diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/44391-h')
74 files changed, 9763 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/44391-h/44391-h.htm b/old/44391-h/44391-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..381946f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/44391-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9763 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume I (of 3), by Leonard Williams</title> + <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1 {text-align: center; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: 2em; + clear: both; + } + + h2 {text-align: center; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + font-size: 1.5em; + clear: both; + } + + h3 {text-align: center; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 0.5em; + font-size: 1.25em; + clear: both; + } + + p {margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + text-align: justify; + font-size: 1em; + line-height: 1.4em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + + p.title {text-align: center; + text-indent: 0; + line-height: 1.4em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + } + + p.noindent {margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: 10%; + text-align: justify; + font-size: 1em; + line-height: 1.4em; + text-indent: 0; + } + + hr.hr65 { width: 65%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 17.5%; + margin-right: 17.5%; + clear: both; + } + + hr.hr95 { width: 95%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 2.5%; + margin-right: 2.5%; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 1em; + empty-cells: show; + } + + .tdc {text-align: center;} + + td.chapnum {text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} + td.chaptitle {text-align: left; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + td.page {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} + + .pagenum {/* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: 75%; + text-align: right; + } + +.br {border-right: solid 2px;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold; + text-align: center; + text-indent: 0em; + margin-top: 0;} + +/* Images */ + +.figcenter { + margin-top: 1em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: dashed 1px; + margin-top: 1em;} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + + /* Poetry */ + + .poem-container {text-align: center;} + + .poem {display: inline-block; + text-align: left; + } + + .stanza span, + .stanza div, + .stanza p { + display: block; + line-height: 1.2em; + margin-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; + margin-top: 0; + } + + .poem br {display: none;} + + .poem .stanza {padding: 0.5em 0;} + + .poem span.i0 { + display: block; + margin-left: 0em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; + } + + h1.pg { margin-top: 0em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: 190%; } + h3.pg { font-size: 110%; } + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume I +(of 3), by Leonard Williams</h1> +<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> +<p>Title: The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume I (of 3)</p> +<p>Author: Leonard Williams</p> +<p>Release Date: December 10, 2013 [eBook #44391]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN, VOLUME I (OF 3)***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3 class="pg">E-text prepared by<br /> + Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann, Joseph Cooper,<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.<br /> + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm">Volume II</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm<br /> + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm">Volume III</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm + <a href=""> + </a> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="422" height="600" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a> +<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF THE CHOIR<br /> +(<i>Seville Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;"><br /><br />The World of Art Series</span></p> + +<h1>The Arts and Crafts<br /> +of Older Spain</h1> + +<p class="title">BY<br /> + +<span style="font-size: 150%;">LEONARD WILLIAMS</span><br /> + +<span class="smcap">Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy, of<br /> +the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the<br /> +Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts; Author<br /> +Of “The Land of the Dons”; “Toledo and<br /> +Madrid”; “Granada,” etc.</span><br /><br /> + +<i>IN THREE VOLUMES, ILLUSTRATED</i><br /><br /> + +<span style="font-size: 125%;">VOLUME I</span><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_05.jpg" width="100" height="99" + alt="title-symbol" + title="title-symbol" /> +</div> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;">CHICAGO<br /> +A. C. McCLURG & CO.</span><br /> +EDINBURGH: T. N. FOULIS<br /> +1908<br /><br /><br /> +AMERICAN EDITION<br /> +Published October 10, 1908<br /><br /><br /> +Dedicated<br /> +<br /> +BY SPECIAL PERMISSION<br /> +TO<br /> +THEIR MAJESTIES<br /><br /> +<span style="font-size: 125%;">KING ALFONSO THE THIRTEENTH</span><br /> +AND<br /> +<span style="font-size: 125%;">QUEEN VICTORIA OF SPAIN</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p>In preparing these volumes, it has been my aim +to give a clear and fairly complete account of the +arts and crafts of older Spain. It seems to me +that there is room for a work of this design and +scope, and that there is no reason why so attractive +a subject—or rather, group of subjects—should +be perpetually ignored by persons who travel +through, or who profess to feel an interest in, +the country of the Cid and of Don Quixote.</p> + +<p>My account of Spanish pottery is guarded, and +yet I trust acceptable. The study of this craft in +Spain is far from definite, and fresh researches +and discoveries may be hoped for at some future +time. The history of Spanish arms has also +suffered from unjust neglect. Perhaps my sketch +of them may slightly compensate for this deficiency. +For the rest, my book, which represents +the well-meant assiduity of several years, shall +speak for itself.</p> + +<p>Although I was embarrassed by too much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> +material, the illustrations have been chosen with +great care, and not, I think, inadequately. Some +of the photographs were taken specially for this +work. For the loan of others, or for kind assistance +generally, I am indebted to Excmo. Señor +Don Guillermo J. de Osma, Excmo. Señor Don +José Villegas, and Excmo. Señor Don José +Moreno Carbonero; to Señores Góngora and +Valladar, of Granada; and to Messrs Hauser +and Menet, and Mons. Lacoste, of Madrid.</p> + +<p><i>August</i>, 1907.</p> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE</h2> + +<table summary="TOC" cellpadding="4"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="page">PAGES</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#GOLD_SILVER_AND_JEWEL_WORK"><span class="smcap">Gold, Silver, and Jewel Work</span></a></td> + <td class="page">1–119</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#IRON-WORK"><span class="smcap">Iron-Work</span></a></td> + <td class="page">120–159</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#BRONZES"><span class="smcap">Bronzes</span></a></td> + <td class="page">160–191</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#ARMS"><span class="smcap">Arms</span></a></td> + <td class="page">192–289</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p> + +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><i>VOLUME ONE</i></p> + +<table summary="LOI" cellpadding="2"> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum"> </td> + <td class="tdc">GOLD AND SILVER</td> + <td class="page"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">PLATE</td> + <td class="chaptitle"> </td> + <td class="page">PAGE</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum"> </td> + <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i> of the Choir; Seville Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">I.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Treasure of Guarrazar; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_22.jpg">22</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">II.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The Cross of Angels; Oviedo Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_36.jpg">36</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">III.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The Cross of Victory; Oviedo Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_42.jpg">43</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">IV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Casket; Gerona Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_46.jpg">46</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">V.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Altar-Front in enamelled Bronze; Museum of Burgos</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_50.jpg">50</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">VI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">“The Crucifix of the Cid”; Salamanca Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_52.jpg">52</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">VII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The “Virgen de la Vega”; San Esteban, Salamanca</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_54.jpg">54</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">VIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Saint James in Pilgrim's Dress; Santiago Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_57.jpg">57</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">IX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Mudejar Triptych; Royal Academy of History, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_60.jpg">60</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">X.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The “Tablas Alfonsinas”; Seville Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_62.jpg">62</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">“The Cup of Saint Ferdinand”; Seville Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_64.jpg">64</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Ship; Zaragoza Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_65.jpg">65</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Bracelets</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_77.jpg">77</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XIV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Morisco Jewellery</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_83.jpg">83</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Silver-Gilt Processional Cross</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_85.jpg">85</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XVI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Gothic <i>Custodia</i></td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_95.jpg">95</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XVII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The <i>Custodia</i> of Seville Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_100.jpg">100</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XVIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Early Chalice and Cross in Filigree Gold</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_114.jpg">114</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum"> </td> + <td class="tdc">IRON-WORK</td> + <td class="page"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XIX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Old Keys; Seville Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_131.jpg">131</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XIX<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Decorative Nail-Heads; Convent of San Antonio, Toledo</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_134.jpg">134</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Door-Knockers</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_136.jpg">136</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Ceremonial Maces and Lantern</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_138.jpg">138</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Iron Pulpit; Avila Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_140.jpg">140</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i> of Chapel Royal; Granada Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_148.jpg">148</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXIV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The same (View from Interior)</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_149.jpg">149</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i>; Casa de Pilatos, Seville</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_155.jpg">155</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXVI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i> of the “Casa de las Conchas,” Salamanca</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_156.jpg">156</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum"> </td> + <td class="tdc">BRONZES</td> + <td class="page"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXVII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">“Meleager's Hunt”</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_165.jpg">164</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXVIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Candil</i></td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_166.jpg">166</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXIX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Velón</i></td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_168.jpg">168</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Lion</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_171.jpg">171</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXXI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Stag; Museum of Cordova</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_173.jpg">173</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXXII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Temple; Museum of Granada</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_174.jpg">174</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXXIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Lamp and Mortar; Museum of Granada</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_176.jpg">176</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXXIV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Lamp of Mohammed the Third; Madrid Museum</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_179.jpg">178</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXXV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Abbot Samson's Bell; Museum of Cordova</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_180.jpg">180</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXXVI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Crucifix</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_182.jpg">182</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXXVII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The Puerta del Perdón; Seville Cathedral</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_184.jpg">184</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXXVIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The Weathercock of the Giralda Tower</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_186.jpg">186</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum"> </td> + <td class="tdc">ARMS</td> + <td class="page"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XXXIX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Crest of Jousting Helmet; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_198.jpg">198</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XL.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Crossbowman; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_202.jpg">202</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XLI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">The Battle of La Higueruela; El Escorial</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_206.jpg">206</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XLII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Parade Harness of Philip the Third; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_210.jpg">210</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XLIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Crossbow and Stirrup; Museum of Granada</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_214.jpg">214</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XLIV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Sword; Casa de los Tiros, Granada</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_219.jpg">218</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XLV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Sword of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_222.jpg">222</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XLVI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Dagger of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_226.jpg">226</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XLVII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Sword</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_230.jpg">230</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XLVIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">War Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_234.jpg">234</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">XLIX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Jousting Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_238.jpg">238</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">L.