission to our Brotherhood deserves to be
+rejected.' And if the brother that kept back the bean or almond should
+not present himself within the appointed time, then shall the
+Brotherhood admit the other: but if he appear, and state a lawful cause
+against the other's entry, then our _Alcaldes_, when this last presents
+himself to learn their resolution, shall urge him to have patience, in
+that not all the brothers are content with him, albeit, if such cause
+consisteth in a quarrel between a brother and the candidate for entry,
+peace may be brought about between the two, and afterward the _Cofradía_
+may admit him of their number."
+
+  [67] This guild, as all the others, held an annual convocation of its
+       members, and possessed a chapel of its own in the convent of San
+       Francisco. It exercised a strict and constant supervision upon the
+       gold and silver work produced throughout the city. On April 15th,
+       1567, the inspectors appointed and salaried by the guild visited
+       the shop of Antonio de Cuevas, and seized an _Agnus Dei_ and a
+       faultily executed cross, both of which objects were destroyed
+       forthwith. On February 8th, 1569, they repeated their visit to the
+       same silversmith, and seized an _apretador_, which was likewise
+       broken up. On February 9th, 1602, they entered the shop of Antonio
+       de Ahumada, and took away "two rings, a gold _encomienda_, a cross
+       of Saint John, some small cocks, a toothpick, and a San Diego of
+       silver." Similar notices of fines, confiscations, and other
+       punishments exist in great abundance, and may be studied in
+       Gestoso's dictionary. See also Vol. I., p. 114, of the present
+       work.
+
+Similar ceremonies and customs were observed in old Toledo (see the
+Ordinances of this city, dated June 24th, 1423, renewed and amplified in
+1524).[68] Here also the silversmiths agreed to meet and celebrate the
+festival of their patron saint upon one day in every year, "for ever and
+for ever" (_para siempre jamás_). On these occasions the image of the
+saint was carried in procession, and a repast was given to the brothers
+themselves, as well as to all persons who were "willing to receive it
+for the love of God." Every brother who failed to present himself at
+this solemnity was fined one pound of candle-wax; but if he were merely
+unpunctual, and arrived "after the singing of the first three psalms,"
+the fine was only half a pound. A pound of candle-wax was also the
+statutory tribute for admission to the Brotherhood, together with a
+hundred _maravedis_ and other unimportant sums in cash.
+
+The history of the _gremios_ of Valencia has been traced in an
+instructive essay by Luis Tramoyeres Blasco. Early in the fifteenth
+century guilds were established here of nearly thirty trades, including
+tailors, millers, carpenters, shoemakers, silversmiths, weavers,
+tanners, dyers, swordsmiths, and bonnet-makers. These guilds developed
+greatly in the sixteenth century, expanding into powerful and wealthy
+bodies, who practically controlled the entire commerce and commercial
+products of their native town. Among the _gremios_ instituted at a later
+date were those of the firework-makers, basket-makers, twisters of
+silk, stiffeners of dress fabrics, bell-founders, and painters of
+chests and boxes, each of these corporations being enrolled by law, and
+possessing a code of regulations for the government and guidance of its
+members. Sometimes, however, owing to diminution in its trade, a guild
+became extinct, as happened with the _guadamacileros_ (see Vol. II., pp.
+38 _et seq._), and with the clothmakers, of whom, in 1595, but three
+remained in all Valencia. Or else a _gremio_ would purposely amalgamate
+with, or merge insensibly into, another. Thus in 1668 the tailors and
+the makers of trunk-hose united in a single corporation, just as, at
+other times, the glovers and the parchment-dressers, the clog-makers and
+the shoemakers.
+
+  [68] The foremost in importance of the _gremios_ of Toledo was that of
+       the silk-weavers (_arte mayor de la seda_), whose earliest
+       ordinances date from A.D. 1533.
+
+       Interesting particulars of the old Toledan _gremios_ generally will
+       be found in the municipal archives of this city, in the _Ordenanzas
+       para el buen régimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy leal é
+       imperial ciudad de Toledo_ (reprinted in 1858); in Martín Gamero's
+       _History of Toledo_; and in the Count of Cedillo's scholarly
+       monograph, _Toledo in the Sixteenth Century_.
+
+Those of the Valencian guilds which possessed the greatest influence and
+resources, and enjoyed the highest privileges from the city or the
+crown, were called _colegiados_. Among them were the velvet-makers,
+hatters, bronze-founders, wax-makers, confectioners, dyers, and makers
+of silk hose. The earliest to obtain this coveted and honourable title
+were the booksellers, in 1539, followed by the wax-makers in 1634, the
+confectioners in 1644, the velvet-makers also in this year, and others
+in succession, terminating with the dyers in 1763, the hatters in 1770,
+the bell-founders in 1772, and the makers of silk stockings in 1774.
+
+According to Tramoyeres, most of the Valencian trade-guilds owned a
+building in fee-simple, and often gave the title of their craft to the
+entire street in which that edifice was situated. Nor did the _gremios_,
+in their evolution from the simpler and less mercenary form of
+brotherhood or _cofradía_, wholly abandon the religious ceremonies of
+their prototype. In almost every instance the guild erected and
+maintained a chapel within its private _domicilio_, chose a particular
+saint to be its patron, and held, with fitting pomp and liberality, a
+yearly celebration of that patron's holy-day.
+
+On these occasions masses and other services were said or sung, and the
+embroidered banner of the guild, together with the image (which was
+often of silver) of its tutelar saint, was carried in procession through
+the streets of this bright city of the south, abounding at all seasons
+in flowers and sunshine, and famed, from the remotest days of Spanish
+history, for the splendour and munificence of her public festivals.
+
+Our earliest record of the formal attendance of the _gremios_ of
+Valencia at one of her _fiestas_, goes back to the visit to this capital
+of King Pedro the Second, in 1336, when the guilds were marshalled in
+military fashion, company by company, each headed by its pennon "_á la
+saga dels primers_," that is, next to the group or company immediately
+in front of it. In 1392, upon the visit of another monarch, Juan the
+First, who was accompanied by his queen, Violante, a more elaborate
+character was given to the welcome. Jongleurs and dancers were hired to
+perform, while several of the _gremios_ constructed decorative scenes or
+allegorical tableaux on a platform or a waggon, which was wheeled along
+the street in slow procession, surrounded by the marching members of the
+guild. One of these structures represented the winged dragon or
+_drach-alat_ which figures so conspicuously in the records of Valencia
+(see Vol. I., p. 210), and was attacked and overcome in mimic combat by
+a body of knights armed cap-à-pie. The mariners of the port built two
+large galleys, also moved on wheels and simulating an attack, and the
+_freneros_ or bit-makers presented a gathering of folk disguised as
+savages. Nor was the bullfight--that most characteristic of Spanish
+sports--omitted from the entertainment, judging from the following entry
+in the city archives: "Item. Sien aemprats los prohomens carnicers a
+procurar e haver toros e fer per sos dies feta la dita entrada joch ab
+aquells specialment en lo mercat com sia cert quel Senyor Rey se agrada
+e pren plaer de tal joch."
+
+A typical _fiesta_ and procession of these trade-guilds is described by
+Tramoyeres. "Formed in two long lines, the members of the guild advanced
+along the tortuous and narrow highways of the town, adorned with
+tapestries and altars. Each _gremio_ was preceded by a band of
+cymbal-beaters, pipers, and jongleurs, sometimes accompanied by a
+_comparsa_ allusive to the ceremony now being celebrated. Next came the
+standard of the master-craftsmen and apprentices, each group of whom
+attended its _divisa_ or distinguishing emblem. Close after followed the
+banner of the craft in general, carried by one or two of the
+_oficiales_, who made display of their dexterity and strength by
+supporting the staff of the banner upon their shoulder, the palm of the
+hand, or the under-lip. The cords of the banner were held by the
+officers of the guild, denominated _mayorales_, _clavarios_ and
+_prohombres_; behind these came the masters, and last of all, a
+triumphal car on which were represented scenes relating to the craft.
+Thus, in the year 1655, at the commemoration of the second centenary of
+the canonization of Saint Vincent Ferrer, the _gremios_ showed
+particular ingenuity and novelty in these devices." Don Marco Antonio
+Ortí, who wrote an account of the festival in question, thus describes a
+few of them. "The millers were preceded by a waggon drawn by four mules
+and covered with boughs and flowers. On it was the imitation of a
+windmill, wheel and every other part, contrived so cunningly that
+although the wheel went round at a great speed, the artifice which
+caused it to revolve was kept from view, and in the time that the
+procession lasted, it ground to flour a whole _caliz_ of wheat." Another
+invention, says the same chronicler, was that of the masons. "The scene
+devised by these was a triumphal car, handsomely adorned, on which was
+borne the great tower (of the cathedral),[69] imitated so skilfully that
+it seemed to have been rooted from its foundation, and replanted in the
+car aforesaid; and so enormous was its size that a special spot required
+to be chosen in which to set it up. This was in the garden of La Punta;
+and when the tower was finished and ready to be taken forth, a breach
+for its passage had to be opened in the garden wall. It even contained a
+peal of bells, which rang by turning round and round, and this invention
+of the bells, besides its ingenuity, was rarely fitted to this festival,
+seeing that the clock-bell of the cathedral (that is the greatest of
+them all) was given, when it was baptized, the name of San Vicente's
+bell, as well as of Saint Michael the Archangel; whence the tower itself
+is called the Micalet, this, in the language of Valencia, being the
+diminutive for Michael. It were impossible to imagine the stir and the
+applause excited in all quarters of the city by the passage of this
+tower."
+
+  [69] That is, the ponderous structure known as the Miguelete, which
+       stands unfinished to this day.
+
+The same writer describes the decorative car or waggon of the
+flax-weavers. "Upon it were a woman seated beneath a canopy, weaving at
+a frame, and representing Santa Ana, the child Jesus making _cañillas_,
+and an aged man, for San Antonio, dressed as a hermit, with a live
+sucking-pig at his side. Before these went Our Lady riding on a jennet,
+with a child in her arms, her right hand held by a man of venerable age
+representing Saint Joseph. This artifice was symbolic of the weavers'
+trade, receiving for this reason great applause, as well as for the
+lavish decoration of, and curious details that were in, the car."
+
+Tramoyeres further explains that the guild which took first place in the
+procession was that which had been most recently created, the oldest and
+most honoured coming last. At Valencia this proud position was held from
+the remotest period by the clothmakers; but from time to time, when
+these for any cause were absent from the festival, their place was taken
+by one or other of two companies almost as ancient and as
+honourable--the tanners or the tailors.
+
+Each guild selected an official dress or livery, distinguished from the
+others by its colour or design:--the tailors, purple and white; the
+weavers, rose with black sleeves; the cutlers, crimson with green
+sleeves and sprinkled with golden roses; the millers, white with
+crimson-striped sleeves; the silversmiths, crimson with silver trimming;
+and so forth. Their banners, too, were quite in harmony with the rich
+apparel of the vain _agremiados_. According to an author of the
+seventeenth century, these flags were "not of war, but of a different
+workmanship, and greatly larger. All are of damask, most being coloured
+crimson, and the poles sustaining them, and terminated by an image of
+the sainted patron of the guild, are longer than the longest pike of
+war. Truly, a splendid show these banners make, displayed with fringes
+of drawn gold, and shields embroidered with the same material."
+
+The image in which the pole of the banner concluded was not, however,
+invariably that of a saint, or of a saint alone. In the case of the
+cask-makers it was a golden tun surmounted by a cross, with figures of
+Saint Helen and the Emperor Constantine standing on either side of it.
+That of the armourers was a bat (the _rat-penat_ or "winged rat"
+contained in the _escudo_ of Valencia); that of the cloth-shearers, a
+pair of scissors with a golden crown and the image of Saint Christopher;
+of the fishermen, a boat containing Saint Peter and Saint Andrew; of the
+clothmakers, a sphere inscribed with the name of Jesus; of the
+stonemasons, a silver millwheel and a silver image of the Virgin.
+Similarly, each _gremio_ displayed upon its coat-of-arms some kind of
+emblem such as the implement, or implements, associated with its
+trade:--the silversmiths, a square and compass; the carpenters, a
+hatchet and a saw; the lock-smiths, a pair of hammers and an anvil.
+
+Quaintly instructive are the dispositions of the guilds relating to
+apprenticeship. The _maestro_ of a trade, described by the Count of
+Torreánaz as "the principal worker in the workshop," agreed to feed,
+clothe, and instruct his apprentice or _discípulo_, and treat him
+generally as a member of his own family. He was permitted to punish his
+apprentice for misconduct, but not to employ excessive physical
+violence; and a law of Jayme the First decreed that if the apprentice
+lost one or both of his eyes from a blow inflicted by his master, the
+latter was to "make good the injury" (_sia tengut del mal que li haura
+feyt_).
+
+The number of apprentices allowed in any one workshop was often (and
+subsequently to the fifteenth century, nearly always) regulated by the
+law. The first disposition of this kind discovered by Tramoyeres dates
+from the year 1451, and refers to the shoemakers, whose apprentices
+might not outnumber three to each _maestro_.[70] Similarly, by
+provisions issued at a later date, the mattress-makers and the builders
+were allowed no more than two apprentices, and the silk-weavers three,
+although sometimes the master might admit an extra _aprenent_ or so, on
+payment of a certain sum per head.[71] The term of the apprenticeship
+was also often fixed by law. In most of the trades it was four years;
+but in the case of the makers of ribbons and of boxes it was five years;
+while stocking-makers were apprenticed for six, and wax-makers and
+confectioners for eight years.