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Jousting Harness of Philip the Handsome; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_242.jpg">242</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">LI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Buckler; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_246.jpg">246</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">LII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Armour made at Pamplona; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_250.jpg">250</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">LIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle"><i>Adarga</i>; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_254.jpg">254</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">LIV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_258.jpg">258</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">LV.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Sword; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_262.jpg">262</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">LVI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Sword</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_266.jpg">266</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">LVII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_270.jpg">270</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">LVIII.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Sword Marks</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_272.jpg">272</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">LIX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle"><i>Bridona</i> Saddle; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_274.jpg">274</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">LX.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Hanging <i>Jaeces</i> for Horses</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_278.jpg">278</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="chapnum">LXI.</td> + <td class="chaptitle">Travelling Litter attributed to Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#img_282.jpg">282</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="GOLD_SILVER_AND_JEWEL_WORK" id="GOLD_SILVER_AND_JEWEL_WORK">GOLD, SILVER, AND JEWEL WORK</a></h2> + +<p>The hyperbolic language of the ancients spoke +of Spain as filled throughout, upon her surface and +beneath her soil, with precious stones and precious +metals. Old writers—Strabo, Pliny, Aristoteles, +Pomponius Mela, and Diodorus Siculus—declare +that once upon a time a mountain fire, lighted +by shepherds in the Pyrenees and fanned into a +conflagration by the wind, heated the earth until +the ore within her entrails came bubbling to the +top and ran away in rivulets of molten gold and +silver, spreading all over Spain. The indigens +of Lusitania as they dug their fields were said to +strike their implements on nuggets half a pound +in weight. The heart of the Peninsula, between +the Bœtis and the Annas rivers—that is, the +country of the Oretani and the Bastitani—was +fabled to abound in mines of gold. The traders +from Phœnicia, we are told, discovered silver to +be so abundant with the Turdetani that “the +vilest utensils of this people were composed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +thereof, even to their barrels and their pots.” +Accordingly these shrewd Phœnicians, offering +worthless trinkets in exchange, loaded their ships +with silver to the water's edge, and even, when +their cargo was complete, fashioned their chains +and anchors of the residue.</p> + +<p>In spite of their extravagance, upon the whole +these legends are not utterly devoid of truth. +“Tradition,” said so careful an authority as +Symonds, “when not positively disproved should +be allowed to have its full value; and a sounder +historic sense is exercised in adopting its testimony +with due caution, than in recklessly rejecting it +and substituting guesses which the lack of +knowledge renders insubstantial.” So with the +legends of the gold and silver treasure of the old-time +Spaniards. Besides, it seems unquestionable +that those fanciful assertions had their origin in +fact. Spain stood upon the western border of the +ancient world. Year in, year out, the sanguine +sun went seething down into the waters at her +western marge. Mariners from distant countries +viewed those sunsets and associated them with +Spain herself. Thus, hereabouts in the unclouded +south, would gold and silver be suggested by the +solar orb; or emerald and jacinth, pearl and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +amethyst and ruby, by the matchless colours of +the seldom-failing sunset.</p> + +<p>Then, too, though not of course in fabulous +amount, the precious metals actually existed in +this land. Various of her rivers, such as the +Calom or Darro of Granada, the Tagus, the +Agneda, and the Sil, rolled down, together with +their current, grains of gold. “Les Mores,” +wrote Bertaut de Rouen of the first of these +rivers, “en tiroient beaucoup autrefois; mais cela +a esté discontinué depuis à cause de la trop +grande dépense qu'il y faloit faire. Il est certain +que souvent on prend dans le Darro de petits +morceaux d'or, et il y a des gens qui sont +accoûtumez d'y en chercher.”</p> + +<p>Centuries before this abbot wrote his book, the +Arab author of the geographical dictionary known +as the <i>Marasid Ithila</i> had made a similar remark +upon this gold-producing stream; and in the +sixteenth century I find an Ordinance of Granada +city prohibiting the townspeople from digging up +the river-bed unless it were to look for gold.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +Probably, however, and in spite of what some +chroniclers suppose, the title Darro is not in +any way connected with the Latin words <i>dat +aurum</i>.</p> + +<p>“Two leagues from Guadarrama,” wrote the +mineralogist William Bowles, about the middle of +the eighteenth century, “opposite the town and +in the direction of San Ildefonso, is a deep valley +where one notices a vein of common quartz containing +some iron. Here, without the use of +glasses, I perceived a good many grains of +gold…. In Galicia grains of gold are found +on sandy hills, and one is astonished to observe +the wonderful works carried out by the Romans +to bring the sands together, wash them, and +extract the precious metal. Local tradition +affirms that this precious sand was destined for +the purses of three Roman empresses—Livia, +Agrippina, and Faustina…. I know a German +minister who employed his spare time in washing +these sands and collecting the gold.”</p> + +<p>The Romans, it is true, profited very greatly +by the native wealth of the Peninsula. Helvius +enriched the treasury with 14,732 pounds of +Spanish silver bars and 17,023 pounds of silver +money; Cornelius Lentulus, with 1515 pounds of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +gold, 20,000 pounds of bar-silver, and 34,550 +pounds in coin. Cato came back from his pro-consulship +with five-and-twenty thousand pounds +of silver bars, twelve thousand pounds of silver +money, and four hundred pounds of gold. +Seventy thousand pounds of coined silver fell to +the share of Flaccus, while Minutius exhibited +at his triumph eight thousand pounds of silver +bars, and three hundred thousand pounds of +silver coin.</p> + +<p>Mines of silver,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> gold, and precious stones +were also fairly numerous in Spain. Moorish +authors wrote enthusiastically of the mines of +precious metals in or close to the Sierra Nevada. +“Even at this day,” said Bowles, “the Moorish +mines may be distinguished from the Roman. +The Romans made the towers of their fortresses +of a round shape, in order to avoid as far as +possible the blows of the battering-ram; and +their miners, whether from habit or intentionally, +made the mouths of their mines round also. The +Moors, as strangers to this engine, built their +towers square and gave a square shape also to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +the mouths of their mines. The round mouths of +Roman mines are yet to be seen at Riotinto and +other places, and the square mouths of Moorish +mines in the neighbourhood of Linares.”</p> + +<p>Emeralds were formerly extracted from a +mine at Moron, in the Sierra de Leyta; white +sapphires and agates at Cape de Gata,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> at the +eastern extremity of the Gulf of Almeria; +amethysts at Monte de las Guardas, near the +port of Plata, “in a precipice (<i>sic</i>) about twenty +feet in depth.” According to Laborde, garnets +have been discovered down to modern times “in +a plain half-way on the road from Almeria to +Motril. They are very abundant there, particularly +in the bed of a ravine, formed by +rain-torrents, at the foot of a little hill, upon +which a great number of them are likewise +found. The emeralds are in the kingdom +of Seville, all the others in that of Granada. +It has been said for some time that a pit in +the mountain of Bujo, at Cape de Gata, contains +a great many precious stones; but none<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +could be found there, notwithstanding the prolonged +and careful searches that were lately +made.”</p> + +<p>Silver mines exist, or have existed, at Benasque, +Calzena, and Bielza, in Aragon; at Cuevas, near +Almeria; at Almodovar del Campo; at Zalamea, +in Extremadura; at Puerto Blanco, in Seville +province; in the Sierra de Guadalupe; at Fuente +de la Mina, near Constantina; and near Almazarron, +in the province of Carthagena. Not far +from this latter city was another mine, that sent +to Rome a daily yield of five-and-twenty thousand +drachmas, and was worked by forty thousand men. +Twenty thousand pounds in weight of pure silver +proceeded yearly from Asturias, Lusitania, and +Galicia. Hannibal extracted from a Pyrenean +mine three hundred pounds a day. The fair +Himilca, wife of Hasdrubal, was owner of a silver +mine at two leagues' distance from Linares. +Laborde wrote of this mine: “It was reopened +in the seventeenth century, when a vein five feet +in breadth was found, from which many pieces +of silver were taken; the working of it, however, +has been neglected. It belongs to the town of +Baeza.”</p> + +<p>The same author, who wrote about one hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +years ago, gives curious and instructive notices +of several other Spanish silver mines. “The +mountains of the kingdom of Seville, on the +confines of Extremadura, towards Guadalcanal, +Alanis, Puerto Blanco, and Cazalla, which form a +part of the extremity of the chain of Sierra Morena, +contain several silver mines, which have been +worked. There is one of these in the Sierra +Morena, three miles from Guadalcanal, which to +all appearance must have been very rich: there +were three shafts for descending, the mouths of +which are still to be seen: it was worked in the +seventeenth century, and given up in 1653. It is +believed that it was inundated by the workmen, +in revenge for a new tax that was laid upon them. +Another silver mine was also worked formerly, a +league and a half from the other; it has a shaft, +and a gallery of ancient construction; the vein is +six feet in circumference, and is composed of spar +and quartz. There is also a third mine, a league +and a half from Guadalcanal, and half a league +south-east of the village of Alanis, in the middle +of a field; it is two feet wide; the Romans constructed +a gallery in it, from south to north; a +branch of it running eastward has been worked +since their time: it originally contained pyrites<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +and quartz, but it is by no means rich; there is +lead at the bottom.”</p> + +<p>Gold mines, or traces of them, have been found +in the neighbourhood of Molina in Aragon, +San Ildefonso in Old Castile, and Alocer in +Extremadura; in the Sierra de Leyta; in the +valley of Hecho in Aragon; and at Paradeseca +and Ponferrada—this latter town the <i>Interamnium +Flavium</i> of the Romans.</p> + +<p>It is said that the chieftains of the ancient +Spaniards adorned their robes with rude embroidery +worked in gold, and that the men and +women of all ranks wore gold and silver bracelets. +These statements cannot now be either proved +or controverted. Gold or silver objects older +than the Roman domination have not been found +abundantly in Spain. Riaño describes a silver +bowl, conical in shape and evidently fashioned +on the wheel, engraved with Iberian characters +on one of its sides. A similar bowl was found +in Andalusia in the seventeenth century, full +of Iberian coins and weighing ten ounces. Gold +ornaments, such as earrings, and <i>torques</i> or collars +for the neck, have been discovered in Galicia +less infrequently than in the other Spanish regions, +and may be seen to-day in private collections,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +in the Royal Academy of History at Madrid, +and in the National Museum of Archæology.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> +Villa-amil y Castro has written fully of these +<i>torques</i> (Museo Español de Antigüedades, <i>Adornos +de oro encontrados en Galicia</i>). In nearly every +case, he says, they consist of a plain gold bar, +C-shaped and therefore not completely closed +into a ring, and with a knob at each extremity, as +though their pattern were suggested by the yoke +of cattle. One or two are decorated with a somewhat +rude design extending through a portion of +their length.</p> + +<p>On one of these occasions a pair of curious, +kidney-shaped earrings was found, together with a +<i>torque</i>. These earrings, apparently of later workmanship +than the other ornament, are decorated +over all their surface, partly with a filigree design, +and partly with a fine, beadlike pattern executed +with a small chisel or graving tool in the manner +known in French as <i>fusé</i>, <i>guilloché</i>, or <i>hachié</i>. +Their material is hollow gold, and when discovered +they were filled with a substance resembling +powdered charcoal, mixed with a metallic +clay.</p> + +<p>These ornaments are ascribed by most authorities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +to an undetermined period somewhere +previous to the Roman domination. I think, +however, that less improbably they were produced +by Spanish craftsmen in imitation of the Roman +manner, and during the time of Roman rule in +the Peninsula. This would account for their +deficiencies of execution, and also for certain +characteristics which they evidently share with +Roman work.</p> + +<p>We know that Rome imposed her usages on all +the peoples whom she subjugated. Consequently, +following this universal law, the Spaniards would +adopt, together with the lavish luxury of Rome, +the Roman ornaments and articles of jewellery. +Such were the <i>annulus</i> or finger-ring; the <i>fibula</i>, +a brooch or clasp for securing the cloak; the +<i>torgues</i> or neck-ring, more or less resembling +those in use among the Persians; and the <i>phalera</i>, +a round plate of gold, silver, or other metal, +engraved with any one of a variety of emblems, +worn upon the breast or stomach by the persons +of either sex, and very commonly bestowed upon +the Roman soldiers in reward of military service. +Then there were several kinds of earrings—the +variously-designed <i>stalagmium</i> or pendant, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +<i>inaures</i>, or the <i>crotalium</i>, hung with pearls that +brushed together as their wearer walked, and +gratified her vanity by their rustling; and also +several kinds of bracelets—the gold or bronze +<i>armilla</i>, principally worn by men; the <i>periscelis</i>, +the <i>spathalium</i>, and the <i>dextrale</i>, worn round +the fleshy part of the right arm.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>Discoveries of Roman jewellery and gold and +silver work have occurred from time to time in the +Peninsula; for example, at Espinosa de Henares +and (in 1840) near Atarfe, on the southern side +of the volcanic-looking Sierra Elvira, a few miles +from Granada. Riaño describes a Roman silver +dish found in a stone quarry at Otañez, in the +north of Spain. “It weighs thirty-three ounces, +and is covered with an ornamentation of figures +in relief, some of which are gilt, representing +an allegorical subject of the source of medicinal +waters. In the upper part is a nymph who pours<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects +it in a vessel; another gives a cup of it to a sick +man; another fills with it a barrel which is placed +in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two +mules. On each side of the fountain are altars on +which sacrifices and libations are offered. Round +it is the inscription: <span class="smcap">SALVS VMERITANA</span>, and at the +back are engraved, in confused characters, the +words: <span class="smcap">L. P. CORNELIANI. PIII</span>….”</p> + +<p>The same author is of opinion that in the time +of the Romans “objects of all kinds in gold and +silver were used in Spain to a very great extent, +for, notwithstanding the destruction of ages, we +still possess inscriptions which allude to silver +statues, and a large number of objects in the +precious metals exist in museums and private +collections.” Doubtless, in the case of articles +and household utensils of smaller size—bowls, +dishes, and the like, or ornaments for the person—the +precious metals were made use of freely; but +when we hear of mighty objects as also made of +silver, <i>e.g.</i> principal portions of a building, we +might do well to bear in mind a couple of old +columns that were standing once not far from Cadiz, +on a spot where in the days preceding history a +temple sacred to the Spanish Hercules is rumoured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +to have been. Philostratus affirmed these columns +to be wrought of solid gold and silver, mixed +together yet in themselves without alloy. Strabo +reduced them modestly to brass; but it was reserved +for a curious Frenchman, the Père Labat, +who travelled in Spain in 1705, to warn us what +they really were. “Elles sont sur cette langue de +terre, qui joint l'Isle de Léon à celle de Cadix; +car il faut se souvenir que c'est ainsi qu'on appelle +la partie Orientale, et la partie Occidentale de la +même Isle. Il y a environ une lieue de la porte +de Terre à ces vénérables restes de l'antiquité. +Nous nous en approchames, croyant justifier les +contes que les Espagnols en débitent. Mais nous +fûmes étrangement surpris de ne pas rencontrer +la moindre chose qui pût nous faire seulement +soupçonner qu'elles fussent d'une antiquité un peu +considérable. Nous vimes que ces deux tours +rondes, qui n'ont à présent qu'environ vingt pieds +de hauteur sur douze à quinze pieds de diamètre, +étoient d'une maçonnerie fort commune. Leurs +portes étoient bouchées, et nous convinmes tous +qu'elles avoient été dans leur jeune tems des +moulins à vent qu'on avoit abandonnés; il n'y a +ni inscriptions, ni bas-reliefs, ni reste de figures +quelconques. En un mot, rien qui méritât notre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +attention, ni qui recompensât la moindre partie de +la peine que nous avions prise pour les aller voir +de près. Car je les avois vue plus d'une fois du +grand chemin, où j'avois passé, et je devois me +contenter. Mais que ne fait-on pas quand on est +curieux, et aussi desœuvré que je l'étois alors.”</p> + +<p>Many of the usages of Roman Spain descended +to the Visigoths. The jewels of this people +manifest the double influence of Rome and of +Byzantium, and the latter influenced in its turn +from Eastern sources. We learn from that extraordinary +encyclopædia of early mediæval Spanish +lore—the <i>Etymologies</i> of Isidore of Beja—that the +Visigothic women decked themselves with earrings, +necklaces, and bracelets, set with precious stones +of fabulous price. Leovigild is stated by the same +writer to have been the first of the Visigothic +princes to use the insignia of royalty. One of +his coins (engraved in Florez) represents him +with an imperial crown surmounted by a cross +resembling that of the Byzantines. Coins of a +similar design, and also bearing the imperial crown, +were minted at Toledo, Cordova, or Merida, in +the reigns of Chindaswint, Wamba, Ervigius, and +Egica.</p> + +<p>But the true fountain-head of all our modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +knowledge respecting the jewellery of Visigothic +Spain is in the wonderful crosses, crowns, and +other ornaments discovered in 1858 upon the site +of some old Christian temple, two leagues distant +from Toledo. These objects, known collectively +as “the treasure of Guarrazar,” were stumbled +on by certain peasants after a heavy storm had +washed away a quantity of earth. Some were +destroyed upon the spot; others were sold to the +Toledo silversmiths and melted down by these +barbarians of our day; but fortunately the greater +part remained intact, or very nearly so. There +were in all, composed exclusively of gold and +precious stones, eleven crowns, two crosses containing +legible inscriptions, fragments such as the +arms of a processional cross, and many single +stones which time had doubtless separated from +the crosses or the crowns.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>Part of this treasure passed in some mysterious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +way to France, and is now in the Cluny Museum +at Paris. The rest is in the Royal Armoury at +Madrid. Paris can boast possession of nine of the +crowns; Madrid, of two, together with a fragment +of a third—this latter of a balustrade or basket +pattern. Five of the nine crowns preserved at +Paris are fashioned of simple hoops of gold. The +most important of the five, the crown of Recceswinth, +who ruled in Spain from 650 to 672 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, +consists of two hinged semicircles of hollow gold, +about a finger's-breadth across the interspace. It +measures just over eight inches in diameter and +four inches in depth. Both the upper and the +lower rims are decorated to the depth of nearly +half an inch with a design of four-pointed floral +or semi-floral figures within minute circles. +Amador de los Ríos has recognized this same +design in the frieze of certain buildings at +Toledo, and in the edges of mosaic discovered +at Italica and Lugo, as well as in the Balearic +Islands. The interstices of this design upon the +crown are filled with a kind of red enamel or +glaze, the true nature of which has not been +definitely ascertained. Riaño calls it “a delicate +ornamentation of <i>cloisonné</i> work, which encloses +a substance resembling red glass.” The centre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +of the crown is filled with three rows of large +stones, principally pearls and sapphires. There are +also several onyxes, a stone which in those days +was held in great esteem. The spaces between +the rows of stones are ornamented with a somewhat +rudimentary design of palm branches, the leaves +of which appear to have been filled or outlined +with the kind of red enamel I have spoken of.</p> + +<p>This crown is suspended by four gold chains +containing each of them five leaf-shaped links, +<i>percées à jour</i>. The chains unite at a gold rosette +in the form of a double lily, terminated by a stoutish +capital of rock-crystal. This in its turn is capped +by another piece of crystal holding the final stem +of gold which served as a hook for hanging up +the crown. Suspended from the gold rosette by +a long chain is a handsome cross, undoubtedly of +more elaborate workmanship, studded with union +pearls and monster sapphires. Amador believed +this ornament to be a brooch. If this were so it +is, of course, improperly appended here. Twenty-four +gold chains hang from the lower border of +the crown, concluding in pyriform sapphires of +large size. Each sapphire is surmounted by a +small, square frame of gold containing coloured +glass, and above this, in each of three-and-twenty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +of the chains, is one of the golden letters forming +the inscription, ☩ <span class="smcap">RECCESVINTHVS REX OFFERET</span>.</p> + +<p>Besides this crown there are at Paris—</p> + +<p>(1) A similar though slighter crown, the body +of which is studded with fifty-four magnificent +stones. A cross, now kept apart in the same +collection, is thought by Spanish experts to have +once been pendent from the crown. If so, the +latter was perhaps presented to the sanctuary by +one Sonnica, probably a Visigothic magnate, and +not a woman, as the termination of the name +induced some foreign antiquaries to suppose. +The cross is thus inscribed:—</p> + +<table summary="cross"> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">IN D<span style="text-decoration: overline;">I</span></td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">NOM</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">INE</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">OFFERET</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">SONNICA</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"><span style="text-decoration: overline;">SCE</span></td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">MA</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">RIE</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">INS</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">ORBA</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">CES<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) Three crowns of plain design consisting of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +hoops of gold with primitive <i>repoussé</i> decoration, +and, in the case of one, with precious stones.</p> + +<p>(3) Four crowns, each with a pendent cross. +The pattern is a basket-work or set of balustrades +of thin gold hollow plates (not, as Riaño stated, +massive) with precious stones about the intersections +of the bars or meshes, and others hanging +from the lower rim. Three of these crowns have +three rows or tiers of what I call the balustrade; +the other crown has four.</p> + +<p>The custom of offering votive crowns to +Christian temples was taken by the emperors of +Constantinople from heathen peoples of the +eastern world. In Spain this custom, introduced +by Recared, outlived by many years the ruin of +the Visigothic monarchy—survived, in fact, until +the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Thus in 891 +Alfonso the Third presented to the monastery +of San Adrian and Santa Natalia four crowns of +gold and three of silver, while just a hundred +years afterwards Ordoño the Second presented +three silver crowns to the monastery of Samos. +Other crowns were offered by the prelates and +the secular nobility.</p> + +<p>Returning to the crowns of Guarrazar, there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +has been great controversy as to whether these +were worn upon the head. Some experts think +they must have been so worn; and in this case +the rings upon the rim, through which the chains +are passed, would seem to have been added on +the presentation of these objects to the sanctuary. +Lasteyrie, on the other hand, considered that the +crowns were merely votive and were never meant +for personal use, arguing that the rings were +fixed about the border from the very moment +when the crowns were made;<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> but Amador +ingeniously replied to this by pointing out that +in a few of the old Castilian coins—for instance, +one of Sancho the Third—the crown, with rings +about its rim, is actually upon the monarch's +head. It is possible, adds the same authority, +that these were old votive crowns proceeding +from some church, although he thinks it still +more likely that they were fashioned with the +rings attached to them. We should remember, +too, the hinge which serves to open and close the +body of these crowns. It is difficult to guess +the purpose of this hinge, unless it were to fit the +crown more comfortably on the head.</p> + +<p>Of that portion of the treasure of Guarrazar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +which has remained at Madrid (Plate <a href="#img_22.jpg">i</a>.), the +most important object is the votive crown of King +Swinthila, son of Recared, and described as “one +of the most illustrious and unlucky princes that ever +occupied the throne of Atawulf.” This crown +measures nine inches in diameter by two and a +half in height. It consists of thin gold plates +united at the edge, leaving, between the inner and +the outer side, a hollow space about a quarter +of an inch across. The exterior is divided into +a central horizontal hoop or band between two +others, somewhat narrower, at the top and bottom, +these last being slightly raised above the level of the +third. A triple row of precious stones, amounting +to one hundred and twenty-five pearls and +sapphires in the entire crown, surrounds the outer +surface of the same, the central band or zone of +which contains besides, wrought in <i>repoussé</i> on +the hoop, a simple circular device wherein each +centre is a sapphire or a pearl, though many of +these have fallen from their setting. The spaces +which describe these circles are superposed on +what looks like a red enamel retaining at this +moment all or nearly all its pristine brightness of +twelve hundred years ago. This substance was +believed by French investigators to be a coloured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +glass or paste,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> but Amador, after protracted +chemical experiments, declared it to be layers of +cornelian. Some of these layers have fallen from +their grip, and if the crown be stirred are heard +to move within. It is worth remarking, too, that +the fillets which form the setting of the precious +stones were made apart and welded afterwards; +nor are these settings uniform in shape, but tally +in each instance with the outline of the gem.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_22.jpg" width="436" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_22.jpg" id="img_22.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">TREASURE OF GUARRAZAR<br /> +(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The chains which served for hanging up the +crown are four in number. As in the crown of +Recceswinth, each of them is composed of four +<i>repoussé</i> cinquefoil links adorned along their edge +with small gold beads minutely threaded on a +wire and fastened on by fusing. The chains converge +into an ornament shaped like two lilies +pointing stem to stem, so that the lower is inverted, +although they are divided by a piece of +faceted rock crystal.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Four gems are hung from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +either lily, and issuing from the uppermost of +these a strong gold hook attaches to the final +length of chain.</p> + +<p>Possibly the chain and cross now hanging +through the circuit of the crown were not originally +part of it. This cross is most remarkable. +It has four arms of equal length, gracefully curved, +and is wrought of plates of gold in duplicate, +fastened back to back by straps of gold along the +edges. The centre holds a piece of crystal in +the midst of pearls and gold bead work threaded +on a wire of the same metal and attached by +fusion. Several fairly large stones are hung from +the lateral and lower arms of the cross by small +gold chains.</p> + +<p>The letters hanging from Swinthila's crown are +cut and punched from thin gold plates. Their +decoration is a zigzag ornament backed by the +same mysterious crimson substance as the circular +devices on the hoop. Hanging from the letters +are pearls, sapphires, and several imitation stones—particularly +imitation emeralds—in paste.</p> + +<p>The cross before the letters points to a custom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +of that period. We find it also on Swinthila's +coins, and those of other Visigothic kings. Of the +letters themselves twelve have been recovered, +thus:—</p> + +<p style="text-align:center;">☩ SV TI NV REX OFF T</p> + +<p>The chains, however, or fragments of them, +amount to twenty-three—precisely (if we count +the cross) the number needed to complete the +dedication.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> + +<p>The Royal Armoury contains another crown, a +great deal smaller and less ornamented than +Swinthila's. The body of this crown, which was +presented by the finder to the late Queen Isabella +the Second, is just a hoop of gold, two inches +deep and five across, hinged like the more +elaborate and larger crowns, but merely decorated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +with a fine gold spiral at the rims, a zigzag +pattern in <i>repoussé</i>, and a rudely executed scale-work. +The dedication on this cross is in the +centre of the hoop, and says—</p> + +<p style="text-align:center;">☩ OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM S<span style="text-decoration: overline;">CO</span> STEFANO<br /> +THEODOSIVS ABB<span style="text-decoration: overline;">A</span></p> + +<p>We do not know who Theodosius was, but +Amador, judging from the simple decoration of +this crown, believes him to have been a priest +of lower rank, and by no means a dignitary of +the Visigothic church.