+
+  [70] The Count of Torreánaz quotes an earlier instance, relative to
+       another city, from the shoemakers' ordinances of Burgos, confirmed
+       by the emperor Alfonso in A.D. 1270. These laws decreed, obviously
+       with the purpose of limiting the number of apprentices, that every
+       master-craftsman who engaged an apprentice was to pay two thousand
+       _maravedis_ "for the service of God and of the hospital." Similar
+       legislation, lasting many centuries, was in force elsewhere, for
+       Larruga says that at Valladolid, although the city produced
+       fourteen thousand hats yearly, most of the master-hatters had no
+       apprentices in their workshops, and only one _oficial_.
+
+  [71] _E.g._, the silk-weavers (Statute of 1701). "Que ningun collegial
+       de dit collegi puixa matricular francament mes de tres aprenents y
+       si volgués tenirne mes, hatja de pagar á dit collegi deu lliures,
+       moneda real de Valencia per cascú dels que excedirá de dit numero."
+
+Before the father or the guardian of a lad could sign his papers of
+apprenticeship, it was required (during and after the sixteenth century)
+to prove before the guild, by means of his certificate of baptism, or on
+the declaration of witnesses, that he was the child of parents who were
+"old Christians," and not the offspring of Moor, Jew, slave, convert, or
+(in the fierce expression of the stocking-makers) "any other infected
+race." Still more absurd and savage was an ordinance, dated 1597, of the
+shoemakers, prohibiting any master of this trade from admitting to
+apprenticeship in any form, "a black boy, or one of the colour of cooked
+quince, slave or Moor ... so as to avoid the harm which might befall
+our brother shoemakers from the ridicule that would be stirred among the
+populace, if they should see in our processions and other public acts, a
+slave, or the son of a black slave, or a lad of the colour of cooked
+quince, or a Moor; as well as the rioting and scandals that would be
+caused by the spectacle of creatures of this nature mixing with decent,
+well-dressed people."
+
+These statutes are selected from the mass of local legislation which
+concerned Valencia only. Turning to Spanish guilds at large, the study
+of these institutions throws considerable light upon the customs of the
+Spanish nation in the past, and more especially upon the social and
+financial standing of the older Spanish craftsman. As in other
+countries, the principal and primal object of the _gremio_ was to
+organize a system of defence against the military and nobility, or even
+against the crown. Presently, however, and long before their evolution
+is completed, errors become apparent in the statutes or proceedings of
+these bodies which denote, very instructively and very plainly, the
+typical defects or weaknesses of the Spanish character. Foremost of all
+was thriftlessness. Although it is a fact that several of the Spanish
+guilds owned houses or even land, none of them (except the silversmiths
+of two or three large towns) were really affluent;[72] and indeed, in a
+country racked by incessant foreign wars or civil strife, there was
+every reason why they should not be affluent. Yet, notwithstanding this,
+in celebrating any kind of public festival, the poor _agremiado_ made no
+scruple to vie in prodigal disbursements with the moneyed aristocracy,
+clothing himself in fanciful and costly stuffs,[73] constructing shows
+and spectacles on wheels, raising elaborate altars in the streets,
+contracting for expensive services, performances, and tableaux. More
+than once, the _gremios_ were obliged to borrow funds to celebrate the
+festival of their patron saint.[74] So also with regard to dress. The
+costumes of the guildsmen of Valencia have been already noticed. An
+equal recklessness and foppery prevailed in other Spanish towns; for
+instance, at Barcelona, where, on a visit of Ferdinand and Isabella in
+1481, the silversmiths formed part of the procession "dressed in the
+richest manner, with robes and mantles all covered with silver, and some
+of them with bonnets that were all of silver plate with jewels and
+silver foliage, while others wore silver chains about their necks."
+
+  [72] It is not often, for instance, that we meet with notices of Spanish
+       craftsmen such as Miguel Jerónimo Monegro, a silversmith of
+       Seville, who at his death, towards the middle of the sixteenth
+       century, was in a position to bequeath the following money and
+       effects: 15,000 _maravedis_ to his servant, Catalina Mexia, 6000
+       _maravedis_ to Juan Ortiz, "a boy that was in my house, that he may
+       learn a trade," 6000 _maravedis_ yearly to his slavewomen, Juana
+       and Luisa, and a black mule to his executor, Hernando de
+       Morales.--Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanas_,
+       Vol. II., p. 256.
+
+  [73] This did not happen only at Valencia. The Cortes assembled at
+       Valladolid in 1537 complained that it was "tolerable that costly
+       stuffs should be worn by lords, gentlemen, and wealthy persons; but
+       such is become our nation, that there is not an hidalgo, squire,
+       merchant, or _oficial_ of any trade, but wears rich clothing;
+       wherefore many grow impoverished and lack the money to pay the
+       _alcabalas_ and the other taxes owing to His Majesty."
+
+       Fernandez de Navarrete stated, in 1626, that "the wives of common
+       _mecánicos_ (_i.e._ craftsmen) furnish their dwellings more
+       luxuriously than titled personages of the realm were wont to
+       furnish theirs some few years ago," and that hangings of taffeta
+       or Spanish _guadamecíes_ were now regarded with contempt, being
+       replaced, even in the homes of the moderately well-to-do, by
+       sumptuous fabrics of Florence and Milan, and by the costliest
+       Brussels tapestry.--(_Conservación de Monarquías_, p. 246).
+
+  [74] Larruga, in Vol. XVIII. of his _Memorias_, inserts an account of
+       the heavy debts incurred by the _gremios_ of Valladolid, upon the
+       celebration of various of their festivals.
+
+Two of the most conspicuous faults among the Spanish race are pride and
+envy. Yet these defects may be explained without much puzzling, and, in
+a measure, pardoned. Spaniards, through all the process of their
+national development, have clung by preference to the calling of the
+soldier or the priest; that is, the only occupations which directly
+dissipate the revenue of the commonwealth. Since, therefore, they were
+thus inclined from earliest antiquity, as well as tutored by a crafty
+priesthood to believe that might or violence alone is right, the
+haughtiness of the Spanish people is a logical, and indeed inevitable,
+outcome of their history. Moreover, side by side with this erroneous
+theory that the only prowess and decorum of a people must consist in
+armed aggressiveness, as well as in a truculent and militant intolerance
+in matters of religion (or rather, of superstition), there arose the
+equally as mischievous and erroneous theory that the arts of peace were
+venal, despicable, and effeminate, or, in the current phrase of our
+contemporaries, "unworthy of a gentleman." "The Spaniards," wrote
+Fernández de Navarrete, "are so proud-hearted that they do not
+accommodate themselves to servile labour." Therefore this people chose
+their favourites and heroes in a semi-savage freebooter; never in a
+craftsman of gigantic merit, like the elder Berruguete, or Juan de Arfe,
+or Alonso Cano. Sometimes, as happened with the _reja_ of the Chapel
+Royal of Granada, they did not even trouble to record the surname of her
+best artificers. These men, in fact, exceptions to her universal rule,
+were coldly looked upon, or even persecuted.[75] Abundant proof is yet
+extant of this humiliation of her merchants, craftsmen, shopkeepers, as
+distinguished from her soldiery and clergy, gentry and nobility.
+Undoubtedly, beneath such scorn the former of these groups were
+sensitive to their position, and all the more acutely sensitive because
+of their inherent Spanish pride. In fact, so sensitive were they, that
+now and then the crown esteemed it prudent to appease their wounded
+vanity by certain declarations or emoluments. Thus, the _Repartimiento
+de Sevilla_ tells us that in the year 1255 Alfonso the Tenth rewarded
+several craftsmen of his capital of Seville with the title of _Don_, "a
+dignity," says Amador, "rarely bestowed at that time."[76] In 1556
+Charles the Fifth resolved, in favour of the corporation of
+_artistas-plateros_ or "artist-silversmiths," that the masters of this
+craft, together with their wives, might dress in silk, "in that it was
+an art they exercised, and not an office" (Gestoso, _Diccionario de
+Artífices Sevillanos_, Vol. I., p. lx.), while Philip the Fourth decreed
+that they should not be forced to contribute to the equipment of his
+troops, but should only be invited to contribute, _just as with the
+nobles_. Nevertheless, Rico y Sinobas points out (_Del vidrio y de sus
+artífices en España_) that Philip the Fifth and Ferdinand the Sixth, on
+founding the royal glass factory of San Ildefonso, did not dare to
+ennoble the Castilian workmen.
+
+  [75] The treatment of distinguished craftsmen by the Spanish church was
+       often sheerly villainous. A document, inserted by Zarco del Valle
+       among his collection of _Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de
+       las Bellas Artes en España_, p. 362, and in the handwriting of
+       "Maestre" Domingo (see Vol. I., pp. 148, 149), states that after
+       making the choir-_reja_ for Toledo cathedral, "so richly wrought,
+       that in the elegance and rarity thereof it far surpasseth all that
+       has been witnessed in our time, whether in his majesty's dominions
+       or abroad," and expending on it "all the money I had earned in my
+       youth," this eminent _rejero_ found himself by now "owing a great
+       quantity of _maravedis_, seeing that I am utterly without
+       resources," concluding by an appeal to the archbishop to "take heed
+       how that I shall not perish through such poverty, and my wife and
+       children in the hospital."
+
+       In another document the same artificer complains that in producing
+       the aforesaid _reja_, he had sacrificed "not only my labour, but my
+       property to boot, having been compelled to sell my house and my
+       inheritance to compensate me for my losses," adding that the
+       cathedral authorities had violated their engagement with him.
+
+       In answer to a series of petitions such as this, the archbishop
+       tardily gave orders for the payment to Domingo of a lump sum of
+       fifteen thousand _maravedis_ and a pension for the rest of his life
+       of two silver _reales_ of Castilian money, "to aid him to support
+       himself." This was in A.D. 1563. By 1565 death had ended the
+       miseries of the master-craftsman, and again we find his widow and
+       children knocking at the archbishop's door, pleading that "extreme
+       is our necessity," and declaring that Domingo had succumbed
+       overburdened with debt, _affirming on his deathbed that the
+       cathedral owed him three thousand ducats, being half the value of
+       a reja he had made_.
+
+       In answer to this terrible appeal, the thrifty prelate ordered that
+       _since it was found to be true that Master Domingo had lost his
+       maravedis in making the rejas of the choir_, his widow and children
+       should receive a daily pension of one _real_, and that a suit of
+       clothes should be given to each of his sons and his two daughters.
+
+  [76] So rarely, that Salazar de Mendoza affirms in his book upon
+       _Castilian Dignities_ that this "high prenomen" (_alto prenombre
+       Don_) might properly be used by none but kings, _infantes_,
+       prelates, and the _ricos-homes_ of the realm.
+
+       In A.D. 1626, Fernández de Navarrete complained of the tendency
+       prevailing among the Spaniards generally to usurp the title _Don_.
+       "Nowadays in Castile," he wrote (_Conservación de Monarquías_,
+       p. 71, etc.), "exists a horde of turbulent and idle fellows that so
+       style themselves, since you will hardly find the son of a craftsman
+       (_oficial mecánico_) that does not endeavour by this trick to filch
+       the honour that is owed to true nobility alone; and so, impeded and
+       weighed down by the false appearance of _caballeros_, they are
+       unsuited to follow any occupation that is incompatible with the
+       empty authority of a _Don_."
+
+       Some of the reasons why these rogues or _pseudonobles_ (as
+       Fernández de Navarrete called them), attempted to pass for
+       _hidalgos_ or "sons of somebody," are disclosed by Townsend,
+       writing a century and a half later. "Numerous privileges and
+       immunities enjoyed by the _hidalgos_ or knights, sometimes called
+       _hijos dalgo_, have contributed very much to confirm hereditary
+       prejudices to the detriment of trade. Their depositions are taken
+       in their own houses. They are seated in the courts of justice, and
+       are placed near the judge. Till the year 1784, their persons, arms,
+       and horses were free from arrest. They are not sent to the common
+       jails, but are either confined in castles or in their own houses on
+       their parole of honour. They are not hanged, but strangled, and
+       this operation is called _garrotar_, from _garrote_, the little
+       stick used by carriers to twist the cord and bind hard their
+       loading. They cannot be examined on the rack. They are, moreover,
+       exempted from the various taxes called _fechos_, _pedidos_,
+       _monedas_, _martiniegas_, and _contribuciones reales_ and
+       _civiles_: that is, from subsidies, benevolence, and poll tax, or
+       taille paid by the common people, at the rate of two per cent., in
+       this province, but in others at the rate of four. They are free
+       from personal service, except where the sovereign is, and even then
+       they cannot be compelled to follow him. None but the royal family
+       can be quartered on them. To conclude, the noble female conveys all
+       these privileges to her husband and her children, just in the same
+       manner as the eldest daughter of the titular nobility transmits the
+       titles of her progenitors.
+
+       "The proportion of _hidalgos_ in the kingdom of Granada is not
+       considerable; for out of six hundred and fifty-two thousand nine
+       hundred and ninety inhabitants, only one thousand nine hundred and
+       seventy-nine are noble; whereas, in the province of León, upon
+       little more than one-third that population, the knights are
+       twenty-two thousand. In the province of Burgos, on four hundred and
+       sixty thousand three hundred and ninety-five inhabitants, one
+       hundred and thirty-four thousand and fifty-six are entitled to all
+       the privileges of nobility; and in Asturias, of three hundred and
+       forty-five thousand eight hundred and thirty-three, nearly
+       one-third enjoy the same distinction."--(_Journey through Spain in
+       the years 1786 and 1787_: Vol. III., pp. 79, 80.)