</p> + +<p>A votive cross also forms part of this collection, +which has a simple sunk device along the edges +and seven pendent stones, two of these hanging +from each of the lateral arms, and three, a little +larger, from the lower arm. The inscription, +which is rough in the extreme, appears to be the +work of some illiterate craftsman, and has been +interpreted with difficulty:—</p> + +<p style="text-align:center;">IN NOMINE DEI: IN NOMINE S<span style="text-decoration: overline;">CI</span> OFFERET<br /> +LUCETIUS E</p> + +<p>This reading gives an extra letter at the end, +which may be construed as <i>Episcopus</i>—or anything +else, according to the student's fancy.</p> + +<p>I may close my notice of this collection in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +Royal Armoury at Madrid by drawing attention +to a greenish, semi-opaque stone, three-quarters +of an inch in height. It is engraved <i>en creux</i> +upon two facets with the scene of the Annunciation. +The gem itself is commonly taken for an +emerald, of which, referring to the glyptic art +among the Visigoths, the learned Isidore remarked +that “<i>Sculpentibus quoque gemmas nulla gratior +oculorum refectio est.</i>” I shall insert a sketch of +the cutting on this stone as a tailpiece to the +chapter, and here append a full description. +“The Virgin listens standing to the Archangel +Gabriel, who communicates to her the will of +the Almighty. Before her is a jar, from which +projects the stem of a lily, emblematic of the +chaste and pure, that reaches to her breast. +Her figure is completely out of measurement. +Upon her head appears to be a <i>nimbus</i> or +<i>amiculum</i>; her breast is covered with a broad and +folded <i>fascia</i>, enveloping her arms, while her +tunic, reaching to the ground, conceals one of her +feet. The angel in the cutting on the stone is at +the Virgin's right. His attitude is that of one +who is conveying tidings. Large wings folded +upon his shoulders and extending nearly to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +ground are fitted to his form, better drawn and +livelier than the Virgin's. He executes his holy +mission with his right hand lifted. His dress is +a tunic in small folds, over which is a cloak +fastened by a brooch and fitting closely. Upon +his head he wears a kind of helmet.”<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> + +<p>The drawing of this design upon the stone is +most bizarre and barbarous; for the Virgin's head +is so completely disproportioned that it forms the +one-third part of her entire person.</p> + +<p>The merit of all this Visigothic gem or gold and +silver work has been extolled too highly by the +French and Spanish archæologists.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> It is, however, +greatly interesting. Rudely and ponderously +magnificent, it tells us of a people who as yet +were almost wholly strangers to the true artistic +sense. Such were the Visigoths and the Spaniards +of the Visigothic era, of all of whom I have +observed elsewhere that “serfdom was the distinguishing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +mark of the commons; arrogance, of +the nobility; avarice, and ambition of temporal and +political power, of the clergy; regicide and tumult, +of the crown.”<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> These crowns of Guarrazar proclaim +to us in plainest language that the volume of +the stones, and showiness and glitter of the precious +metal were accorded preference of every other +factor—the <i>pondus auri</i> preference of the <i>manus +artificis</i>. We gather, too, from documents and +chronicles and popular tradition, that the Visigothic +princes, as they set apart their stores of treasure in +secluded caves or in the strong rooms of their +palaces, were ever captivated and corrupted by the +mere intrinsic worth in opposition to the nobler +and æsthetic value of the craftsmanship.</p> + +<p>Thus we are told that Sisenand owned a plate +of gold (no word is said of its design or style) +five hundred pounds in weight, proceeding from +the royal treasure of his race, and which, long +years before, had been presented by the nobleman +Accio to King Turismund. When Sisenand was +conspiring to dethrone Swinthila, he called on +Dagobert the king of France to come to his +support, and promised him, as recompense, this +golden plate. The French king lent his help<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +forthwith, and then, as soon as Turismund was +seated on the throne of Spain, despatched an +embassy to bring the coveted vessel to his court. +Sisenand fulfilled his word and placed the envoys +in possession of the plate, but since his subjects, +rising in rebellion, wrenched it from their power +and kept it under custody, he compensated +Dagobert by a money payment of two hundred +thousand <i>sueldos</i>.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>Innumerable narratives and legends dwell +upon the treasure taken by the Moors on entering +Spain. Such as relate the battle of the +Guadalete, or the Lake of Janda (as it is also +called by some authorities), agree that when the +fatal day was at an end the riderless steed of +Roderick was found imbedded in the mire, +wearing a saddle of massive gold adorned with +emeralds and rubies. According to Al-Makkari, +that luckless monarch's boots were also made of +gold studded with precious stones, while the +Muslim victors, stripping the Visigothic dead, +identified the nobles by the golden rings upon +their fingers, those of a less exalted rank by +their silver rings, and the slaves by their rings +of copper. The widow of the fallen king was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +also famous for her stores of jewellery. Her +name was Eila or Egilona (Umm-Asim of the +Moors), but she was known besides as “the +lady of the beautiful necklaces.” After being +made a prisoner she was given in marriage to +the young prince Abd-al-Azis, who grew to love +her very greatly, and received from her, “seeing +that she still retained sufficient of her royal +wealth,” the present of a crown.</p> + +<p>Muza, on returning to the East, is said to +have drawn near to Damascus with a train of +thirty waggons full of Spanish silver, gold, and +precious stones. Tarik ben Ziyed, marching in +triumph through the land, secured at Cordova, +Amaya, and other towns and capitals, enormous +store of “pearls, arms, dishes, silver, gold, and +other jewels in unprecedented number.” One +object, in particular, is mentioned with insistency +by nearly all the chronicles, both Mussulman +and Christian. Quoting from the <i>Pearl of +Marvels</i> of Ibn Alwardi, this was “the table +which had belonged to God's prophet, Solomon +(health be to both of them). It was of green +emeralds, and nothing fairer had been ever seen +before. Its cups were golden and its plates of +precious jewels, one of them specked with black<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +and white.” All manner of strange things are +said about this table, though most accounts +describe it as consisting of a <i>single</i> emerald. +Perhaps it was of malachite, or of the bright +green serpentine stone extracted formerly as well +as nowadays from the Barranco de San Juan +at Granada, and several other spots in Spain. +Bayan Almoghreb says it was of gold mixed +with a little silver and surrounded by three gold +rings or collars; the first containing pearls, the +second rubies, and the third emeralds. Al-Makkari +describes it as “green, with its 365 feet and +borders of a single emerald.” Nor is it known +for certain where this “table” fell into the hands +of Tarik. Probably he found it in the principal +Christian temple at Toledo—that is to say, the +Basilica of Santa María. Ibn Alwardi says that +in the <i>aula regia</i>, or palace of the Visigothic kings, +the lancers of the Moorish general broke down +a certain door, discovering “a matchless quantity +of gold and silver plate,” together with the +“table.” Doubtless this strong room was the same +referred to in the following lines. “It was for +ever closed; and each time that a Christian king +began to reign he added to its door a new and +powerful fastening. In this way as many as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +four and twenty padlocks were gathered on the +door.”</p> + +<p>However, the most explicit and informative of +all these ancient authors is Ibn Hayyan, who says; +“The table had its origin in the days of Christian +rulers. It was the custom in those times that +when a rich man died he should bequeath a legacy +to the churches. Proceeding from the value of +these gifts were fashioned tables, thrones, and +other articles of gold and silver, whereon the +clergy bore the volumes of their gospel when +they showed them at their ceremonies. These +objects they would also set upon their altars to +invest them with a further splendour by the +ornament thereof. For this cause was the table +at Toledo, and the [Visigothic] monarchs vied +with one another in enriching it, each of them +adding somewhat to the offerings of his predecessor, +till it surpassed all other jewels of its +kind and grew to be renowned exceedingly. It +was of fine gold studded with emeralds, pearls, +and rubies, in such wise that nothing similar had +ever been beheld. So did the kings endeavour +to increase its richness, seeing that this city was +their capital, nor did they wish another to contain +more splendid ornaments or furniture. Thus was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +the table resting on an altar of the church, and +here the Muslims came upon it, and the fame of +its magnificence spread far abroad.”</p> + +<p>Another chronicle affirms that Tarik found the +“table” at a city called Almeida, now perhaps +Olmedo. “He reached Toledo, and leaving a +detachment there, advanced to Guadalajara and +the [Guadarrama] mountains. These he crossed +by the pass which took his name, and reached, +upon the other side, a city called Almeida or <i>The +Table</i>, for there had been discovered the table of +Solomon the son of David, and the feet and +borders of it, numbering three hundred and sixty-five, +were of green emerald.”</p> + +<p>In any case this venerated jewel gave considerable +trouble to its captors. When envious Muza +followed up the march of Tarik, his lieutenant, +he demanded from him all the spoil, and in +particular the ever-famous table. Tarik surrendered +this forthwith, but after slyly wrenching +off a leg. Muza perceived the breakage, and +inquired for the missing piece. “I know not,” +said the other; “'twas thus that I discovered it.” +Muza then ordered a new leg of gold to be made +for the table, as well as a box of palm leaves, in +which it was deposited. “This,” says Ibn Hayyan,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +“is known to be one of the reasons why Tarik +worsted Muza in the dispute they had before +the Caliph as to their respective conquests.” +So it proved. Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> relates that +Muza appeared before the Caliph Al-Walid and +produced the table. Tarik interposed and said +that he himself had taken it, and not the other +leader. “Give it into my hands,” the Caliph +answered, “that I may see if any piece of it be +wanting,” and found, indeed, that one of its feet +was different from the rest. “Ask Muza,” interrupted +Tarik, “for the missing foot, and if he +answer from his heart, then shall his words be +truth.” Accordingly Al-Walid inquired for the +foot, and Muza made reply that he had found +the table as it now appeared; but Tarik with +an air of triumph drew forth the missing piece +which he himself had broken off, and said: “By +this shall the Emir of the Faithful recognize that +I am speaking truth; that I it was who found +the table.” And thereupon Al-Walid credited his +words and loaded him with gifts.</p> + +<p>Comparing the statements of these writers, we +may be certain that the “table” was a kind of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +desk of Visigothic or, more probably, Byzantine +workmanship, for holding the gospels on the +feast-days of the national church. Probably, too, +seeing that a palm-leaf box was strong enough to +keep it in, its size was inconsiderable. Its value, +on the statement of Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, was +two hundred thousand <i>dinares</i>.</p> + +<p>The sum of my remarks upon the Visigothic +jewel-work is this. Distinguished by a coarse +though costly splendour, we find in it a mingled +Roman and Byzantine source, although it was +upon the whole inferior to these styles, being +essentially, as Amador observes, “an imitative +and decadent art.” Yet it did not succumb before +the Moors, but lurked for refuge in the small +Asturian monarchy, and later, issuing thence, extended +through the kingdom of León into Castile. +We find its clearest characteristics in such objects +as the Cross of Angels and the Cross of Victory. +Then, later still, it is affected and regenerated by the +purely oriental art of the invader; and lastly, till the +wave of the Renaissance floods the western world, +by Gothic influences from across the Pyrenees.</p> + +<p>A similar sketch may be applied to other arts +and crafts of Spain—particularly furniture and +architecture.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_36.jpg" width="320" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_36.jpg" id="img_36.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">THE CROSS OF ANGELS<br /> +(<i>Oviedo Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The pious or superstitious kings and magnates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +of this land have always taken pride in adding (at +the instigation of the clergy) to the treasure of her +churches and cathedrals. Such gifts include all +kinds of sumptuous apparel for the priesthood; +chasubles and dalmatics heavily embroidered with +the precious metals, gold or silver crowns and +crosses, paxes,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> chalices and patines, paraments +and baldaquinos, reliquaries in every shape and +style and size, and figures of the Virgin—such +as those of Lugo, Seville, Astorga, and Pamplona—consisting +of elaborate silver-work upon a +wooden frame. Visitors to Spain, from leisurely +Rosmithal five hundred years ago to time-economizing +tourists of our century, have been +continually astonished at the prodigal richness +of her sanctuaries. Upon this point I quote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +a typical extract from the narrative of Bertaut de +Rouen. “The treasure of this church,” he said +of Montserrat, “is wonderfully precious, and particularly +so by reason of two objects that belong +to it. The first is a crown of massive gold of +twenty pounds in weight, covered with pearls, +with ten stars radiating from it also loaded with +large pearls and diamonds of extraordinary value. +This crown took forty years to make, and is valued +at two millions of gold money. The second +object is a gold crown entirely covered with +emeralds, most of them of an amazing size. Many +are worth five thousand crowns apiece. The +reliquary, too, is of extraordinary richness, as also +a service of gold plate studded with pearls, +donated by the late emperor for use in celebrating +Mass.”</p> + +<p>Similar accounts to the above exist in quantities, +relating to every part of Spain and every period +of her history.</p> + +<p>Reverting to the earlier Middle Ages, a few +conspicuous objects thus presented to the Spanish +Church require to be briefly noted here. Famous +chalices are those of Santo Domingo de Silos +(eleventh century), made to the order of Abbot +Domingo in honour of San Sebastian, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +showing the characteristic Asturian filigree-work; +and of San Isidoro of León, made in 1101 by +order of Urraca Fernandez, sister of the fourth +Alfonso. The latter vessel, inscribed with the +dedication of <i>Urraca Fredinandi</i>, has an agate +cup and foot. A remarkably handsome silver-gilt +chalice and patine (thirteenth century) belong +to Toledo cathedral. The height of this chalice +is thirteen inches, and the diameter of its bowl, +which has a conical shape, eight and a half inches. +Inside and out the bowl is smooth, but midway +between the bowl and the foot is a massive knot +or swelling in the stem, and on the knot the +emblematic lion, eagle, bull, and angel are +chiselled in high relief. Below the knot is a ring +of graceful rosettes. The patine which accompanies +this chalice measures twelve inches in +diameter. It has upon it, thinly engraved within +a slightly sunk centre with a scalloped edge, the +figure of Christ upon the cross, between the +Virgin and St John. This central group of +figures and the border of the plate are each +surrounded with a narrow strip of decoration.</p> + +<p>The cathedral of Valencia has a beautiful and +early cup asserted to be the veritable Holy Grail +(<i>greal</i>, <i>garal</i>, or <i>gradal</i>, in the old Castilian), “of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +which,” wrote Ford with his accustomed irony, “so +many are shown in different orthodox <i>relicarios</i>.” +However this may be, the chalice of Valencia is +particularly handsome. According to Riaño it +consists of “a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully +moulded round the lip. The base is formed +of another inverted sardonyx. These are united +by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by +handles, which are inlaid with delicate arabesque +in black enamel. Oriental pearls are set round +the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, +sapphires, and emeralds. This chalice is a work +of the Roman imperial epoch, and the mounts +are of a later date.”</p> + +<p>A series of Spanish chalices, beginning chronologically +with specimens which date from the +early Middle Ages, and terminating with the +chalice, made in 1712, of Santa María la Blanca +of Seville, was shown in 1892 at the Exposición +Histórico-Europea of Madrid. Among the finer +or most curious were chalices proceeding from the +parish church of Játiva, Las Huelgas, and Seville +cathedral, and the Plateresque chalices of Calatayud, +Granada, and Alcalá de Henares. Another +chalice which is greatly interesting because of +the date inscribed on it, is one which was presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +to Lugo cathedral by a bishop of that diocese, +Don Garcia Martinez de Bahamonde (1441–1470). +The workmanship, though prior to the sixteenth +century, is partly Gothic. An article by José +Villa-amil y Castro, dealing with all these chalices, +will be found in the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad +Española de Excursiones</i> for April, 1893.</p> + +<p>A small exhibition was held at Lugo in August +1896. Here were shown sixteen chalices, nearly +all of them of merit from the point of view of +history or art. Such are the chalice of San +Rosendo, proceeding from the old monastery +of Celanova; the Gothic chalices of Tuy +cathedral, Lugo cathedral, Santa María del +Lucio, Santa Eulalia de Guilfrei, San Pedro +de Puertomarín, and the Franciscan friars of +Santiago; and the chalice and patine of Cebrero +(twelfth century), in which it is said that on a +certain occasion in the fifteenth century the wine +miraculously turned to actual blood, and the Host +to actual flesh, in order to convince a doubting +priest who celebrated service.</p> + +<p>The Cross of Angels and the Cross of Victory—presents, +respectively, from Alfonso the Chaste +and Alfonso the Great—are now preserved at +Oviedo, in the Camara Santa of that stately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +temple. The former of these crosses, fancied by +credulous people to be the handiwork of angels—whence +its title<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>—was made in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 808. It consists +of four arms of equal length, radiating from +a central rosette (Pl. <a href="#img_36.jpg">ii</a>.). The core or <i>alma</i> is of +wood covered with a double plate of richly decorated +gold, chased in the finest filigree (indicative +already of the influence of Cordova) and thickly +strewn with sapphires, amethysts, topazes, and +cornelians. Other stones hung formerly from six +small rings upon the lower border of the arms. +The cross is thus inscribed:—</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>“Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei<br /> +Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xti<br /> +Hoc signo tuetur pius<br /> +Hoc signo vincitur inimicus.</i></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi<br /> +Fulmine divino intereat ipse<br /> +Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea<br /> +Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCXLVI.”</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_42.jpg" width="374" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_42.jpg" id="img_42.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">THE CROSS OF VICTORY<br /> +(<i>Oviedo Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The other cross (Pl. <a href="#img_42.jpg">iii</a>.) is more than twice as +large, and measures just one yard in height by two +feet four and a half inches in width. Tradition +says that the primitive, undecorated wooden core of +this cross was carried against the Moors by King +Pelayo. The ornate casing, similar to that upon +the Cross of Angels, was added later, and contains +152 gems and imitation gems. The following +inscription tells us that this casing was made +at the Castle of Gauzon in Asturias, in the year +828:—</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>“Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent<br /> +Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemaena Regina;<br /> +Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit<br /> +Fulmine divino intereat ipse.<br /> +Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est<br /> +Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis.<br /> +Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus<br /> +Et operatum est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 10%;">XLII. <i>discurrente Era</i> DCCCLXVI.”</span></p> + +<p>These crosses are processional. Others which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +were used for the same purpose are those of San +Sebastián de Serrano (Galicia), San Munio de +Veiga, Santa María de Guillar (Lugo), San Mamed +de Fisteos, and Santa María de Arcos. The five +preceding crosses are of bronze; those of Baamorto +and San Adriano de Lorenzana are respectively +of silver, and of wood covered with silver plates, +and all were shown at the Lugo exhibition I have +spoken of.</p> + +<p>Besides the Cross of Victory or Pelayo, and the +Cross of Angels, interesting objects preserved at +Oviedo are a small diptych presented by Bishop +Don Gonzalo (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1162–1175), and the <i>Arca Santa</i> +used for storing saintly relics. This beautiful +chest, measuring three feet nine inches and a half +in length by twenty-eight inches and a half in +height, is considered by Riaño to be of Italian +origin, and to date from between the tenth and +twelfth centuries.</p> + +<p>Another handsome box belonging to the cathedral +of Astorga was once upon a time the +property of Alfonso the Third and his queen +Jimena, whose names it bears—<span class="smcap">ADEFONSVS REX: +SCEMENA REGINA</span>. The workmanship is consequently +of the close of the ninth or the beginning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +of the tenth century. The material is wood +covered with <i>repoussé</i> silver plates on which are +figured angels and birds, together with the eagle +and the ox as emblems of the evangelists John +and Luke, whose names are also to be read upon +the casket.</p> + +<p>Next to the sword, no object in the history of +mediæval Spain was more profoundly popular or +venerated than the <i>relicario</i>. This in its primitive +form was just a small receptacle, such as a vase or +urn of gold or silver, ivory or crystal, used by the +laity or clergy for treasuring bones, or hairs, or +other relics of the Virgin, or the Saviour, or the +saints. In private families a holy tooth, or toe, +or finger thus preserved would often, as though +it were some Eastern talisman, accompany its +credulous possessor to the battlefield.</p> + +<p>As time went on, the urn or vase was commonly +replaced by chests or caskets made by Moorish +captives, or by tranquil and respected Moorish +residents within the territory of the Christian,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> +or wrested from the infidel in war and offered +by the Spanish kings or nobles to their churches. +Here they were kept on brackets, or suspended +near the altar by a chain<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> of silver, gold, or iron. +Among the Moors themselves such chests and +caskets served, according to their richness or +capacity, for storing perfumes, clothes, or jewels, +or as a present from a bridegroom to his bride; +and since the sparsely-furnished Oriental room +contains no kind of wardrobe, cabinet, or chest +of drawers, their use in Moorish parts of Spain +was universal.</p> + +<p>A typical Moorish casket of this kind (Plate <a href="#img_46.jpg">iv</a>.) +is now in the cathedral of Gerona. It measures +fifteen inches in length by nine across, fastens +with a finely ornamented band and clasp of +bronze, and is covered with thin silver-gilt plates +profusely decorated with a bead and floral pattern +superposed upon a box of non-decaying wood—possibly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +larch or cedar. A Cufic inscription along +the lower part of the lid was formerly interpreted +as follows:—</p> + +<p>“In the name of God. (May) the blessing of +God, prosperity and fortune and perpetual felicity +be (destined) for the servant of God, Alhakem, +Emir of the Faithful, because he ordered (this +casket) to be made for Abdul Walid Hischem, +heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished +by the hands of Hudzen, son of Bothla.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_46.jpg" width="500" height="322" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_46.jpg" id="img_46.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">MOORISH CASKET<br /> +(<i>Gerona Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>It is supposed, however, that the part of this +inscription which contains the maker's name was +rendered incorrectly by Riaño, who followed, on +this point, Saavedra, Fita, and other archæologists; +and that the casket was made to the order +of Djaudar, as a gift to the heir to the throne, +Abulwalid Hischem, the actual workmen being +two slaves, Bedr and Tarif. That is to say, the +name Hudzen is now replaced by Djaudar, whom +Dozy mentions in his history of the Mussulman +domination in Spain, and who is known to have +been a eunuch high in favour with Alhakem, +Hischem's father. These princes ruled at Cordova +in the latter half of the tenth century and the +beginning of the eleventh.</p> + +<p>Spanish-Moorish caskets (<i>arquetas</i>) of ivory,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +silver, or inlaid work, are also preserved in the +South Kensington Museum, the Archæological +Museum at Madrid, and the cathedrals of Braga, +Tortosa, and Oviedo. There is no reason to +doubt that all these boxes were made in Spain, +although an Eastern and particularly Persian +influence is very noticeable in their scheme of +decoration.</p> + +<p>Two silver caskets which were once in the +church of San Isidoro at León are now in the +Madrid Museum. The smaller and plainer of +the two, elliptical in shape and measuring five +inches in length by two inches and a half in depth, +is covered with a leaf and stem device outlined in +black enamel. A Cufic inscription of a private +and domestic import, also picked out with black +enamel, runs along the top. The lid is ornamented, +like the body of the box, with leaves and stems +surrounded by a Grecian border, and fastens with +a heart-shaped clasp secured by a ring.</p> + +<p>The other, more elaborate, and larger box +measures eight inches long by five in height. In +shape it is a parallelogram, with a deeply bevelled +rather than—as Amador describes it—a five-sided +top. Bands of a simple winding pattern outlined +in black enamel on a ground of delicate niello-work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +run round the top and body of the casket. +The central band upon the lower part contains a +Cufic inscription of slight interest. Some of the +letters terminate in leaves. The bevelled lid is +covered with groups of peacocks—symbolic, among +Mohammedans, of eternal life—outlined in black +enamel. These birds are eight in all, gathered in +two groups of four about the large and overlapping +hinges. Four leaves, trifoliate, in <i>repoussé</i>, one +beneath the other, decorate the clasp, which opens +out into a heart containing, also in <i>repoussé</i>, two +inverted peacocks looking face to face. Between +the birds this heart extremity is pierced for the +passage of a ring.</p> + +<p>Amador de los Ríos considers that both caskets +were made between the years 1048 and 1089.</p> + +<p>The use of coloured enamel in the manufacture +of these boxes dates, or generally so, from somewhat +later. Although the history of enamelling +in Spain is nebulous and contradictory in the +extreme, we know that caskets in <i>champlevé</i> enamel +on a copper ground, with figures either flat or +hammered in a bold relief, became abundant here. +Two, from the convent of San Marcos at León, and +dating from the thirteenth century, are now in the +Madrid Museum. Labarte says that the lids of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +these enamelled reliquaries were flat until the +twelfth century, and of a gable form thenceforward.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_50.jpg" width="500" height="329" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_50.jpg" id="img_50.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">ALTAR-FRONT IN ENAMELLED BRONZE<br /> +(<i>11th Century. Museum of Burgos</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Other old objects—boxes, triptyches, statuettes, +incensories, book-covers, crucifixes, and processional +crosses—partly or wholly covered with +enamel, belong or recently belonged to the +Marquises of Castrillo and Casa-Torres, the Count +of Valencia de Don Juan, and Señor Escanciano. +All, or nearly all, of these are thought to have proceeded +from Limoges (Pl. <a href="#img_50.jpg">v</a>.). <i>Champlevé</i> enamel +is also on the tiny “Crucifix of the Cid” (Pl. <a href="#img_52.jpg">vi</a>.) at +Salamanca, as well as on the Virgin's throne in +the gilt bronze statuette of the Virgin de la Vega +at San Esteban in the same city.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Of this image,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +although it properly belongs to another heading of +my book, I think it well to give a reproduction here +(Plate <a href="#img_54.jpg">vii</a>.). I will also mention, in spite of its +presumably foreign origin, the enamelled altar-front +of San Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre—a +small sanctuary constructed by a mediæval cavalier +who, by an accident occasioned by the dark, +murdered his father and mother in lieu of his +wife.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> This altar-front, conspicuously Byzantine +in its style, measures four feet three inches high +by seven feet five inches long, and is now employed +as the <i>retablo</i> of the little church which +stands in solitary picturesqueness on the lofty +mountain-top of Aralar. The figures, coloured in +relief upon a yellowish enamel ground, are those +of saints, and of a monarch and his queen—possibly +King Sancho the Great, who is believed to have +been the donor of the ornament. If this surmise +be accurate, the front would date from the eleventh +century.</p> + +<p>I have said that the history of Spanish enamel-work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +is both confused and scanty. The subject +in its general aspects has been studied by M. +Roulin, whose judgments will be found in the +<i>Revue de l'Art Ancien et Moderne</i>, and in his +article, “Mobilier liturgique d'Espagne,” published +in the <i>Revue de l'Art Chrétien</i> for 1903. M. +Roulin believes the altar-front of San Miguel in +Excelsis to be a Limoges product, not earlier than +the first half of the thirteenth century.</p> + +<p>Ramírez de Arellano declares that no enamelling +at all was done in Spain before the invasion of the +Almohades. López Ferreiro, who as a priest had +access to the jealously secreted archives of Santiago +cathedral, gives us the names of Arias Perez, +Pedro Martinez, Fernan Perez, and Pedro Pelaez, +Galician enamellers who worked at Santiago in +the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Martin +Minguez says that enamelling was done at Gerona +in the fourteenth century, and Moorish enamels +were certainly produced at Cordova and Cuenca +from comparatively early in the Middle Ages. +A few obscure workers in enamel are mentioned +by Gestoso, in his <i>Diccionario de Artistas Sevillanos</i>, +as living at Seville in the fifteenth century, +though, in the entries which refer to them, little +is told us of their lives and nothing of their labours.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +In the sixteenth century we obtain a glimpse of +two enamellers of Toledo—Lorenzo Marqués and +Andrés Ordoñez, and dating from the same +period the Chapter of the Military Orders of +Ciudad Real possesses a silver-gilt <i>porta-paz</i> +with enamelling done at Cuenca. However, our +notices of this branch of Spanish art have yet +to be completed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_52.jpg" width="323" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_52.jpg" id="img_52.