+
+"I bestow the name of craftsmen in silver (_artífices plateros_), not
+upon all who handle silver or gold, but only upon such as draw, and
+grave, and execute in relief, whether on a large or small scale, figures
+and histories from life, just as do the sculptors." These words are
+quoted from a book, the whole of which was written with the aim of
+proving that certain classes of Spain's older craftsmen were less abject
+than the rest.[77] It is not so long ago that the expression _viles
+artesanos_ ("vile artisans") was banished from the legal phraseology of
+Spain. "That prejudice," wrote Laborde, "which regards the mechanic arts
+as base, is not extinguished in Spain, but only abated: hence it happens
+that they are neglected or abandoned to such unskilful hands that they
+are wonderfully backward in these matters. The influence of this cause
+is striking: in Catalonia, laws, customs, and opinions are favourable to
+artisans, and it is in this province that these arts have made the
+greatest progress."
+
+  [77] Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los Ríos, _Noticia general para la
+       estimación de las Artes y la manera en que se conocen las liberales
+       de las que son mecánicas y serviles_. Madrid, 1600. I again have
+       occasion to mention this curious work in my chapter on Spanish
+       tapestries.
+
+Townsend commented as follows on what he called the _national prejudice_
+against trade. "Whilst the Jews were merchants, and the mechanic arts
+were left either to the Moors or to the vilest of the people, the
+grandees or knights were ambitious only of military fame. After the
+conquest of Granada, the Moors continued to be the principal
+manufacturers, and excelled in the cultivation of their lands. When
+these, with the Jews, were banished, a void was left which the
+high-spirited Spaniard was not inclined to fill. Trained for many
+centuries to the exercise of arms, and regarding such mean occupations
+with disdain, his aversion was increased by his hatred and contempt for
+those whom he had been accustomed to see engaged in these employments.
+He had been early taught to consider trade as dishonourable; and whether
+he frequented the theatre, or listened to the discourses of the pulpit
+orators, he could not fail to be confirmed in his ideas. Even in the
+present day, many, who boast their descent from noble ancestors, had
+rather starve than work, more especially at those trades by which,
+according to the laws, they would be degraded, and forfeit their
+nobility."--(_Journey through Spain in 1786 and 1787_, pp. 240, 241.)
+
+Laborde endorsed these assertions by uncharitably remarking that "the
+Spaniard had always fortitude enough to endure privations, but never
+courage enough to encounter work." In our time judgments of a still
+severer kind have been passed upon the Spaniards by various of their own
+countrymen--among others, Unamuno, Ganivet, and Pompeyo Gener.
+
+It is evident, too, that the cause of the relentless exclusion, by the
+Spanish guilds, of Moors, Moriscos, Jews, or converts--men who, owing to
+the unsubstantial taint of heresy, were hated and derided by the Spanish
+nation almost to a man--resided also in this morbid sensitiveness. Had
+not the Moorish prisoner been formerly considered as the merest chattel,
+legally equivalent to a beast of burden?[78] How, then, should he be
+ever equalled with the Christian Spaniard? These haughty and extravagant
+notions operated, in the seventeenth century, to bring about the general
+ruin of Spanish trades and manufactures. Bertaut de Rouen wrote at this
+time:--"L'acoûtumance qu'avoient les Espagnols de faire travailler les
+Morisques, qui estoient libres parmi eux, et les Mores esclaves, dont il
+y a encor quelques-uns qu'ils prennent sur leurs costes et sur celles
+d'Afrique, les a entretenus dans la faineantise et dans l'orgueil, qui
+fait qu'ils dédaignent tous de travailler. Ce qui achève de les y
+plonger, c'est le peu de soucy qu'ils prennent de l'avenir, et l'égalité
+du menu peuple et de tous les moindres marchands et artisans qu'ils
+nomment _officiales_, avec les gentilshommes, qui demeurent tous dans
+les petites villes."
+
+  [78] It is stated in the Fuero of Nájera (A.D. 1076) that the price of
+       the blood of a Moorish slave was twelve _sueldos_ and a half, while
+       the Fuero Viejo of Castile (Book II., Tit. III., Ley IV.) contains
+       the significantly contemptuous phrase, "If a man demand of another
+       a beast or a Moor" (_si algún ome demanda á otro bestia ó moro_).
+       The Countess d'Aulnoy wrote in 1679;--"There are here (at Madrid) a
+       large number of Turkish and Moorish slaves, who are bought and sold
+       at heavy prices, some of them costing four hundred and five hundred
+       _escudos_. Until some time ago the owners of these slaves possessed
+       the right to kill them at their pleasure, as though they had been
+       so many dogs; but since it was remarked that this usage tallied but
+       poorly with the maxims of our Christian faith, so scandalous a
+       license was prohibited. Nowadays the owner of a slave may often
+       break his bones without incurring censure. Not many, however,
+       resort to so extreme a chastisement."
+
+In the same century the Countess d'Aulnoy recorded comical instances of
+the pride of the tradesmen of Madrid. "One morning," she says, "we
+stopped awhile in the Plaza Mayor to await the return of a servant whom
+my aunt had sent with a message to some place not far away. Just then I
+saw a woman selling some slices of salmon, crying them aloud and
+proclaiming their freshness in tones which positively molested the
+passers-by. Presently a shoemaker came up (I knew him to be such,
+because they called him the _señor zapatero_), and asked for a pound of
+salmon; since here they sell everything by the pound, even to coal and
+firewood. 'You have not been through the market,' cried the woman who
+sold the fish, 'because you fancy that my salmon is cheap to-day; but
+let me tell you that it costs an _escudo_ the pound.' Furious that his
+poverty should thus be hinted at in public, the shoemaker exclaimed in
+angry tones: 'It is true that I was not aware of the price of fish
+to-day. Had it been cheap, I would have bought a pound of it; but since
+you say it is dear, give me three pounds.' With these words, he held out
+his hand with the three _escudos_, jammed his hat upon his eyebrows
+(tradesmen in this town wear small hats, and persons of quality hats of
+great size), and then, twisting the ends of his mustachios, and clapping
+his hand to his rapier, the point of which bobbed upward, carrying with
+it a fold of his ragged cloak, caught up his purchase and strode home,
+looking at us with an arrogant air, as though he had performed some
+heroic deed and we had witnessed it. Yet the drollest part of it all was
+that beyond doubt the fellow had no money left at home, but had spent
+his week's wages upon the salmon, so that his choleric and haughty act
+would keep his wife and children famishing for all those days, after
+supping once upon abundant fish. Such is the character of this people;
+and there are gentlemen here who take the feet of a fowl and hang them
+so as to show beneath the hem of their cloak, to make it appear as
+though they really bore a fowl. But hunger, in truth, is all they carry
+with them.
+
+"You never see a shopman here who does not clothe himself in velvet,
+silk, and satin, like the king; or who is not the owner of a mighty
+rapier, which dangles from the wall, together with his dagger and
+guitar. These fellows work as little as they may, for, as I said, they
+are by nature indolent. Only in case of extreme necessity do they work
+at all, and then they never rest, but labour even throughout a
+feast-day; though when they have finished what was needed to procure
+them money, they deliver the product of their toil, and with its value
+relapse into fresh idleness. The shoemaker who has two apprentices, and
+who has only made one pair of shoes, hands to his lads a shoe apiece and
+makes them walk before him as though they were his pages; he that has
+three apprentices is preceded by all three; and when occasion rises, the
+master-_zapatero_ will hardly condescend to fit upon your feet the shoes
+which his own hands had put together."
+
+It seems that the shoemakers of Madrid were distinguished for their
+insolence and vanity above the rest of her tradespeople. In 1659 Bertaut
+de Rouen wrote of the two _corrales_ or theatres of this town, that they
+were "toujours pleines de tous les marchands, et de tous les artisans,
+qui quittant leur boutique s'en vont là avec la cappe, l'épée, et le
+poignard, qui s'appellent tous _cavalleros_ jusques au _çapateros_; et
+ce sont ceux qui décident si la comedie est bonne ou non, et à cause
+qu'ils la sifflent ou qu'ils l'applaudissent, et qu'ils sont d'un costé
+et d'autre en rang, outre que c'est comme une espèce de salve, on les
+appelle _Mosqueteros_, en sorte que la bonne fortune des autheurs dépend
+d'eux."
+
+The foregoing narratives sound absurd, and are particularly prone to be
+considered so from being of foreign authorship. Their tenor,
+notwithstanding, is supported by the following declarations, gravely set
+down in writing by a Spaniard, within some half a dozen years of the
+visit to Madrid of the Countess d'Aulnoy. The name of this author is
+Alonso Nuñez de Castro, and the title of his work (published towards the
+close of the reign of Philip the Fourth), _El Cortesano en Madrid_.
+"What man," demands this _madrileño_ of a bygone century, "eminent in
+any of the arts, has belonged to other nations, but has sought in Madrid
+the applause and gain which his native country would not, or could not,
+bestow upon him? Thus, either he in person, or else his master-works,
+visit with frequency this court of ours, wherein they meet a better fate
+than in their birthplace, since only at Madrid is properly esteemed the
+value of illustrious effort. Let London manufacture as she may her
+famous cloths, Holland her cambrics, Florence her satins, India her
+castors and vicunas, Milan her brocades, Italy and the Netherlands the
+statues and oil-paintings which seem to breathe the very life of the
+original: our Court enjoys these products one and all, proving hereby
+that other nations generate artists for Madrid, who is, in sooth, the
+supreme Court of Courts, seeing that she is served by all, yet in her
+turn serves none.
+
+"Yet not at slight expense does she enjoy this sovereignty, showering
+upon other hands her gold and silver, that they may recreate her mouth
+with choicest drinks and viands, her nostrils with delicious essences,
+her eyes with wondrous works of painting and of statuary, her hearing
+with the skill of world-renowned musicians, her luxury with expensive
+fabrics and with precious stones; albeit these disbursements mark her,
+not as prodigal, but as prudent in discovering the proper use of gold,
+together with the fitting aim and purpose of all riches. Who was
+possessor of more gold than Midas?--seeing that not he alone, but all he
+laid his hand upon, was gold; or who so wretched?--seeing that he was
+powerless to keep himself alive on gold, though all he touched was
+golden. Truly that man is rich that maketh gold to minister to his
+wants, and he a miserable pauper that to gold himself is slave, not
+knowing how to turn its uses to his good. Therefore let other peoples
+accumulate wealth at ease, heaping up the gold wherewith Madrid repays
+their ministration to her needs. Whereas her courtiers prove possession
+of their gold, in that they amassed it formerly, those foreigners show
+the evil and the mischief of their own by jealously confining it with
+lock and key: nay, who shall even tell if it be theirs, seeing that they
+enjoy it not, although they seem to be the lords thereof?
+
+"You will declare that other courts enjoy the same conveniences with
+less expense, because their magistrates are stricter to restrain the
+tradesman from establishing his prices at caprice. Truly, it may happen
+that elsewhere the price of foods and luxuries be less than in Madrid;
+yet it is certain that Madrid makes fair comparison in cheapness with
+the other cities of Castile. Nay, more, without there seeming to be
+cause, her courtiers daily find that by a marvel articles are cheaper
+here than in the soil which generated them, or in the town where they
+were wrought. The fact that in comparison with other kingdoms Madrid is
+in some ways the dearer, proves that she hath the money for rewarding
+labour; and that in other capitals the sweat of the artificer is
+worthless, because money is worth more. Always have I remarked that the
+province or the realm that is awarded the name of _happy_, because all
+things are purchasable there at next to no expense, is wrongly titled
+so, since here is evidence, either that money lacks, or that there is no
+purchaser."[79]
+
+  [79] To further show the extravagant way of thinking and behaving of the
+       Spaniard of the seventeenth century, the same author sets aside the
+       sneering objection justly made by foreign writers to the river
+       Manzanares at Madrid--namely, that it has no water--by remarking
+       with exquisite complacency, that here precisely lies the crowning
+       merit and advantage of the Manzanares over rival streams; in that
+       it amuses people without endangering their lives. In the reigns of
+       Philip the Fourth and Charles the Second, a favourite promenade of
+       the Madrid aristocracy was the waterless channel of this river, in
+       which, according to this work, "coaches and carriages do duty for
+       a gondola, and form a pleasant imitation of the boats and palaces
+       of Venice."
+
+In the eighteenth century, when better sense prevailed among the
+statesmen and economists of Spain, the greedy and corrupt administration
+of her guilds began to be awarded greater notice. Among the enlightened
+and progressive Spaniards who outspoke their minds upon this theme, were
+Florez Estrada and the Count of Campomanes. These, among others of less
+mark, saw and proclaimed that the harm inflicted by the _gremios_ in
+some directions was incalculable, while the good they were supposed to
+bring about in others was rather nominal than real.[80] Apart, however,
+from the judgment uttered by these two authorities, men of acknowledged
+probity and consequence who held the public ear, as well as by the
+patriotic Jovellanos in his spirited appeal in favour of the _libre
+ejercicio de las artes_, a number of causes, such as the propagation of
+the principles of individual liberty by the French Revolution,
+contributed to give the _gremios_ an archaic air, and finally to bring
+about their downfall. The views concerning them which gradually filled
+the popular mind, prior to their extinction as an act of government in
+the year 1834,[81] are well expressed by Townsend. "In all the trading
+companies or _gremios_," wrote this traveller, "religious fraternities
+are formed, some incorporated by royal authority and letters patent,
+others by connivance of the crown, but both in violation of the laws.