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">“THE CRUCIFIX OF THE CID”<br /> +(<i>Salamanca Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>A long array of royal gifts caused, in the +olden time, the treasure of Santiago cathedral +to be the richest and most varied in the +whole Peninsula, although at first this see was +merely suffragan to Merida. But early in the +twelfth century a scheming bishop, by name +Diego Gelmirez, intrigued at Rome to raise his +diocese to the dignity of an archbishopric. The +means by which he proved successful in the +end were far from irreproachable. “Gelmirez,” +says Ford (vol. ii. p. 666) “was a cunning +prelate, and well knew how to carry his point; he +put Santiago's images and plate into the crucible, +and sent the ingots to the Pope.”</p> + +<p>The original altar-front or parament (<i>aurea +tabula</i>) was made of solid gold. This altar-front +Gelmirez melted down to steal from it some +hundred ounces of the precious metal for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +Pope, donating in its stead another front of gold +and silver mixed, wrought from the remaining +treasure of the sanctuary. Aymerich tells us +that the primitive frontal bore the figure of the +Saviour seated on a throne supported by the four +evangelists, blessing with his right hand, and +holding in his left the Book of Life. The four-and-twenty +elders (called by quaint Morales “gentlemen”) +of the apocalypse were also gathered round +the throne, with musical instruments in their hands, +and golden goblets filled with fragrant essences. +At either end of the frontal were six of the apostles, +three above and three beneath, separated by +“beautiful columns” and surrounded by floral decoration. +The upper part was thus inscribed:—</p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">HANC TABULAM DIDACUS PRÆSUL JACOBITA<br /> +SECUNDUS<br /> +TEMPORE QUINQUENNI FECIT EPISCOPI<br /> +MARCAS ARGENTI DE THESAURO JACOBENSI<br /> +HIC OCTOGINTA QUINQUE MINUS NUMERA.</span></p> + +<p>And the lower part:—</p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">REX ERAT ANFONSUS GENER EJUS DUX RAIMUNDUS<br /> +PRÆSUL PRÆFATUS QUANDO PEREGIT OPUS.</span></p> + +<p>This early altar-front has disappeared like its predecessor;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +it is not known precisely at what time; +but both Morales and Medina saw and wrote +about it in the sixteenth century.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_54.jpg" width="368" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_54.jpg" id="img_54.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">THE “VIRGEN DE LA VEGA”<br /> +(<i>Salamanca</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Another ornament which Aymerich describes, +namely, the <i>baldaquino</i> or <i>cimborius</i>, has likewise +faded from the eyes of the profane, together with +three bronze caskets covered with enamel, and +stated by Morales to have contained the bones of +Saints Silvestre, Cucufate, and Fructuoso. One +of these caskets was existing in the seventeenth +century.</p> + +<p>The silver lamps were greatly celebrated. +Ambrosio de Morales counted “twenty or +more”; but Zepedano made their total mount to +fifty-one. The French invasion brought their +number down to three. Three of the oldest +of these lamps had been of huge dimensions, +particularly one, a present from Alfonso of +Aragon, which occupied the centre. The shape +of it, says Aymerich, was “like a mighty mortar.” +Seven was the number of its beaks, symbolic of +the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost; and each +beak contained a lamplet fed with oil of myrtles, +acorns, or olives.</p> + +<p>All kinds of robberies and pilferings have thus +been perpetrated with the once abundant wealth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +of Santiago.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The jealous care which keeps the +copious archives inaccessible to all the outside +world is in itself of sinister significance. It has +transpired, furthermore, that many of the bishops +have “exchanged,” or simply stolen, portions of the +holy property. Besides these clerical dilapidations, +a cartload, weighing half a ton, was carried +off by Marshal Ney, though some was subsequently +handed back, “because the spoilers feared the +hostility of the <i>Plateros</i>, the silversmiths who live +close to the cathedral, and by whom many workmen +were employed in making little graven +images, teraphims and lares, as well as medallions +of Santiago, which pilgrims purchase.”<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_57.jpg" width="271" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_57.jpg" id="img_57.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">SAINT JAMES IN PILGRIM'S DRESS<br /> +(<i>Silver-gilt statuette; 15th Century.<br /> +Santiago Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Among the gifts of value which this temple yet +preserves are the ancient processional cross presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +by the third Alfonso in the year of grace +874,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> and the hideous fourteenth-century reliquary +shaped to represent the head of James Alfeo, and +containing (as it is believed) this very relic (Pl. <a href="#img_57.jpg">viii</a>.). +I make a reservation here, because the Chapter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +have forbidden the reliquary to be opened. In +either case, whether the head be there or not, +heads of the same apostle are affirmed to be at +Chartres, Toulouse, and other places. Similarly, +discussing these Hydra-headed beings of the Bible +and the hagiology, Villa-amil y Castro (<i>El Tesoro +de la Catedral de Santiago</i>, published in the +<i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>) recalls to us the +ten authenticated and indubitable mazzards of +Saint John the Baptist.</p> + +<p>The head-shaped reliquary is of beaten silver +with enamelled visage, and the hair and beard gilt.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> +The workmanship is French. The cross, which +hung till recently above the altar of the Relicario, +but which now requires to be placed upon the +lengthy list of stolen wealth, was not unlike the +Cross of Angels in the Camara Santa at Oviedo, +and had a wooden body covered with gold plates +in finely executed filigree, studded with precious +stones and cameos. Not many days ago, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +wooden core, divested of the precious metal and +the precious stones, was found abandoned in a field.</p> + +<p>Visitors to the shrine of Santiago seldom fail +to have their curiosity excited by the monster +“smoke-thrower” (<i>bota-fumeiro</i>) or incensory, +lowered (much like the deadly sword in Poe's exciting +tale) on each <i>fiesta</i> by a batch of vigorous +Gallegos from an iron frame fixed into the pendentives +of the dome. “The calmest heart,” says +Villa-amil, “grows agitated to behold this giant +vessel descending from the apex of the nave until +it almost sweeps the ground, wreathed in dense +smoke and spewing flame.” Ford seems to have +been unaware that the real purpose of this metal +monster was not to simply scent the holy precincts, +but to cover up the pestilential atmosphere created +by a horde of verminous, diseased, and evil-smelling +pilgrims, who, by a usage which is now suppressed, +were authorized to pass the night before the +services within the actual cathedral wall.</p> + +<p>The original <i>bota-fumeiro</i>, resembling, in Oxea's +words, “a silver boiler of gigantic bulk,” was lost +or stolen in the War of Spanish Independence. +It was replaced by another of iron, and this, in +1851, by the present apparatus of white metal.</p> + +<p>Striking objects of ecclesiastical <i>orfebrería</i> were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +produced in Spain throughout the thirteenth and +the fourteenth centuries. Among the finest are the +triptych-reliquary of Seville cathedral known as +the <i>Alfonsine Tables</i>; the <i>retablo</i> and <i>baldaquino</i> +of the cathedral of Gerona; the silver throne, +preserved in Barcelona cathedral, of Don Martin +of Aragon; and the <i>guión</i>, at Toledo, of Cardinal +Mendoza.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_60.jpg" width="445" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_60.jpg" id="img_60.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">MUDEJAR TRIPTYCH<br /> +(<i>Interior of one leaf of the door. 14th Century.<br /> +Royal Academy of History, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Triptych-reliquaries, which had gradually expanded +from the diptych form—three leaves or +panels thus replacing two,—were generally used in +Spain from the eleventh century, and varied in +dimensions from a few inches in height and width +to several yards. We find them in the Gothic, +Mudejar,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Romanic, or Renaissance styles—wrought +either in a single style of these, or in +effective combination of some two or more. The +Academy of History at Madrid possesses a richly +ornamented Mudejar triptych (Plate <a href="#img_60.jpg">ix</a>.) proceeding +from the Monasterio de Piedra. It is inferior,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +notwithstanding, to the <i>Tablas Alfonsinas</i>,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> “a +specimen of Spanish silversmiths' work which +illustrates the transition to the new style, and the +progress in the design of the figures owing to the +Italian Renaissance.”<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> In or about the year 1274, +this splendid piece of sacred furniture was made +by order of the learned king, to hold the relics of +certain saints and of the Virgin Mary. The +maker is thought by Amador to have been +one “Master George,” a craftsman held in +high esteem by the father of Alfonso and the +conqueror of Seville, Ferdinand the Third. +Romanic influence is abundant in this triptych, +showing that, although exposed to constant +changes from abroad, the Spanish mediæval +crafts adhered upon the whole with singular +tenacity to primitive tradition.</p> + +<p>The triptych is of larch, or some such undecaying +wood, and measures, when the leaves are +opened wide, forty inches over its entire breadth, +by twenty-two in height. Linen is stretched upon +the wood, and over that the silver-gilt <i>repoussé</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +plates which form the principal adornment of the +reliquary. “The outside is decorated with twelve +medallions containing the arms of Castile and +Aragon, and forty-eight others in which are +repeated alternately the subjects of the Adoration +of the Magi and the Annunciation of the Virgin, +also in <i>repoussé</i>. In the centres are eagles, +allusive, it is possible, to Don Alfonso's claim +to be crowned Emperor…. The ornamentation +which surrounds the panels belongs to the +sixteenth century” (Riaño). The arms here +spoken of contain the crowned lion and the castle +of three towers; and the interesting fact is pointed +out by Amador that the diminutive doors and +windows of these castles show a strongly pointed +Gothic arch. The sixteenth-century bordering to +the panels is in the manner known as Plateresque.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> +The clasps are also Plateresque, and prove,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +together with the border, that the triptych was +restored about this time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_62.jpg" width="500" height="290" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_62.jpg" id="img_62.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">THE “TABLAS ALFONSINAS”<br /> +(<i>View of Interior; 13th Century. Seville Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Inside (Plate <a href="#img_62.jpg">x</a>.), it consists of fifteen compartments, +“full of minute ornamentation, among which +are set a large number of capsules covered with rock +crystal containing relics, each one with an inscription +of enamelled gold, <i>cloisonné</i>. Several good +cameos with sacred subjects appear near the edge +of the side leaves” (Riaño). These cameos, handsomely +engraved with figures of the Virgin and +other subjects of religious character, are fairly well +preserved; but the designs upon enamel are almost +obliterated. Eight precious stones, set in as rude +a style as those upon the ancient crowns and +crosses of the Visigoths, have also fallen out, or +been removed, from the interior.</p> + +<p>The <i>retablo</i> of Gerona cathedral and its +baldachin date from the fourteenth century. +“The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with +silver plates, and divided vertically into three +series of niches and canopies; each division has a +subject, and a good deal of enamelling is introduced +in various parts of the canopies and grounds +of the panels. Each panel has a cinq-foiled arch +with a crocketed gablet and pinnacles on either +side. The straight line of the top is broken by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +three niches, which rise in the centre and at either +end. In the centre is the Blessed Virgin with +our Lord; on the right, San Narciso; and on the +left, St Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain +figures of saints, subjects from the life of the +Blessed Virgin, and subjects from the life of our +Lord.”<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> + +<p>San Narciso is patron of the city of Gerona; +which explains the presence of his image here. +From the treasury of the same cathedral was +stolen, during the War of Spanish Independence, +a magnificent altar-front of wrought gold and +mosaic, a gift of Countess Gisla, wife of Ramón +Berenguer, count-king of Barcelona. It had in +the centre a bas-relief medallion representing the +Virgin, another medallion with a portrait of the +donor, and various saints in niches, interworked +with precious stones.</p> + +<p>The great armchair of Don Martin, called by +Baron Davillier a “beau faudesteuil gothique,” +which possibly served that monarch as a throne, and +was presented by him to the cathedral of Barcelona, +dates from the year 1410. The wooden frame is +covered with elaborately chiselled plates in silver-gilt. +This most imposing object is carried in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +procession through the streets upon the yearly +festival of Corpus Christi.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_64.jpg" width="500" height="347" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_64.jpg" id="img_64.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">“THE CUP OF SAN FERNANDO”<br /> +(<i>13th Century. Seville Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_65.jpg" width="319" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_65.jpg" id="img_65.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">SHIP<br /> +(<i>15th Century. Zaragoza Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The <i>guión de Mendoza</i>, now in Toledo cathedral, +is a handsome later-Gothic silver-gilt cross, and is +the same which was raised upon the Torre de la +Vela at Granada on January 2nd, 1492, when the +fairest and most storied city in all Spain surrendered +formally to Ferdinand and Isabella. Many other +interesting crosses, of the character known as processional, +are still preserved in various parts of +the Peninsula, at South Kensington, and elsewhere. +The more remarkable are noticed under +various headings of this book. Their workmanship +is generally of the fifteenth or the sixteenth +century.</p> + +<p>The Seo or cathedral of Zaragoza possesses a +handsome ship (Plate <a href="#img_65.jpg">xii</a>.), presented to this temple, +towards the end of the fifteenth century, by the +Valencian corsair, Mosén Juan de Torrellas. The +hull is a large shell resting on a silver-gilt dragon of +good design, with a large emerald set in the middle +of its forehead, and a ruby for each eye. Ships of +this kind were not uncommon on a Spanish dining +table of the time, or in the treasuries of churches +and cathedrals. Toledo owns another of these +vessels (in both senses of the word), which once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +belonged to Doña Juana, daughter of Ferdinand +and Isabella.</p> + +<p>Hitherto I have confined my notice almost +wholly to the treasure of the Spanish temples. +Turning from ecclesiastical to secular life, we find, +all through the Middle Ages, the humbler classes +kept by constant penury and war aloof from every +form of luxury. Jewellery and gold and silver +work were thus essentially the perquisite or, so to +speak, the privilege of princes, nobles, and the +Church. The mediæval kings and magnates of +this land were smitten inveterately with a passion +for display, and chronicles and inventories of the +time contain instructive details of the quantities of +gems and precious metals employed by them to +decorate their persons and their palaces. The +richness of their bedsteads will be noticed under +Furniture. Quantities of jewellery and plate belonged +to every noble household. For instance, the +testament of the Countess of Castañeda (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1443) +includes the mention of “a gilded cup and cover to +the same; a silver vessel and its lid, the edges gilt, +and in the centre of both lid and vessel the arms +of the said count, my lord; a silver vessel with a +foot to it; a diamond ring; a silver vessel with +gilt edges and the arms of the count, companion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +to the other vessels; a jasper sweetmeat-tray with +silver-gilt handles and feet; four coral spoons; a +gilt enamelled cup and lid; a small gilt cup and +lid; two large silver porringers; two French cups +of white silver; two large plates of eight marks +apiece; two middling-sized silver vessels; two +silver-gilt barrels with silver-gilt chains.”