+
+  [80] The object avowedly pursued by Campomanes was not, however, the
+       absolute suppression of the Spanish trade-guilds, but merely their
+       reconstruction upon a sounder basis. He still believed that
+       admission to a guild should be preceded by a formal period of
+       apprenticeship, as well as that the title and the privileges of the
+       master of a trade should be hereditary. An instance of the grossly
+       fraudulent methods employed by the _gremios_ in order to retain the
+       privilege of manufacture in a certain family, is quoted by Larruga
+       (_Memorias_, Vol. II., p. 201), who states that the silk-cord
+       makers of Madrid conferred the title of _master-craftsman_ on a
+       babe only twenty-two months old.
+
+  [81] Barzanallana says that the earliest sign of a movement in the
+       direction of emancipating the Spanish people from the thraldom of
+       the _gremios_ is contained in the royal _cedula_ of May 17th, 1790,
+       abolishing several of the noxious prerogatives which had hitherto
+       been enjoyed by the families of master-craftsmen. A further crown
+       decree, dated the same month and year, empowered the Audiencias and
+       Chancillerías to authorize persons to pursue a craft (provided they
+       were reasonably competent) without the necessity of approval from
+       the _gremios_ and their _veedores_. Three years later, the same
+       monarch (Charles the Fourth) suppressed the _gremios_ and
+       _colegios_ of the silk-twisters, and declared this craft to be open
+       to all such persons, of either sex, as wished to practise it. In
+       1797 it was permitted to all foreigners who should be competent in
+       any art or industry (except Jews) to establish themselves in Spain
+       or her dominions, nor were they to be molested in their religious
+       theories if they should happen not to be Roman Catholics.
+
+       At a later time the Cortes annulled, or very nearly so, the
+       _ordenanzas_ of the _gremios_, and allowed the exercise of any
+       lawful trade or craft to everybody, Spaniards and foreigners alike,
+       without the requisite of special license or examination, or
+       approval by the officers of the guilds (decree of June 8th, 1813).
+       This measure was revoked in 1815, but again became law in 1836, and
+       two years before this latter date was issued the decree of Queen
+       María Cristina prohibiting associations which, under the semblance
+       of a _gremio_, should aim at converting any craft or office into a
+       monopoly.
+
+       The Spanish _gremios_ still exist, but all their sting has
+       departed. To-day they may be said to spring from the natural and
+       beneficial interdependence of persons working together in the same
+       groove, and seeking mutual support by means of peaceable
+       association. Thus the abuses which rendered them so terrible and
+       evil in the olden time are fortunately now no more.
+
+"Every fraternity is governed by a mayor and court of aldermen, who make
+laws, sit in judgment on offenders, and claim in many cases exemption
+from the common tribunals of the country. None but the members of these
+communities may exercise mechanic arts, or be concerned in trade; and to
+be admitted as a member is both attended with a heavy fine, and entails
+upon each individual a constant annual expense.
+
+"This, however, is not the greatest evil, for the mayor and officers,
+during their year of service, not only neglect their own affairs, but
+from vanity and ostentation run into expenses, such as either ruin their
+families, or at least straiten them exceedingly in trade.
+
+"These corporations, being established in the cities, banish, by their
+oppressive laws, all the mechanic arts from towns and villages. In the
+cities likewise they tend only to monopoly, by limiting the numbers in
+every branch of business, and fixing within unreasonable bounds the
+residence of those who are concerned in trade. This they do either by
+assigning the distance between shop and shop, under pretence that two
+shops vending the same commodities must not be so near together as to
+interfere, or by assembling all the mechanics of the same profession,
+such as silversmiths, and confining them to one street or quarter of the
+city, under the plausible pretext that thus the proper magistrate may
+with ease pay attention to their work, and see that the due standard be
+observed.[82]
+
+  [82] This custom was borrowed from the East, and explains why, in many
+       of the older Spanish cities, a number of their streets have taken
+       their title from the trades that formerly were plied in them, or
+       (in some instances) that still are so. Especially was this the case
+       at Valencia and Toledo. In the latter capital there are, or used to
+       be, the streets, _plazas_, or _barrios_, of the silversmiths,
+       armourers, bakers, old-clothes vendors, potters, esparto-weavers,
+       dyers, chairmakers, and many more. Martín Gamero, in his excellent
+       _History of Toledo_ (Introduction, p. 60), says that in the centre
+       of the city were located the quiet crafts, such as those of the
+       jewellers, silversmiths, chandlers, and clog-makers, as well as
+       the shops of the silk, brocade, and tissue-vendors. Noisy trades,
+       such as the swordsmiths', tinsmiths', boiler-makers', chairmakers',
+       and turners', were practised on the outskirts of the town.
+
+"In many cases the various _gremios_ bear hard upon each other. Thus,
+for instance, the carpenter must not employ his industry on mahogany, or
+any other wood but deal, nor must he invade the province of the turner.
+The turner must confine his ingenuity and labour to soft wood, and must
+not presume to touch either ivory or metals, even though he should be
+reduced to poverty for want of work. The wheeler, in similar distress,
+must not, however qualified, extend his operations beyond the appointed
+bounds, so as to encroach on the business of the coach-maker, who is
+equally restrained from either making or mending either cart or waggon
+wheels. The barber may shave, draw teeth, and bleed, but he must not
+fill up his leisure time with making wigs.[83] As mechanics are obliged
+to keep exactly each to his several line, so must shopkeepers confine
+themselves to their proper articles in trade, and under no pretence must
+the manufacturer presume to open magazines, that he may sell by retail.
+
+  [83] Colmeiro has published _memoriales_ presented by the hatters of
+       Zaragoza, in which they pray to be allowed to line, by their own
+       hands, or by those of their wives, the hats which they had
+       manufactured, instead of being required to give up this finishing
+       and accessorial process to the makers of silk cord.--_Historia de
+       la Economía Política en España_, and _Biblioteca de los economistas
+       españoles de los siglos XVI., XVII., y XVIII_.
+
+"But neither are these abuses the only evils which call for reformation.
+Many corporations have been impertinently meddling, and have absurdly
+bound the hands of the manufacturer by regulations with respect to the
+conduct of his business and the productions of his art, such as, being
+too rigidly observed, would preclude all improvements, and would be
+destructive to his trade, by giving to foreigners a manifest advantage
+in favour of their merchandise.[84]
+
+  [84] This meddlesomeness almost exceeds belief. It was at its worst,
+       perhaps, in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, who decreed that
+       the wicks of candles were to be made of the same kind of tow, and
+       horse-shoes and nails to be of the same weight in every part of
+       their dominions. It was required that machines, which might have
+       been to great advantage moved by mules or horses, should only be
+       worked by the hand of man, however lengthy and exhausting this
+       might prove. The Count of Torreánaz, who quotes these ridiculous
+       dispositions from the _Libro de bulas y pragmáticas_ of Juan
+       Ramírez, further recalls that, as late as the middle of the
+       eighteenth century, costly woven stuffs of Seville and Valencia
+       used to be confiscated because, although the ground of the fabric
+       was of a colour which the law allowed, the flowers or other devices
+       which formed the decoration were of a forbidden shade. On one
+       occasion the chief lady-in-waiting of the queen was prohibited from
+       wearing a dress which she had ordered from a weaver of Valencia,
+       because the flowered pattern was contrary to the _ordenanzas_.
+
+"The incorporated fraternities in the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon are
+25,581, and their corporate expenses amount to 11,687,861 reals. Their
+revenue is not altogether consumed in feasting, nor in salaries to
+officers, nor in pensions to their widows, nor yet in lawsuits, which
+are said to be both numerous and expensive; but considerable sums are
+expended for religious purposes, in procuring masses to be said, either
+for departed spirits and the souls in Purgatory, or for the benefit of
+the fraternity in which each individual has a proportionable interest.
+For this reason, these communities enjoy the protection of the
+ecclesiastical courts, to which, in cases of necessity, they frequently
+appeal.
+
+"The chartered corporations claim their exclusive privileges by royal
+grant, and on this plea they resist a formation, not considering, as
+Count Campomanes with propriety remarks, the essential condition of
+these grants, _Sin perjuicio de tercero_, or that nothing therein
+contained shall be to the _prejudice of others_, or injurious to the
+citizens at large."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX I
+
+                   CLASSES OF POTTERY MADE AT ALCORA
+
+               (From RIAÑO's _Industrial Arts in Spain_)
+
+Towards the middle of the eighteenth century:--
+
+  Vases of different shapes.
+
+  Small pots (Chinese fashion).
+
+  Teapots and covers (Chinese fashion).
+
+  Cruets, complete sets (Chinese style).
+
+  Entrée dishes.
+
+  Salt-cellars (Chinese style).
+
+  _Escudillas_ (bowls), of Constantinople.
+
+  _Barquillos_ (sauce bowls), Chinese style.
+
+  Bottles (in the Chinese manner).
+
+  Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds, with good painted borders
+  in imitation of lace-work (_puntilla_). Some were designed in the
+  Chinese manner, and especial care was taken with fruit-stands,
+  salad-bowls, and dishes.
+
+  Trays and refrigerators.
+
+A document, discovered by Riaño, and dated 1777, says that in that year
+the following kinds of pottery were manufactured at Alcora:--
+
+                      _Figures of Demi-Porcelain._
+
+  Figures of tritons.
+     "    of soldiers (two sizes).
+     "    of soldiers, one-third of a _palmo_ high.
+     "    of the four seasons (two sizes).
+     "    of dancers.
+     "    of tritons in the form of children.
+     "    with brackets.
+     "    of different animals.
+     "    of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.
+  Dancing figures in the German style.
+  Figures of Neptune.
+     "    of shepherd and shepherdess.
+     "    of the Moorish king, Armenius.
+     "    of the four parts of the world (two sizes).
+     "    of peasant and his wife.
+  Small figures holding musical instruments.
+  Figures representing different monarchies.
+     "    representing historical personages.
+     "    representing the history of Alexander the Great (two sizes).
+     "    representing Martius Curtius (two sizes).
+     "    of elephants.
+     "    of a man mounted on an elephant.
+     "    representing Chinese figures.
+     "    of Heliogabalus.
+     "    of a general on horseback.
+     "    of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.
+  Large figures representing Julius Cæsar.
+  Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets.
+  Groups of Chinese figures.
+  Snuff-boxes, sugar-basins, inkstands.
+  Rabbits, horns, and pug-dogs for holding scent.
+  Small scent-bottles.
+  Needle-cases.
+  Large vases with foot and cover.
+  Brackets.
+  Walking-stick handles.
+  Knife handles.
+
+                   _Figures of white Biscuit China._
+
+  Figures representing Spanish costumes (two sizes).
+  Groups of two figures.
+  Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.
+  Figures of the four seasons (two sizes).
+
+We find also, says Riaño, the following figures of painted and glazed
+porcelain:--
+
+  Four seasons (two sizes).
+  Groups of two figures.
+  Figure of a Moorish king.
+     "   of musicians and huntsmen.
+     "   of peasants.
+     "   of Chinese.
+  Small figures of a gardener and female companion.
+  Figures of soldiers in the German style.
+
+From 1789 to 1797, continues Riaño, the following kinds of pottery were
+made at Alcora:--
+
+  Hard paste porcelain (French).
+  Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.
+  Porcelain of pipeclay (English).
+  Blue pipeclay porcelain.
+  Marbled pipeclay porcelain.
+  _Bucaros_, painted and gilt.
+  Strasburg ware.
+  Porcelain painted _en froid_.
+  Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.
+
+                          _Porcelain (Frita)._
+
+  Porcelain painted with gilt lines.
+      "     painted without gold.
+      "     (_frita_), canary colour.
+  Boxes in relief.
+    "      plain.
+  Porcelain (_frita_), painted with marble wares.
+  Plain boxes of the same kind.
+  Porcelain (_frita_), of blue and brown ground.
+  Cups and saucers of a similar kind.
+
+                          _Biscuit Porcelain._
+
+  Figures.
+  Vases.
+  Pedestals.
+  White porcelain (_frita_) cups of different kinds.
+    "   porcelain, ornamented and plain.
+  Boxes with busts.
+  Boxes with ornamentations in relief.
+  Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.
+  Large figures of the four seasons.
+  Flower vases with rams' heads.
+  Plain boxes.
+  Boxes with ornaments in relief.
+
+                           _White Porcelain._
+
+  Plates, cups, etc.
+  Figures of different kinds.
+
+                          _Painted Porcelain._
+
+  Cups, saucers, plates, etc.
+  Cream-pots.
+  Plain snuff-boxes, or in the shape of a dog.
+  Fruit-stands in relief.
+
+
+                              BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+The following is a fairly complete list of the works I have
+consulted for the preparation of these volumes.
+
+ABDÓN DE PAZ. _La España de la Edad Media._
+
+ACADEMIA DE SAN FERNANDO, REAL. _Colección de Antigüedades Arabes de
+Granada y Córdoba_; 2 vols.
+
+ALBA, DUCHESS OF BERWICK AND. _Catálogo de las colecciones expuestas en
+las vitrinas del Palacio de Liria._
+
+ALDERETE. _Antigüedades de España._
+
+ALZOLA Y MINONDO, PABLO. _El Arte Industrial en España._ Bilbao, 1892.
+
+AMADOR DE LOS RÍOS. _El Arte Latino-Bizantino en España y las Coronas
+Visigodas de Guarrazar._ Madrid, 1861.
+
+ANTÓN, FRANCISCO. _Estudio sobre el Coro de la Catedral de Zamora_; 1904.
+
+ARGOTE DE MOLINA. _Nuevos Paseos Históricos, Artísticos,
+Económico-Políticos por Granada y sus Contornos._
+
+ARPHE Y VILLAFAÑE. _Varia Conmensuración para la Escultura y
+Arquitectura._ Seventh edition; Madrid, 1795.
+
+_Arte en España, El_; 8 vols.
+
+_Arts italiens en Espagne, Les, ou histoire des artistes italiens qui
+contribuerent à embellir les Castilles._ Rome, 1825.
+
+BALSA DE LA VEGA. _Las Industrias Artísticas en Madrid_ (Lace, etc.).
+Articles published in _El Liberal_, 1907.
+
+BARRANTES. _Barros emeritenses._ Madrid, 1877.
+
+BERTAUT DE ROUEN. _Journal du Voyage d'Espagne._ Paris, 1669.
+
+BIRCH, SAMUEL. _History of Ancient Pottery._ London, 1873.
+
+BOCK. _Die Kleinodien des heil. römischen Reichs deutscher Nation, nebst
+den Kroninsignien Böhmens, Ungarns, und der Lombardei._ Vienna, 1864.
+
+  _Geschichte der liturgischen Gewänder des Mittelalters._ Bonn, 1871.
+
+BONSOR, GEORGES. _Les Colonies pre-Romaines de la Vallée du Bétis._
+Paris, 1899.
+
+BOURGOING, JEAN-FRANÇOIS DE. _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne._ 3 vols.;
+Paris, 1789.
+
+BREÑOSA Y CASTELLARNAU. _Guía y Descripción del Real Sitio de San
+Ildefonso._ Madrid, 1884.
+
+CABALLERO INFANTE, FRANCISCO. _Aureos y barras de oro y plata encontrados
+en el pueblo de Santiponce._ Seville, 1898.
+
+CAMPOS MUNILLA, MANUEL. _Mosaicos del Museo Arqueológico Provincial de
+Sevilla._ 1897.
+
+CAPMANY Y MONTPALAU, ANTONIO. _Memorias históricas sobre la marina,
+comercio, y artes de la ciudad de Barcelona._ Madrid, 1779.
+
+CARRASCO Y SÁINZ, ADOLFO. _Catálogo de los recuerdos históricos
+existentes en el Museo de Artillería._ Part I.; Madrid, 1893.
+
+CASCALES, FRANCISCO. _Discursos históricos sobre Murcia._ Murcia, 1624.
+
+CEAN BERMUDEZ, JUAN AGUSTIN. _Descripción Artística de la Catedral de
+Sevilla._ Seville, 1863.
+
+  _Diccionario de las Bellas Artes en España._
+
+CEDILLO, COUNT OF. _Toledo en el siglo XVI._ Madrid, 1901.
+
+CLONARD, COUNT OF. _Memorias para la historia del traje español_;
+published in the _Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia_,
+Vol. IX. Madrid, 1879.
+
+  _Conferencias leidas en el Ateneo Barcelonés sobre el estado de la
+  cultura española y particularmente catalana, en el siglo XV._
+  Barcelona, 1893.
+
+COLE, ALAN S. _Ornament in European Silks._ London, 1899.
+
+CONTRERAS, RAFAEL. _Recuerdos de la Dominación de los Arabes en España._
+Granada, 1882.
+
+COX. _L'Art de décorer les Tissus._
+
+CRUZADA VILLAAMIL. _Los tapices de Goya._ Madrid, 1870.
+
+DANVILA Y COLLADO. _Trajes y Armas de los Españoles._ Madrid, 1877.
+
+DAVILLIER, BARON. _Recherches sur l'orfévrerie en Espagne._ Paris, 1879.
+
+  _Les arts decoratifs en Espagne au moyen âge et à la Renaissance._
+  Paris, 1879.
+
+  _Nota sobre los cueros de Cordoba, Guadameciles de España_, etc.
+  (Spanish edition.) Gerona, 1879.
+
+DIAZ Y PEREZ, NICOLÁS. _Historia de Talavera la Real._ Madrid, 1879.
+
+DOZY. _Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne._ Leyden, 1881.
+
+DUPONT-AUBERVILLE. _L'Ornement des Tissus._ Paris, 1877.
+
+ECHEVERRÍA. _Paseos por Granada y sus Contornos_. 2 vols.; Granada,
+1814.
+
+EGUILAZ YANGUAS, LEOPOLDO. _Reseña Histórica de la Conquista del Reino
+de Granada por los Reyes Católicos._ Granada, 1894.
+
+ERRERA, MADAME ISABELLE. _Collection d'Anciennes Étoffes_ (Catalogue).
+Brussels, 1901.
+
+FERNANDEZ Y GONZALEZ, FRANCISCO. _Estado social y político de los
+mudéjares de Castilla._ Madrid, 1866.
+
+FLOREZ. _España Sagrada._ (2nd edition). Madrid, 1824.
+
+FORD, RICHARD. _Handbook for Travellers in Spain._ 2 vols. London, 1845.
+
+GAYANGOS, PASCUAL DE (edited by). _History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in
+Spain._ London, 1843.
+
+  (annotated by). _Chronicle of Rassis the Moor._ Madrid, 1850.
+
+GAYET. _L'Art Persan._
+
+GESTOSO Y PEREZ, JOSÉ. _Documentos relativos á la historia de la Armería
+de Sevilla._ Seville, 1887.
+
+  _Ensayo de un Diccionario de los artífices que florecieron en Sevilla
+  desde el siglo XIII al XVIII inclusive._ 2 vols.; Seville, 1899.
+
+  _Historia de los barros vidriados sevillanos desde sus orígenes hasta
+  nuestros días._ Seville, 1903.
+
+  _Curiosidades antiguas sevillanas._ Seville, 1885.
+
+GOBLET D'ALVIELLA, COMTE. _La Migration des Symboles._ Paris, 1891.
+
+GÓMEZ MORENO, MANUEL. _Apuntes que pueden servir de historia del bordado
+de imaginería en Granada_ (published in the magazine _El Liceo de
+Granada_; 6th year, No. 18).
+
+  _Guía de Granada._ Granada, 1892.
+
+GÓNGORA. _Antigüedades Prehistóricas de Andalucía._ Madrid, 1868.
+
+GRANADA, ORDINANCES OF. _Titulo de las Ordenanças que los muy Ilustres y
+muy magníficos Señores Granada mandaron que se guarden para la buena
+governacion de su República. Las quales mandaron imprimir para que todos
+las sepan y las guarden._ 1552.
+
+  _Ordenanzas que los Muy Ilustres y Muy Magnificos Señores Granada
+  mandaron guardar, para la buena governacion de su Republica, impressas
+  año de 1552. Que se han buelto a imprimir mandado de los Señores
+  Presidente, y Oydores de la Real Chancilleria de esta ciudad de Granada,
+  año de 1670. Añadiendo otras que no estauan impressas. Impressas en
+  Granada. En la Imprenta Real de Francisco de Ochoa, en la Calle de
+  Abenamar. Año de_ 1678.
+
+GUILLEN ROBLES, FRANCISCO. _Málaga musulmana._ Málaga, 1880.
+
+GUTIERREZ DE LA HACERA, PASCUAL RAMON. _Descripción General y Cronológica
+de España._ 2 vols.; Madrid, 1771.
+
+HÜBNER. _Inscriptiones Hispaniæ latinæ._ Berlin, 1892.
+
+  _Inscriptionum Hispaniæ latinarum supplementum._ Berlin, 1892.
+
+JONES, OWEN. _The Alhambra._ London, 1842.
+
+LANE-POOLE, STANLEY. _The Art of the Saracens in Egypt._ London, 1888.
+
+  _The Moors in Spain._ London, 1897.
+
+LARRUGA. _Memorias políticas y económicas sobre los frutos, comercio, y
+minas de España._ Madrid, 1788.
+
+LE BRETON, GASTON. _Céramique espagnole. Le salon en porcelaine du
+Palais Royal de Madrid et les porcelaines de Buen Retiro._ Paris, 1879.
+
+LECEA Y GARCIA. _Recuerdos de la antigua industria Segoviana._ Segovia,
+1897.
+
+LOPEZ DE ARENAS, DIEGO. _Carpintería de lo Blanco y Tratado de
+Alarifes._ (3rd edition.) Madrid, 1867.
+
+MADRAZO, PEDRO DE. _Córdoba._ Barcelona, 1884.
+
+MARTORELL Y PEÑA, JUAN. _Apuntes arqueológicos de, ordenados por
+Salvador Samper y Miquel._ Barcelona, 1879.
+
+MEDINA, PEDRO DE. _Primera y Segunda parte de las grandezas y cosas
+notables de España._ Alcalá de Henares, 1595.
+
+MENENDEZ Y PELAYO, MARCELINO. _Historia de las Ideas Estéticas en
+España._ Madrid, 1886 and following years.
+
+MORALES, AMBROSIO DE. _La crónica general de España del Maestro Florián de
+Ocampo, continuada con el libro de las antigüedades de España._
+
+MORENO DE VARGAS, BERNABÉ. _Historia de la Ciudad de Mérida._ Merida,
+1633; reprinted at Merida, 1892.
+
+MURGUÍA, MANUEL. _El Arte en Santiago durante el siglo XVIII., y noticia
+de los artistas que florecieron en dicho ciudad y centuria._ Madrid, 1884.
+
+_Museo Español de Antigüedades_ (many articles in the). Madrid, 1872 and
+following years.
+
+_Noticia de la Fábrica de Espadas de Toledo que por tantos siglos
+existió hasta fines del XVII en que acabó, y del método que tenían
+aquellos artífices Armeros para forjarlas y templarlas, aceros de que
+usaban, y otras particularidades que las hicieron tan famosas en todo el
+Mundo como apetecidas al presente, y de la que por el Rey N.S. que Dios
+gue. se estableció en esta Ciudad año de 1760; por Francisco de Santiago
+Palomares Escriuano mayor de primeros remates de Rentas decimales de
+Toledo y su Arzobispado._ MS. in the Library of the Royal Academy of
+History, Madrid; in the volume inscribed _Varios de Historia_, 8, E,
+141.
+
+_Ordenanzas de la muy noble é muy leal Cibdad de Sevilla é su tierra,
+assi de las tocantes al Cabildo y regimiento della, que se contienen en
+la primera parte, como de todos los oficios mecánicos, de que es la
+segunda parte. Impressas con mucha diligencia en la dicha Cibdad de
+Sevilla por Juan Varela de Salamanca, vezino della. Acabáronse de
+imprimir á catorze dias del mes de Febrero, año de Nuestro Redemptor
+Iesu Christo de mil quinientos é veynte y siete años (1527)._ The second
+edition was published, also at Seville, in 1632.
+
+_Ordenanzas para el buen regimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy leal é
+imperial ciudad de Toledo._ Reprinted by the Town Council. Toledo, 1858.
+
+ORTEGA RUBIO. _Los Visigodos en España._ Madrid, 1903.
+
+OSMA, GUILLERMO J. DE. _Azulejos sevillanos del siglo XIII._ Madrid,
+1902.
+
+  _Los letreros ornamentales en la cerámica morisca del siglo XV._
+
+PÉREZ DE VILLA-AMIL. _España Artistica y Monumental._ Paris, 1842-1850.
+
+PÉREZ VILLAAMIL, MANUEL. _Artes é Industrias del Buen Retiro._ Madrid,
+1904.
+
+PICATOSTE, FELIPE. _Ultimos escritos._
+
+  _Estudios sobre la grandeza y decadencia de España._
+
+PIGAL. _Collection de Costumes des diverses Provinces de l'Espagne._
+Paris, about 1810.
+
+PONZ, ANTONIO. _Viaje de España._ 18 vols.; Madrid, 1787.
+
+RAMÍREZ DE ARELLANO, RAFAEL. _Ciudad Real Artística._ Ciudad Real, 1894.
+
+RIAÑO, JUAN FACUNDO. _The Industrial Arts in Spain_ (South Kensington
+Museum Art Handbooks). London, 1879.
+
+RICORD, TOMÁS. _Noticia de las varias y diferentes Producciones del
+Reyno de Valencia, etc.: segun el estado que tenían en el año 1791._
+Valencia, 1793.
+
+RODRÍGUEZ VILLA, ANTONIO (edited by). _La Corte y Monarquía de España en
+los años de 1636 y 1637._ Madrid, 1886.
+
+SANPERE Y MIQUEL. _La Plateria catalana en los siglos XVI y XV_ (article
+published in the _Revista de Ciencias Históricas_; Vol. I.).
+
+  _Las Costumbres Catalanas en tiempo de Juan I._ Gerona, 1878.
+
+SEMPERE. _Historia del lujo en España._ Madrid, 1788.
+
+SIMONET, FRANCISCO JAVIER. _Descripción del Reino de Granada, sacada de
+los autores arábigos._ Granada, 1872.
+
+STIRLING, WILLIAM. _Annals of the Artists of Spain._ London, 1848.
+
+STRABO. _Geography._
+
+STREET. _Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain._ London, 1865.
+
+SWINBURNE, HENRY. _Travels through Spain._ London, 1779.
+
+TOWNSEND, JOSEPH. _Journey through Spain._ 3 vols.; London, 1792.
+
+VALLADAR, F. DE PAULA. _Guía de Granada._ Granada, 1890 and 1906.
+
+VAN DE PUT. _Hispano-Moresque Ware of the Fifteenth Century._ London,
+1904.
+
+VARGAS Y PONCE. _Correspondencia epistolar en materias de Arte._
+Collected by Cesáreo Fernández Duro. Madrid, 1900.
+
+VILLA-AMIL Y CASTRO. _Antigüedades prehistóricas y célticas de Galicia._
+Lugo, 1873.