<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> + +<p>On each occasion of a court or national festivity, +the apparel of the great was ponderous with gold +and silver fringe, or thickly strewn with pearls—the +characteristic <i>aljofar</i> or <i>aljofar</i>-work (Arabic +<i>chawar</i>, small pearls), for which the Moors were +widely famed. Towards the thirteenth century +unmarried Spanish women of high rank possessed +abundant stores of bracelets, earrings, necklaces, +gold chains, rings, and gem-embroidered pouches +for their money. Their waist-belts, too, were +heavy with gold and silver, and <i>aljofar</i>.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The +poem of the Archpriest of Hita (1343) mentions two +articles of jewellery for female wear called the +<i>broncha</i> and the <i>pancha</i>. The former was an ornament +for the throat; the other, a plate or medal +which hung to below the waist. An Arabic document +quoted by Casiri, and dating from the reign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +of Henry the First of Castile, specifies as belonging +to an aristocratic lady of that time, “Egyptian +shirts of silk and linen, embroidered shirts, Persian +shirts with silk embroidery, Murcian gold necklaces, +ear-pendants of the same metal, set with +gems; finger-rings and bracelets, waist-belts of +skins, embroidered with silk and precious stones; +cloaks of cloth of gold, embroidered mantles of +the same, coverings for the head, and kerchiefs.”</p> + +<p>For all the frequency with which they framed +and iterated sterile and exasperating sumptuary +pragmatics for their people, the Spanish kings +themselves went even beyond the nobles in their +craze for ostentatious luxury. Upon the day when +he was crowned at Burgos, Alfonso the Eleventh +“arrayed himself in gold and silver cloth bearing +devices of the castle and the lion, in which was +much <i>aljofar</i>-work, as well as precious stones +innumerable; rubies, emeralds, and sapphires.” +Even the bit and saddle of the monarch's charger +were “exceeding precious on this day, for gems +and gold and silver covered all the saddle-bows, +and the sides of the saddle and its girths, together +with the headstall, were curiously wrought of gold +and silver thread.”</p> + +<p>Similar relations may be found at every moment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +of the history of mediæval Spain. Another instance +may be quoted from the reign of Ferdinand +and Isabella. When these sovereigns visited +Barcelona in 1481, the queen was dressed as +follows:—“She advanced riding upon a fine mule, +and seated on cushions covered with brocade, +rising high above the saddle. Her robe was of gold +thread and jewel-work, with a rich brocade skirt. +Upon her head she wore a crown of gold adorned +with richest diamonds, pearls, rubies, balas rubies, +and other stones of passing price.” During the +same visit, a royal tournament was given in +the Plaza del Born, in presence of the aristocracy +and wealthy townspeople, “the counts, viscounts, +deputies, councillors, <i>caballeros</i>, <i>gentiles hombres</i>, +burgesses, and others without number.” Ferdinand, +who “with virtue and benignity” had +deigned to break a lance or two in tourneying +with the Duke of Alburquerque, the Count of +Benavente, and several gentlemen of Cataluña, +was wearing “over his harness a jacket all of gold +brocade. His horse's coverings and poitral also +were of thread of gold, richly devised and wrought, +and of exceeding majesty and beauty. And on +his helm he wore a crown of gold, embellished +with many pearls and other stones; and above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +the crown a figure of a large gold bat, which is +the emblem of the kings of Aragon and counts of +Barcelona, with white and sanguine bars upon the +scutcheon.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The queen and the cardinal of Spain +were in a window of the house of Mossen Guillem +Pujades, conservator of the realm of Sicily. Her +highness wore a robe of rich gold thread with a +collar of beautiful pearls; and the trappings of +her mule were of brocade.”<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> + +<p>Eleven years later the youthful prince, Don Juan, +son of these rulers, appeared before the citizens of +Barcelona dressed in “a robe of beautiful brocade +that almost swept the ground, and a doublet of the +same material; the sleeves of the robe thickly +adorned with fine pearls of large size.” He carried, +too, “a gold collar of great size and beauty, wrought +of large diamonds, pearls, and other stones.”<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> + +<p>It was an ancient usage with the people of +Barcelona to present a silver service to any +member of the royal family who paid a visit to +their capital. The service so presented to Ferdinand +the Catholic cost the corporation a sum of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +more than twelve hundred pounds of Catalan +money, and included “a saltcellar made upon a +rock. Upon the rock is a castle, the tower of +which contains the salt…. Two silver ewers, +gilt within and containing on the outside various +enamelled devices in the centre, together with the +city arms. Also a silver-gilt lion upon a rustic +palisade of tree-trunks, holding an inscription in +his right paw, with the arms of the city, a flag, +and a crown upon his head. This object weighs +thirty-four marks.”<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The service offered on the +same occasion to Isabella, though less in weight, +was more elaborately wrought, and cost on this +account considerably more. It included “two +silver ewers, gilt within and enamelled without, +bearing the city arms, and chiselled in the centre +with various designs of foliage. Also a silver +saltcellar, with six small towers, containing at the +foot three pieces of enamel-work with the arms of +the city in relief. This saltcellar has its lid and +case, with a pinnacle upon the lid, and is of silver-gilt +inside and out.”<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> + +<p>From about the fifteenth century the goldsmiths<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +and the silversmiths of Barcelona enjoyed considerable +fame. Among their names are those of +Lobarolla, Roig, Berni, Belloch, Planes, Mellar, +Corda, Fábregues, Farrán, Perot Ximenis, Rafel +Ximenis, Balagué, and Antonio de Valdés. Riaño +quotes the names of many more from Cean's dictionary. +The most important facts relating to these +artists were brought to light some years ago by +Baron Davillier, who based the greater part of +his research upon the <i>Libros de Pasantía</i> or silversmiths' +examination-books (filled with excellent +designs for jewel-work) of Barcelona. These +volumes, formerly kept in the college of San +Eloy, are now the property of the Provincial +Deputation of this city.</p> + +<p>The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths' guild of +Seville also possesses four of its old examination-books, +of which the earliest dates from 1600. +Gestoso, in his <i>Dictionary of Sevillian Artificers</i> +describes the actual ceremony of examination for +a silversmith or goldsmith. Once in every year +the members of the guild assembled in their +chapel of the convent of San Francisco. Here +and upon this day the candidate was closely +questioned, to begin with, as to his “purity of +blood”—that is, his freedom from contamination<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +by relationship with any Moor or Hebrew. +When it was duly and precisely ascertained that +he, his parents, and his grandparents were uniformly +“old Christians,” untainted with the +“wicked race of Moors, Jews, heretics, mulattoes, +and renegades,” and that neither he nor his ancestors +had ever been put on trial by the Inquisition +or by any other tribunal, “whether publicly +or secretly,” he was permitted to proceed to his +examination proper.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> The formula of this was +simple. The candidate was summoned before the +board of examiners, consisting of the Padre Mayor +or patriarch of the guild, and the two <i>veedores</i> or inspectors, +the one of gold-work, the other of silver-work. +The book of drawings was then placed +upon the table, and a ruler was thrust at haphazard +among its leaves. Where the ruler chanced to fall, +the candidate was called upon to execute the corresponding +drawing to the satisfaction of his judges.</p> + +<p>Riaño lays too slight a stress upon the Moorish +and Morisco jewellery of Spain. Although the +use of gold and silver ornaments is forbidden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +by the Koran, the Muslim, wherever his vanity +or his bodily comfort is involved, tramples his +Bible underfoot almost as regularly, tranquilly, +and radically as the Christians do their own. +The Moors of Spain were not at all behind their +oriental brethren in displaying precious stones +and metals on their persons or about their homes. +Al-Jattib tells us that the third Mohammed +offered to the mosque of the Alhambra columns +with capitals and bases of pure silver. Or who +does not recall the Caliphate of Cordova; the +silver lamp that measured fifty palms across, fitted +with a thousand and fifty-four glass lamplets, and +swinging by a golden chain from the cupola of +the entrance to the <i>mirhab</i> in the vast <i>mezquita</i>; +the silver candlesticks and perfume-burners in the +same extraordinary temple; the precious stones +and metals employed in mighty quantities to decorate +the palaces of Az-zahyra and Az-zahra?—</p> + +<div class="poem-container"> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“A wilderness of building, sinking far</span><br /> +<span class="i0">And self-withdrawn into a wondrous depth,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Far sinking into splendour without end!</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Fabric it seemed of diamond and of gold,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">With alabaster domes and silver spires,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">And blazing terrace upon terrace, high</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Uplifted.”</span><br /> +</div></div></div> + +<p>In brief, just as the prelates of the Christian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +Church habitually precede the Christian laity in +trampling underfoot the elemental doctrine of Our +Lord, so were the most exalted and responsible +of all the Mussulmans—that is, their sultans—indefatigably +foremost in neglect of the Koranic +law.</p> + +<p>The Spanish sultans wore a ring of gold containing +one large stone (such as an emerald, or +ruby, or turquoise), on which was cut the royal +seal and signature. Such was the ring belonging +to Boabdil el Chico, worn by him on the very +day of the surrender of his capital, and by his hand +presented to a Spanish nobleman, the Count of +Tendilla, governor-elect of the Alhambra. According +to Rodriguez de Ardila, the following +inscription was upon the stone:—“<i>La Ala ile +Ala, abahu Tabiu. Aben Abi Abdalá</i>,” meaning, +“<i>There is no God but God; this is the seal +of Aben Abi Abdalá.</i>” Ardila, who was the +author of a history of the Counts of Tendilla +(which still remains in manuscript), adds that he +saw the ring, although, as Eguilaz observes, +two words of the inscription are inaccurately +rendered.</p> + +<p>Among the Moors of Spain the use of signet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +rings was general. The stone employed was +commonly cornelian, richly mounted and inscribed +in various ways, as with the owner's name, his +name together with a date, or the name of the +town of which he was a native. In other instances +we meet with pious phrases or quotations from +the Koran; or perhaps a talismanic figure, such +as the open eye to guard the wearer from the +dreaded <i>mal de ojo</i>; or the open hand that still +surmounts the gateway of the Tower of Justice at +Granada.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> + +<p>Undoubtedly, too, the Moorish sultans of this +country owned enormous hoards of silver, gold, +and precious stones. Al-Makkari says that the +treasure of the Nasrite rulers of Granada included +quantities of pearls, turquoises, and rubies; +pearl necklets; earrings “surpassing those of +Mary the Copt” (Mohammed's concubine); swords +of the finest temper, embellished with pure gold; +helmets with gilded borders, studded with emeralds, +pearls, and rubies; and silvered and enamelled +belts.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_77.jpg" width="343" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_77.jpg" id="img_77.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">MOORISH BRACELETS</p> +</div> + +<p>The Moorish women of this country, and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +particular the Granadinas,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> were passionately fond +of jewellery. Ornaments which once belonged to +them are sometimes brought to light in Andalusia, +Murcia, or Valencia, including pendants, +rings, necklaces, and <i>axorcas</i> or bangles for the +ankle or the wrist, and bracelets for the upper +portion of the arm. The National Museum contains +a small collection of these objects, dating from +the time of the Moriscos, and including a handsome +necklace terminating in a double chain, with ball +and pyramid shaped ornaments about the centre, +a square-headed finger-ring with four green stones +and a garnet, and a hollow bracelet filled with a +substance that appears to be mastic, similar to +those which are reproduced in Plate xiii.</p> + +<p>These jewels, I repeat, are of Morisco workmanship,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +and therefore date from later than the +independent empire of the Spanish Moors. +Nevertheless, the geometrical or filigree design +was common both to Moorish and Morisco art. +As I observed in my description of the casket-reliquaries, +we note continually the influence of +these motives on the arts of Christian Spain. +The Ordinances relative to the goldsmiths and the +silversmiths of Granada, cried at various times +between 1529 and 1538, whether “in the silversmiths' +street of the Alcaycería, that has its +opening over against the scriveners'”; or in “the +street of the Puente del Carbon, before the goldsmiths' +shops”; or “in the street of the Zacatin, +where dwell the silversmiths,” prove also that for +many years after the Reconquest the character +and nomenclature of this kind of work continued +to be principally and traditionally Moorish.</p> + +<p>Firstly, the Ordinances complain that the +goldsmiths of Granada now employ a base +and detrimental standard of the precious metals, +especially in the bracelets or <i>manillas</i> of the +women. The goldsmiths answer in their vindication +that equally as poor a standard is employed at +Seville, Cordova, and Toledo. These city laws<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +herewith establish twenty carats as a minimum +fineness for the gold employed in making ornaments. +The makers, also, are ordered to impress +their private stamp or seal on every article, or in +default to pay a fine of ten thousand <i>maravedis</i>. A +copy of each stamp or seal to be deposited in the +city chest. The <i>alamín</i> or inspector of this trade +to test and weigh all gold and silver work before +it is exposed for sale.</p> + +<p>We learn from the same source that the gold +bracelets were sometimes smooth, and sometimes +“covered over with devices” (<i>cubiertos de estampas +por cima</i>). The technical name of these was +<i>albordados</i>. The silver bracelets were also either +smooth, or stamped, or twisted in a cord (<i>encordados</i>). +Bangles for the ankle, upper arm, and +wrist are mentioned as continuing to be generally +worn, while one of the Ordinances complains that +“Moorish <i>axorcas</i> are often sold that are hollow, +and filled with chalk and mastic, so that before +they can be weighed it is necessary to rid them +of such substances by submitting them to fire, +albeit the fire turns them black.”</p> + +<p>The weapons and war-harness of the Spanish +Moors were often exquisitely decorated with the +precious stones or metals. Splendid objects of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +this kind have been preserved, and will be noticed +in their proper chapter.