+
+ _Arqueología Sagrada._ Lugo, 1867.
+
+VIÑAZA, COUNT OF LA. _Adiciones al Diccionario de Cean Bermudez._
+
+  _Goya._
+
+VIOLLET-LE-DUC. _Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français de l'époque
+Carlovingienne à la Renaissance._
+
+WALLIS, HENRY. _The Oriental Influence on the Ceramic Art of the Italian
+Renaissance._ London, 1900.
+
+YOUNG, ARTHUR. _Tour in Catalonia._ Dublin, 1793.
+
+ZARCO DEL VALLE. _Documentos inéditos para la Historia de las Bellas
+Artes en España._ Madrid, 1870.
+
+
+
+
+                                 INDEX
+
+  Abd-al-Azis, I. 31.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the First, II. 57.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the Second, II. 57; III. 20.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the Third, II. 98.
+  Aben-Said, I. 225; II. 135, 136.
+  Abolais, II. 226 _et seq._, 237.
+  Abreviador, the Casa del, III. 150.
+  Abu-Said, III. 37.
+  _Adargas_, I. 241, 242.
+  Addison, Lancelot, II. 18 _et seq._, 32, 45 (note).
+  Alberoni, Cardinal, III. 150 (note).
+  Albuquerque, the inventory of the Dukes of, I. 272, 273, 279, 283, 284;
+    II. 9, 10.
+  Alcaicería of Granada, the, I. 78; II. 194 _et seq._
+  _Alcarrazas_, II. 194 _et seq._
+  Alcázar of Seville, the, II. 60 _et seq._, 138, 141, 143, 148, 150, 152.
+  Alcora, pottery of, II. 203 _et seq._
+  Alcoy, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Aleman, Cristóbal, II. 245.
+  _Aleros_, II. 65, 66.
+  _Alfarge_ ceilings, II. 52 _et seq._
+  Alfonso the Second, III. 183.
+  Alfonso the Third ("the Great"), I. 44, 57 (note); II. 106; III. 183.
+  Alfonso the Sixth, I. 45 (note), 276; II. 15, 106; III. 106.
+  Alfonso the Ninth, II. 39.
+  Alfonso the Tenth ("the Learned"), I. 61, 62, 129, 205; II. 226, 239;
+  III. 11, 28, 33, 34, 106, 238.
+  Alfonso the Eleventh, I. 68; III. 12, 70.
+  Alfonso the Eleventh, the Chronicle of, I. 207, 209, 268, 269,
+    280 (note).
+  Alfonso the Thirteenth, I. 42 (note).
+  Alfonso the First of Aragon, II. 14.
+  Algeciras, the siege of, I. 269.
+  Al-Hakem the First, II. 135; III. 213.
+  Al-Hakem the Second, II. 57.
+  Alhambra, the, II. 54, 56, 59, 64 _et seq._, 86, 121, 154 _et seq._, 168
+    _et seq._, 183, 232, 233.
+  _Aliceres_, II. 136.
+  Al-Jattib, I. 77 (note), 226, 268.
+  _Aljofar_, I. 67; III. 11 _et seq._, 33.
+  Al-Khattib, III. 33, 39.
+  Almagro Cardenas, II. 65 (note).
+  Almagro, lace of, III. 160.
+  Al-Makkari, I. 32, 76; II. 137, 163, 231; III. 1, 2, 21, 33, 35.
+  Al-Manzor, I. 227; II. 57.
+  _Almexía_, III. 8.
+  Almohades, the, II. 136; III. 23.
+  Almoravides, the, III. 22.
+  Almotalefes, III. 58 _et seq._
+  Altar-screens (see _Retablos_).
+  Alvarez de Colmenar, I. 110 (note), 267; II. 23, 24, 31, 199 (note),
+    260; III. 50 _et seq._, 74.
+  Amador de los Ríos, José, I. 17, 23, 28; II. 59 (note).
+  Amador de los Ríos, Rodrigo, I. 36, 48, 49, 61, 62, 128, 129, 176, 179,
+    183, 185; II. 58, 101, 103, 135, 136; III. 212, 238.
+  Amphoræ, II. 116, 117.
+  _Analogia_, III. 211, 212.
+  Ancheta, II. 80.
+  Andino, Cristóbal de, I. 151 _et seq._
+  Angels, the Cross of, I. 41 _et seq._, 58.
+  Apocalypse, the Codex of the, I. 223.
+  _Arabian Nights, The_, II. 62, 63 (note).
+  Aranda, the Count of, II. 182, 204 _et seq._
+  _Arca Santa_ of Oviedo, the, I. 44.
+  Arenys de Mar, lace of, III. 172.
+  Arenys de Munt, lace of, III. 172.
+  Arfe, Antonio de, I. 98.
+  Arfe, Enrique de, I. 97, 101; III. 201.
+  Arfe, Juan de, I. 85, 96 _et seq._; III. 185, 201.
+  Argote de Molina, II. 23.
+  Armouries of Spain, private, I. 243, 244.
+  Armoury, Madrid, the Royal, I. 17, 210, 214 (note), 217 _et seq._,
+    229 (note), 231 (note), 235 _et seq._, 248 _et seq._, 273, 274, 276,
+    278, 282.
+  Arnao de Flandes, II. 243.
+  _Arquetas_, I. 48 _et seq._
+  "Arras cloths" (see _Paños de Ras_).
+  _Artesonados_, II. 47, 55 _et seq._
+  Ash Shakandi, III. 3, 4.
+  Augusta, Cristóbal de, II. 152.
+  _Axorcas_, I. 77, 79.
+  _Azulejos_ (see Tiles).
+
+  _Baculi_, ivory, II. 105, 106.
+  Balconies, Spanish, I. 154 _et seq._
+  Balearics, slingers of the, I. 200, 201.
+  Bâle, the Council of, III. 110, 111 (note).
+  Balsa de la Vega, III. 163.
+  _Banyolenchs_, III. 123 (note).
+  Barcelona, silk of, III. 98 _et seq._
+  _Barros Saguntinos_ (see "Saguntine ware").
+  _Barros tarraconenses_ (see "Saguntine ware").
+  Bartholomew, Master, I. 149 _et seq._
+  Barzanallana, III. 222 (note), 249 (note).
+  Bayan Almoghreb, I. 32.
+  Becerra, II. 68.
+  Becerriles, the, I. 94, 95.
+  Bedclothes, Spanish mediæval, II. 4 (note).
+  Benvenuto Cellini, III. 208 _et seq._
+  Berruguete, I. 189; II. 68, 71, 79, 80.
+  Bertaut de Rouen, I. 3, 38, 82, 97, 101, 102, 109, 154, 155, 203;
+    II. 39, 59, 60, 63, 67 (note), 169, 262; III. 50, 51, 108, 109, 140,
+    141, 164, 165 (note), 242, 243, 245.
+  Boabdil el Chico, I. 75, 227 _et seq._; III. 36, 37.
+  Bocairente, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Bonsor, II. 113, 114.
+  Bourgoing, II. 159, 181, 216, 217; III. 74, 76 _et seq._
+  Bowles, William, I. 4 _et seq._, 23 (note), 56 (note), 263 _et seq._;
+    II. 58 (note), 196 _et seq._, 254, 255.
+  Brihuega, cloths of, III. 110, 115 (note).
+  Brims of Wells (see _Brocales_).
+  _Brinquiños_, II. 191, 192.
+  British Museum, The, II. 177; III. 183.
+  Brocade, III. 98, 99 (note).
+  _Brocales_, II. 123, 124.
+  Bronzes, Moorish, I. 169 _et seq._
+  Brun, Sigismund, II. 259.
+  _Búcaros_, II. 191, 193.
+  Buckram, III. 5, 7.
+  Buen Retiro, pottery of the, II. 203, 212 _et seq._
+  Buonaparte, Joseph, II. 218.
+  _Burel_, III. 122.
+
+  Cadalso, glass of, II. 232.
+  _Cadinas_, III. 123 (note).
+  Campomanes, Count, III. 248, 253.
+  _Candil_, the, I. 167, 168.
+  Cannon, early Spanish, I. 268 _et seq._
+  Cano, Alonso, II. 69, 81.
+  _Cántigas de Santa María_, the, I. 282.
+  Capmany, III. 6, 123 (note), 169.
+  Carpentry, artistic, II. 46 _et seq._
+  _Carpintería de lo blanco_, II. 52, 53.
+  _Carpinteros de lo blanco_, II. 50.
+  Carrión, Fernando de, III. 206, 207.
+  Casa de los Tíros, Granada, the, II. 65, 156.
+  Casiri, III. 35, 39.
+  Cataluña, cloths of, III. 123 (note).
+  Cataluña, lace of, III. 169 _et seq._
+  Catherine of Lancaster, III. 107, 129.
+  Cato, I. 5.
+  Cean Bermudez, I. 88, 148 (note), 185; II. 62, 80, 83 _et seq._, 149,
+    246 (note); III. 131, 168 (note).
+  Cedillo, Count of, III. 70 (note), 225 (note).
+  Celosías, II. 47, 62 _et seq._
+  Celtiberians, the, I. 195, 196.
+  _Cendal_, III. 5, 6.
+  Chair-makers of Granada, the, II. 28 _et seq._
+  _Chamelot_, III. 5, 6, 14.
+  Charles the Second, I. 107, 273, 274; II. 46; III. 27, 107, 134,
+    248 (note).
+  Charles the Third, I. 115, 235 (note); II. 212, 218, 258; III. 46.
+  Charles the Fourth, II. 215; III. 249 (note).
+  Charles the Fifth, I. 129, 222, 223, 235 _et seq._, 253, 273, 283;
+    II. 40, 56, 77; III. 15, 31, 40, 107, 153, 169, 174, 238, 239.
+  Chests, makers of, II. 30.
+  _Ciclaton_, III. 5, 6.
+  Cid, the, II. 12.
+  Cid, the Chronicle of the, I. 207.
+  Cid, the Poem of the, I. 203, 207 (note); II. 45 (note).
+  Cisneros, Cardinal, III. 126.
+  Ciudad Real, II. 39.
+  Clemencin, III. 13, 14.
+  Clonard, Count of, I. 204, 206, 208, 213, 215 (note), 268; II. 2 (note),
+    5 (note), 39 (note); III. 14 (note).
+  Cloostermans, II. 209 _et seq._
+  Cloth of Gold, III. 7.
+  Cloths, Spanish, III. 105 _et seq._
+  Cluny, the Museum of, II. 40; III. 183.
+  Coaches, Spanish, I. 283.
+  _Cofradías_, III. 222 _et seq._
+  Commercial Company of Extremadura, the, III. 65.
+  Compañia Real de Comercio y Fábricas de Granada, the, III. 61 _et seq._
+  _Contrayes_, III. 122.
+  Contreras, II. 173.
+  _Cordellate_, III. 122.
+  Cordova, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Cordova, embroiderers of, III. 131 _et seq._
+  "Cordova leathers," II. 38, 39.
+  Cordova, _rejeros_ of, I. 145, 146.
+  Cordova, the Council of, III. 12.
+  Cordova, the mosque of, II. 57, 58, 135.
+  Cordova, the Ordinances of, II. 43, 44.
+  Covarrubias, II. 38, 137; III. 128.
+  Crossbows, Spanish, I. 220 _et seq._
+  Crosses, iron, I. 138.
+  Crown of Spain, tapestries of the, III. 152 _et seq._
+  _Cueros de Córdoba_, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Cunninghame Graham, I. 131, 132, 235 (note), 277 (note); II. 20 (note),
+    126 (note).
+  _Cursi_, the, II. 22.
+  _Custodia_ of Cordova, the, III. 201 _et seq._
+  _Custodia_ of Seville, the, III. 185 _et seq._
+  _Custodias_, I. 95 _et seq._
+  Cutlers, Spanish, III. 214 _et seq._
+
+  Dagobert, I. 29, 30.
+  Dancart, II. 77, 83.
+  Danis, Juan, II. 247, 248.
+  D'Aulnoy, Countess, I. 107 _et seq._; II. 25 (note), 224; III. 134, 135,
+    141, 142, 162, 242 _et seq._
+  Davillier, Baron, I. 72, 87, 280 (note); II. 78, 144, 249, 162, 165,
+    166, 186 _et seq._; III. 149.
+  Diago, II. 163, 180.
+  Diodorus Siculus, I. 199.
+  Diptyches, ivory, II. 89 _et seq._
+  Dolfin, II. 240, 241.
+  Domingo, "Maestre," I. 148, 149; III. 237, 238 (note).
+  Doncel, Guillermo, II. 79, 80.
+  _Don Quixote_, I. 286 (note); III. 160.
+  Dozy, II. 135 (note), 136.
+  _Drach-alat_, the, III. 228.
+  Drury Fortnum, III. 182.
+  Ducange, III. 211.
+  Duque y Cornejo, II. 81.
+
+  Echeverría, Father, I. 82.
+  Eder, II. 259.
+  Edrisi, I. 224; II. 162; III. 137, 138.
+  Egilona, I. 30, 31.
+  Eguilaz Yanguas, II. 22; III. 36, 37 (note).
+  El Nubiense, III. 4.
+  Embroidery, Spanish, III. 125 _et seq._
+  Ena of Battenberg, Princess, III. 173.
+  Enguera, cloths of, III. 124.
+  _Entalladores_, II. 50, 76, 78.
+  Escolano, II. 163, 164.
+  Escorial, the, I. 98.
+  Eximenes, II. 163, 164, 180.
+
+  Ferdinand and Isabella, I. 65, 69 _et seq._, 252, 253; II. 74, 125, 143,
+    184 (note), 190, 234; III. 14, 31, 39, 123, 128, 129 (note), 152, 236,
+    252.
+  Ferdinand the Catholic, I. 229, 253 _et seq._; II. 236; III. 123 (note).
+  Ferdinand the First, I. 45 (note); II. 13, 39, 99, 104.
+  Ferdinand the Second, II. 107.
+  Ferdinand the Third (San Fernando), I. 128, 129, 250, 252, 276; II. 85;
+    III. 18.
+  Ferdinand the Sixth, III. 44, 240.
+  Ferdinand the Second of Aragon, I. 210.
+  Fernandez de Navarrete, III. 109 (note), 144, 199 (note), 235 (note),
+    237 _et seq._
+  Fernandez y Gonzalez, III. 17 (note).
+  Fez, III. 50.
+  Florez Estrada, III. 248.
+  Floridablanca, Count of, II. 177; III. 90, 91.
+  Fonseca, I. 80, 81.
+  Fonts, baptismal, II. 124, 125.
+  Ford, I. 40, 53, 56 (note), 59, 83 (note); II. 63 (note), 184 (note),
+    195, 196, 218, 219.
+  Fortuny, I. 171; II. 168, 174, 183.
+  Fouquet, II. 162.
+  Foz, Manuel, III. 83, 84, 93, 94.
+  Francés, Juan, I. 140 _et seq._
+  Francis the First, III. 123 (note).
+  Frisleva, Cristóbal, I. 273.
+  Fuero Viejo of Castile, the, III. 242 (note).
+
+  Gamero, Martin, III. 225, 251 (note).
+  Ganivet, III. 242.
+  García Llansó, II. 156 (note), 180, 198, 202 (note), 233.
+  Gates, bronze, I. 181.
+
+  Gayangos, Pascual de, I. 102, 104, 127, 155, 232; II. 24; III. 35,
+    71 (note), 135 (note).
+  Gelmirez, Bishop, I. 53, 54.
+  Gener, Pompeyo, III. 242.
+  George, Master, I. 61.
+  Gestoso, I. 72, 73 (note), 84 (note), 114 (note), 150 (note),
+    187 (note), 247 (note); II. 45 (note), 51 (note), 121 _et seq._,
+    136 _et seq._, 142 (note) _et seq._, 149 _et seq._, 152 (note)
+    _et seq._, 155, 187, 189, 198; III. 27, 221 _et seq._, 235 (note),
+    239, 240.
+  Giralda, the, I. 177 (note), 183, 186, 187; II. 77, 151.
+  Goblet d'Alviella, III. 71 (note).
+  Gomez Moreno, II. 56, 57, 65 (note), 155, 172 (note); III. 133.
+  Gonzalo de Cordova, I. 257, 258.
+  Goya, I. 113; III. 157.
+  Goyeneche, Juan, II. 250.
+  Granada, cloths of, III. 121 _et seq._
+  Granada, silk of, III. 149 _et seq._
+  Granada, the Alcaicería of, III. 49 _et seq._
+  Granada, the Ordinances of, I. 3, 4 (note), 135, 157, 158, 247 (note),
+    248; II. 27 _et seq._, 52.
+  _Granas treintenas_, III. 122.
+  Gricci, II. 213, 214.
+  Guadalajara, cloths of, III. 110, 112 _et seq._
+  Guadalete, the battle of, I. 30.
+  _Guadamacileros_, III. 226.
+  _Guadamacileros_ of Cordova, the, II. 42, 43.
+  _Guadameciles_, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Guarrazar, the treasure of, I. 16 _et seq._
+  Guise, Duke of, III. 71.
+  Gutierrez, Pedro, III. 145 _et seq._, 149, 150.
+
+  Hannibal, I. 7.
+  Harness for horses, war, I. 219, 220.
+  Henry, Master, II. 241, 242.
+  Henry the First, I. 68.
+  Henry the Second, III. 34 (note).
+  Henry the Eighth of England, III. 107.
+  Hernández, Gregorio, II. 68, 69.
+  Herranz, Francisco, II. 247.
+  Hita, Archpriest of, I. 67.
+  Hixem, II. 57.
+  Hübner, II. 115.
+  Hurtado de Mendoza, II. 23, 37.
+
+  Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, I. 35.
+  Ibn Alwardi, I. 31, 32.
+  Ibn Batutah, II. 162, 163.
+  Ibn Hayyan, I. 33, 34.
+  Ibn Hud, III. 36, 37.
+  Ibn Khaldoun, II. 22; III. 21, 33, 36.
+  Ibn Said, II. 163, 180; III. 33 _et seq._
+  Illiberis, I. 173, 174.
+  Inlay on steel and iron, gold, III. 208 _et seq._
+  Inns, furniture of Spanish, II. 30 _et seq._
+  Irving, Washington, I. 82; II. 170, 171.
+  Isabel Farnese, I. 274; II. 252.
+  Isabella the Catholic, I. 254; II. 16, 244 (note); III. 13, 14, 133,
+    161.
+  Isabella the Second, I. 25.
+  Isidore, Saint, I. 12 (note), 15, 27, 166 (note), 198, 201; II. 2, 7.
+
+  Jacquemart, II. 186.
+  _Jaeces colgantes_, I. 281, 282.
+  Jaen, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Jayme the First of Aragon ("the Conqueror"), I. 210 _et seq._; II. 101,
+    108; III. 5, 11, 18, 47 (note), 232.
+  Jewellery in Spain, Roman, I. 11, 12.
+  Jewellery, Moorish, I. 73 _et seq._
+  Jewellery, Morisco, I. 77 _et seq._
+  Jones, Owen, II. 171, 172 (note).
+  Jovellanos, III. 249.
+  Juana, Doña, III. 15.
+  Juan of Aragon, I. 212; II. 5.
+  Juan the First, I. 215; III. 13, 30, 227, 228.
+  Juan the Second, I. 130, 280 (note); III. 34.
+  Juni, Juan de, II. 68, 69.
+
+  Kersey, III. 122.
+  Keys of Seville, the, I. 126 _et seq._
+  Keys, Spanish, I. 124 _et seq._
+
+  Laborde, I. 7 _et seq._, 116 _et seq._, 133, 134, 266, 267; II. 34
+    _et seq._, 38 (note), 131 _et seq._, 182, 183, 194, 195, 200, 201,
+    203, 216, 254, 260; III. 44 _et seq._, 55, 67 _et seq._, 94 _et seq._,
+    108, 109, 122 _et seq._, 142, 143, 151, 152 (note), 168 _et seq._,
+    240 _et seq._
+  Lace, Spanish, III. 159 _et seq._
+  La Granja (or San Ildefonso), the glass factory of, II. 252 _et seq._;
+    III. 240.
+  La Higueruela, the battle of, I. 218.
+  Lalaing, III. 50.
+  Lambot, Diodonet, II. 249.
+  La Milanesa, III. 91, 105.
+  La Moncloa, the porcelain factory of, II. 219, 220.
+  Lampérez, Vicente, II. 62; III. 158 (note).
+  Lamps, Roman, I. 165 _et seq._
+  Lamps, ware, II. 116.
+  Lane-Poole, Stanley, II. 47, 48; III. 9 (note), 21 (note).
+  La Payessa, Joseph, III. 91, 92.
+  Larruga, II. 200, 213, 235, 251, 252; III. 66 (note), 111 (note), 118,
+    119 (note), 233 (note), 235 (note), 248, 249 (note).
+  Lasteyrie, I. 21.
+  _Latticinio_, II. 225, 261.
+  _Lazo_-work doors, II. 47, 58 _et seq._
+  Leather, Spanish decorative, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Lefort, III. 157.
+  Lenger, Antoine, III. 151.
+  León, the Synod of, III. 15.
+  Lerma, Duke of, I. 102, 103, 219, 220.
+  _Libros de Pasantía_, I. 72, 73.
+  Locks and keys, I. 135.
+  Lope de Vega, I. 86; II. 23 (note).
+  Lopez de Arenas, Diego, II. 51 _et seq._, 56.
+  Lugo, exhibition of, I. 41.
+  Luis de León, Fray, III. 99 (note).
+  Luna, Alvaro de, I. 189, 216.
+  Lustred pottery, Hispano-Moresque, II. 161 _et seq._
+
+  Machuca, Pedro, II. 57.
+  Madrid, the Gremios of, III. 45, 119, 120 (note).
+  Madrid, the National Museum, II. 58, 60, 79, 91, 94 _et seq._, 108;
+    III. 29.
+  Majolica ware, II. 165, 166.
+  _Manillas_, I. 78.
+  _Mantilla_, the, III. 164 _et seq._
+  Marckwart, the brothers, I. 273.
+  María Cristina, Queen, III. 249 (note).
+  María de Padilla, III. 141.
+  Marineus Siculus, I. 254; II. 180, 233, 234; III. 50.
+  Marmol, II. 169.
+  Martial, I. 199.
+  Martinez de la Mata, III. 48.
+  Martinez Guijarro, Fernan, II. 151, 152.
+  Martinez Montañes, II. 68.
+  Martin Hume, II. 113 (note).
+  Martin of Aragon, I. 212; III. 7.
+  Mary of England, II. 237.
+  Maskell, II. 97 _et seq._
+  _Medias lanas_, III. 123 (note).
+  Medina del Campo, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Medina, Pedro de, I. 55; II. 185.
+  Mélida, II. 167, 175 (note).
+  Mena, Alonso de, II. 69.
+  Menandro, Vicente, II. 246.
+  Mena, Pedro de, II. 69, 81.
+  Mendez Silva, I. 147, 284; II. 234, 255.
+  Mendoza, the _guión_ of Cardinal, I. 65.
+  Micerguillo, I. 273.
+  _Mimbar_ of the Mosque of Cordova, the, III. 213.
+  _Mimbar_, the, II. 22.
+  Mines, gold and silver, in Spain, I. 1 _et seq._
+  Mines of Spain, the iron, I. 123.
+  Miquel y Badía, II. 2 (note), 7 (note); III. 7, 8, 10, 18, 19, 22, 26,
+    47 (note), 70 (note), 133.
+  Moawia, II. 22.
+  Mocarabes, II. 54.
+  Mohammed the Third of Granada, I. 74.
+  Mondejar, the Marquis of, I. 286.
+  Monistrol, the Marquis of, II. 27.
+  Montague, Lady Mary Wortley, III. 184 (note).
+  Monte-Fuerte, the Marquis of, III. 149 (note).
+  Montoya, Alejo de, III. 206, 207.
+  Montserrat, II. 156.
+  Monzón, the Cortes of, III. 169.
+  Morales, Ambrosio de, I. 54, 55, 58 (note); II. 7 (note), 14, 41, 57,
+    58 (note), 100, 107, 108; III. 213.
+  Morel, Bartolomé, I. 183 _et seq._
+  Morella, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Moriscos, the, II. 29 (note); III. 40.
+  Moriscos, the expulsion of the, I. 80 _et seq._
+  Mosaic-work, Spanish, II. 128 _et seq._
+  Müntz, III. 138, 140 (note), 149, 155 (note), 156.
+  Murcia, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Murcia, silk of, III. 67 _et seq._, 103 _et seq._
+  Muza, I. 31, 34, 35.
+  Muzquiz, Miguel de, III. 92 (note).
+
+  Nails, decorative, I. 134, 135.
+  Napoleon, I. 141 (note).
+  Navagiero, III. 50.
+  Nebrija, II. 137.
+  Ney, Marshal, I. 56.
+  Nuevo Baztán, the glass-factory of, II. 250 _et seq._
+
+  Olivares, Damian de, III. 70.
+  Olivares, the Count-Duke of, III. 159.
+  Ollery, II. 205.
+  Onteniente, cloths of, III. 122, 124.
+  "Opening images," II. 107, 108.
+  Order of Preachers, the, III. 212.
+  Ordinances of Barcelona, the, III. 123.
+  Ordinances of Burgos, the, III. 233 (note).
+  Ordinances of Cordova, the, II. 43, 44.
+  Ordinances of Granada, the, I. 78, 79, 132, 133; II. 27 _et seq._, 52,
+    119 _et seq._, 125, 126; III. 39, 52 _et seq._, 121, 122.
+  Ordinances of Seville, the, II. 50 _et seq._; III. 31 (note).
+  Ordinances of Toledo, the, II. 52; III. 31, 225.
+  Ortiz de Zúñiga, I. 127, 128.
+  Ortiz, Lorenzo, III. 109, 117, 118.
+  Osma, II. 140 _et seq._, 160, 161 (note), 168, 183 _et seq._,
+    188 (note), 189.
+  Othman, the Caliph, III. 213.
+
+  Pacheco, II. 68.
+  Palencia, cloths of, III. 122.
+  _Pallia aquilinata_, III. 8.
+  _Pallia leonata_, III. 8.
+  _Pallia rotata_, III. 8, 18.
+  _Palmillas_, III. 122.
+  Pannemaker, William, III. 155, 156.
+  _Paños de Ras_, III. 139, 140, 152.
+  _Pardillos_, III. 122.
+  _Passo Honroso_, the, I. 218.
+  Pedro the Cruel, I. 270; II. 60, 61; III. 13, 37, 141, 221.
+  Pedro the Second, III. 227.
+  Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, I. 210 _et seq._; III. 30.
+  Pelayo, I. 43.
+  Petronius, I. 165.
+  Philip the First, I. 237, 238.
+  Philip the Second, I. 86, 129, 265, 280 (note); II. 69, 175, 236, 237;
+    III. 27, 40, 71, 107, 145, 149, 153.
+  Philip the Third, I. 241; III. 40.
+  Philip the Fourth, I. 102, 243; III. 41, 240, 245, 248.
+  Philip the Fifth, I. 274; II. 252; III. 43, 240.
+  Pinheiro da Veiga, II. 250; III. 33, 141 _et seq._
+  Pisano, Francesco Niculoso, II. 139, 140, 143 _et seq._
+  Pizarro, I. 257 _et seq._
+  Plato, I. 165.
+  Pliny, I. 166, 195, 201; II. 223 (note), 225 (note).
+  Poblet, the monastery of, II. 156.
+  _Poem of the Cid_, the, II. 45 (note).
+  Polybius, I. 201.
+  Ponz, II. 13, 62.
+  Porous pottery, II. 190 _et seq._
+  _Porrón_, the, II. 261.
+  Potosi, the silver mines of, I. 88.
+  Pottery, prehistoric Spanish, II. 111 _et seq._
+  _Primavera_, III. 8.
+  Procaccini, III. 151, 157.
+  Processional crosses, Spanish, I. 181, 182; III. 183, 184.
+  Procopius, I. 201.
+  _Psephosis fsefysa_, II. 135.
+  Ptolemy, I. 195.
+  Puente del Arzobispo ware, II. 186 _et seq._
+  Pulgar, Hernando del, II. 13, 23.
+  Pulpits, iron, I. 139 _et seq._
+  Pulpits, old Spanish, III. 211 _et seq._
+  _Punto de oro_, III. 163.
+
+  _Rácimos_, II. 54.
+  Ramírez de Arellano, I. 52, 84, 91 _et seq._, 145; II. 40, 42,
+    46 (note), 55 (note), 56 (note), 154; III. 131, 145 (note), 147.
+  Ramírez, Sancho, II. 160.
+  Rapiers, I. 259 _et seq._
+  Rassis, III. 2 _et seq._
+  Reboul, III. 91, 92 (note).
+  Recared, I. 20.
+  Recceswinth, I. 17.
+  _Red flandés_, III. 160.
+  _Rejas_, I. 141 _et seq._
+  _Relicarios_, I. 45 _et seq._
+  Renaissance, the, I. 95 _et seq._
+  _Reposteros_, II. 16 (note); III. 146 _et seq._, 153.
+  _Retablo_ of Gerona Cathedral, the, I. 63, 64.
+  _Retablos_, II. 82 _et seq._
+  _Ret Catalá_, III. 173.
+  Riaño, I. 9, 12, 13, 17, 40, 44, 47, 61 (note) _et seq._, 72, 88, 95,
+    107, 115, 123, 126 (note), 129, 139, 174, 179, 181, 185 (note);
+    II. 93 _et seq._, 118, 121, 123, 136, 153, 173, 177, 184, 186, 190,
+    191, 198, 199, 204 _et seq._, 213, 217, 225, 231, 232; III. 20, 23,
+    75, 126 (note), 128 _et seq._, 138, 139, 147 (note), 148, 154 (note),
+    161, 221, 254 _et seq._
+  Ricord, II. 203, 260 (note); III. 74, 75, 203.
+  Rico y Sinobas, II. 225, 228 _et seq._, 238, 259 (note); III. 240.
+  Riotinto, the mines of, I. 6.
+  Roderick, I. 30, II. 89.
+  Rodrigo, Maese, I. 217; II. 76.
+  Roldan, Pedro, II. 68, 69, 81.
+  Rosmithal, I. 37; III. 34 (note).
+  Roulière, Jean, III. 44, 45.
+  Rubens, III. 159.
+
+  Sagrado, Diego de, II. 70.
+  Saguntine ware, II. 114 _et seq._
+  Saint Ferdinand (_see_ Ferdinand the Third).
+  Saint Isidore, II. 117, 129, 134, 223 _et seq._; III. 1, 211.
+  Saint Isidro, diamonds of, II. 224, 225.
+  Saint Vincent Ferrer, III. 212, 229, 230.
+  _Samit_, III. 5, 6.
+  Sanchez, Martin, II. 73, 74, 77, 78.
+  Sancho the Fourth, III. 145.
+  Sancho the Great, I. 51.
+  Sandoval, Cardinal, III. 129, 130.
+  San Fernando, cloths of, III. 114.
+  San Isidro, the burial chest of, II. 13.
+  San Miguel in Excelsis, the legend of, III. 179 _et seq._
+  Santa Barbara, the tapestry factory of, III. 150 _et seq._, 156.
+  Santa Isabel, the tapestry factory of, III. 150 _et seq._, 156.
+  Santiago Cathedral, the treasure of, I. 53 _et seq._
+  Santiago, jet-work of, III. 182 _et seq._
+  Santas Creus, the monastery of, II. 156.
+  Sculpture in wood, Spanish, II. 68 _et seq._
+  Segovia, cloths of, III. 106 _et seq._, 122.
+  Segovia, woollens of, III. 117 _et seq._
+  Sentenach, III. 213.
+  Sepúlveda, the Fuero of, III. 106.
+  Serrano Fatigati, III. 127, 128.
+  Seville, the Ordinances of, I. 247; II. 50 _et seq._
+  Shields, Spanish, I. 207, 208, 239 _et seq._
+  Ships, silver, I. 65, 66.
+  Silk, Spanish, III. 38 _et seq._
+  _Sillerías_, II. 69 _et seq._
+  Silos, the Chronicle of the Monk of, II. 13 (note).
+  Sisenand, I. 29.
+  Sit, Ventura, II. 252.
+  Soria, cloths of, III. 106.
+  South Kensington Museum, the, II. 40, 53 (note), 97, 98, 121, 123, 184;
+    III. 161.
+  Stalactite decoration, II. 54.
+  Stirling, I. 138.
+  Strabo, I. 195, 196, 198, 200.
+  Street, I. 64 (note), 139.
+  Stuck family, the, III. 152.
+  Superstitions, Andalusian, I. 168, 169.
+  Susillo, II. 69.
+  Swinburne, I. 82, 104, 105, 168 (note), 172 (note), 235 (note),
+    240 (note), 274, 285 (note); II. 2 (note), 61 (note), 77 (note), 133,
+    155, 170, 193, 194, 224, 253, 257, 258, 261 (note); III. 47 (note),
+    66, 121, 168, 170, 184 (note).
+  Swinthila, I. 22, 29.
+  Swords, Spanish, I. 203 _et seq._, 239, 244 _et seq._
+  Swords, spurious Spanish, I. 265, 266.
+  Symonds, John Addington, I. 2; II. 67.
+
+  _Tabis_, III. 5, 6.
+  _Takcht_, the, II. 22.
+  Talavera de la Reina, pottery of, II. 186, 190 _et seq._, 198 _et seq._
+  Talavera de la Reina, silk of, III. 87.
+  Talavera de la Reina, the silk-factories of, III. 44 _et seq._
+  Tapestry, Spanish, III. 137 _et seq._
+  _Tardwahsh_, II. 18 (note).
+  Tarik, I. 31, 32, 34, 35.
+  Tarik's "table," I. 31 _et seq._; III. 212.
+  _Tartaricas_, III. 16, 17.
+  Tavira de Durango, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Teniers, III. 157.
+  Testaments, the Codex of the, II. 3 (note).
+  Thimbles, Moorish, I. 178, 179.
+  Throne of Don Martin, the silver, I. 60, 64, 65.
+  Tiles, Spanish, II. 136 _et seq._
+  _Tinajas_, II. 120 _et seq._, 195, 199; III. 55.
+  _Tiraz_, III. 1, 17, 20 _et seq._, 38.
+  Tirso de Molina, I. 282.
+  Toledo, silk of, III. 70 _et seq._
+  Toledo, the Ordinances of, II. 52.
+  Toledo, the trade-guilds of, III. 225.
+  Torreánaz, the Count of, III. 119 (note), 232, 233 (note), 252,
+    253 (note).
+  Torre del Oro, the, II. 140, 141.
+  Townsend, I. 95, 235 (note), 266, 275, 276 (note); II. 17, 25 (note),
+    33, 34, 176 (note), 215, 253, 254; III. 73, 74, 79 (note), 115 (note),
+    118 _et seq._, 151 (note), 165, 170, 182, 183 (note), 239, 240 (note),
+    250 _et seq._
+  Trade-guilds, Spanish, III. 221 _et seq._
+  Tramoyeres Blasco, Luis, III. 225 _et seq._
+  Triptych reliquaries, I. 60 _et seq._
+  Turismund, I. 29.
+
+  Ulloa, Martin de, III. 38 _et seq._, 47
+  Unamuno, III. 242.
+
+  Valencia, cloths of, III. 121.
+  Valencia, lace of, III. 169 _et seq._
+  Valencia, silk of, III. 66, 74 _et seq._
+  Valencia, the trade-guilds of, III. 225 _et seq._
+  Valencia, woollens of, III. 124, 125.
+  Valencia de Don Juan, the Count of, III. 27, 154 (note), 159, 183.
+  Valladar, II. 65 (note).
+  Valladolid, the Council of, III. 15.
+  Van der Goten, Adrian, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Cornelius, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Francisco, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Jacob, III. 150, 151.
+  Van der Goten, Jacob (the younger), III. 151.
+  Van Eyk, III. 156.
+  Vargas y Ponce, III. 168 (note).
+  Vargüeños, II. 27.
+  Vaucanson, III. 86 _et seq._
+  _Veintiseiseno_, cloths, III. 122.
+  _Velarte_, III. 122.
+  Velazquez, I. 102, 113; III. 150.
+  _Velón_, the, I. 167, 168.
+  Vergara, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Vermay, Jan, III. 154.
+  Victory, the Cross of, I. 41, 43.
+  Vigarny, Philip, II. 78 _et seq._
+  Villa-amil y Castro, I. 140 (note), 143 (note), 167; II. 111;
+    III. 182 _et seq._
+  Villalpando, Francisco de, I. 147, 148, 189.
+  Villamediana, the Count of, III. 135 (note).
+  Viollet-le-Duc, I. 211; II. 3 (note).
+  Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the, crown of the, III. 205 _et seq._
+  Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the mantle of the, III. 129, 130.
+  "Virgin of Battles," the, II. 104.
+  Visigothic jewellery, I. 15 _et seq._
+
+  Wallis, II. 164, 167, 168, 173, 174.
+  Washington Irving, I. 82; II. 170, 171.
+  Weathercocks, Moorish, I. 188.
+  Witiza, I. 276.
+  Woollens, Spanish, III. 105 _et seq._
+
+  Xelizes, III. 58 _et seq._
+
+  Young, Arthur, II. 262, 263; III. 171, 172.
+  Yusuf of Granada, I. 280 (note).
+
+  Zafra, Hernando de, II. 234.
+  Zaragoza, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Zaragoza, silk of, III. 103, 104.
+  Zarco del Valle, I. 87 (note), 141 (note), 148 (note); II. 71 (note),
+     245 (note), 247 (note); III. 7, 237.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+               PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., EDINBURGH.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked
+as a misprint.
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p. 6: Cortes of Monzon -> Monzón
+  p. 8: _Almexia_ -> _Almexía_
+  p. 15: edging of the same; -> edging of the same;"
+  p. 33: Al-Makkari, Al-Kattib -> Al-Khattib
+  p. 37: in the form of a scarf. -> in the form of a scarf."
+  p. 48: il est en indiennne. -> indienne.
+  p. 51: qui croist assez prés -> près
+  p. 51: près de deux cens -> cent
+  p. 51: qui est une espece -> espèce
+  p. 51: Ses habitans -> habitants
+  p. 108: il y avoit autresfois -> autrefois
+  p. 109: quatre heures aprés -> après
+  p. 123: Chalons, Beziers, and Rheims -> Reims
+  p. 129: it to the church. -> it to the church."
+  p. 151: invitation John Vergoten -> Dergoten
+  p. 154: Madrid, the Pardo -> Prado
+  p. 165: Journal du Voyage d Espagne -> d'Espagne
+  p. 166: de rubans à l'extremité -> l'extrémité
+  p. 166: sur la tête attachée -> attachés
+  p. 167: autre les divers dégrés -> degrés
+  p. 167: elle ne depasse -> dépasse
+  p. 200: inscription, _Aeternum_ -> Æternum
+  p. 217: Sebastian. Early -> Early.
+  p. 217: Madrid. Cutler; a native -> native of
+  p. 217: early life in Flanders -> Flanders.
+  p. 220: Sosa, -> Sosa
+  p. 242: maxims of our Christain -> Christian
+  p. 243: through the market, -> through the market,'
+  p. 245: that they were "toûjours -> "toujours
+  p. 249: in the royal _cédula_ -> _cedula_
+  p. 262: Die Kleinodien des heil -> heil.
+  p. 262: Nation, nebst den Kroninsignen -> Kroninsignien
+  p. 264: la buena gouernacion -> governacion
+  p. 264: que los Mvy Ilvstres -> Muy Ilustres
+  p. 264: mandaron gvardar -> guardar
+  p. 264: gouernacion -> governacion
+  p. 264: se han bvelto -> buelto
+  p. 273: III. 131, 16 -> 168
+  p. 276: Granada, cloths of, -> Granada, cloths of, III.
+  p. 276: Juni, Juan de, 68, 69. -> Juni, Juan de, II. 68, 69.
+  p. 280: Sepulveda -> Sepúlveda
+  p. 281: 20 _et seq._; III. -> 20 _et seq._,
+  p. 281: 276 (note), -> 276 (note); II.
+  p. 282: Veintiseseno -> Vientiseiseno
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44393 ***