</p> + +<p>The ruinous and reckless measure known to +Spain's eternal shame as the Expulsion of the +Moriscos, deprived this country of a great—perhaps +the greatest—part of her resources. +Fonseca estimates this loss, solely in the quantity +of coin conveyed away, at two million and eight +hundred thousand <i>escudos</i>, adding that a single +Morisco, Alami Delascar de Aberique, bore off +with him one hundred thousand ducats.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> To +make this matter worse, the Moriscos, just before +they went on board their ships, fashioned from +scraps of tin, old nails, and other refuse, enormous +stores of counterfeit coin, and slyly sold +this rubbish to the simple Spaniards in return +for lawful money of the land. In the course of +a few days, and in a single quarter of Valencia, +more than three hundred thousand ducats of false<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +coin were thus passed off upon the Christians. +Besides this exportation of good Spanish money, +the cunning fugitives removed huge quantities +of jewellery and plate. Chains, <i>axorcas</i>, rings, +<i>zarcillos</i>, and gold <i>escudos</i> were taken from the +bodies of many of the Morisco women who were +murdered by the Spanish soldiery; but the greater +part of all this treasure found its way to Africa. +In his work <i>Expulsión justificada de los Moriscos</i> +(1612), Aznar de Cardona says that the Morisco +women carried “divers plates upon the breast, +together with necklaces and collars, earrings and +bracelets.” It is recorded, too, that the Moriscos, +as they struggled in the country regions to avenge +themselves upon their persecutors, did unlimited +damage to the ornaments and fittings of the +churches. “This people,” says Fonseca, “respected +not our temples or the holy images +that in them were; nor yet the chalices and +other objects they encountered in our sacristies. +Upon the contrary, they smashed the crosses, +burned the saints, profaned the sacred vestments, +and committed such acts of sacrilege as +though they had been Algerian Moors, or Turks +of Constantinople.”</p> + +<p>Legends of hidden Moorish and Morisco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +wealth are still extant in many parts of Spain. +The Abbé Bertaut de Rouen<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> and Swinburne +among foreigners, or Spaniards such as the gossiping +priest Echeverría, who provided Washington +Irving with the pick of his <i>Tales of the Alhambra</i>, +have treated copiously of this fascinating and +mysterious theme. The Siete Suelos Tower at +Granada is particularly favoured with traditions of +this kind. Peasants of the Alpujarras still declare +that piles of Moorish money lie secreted in the +lofty buttresses of Mulhacen and the Veleta, while +yet another summit of this snowy range bears the +suggestive title of the Cerro del Tesoro, where, +almost within the memory of living men, a +numerous party, fitted and commissioned by the +State, explored with feverish though unlucky zeal +the naked cliffs and sterile crannies of the lonely +mountain.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p> + +<p>Reducing all these fables to the terms of truth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +Moorish and Morisco jewellery and coin are sometimes +brought to light on Spanish soil. Such +finds occur, less seldom than elsewhere, within +the provinces of Seville, Cordova, Granada, and +Almeria (Plate <a href="#img_83.jpg">xiv</a>.), but since they are neither +frequent nor considerable, although the likeliest +ground for them is being disturbed continually, +we may conclude that nearly all the Muslim +wealth accumulated here slipped from the clumsy +if ferocious fingers of the mother-country, and +found its way, concealed upon the bodies of her +persecuted offspring, to the shores of Africa.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_83.jpg" width="365" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_83.jpg" id="img_83.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">MORISCO JEWELLERY<br /> +(<i>Found in the Province of Granada</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Sometimes, too, an early gold or silver object +would be melted down and modernized into +another and a newer piece of plate. This was a +fairly common usage with the silversmiths themselves, +or with an ignorant or stingy brotherhood +or chapter. Thus, the following entry occurs in +the <i>Libro de Visita de Fábrica</i> belonging to the +parish church of Santa Ana, Triana, Seville. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +the year 1599 “the large cross of silver-gilt, +together with its <i>mançana</i> and all the silver attaching +thereto, was taken to the house of Zubieta the +silversmith, and pulled to pieces. It weighed 25 +marks and 4 <i>ochavas</i> of silver, besides 5 marks and +2 ounces and 4 <i>ochavas</i> of silver which was the +weight of the three lamps delivered to Zubieta in +the time of Juan de Mirando, aforetime steward +of this church. It is now made into a silver-gilt +cross.”<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> + +<p>A similar instance may be quoted from a +document of Cordova, published by Ramírez de +Arellano in his relation of a visit to the monastery +of San Jerónimo de Valparaiso. In the year +1607 Gerónimo de la Cruz, a Cordovese silversmith, +agreed with the prior of this monastery to +make for the community a silver-gilt <i>custodia</i>. For +this purpose he received from the prior, doubtless +a man of parsimonious spirit and a boor in his +appreciativeness of art, eight pairs of vinegar +cruets, four of whose tops were missing; a silver-gilt +chalice and its patine; a <i>viril</i> with two angels +and four pieces on the crown of it; a small +communion cup; some silver candlesticks; four +spoons and a fork, also of silver; and a silver-gilt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +salt-cellar. The total value of these objects was 1826 +<i>reales</i>; and all of them were tossed, in Ford's indignant +phrase, into the “sacrilegious melting-pot,” +in order to provide material for the new <i>custodia</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_85.jpg" width="323" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_85.jpg" id="img_85.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">SILVER-GILT PROCESSIONAL CROSS<br /> +(<i>Made by Juan de Arfe in</i> 1592. <i>Burgos Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The gold and silver work of Christian Spain +attained, throughout the fifteenth and the sixteenth +centuries, a high degree of excellence +(Plates <a href="#img_85.jpg">xv</a>., <a href="#img_95.jpg">xvi</a>., etc.). The best of it was +made at Seville, Barcelona, Toledo, and Valladolid. +Objects of great artistic worth were also +produced at Burgos, Palencia, León, Cuenca, +Cordova, and Salamanca. I have already mentioned +some of the principal <i>orfebreros</i> of Barcelona. +Juan Ruiz of Cordova, whom Juan de Arfe applauds +as “the first silversmith who taught the way to do +good work in Andalusia,” was also, in this region, +the first to turn the precious metals on the lathe. +A famous silversmith of Seville was Diego de +Vozmediano, whom we find living there in 1525. +Toledo, too, could boast, among an army of distinguished +gold and silver smiths (Riaño gives the +names of no fewer than seventy-seven), Cristóbal +de Ordas, Juan Rodríguez de Babria, and Pedro +Hernandez, <i>plateros</i>, respectively, to Charles the +Fifth, to Philip the Second, and to the queen-dowager +of Portugal; and also the silversmith<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +and engraver upon metals, Pedro Angel, whose +praise is sung by Lope de Vega in the prologue to +his <i>auto</i> called <i>The Voyage of the Soul</i>:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0;">“<i>Y es hoy Pedro Angel un divino artífice<br /> +con el buril en oro, plata, ó cobre.</i>”</p> + +<p>By far the greater part of all Toledo's gold and +silver work was made for service in her mighty +temple. Such were the statue of Saint Helen, +presented by Philip the Second; the crown of +the Virgen del Sagrario, wrought by Hernando de +Carrión and Alejo de Montoya; the bracelets or +<i>ajorcas</i> made for the image of the same Madonna +by Julián Honrado; and the exquisite chests +carved in 1569 and 1598 by Francisco Merino +from designs by the two Vergaras, father and son, +as reliquaries for the bones of San Eugenio and +Santa Leocadia, patrons of this ancient capital.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> +A magnificent silver lamp was also, in 1565, offered +by the chapter of the cathedral to the church of +Saint Denis in France, in gratitude for the surrender +of the bones of San Eugenio to the city of +his birth. These and other objects of Toledan +gold and silver work are stated to be “worthy of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +comparison with the very best of what was then +produced in Germany, Italy, and France.”<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> + +<p>Baron Davillier also held a high opinion of the +Spanish <i>orfebreros</i> of this time. After remarking +that the Italian influence was powerful among the +Spaniards in the sixteenth century, and more particularly +for some fifty years at Barcelona, he says: +“A cette époque les <i>plateros</i> espagnols pouvaient +rivaliser sans désavantage avec les Italiens, les +Français, les Flamands, et les Allemands.”</p> + +<p>The same authority also says that the Spanish +<i>plateros</i> of this period were skilled enamellers on +gold and silver, and quotes some entries from +French inventories of the time in which we read +of cups, salt-cellars, washing-basins, and other +objects executed or enamelled “à la mode +d'Espagne.”<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> + +<p>As we have seen, the exodus of the Moriscos +lost to Spain a great proportion of her total wealth, +although, conjointly with this loss, new wealth +flowed into her in marvellous abundance from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +New World.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> Thus, the silver-mines of Potosi, +discovered in 1545, sent over to the mother-country, +between that year and 1633, no less than eight +hundred and forty-five millions of <i>pesos</i>. And yet +this mighty influx of new riches cannot be said, +except in the artistic sense, to have enriched the +nation. She had renounced the service of the +most industrious and, in many instances, the most +ingenious of her native craftsmen; while on the +other hand the Christians, with but limited exceptions, +were far too proud and far too indolent to +set their hand to any form of manual exercise; +just as (I much regret to add) a great proportion of +them are this very day. Foreign artificers in consequence +(particularly after the royal pragmatic +of 1623 encouraging their immigration), attracted +by the treasure fleets that anchored in the bay of +Cadiz, came trooping into Spain and filled their +pockets from the national purse, fashioning, in +return for money which they husbanded and sent +abroad, luxurious gold and silver objects that were +merely destined to stagnate within her churches +and cathedrals.</p> + +<p>Riaño and Baron de la Vega de Hoz extract +from Cean Bermudez a copious list of silversmiths<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +who worked in Spain all through the Middle +Ages. This long array of isolated names and +dates is neither interesting nor informative. +Newer and more attractive notices have been +discovered subsequently. Thus, in the National +Library at Madrid, Don Manuel G. Simancas has +disinterred quite recently the copy made by a +Jesuit of a series of thirteenth-century accounts +relating to various craftsmen of the reign of +Sancho the Fourth (“the Brave”). Two of them +are concerning early <i>orfebreros</i>:—</p> + +<p>“Juan Yanez. By letters of the king and +queen to Johan Yanez, goldsmith, brother of +Ferran García, scrivener to the king; for three +chalices received from him by the king, +<span class="smcap">CCCCLXXVIII</span> <i>maravedis</i>.”</p> + +<p>The second entry says:—</p> + +<p>“Bartolomé Rinalt. And he paid Bartolomé +Rinalt for jewels which the queen bought from +him to present to Doña Marina Suarez, nurse of +the Infante Don Pedro, MCCCL <i>maravedis</i>.”<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> + +<p>Among Spain's gold and silver craftsmen of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +the fifteenth century we find the names of Juan +de Castelnou, together with his son Jaime, who +worked at Valencia; of Lope Rodríguez de +Villareal, Ruby, and Juan Gonzalez, all three of +whom worked at Toledo; and of Juan de Segovia, +a friar of Guadalupe. Papers concerning Juan +Gonzalez, and dated 1425, 1427, and 1431, are +published among the <i>Documentos Inéditos</i> of +Zarco del Valle. One of Segovia's masterpieces +was a silver salt-cellar in the form of a lion tearing +open a pomegranate—clearly allusive to the conquest +of Granada from the Moors. Upon their +visiting the monastery, Ferdinand and Isabella +saw and, as was natural, conceived a fancy for +this salt-cellar; and so, whether from inclination +or necessity, the brotherhood induced them to +accept it.</p> + +<p>Sixteenth-century <i>plateros</i> of renown were Juan +Donante, Mateo and Nicolás (whose surnames +are unknown)—all three of whom worked at +Seville; and Duarte Rodríguez and Fernando +Ballesteros, natives of that city. In or about the +year 1524 were working at Toledo the silversmiths +Pedro Herreros and Hernando de Valles, +together with Diego Vazquez, Andres Ordoñez, +Hernando de Carrión, Diego de Valdivieso, Juan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +Domingo de Villanueva, Diego Abedo de Villandrando, +Juan Tello de Morata, Francisco de +Reinalte, Hans Belta, and Francisco Merino. +Several of these men were natives of Toledo.</p> + +<p>Among the silversmiths of sixteenth-century +Cordova were Diego de Alfaro and his son Francisco, +Francisco de Baena, Alonso Casas, Alonso del +Castillo, Luis de Cordoba, Sebastián de Cordoba, +Cristóbal de Escalante, Juan Gonzalez, Diego +Fernandez, Diego Hernandez Rubio (son of +Sebastián de Cordoba), Rodrigo de León, Gómez +Luque, Ginés Martinez, Melchor de los Reyes +(silversmith and enameller), Andrés de Roa, +Pedro de Roa, Alonso Sanchez, Jerónimo Sanchez +de la Cruz, Martin Sanchez de la Cruz (Jerónimo's +son), Pedro Sanchez de Luque, Alonso de Sevilla, +Juan Urbano, and Lucas de Valdés.</p> + +<p>Not much is told us of the lives and labours of +these artists. The best reputed of them as a +craftsman was Rodrigo de León, who stood next +after Juan Ruiz, <i>el Sandolino</i>. Ramírez de +Arellano, from whom I have collected these data, +publishes a number of León's agreements or +contracts, which from their length and dryness I +do not here repeat. In 1603 we find him official +silversmith to the cathedral, under the title of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +“<i>platero de martillo</i> (“silversmith of hammered +work”) <i>de la obra de la catedral desta ciudad</i>.”</p> + +<p>Francisco de Alfaro, although a Cordovese by +birth, resided commonly at Seville. In 1578 he +received 446,163 <i>maravedis</i> for making four silver +candlesticks for use in celebrating divine service. +These candlesticks are still in the cathedral.</p> + +<p>Sebastián de Cordoba was one of the foremost +artists of his age. He died in 1587, leaving, +together with other children, a son, Diego, who +also won some reputation as a silversmith. +Ramírez de Arellano publishes a full relation +of the property which Sebastián de Cordoba +bequeathed at his decease, as well as of the money +which was owing to him. Among the former, or +the “movable effects,” we read of “Isabel, a +Morisco woman, native of the kingdom of Granada; +her age thirty-four years, a little less or more.” +The same inventory includes a curious and +complete account of all the tools and apparatus in +Sebastián's workshop.</p> + +<p>But the quaintest notice of them all, though it +does not apprise us of his merit as a silversmith, +is that concerning Cristóbal de Escalante. +Cristóbal suffered, we are told, from “certain sores +produced by humours in his left leg; wherefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +the said leg undergoes a change and swells.” He +therefore makes a contract with one Juan Jiménez, +“servant in the Royal Stables of His Majesty +the King,” and duly examined as a herbalist +(“licensed,” in the actual phrase, “to remedy this +kind of ailments”), who is to heal his leg “by +means of the divine will of the cure.” As soon as +Cristóbal shall be thoroughly well, “in so much +that his ailing leg shall be the other's equal in the +fatness and the form thereof,” he is to pay Jiménez +five-and-fifty <i>reales</i>, “having already given him ten +<i>reales</i> on account.”</p> + +<p>Probably, as Señor Ramírez de Arellano facetiously +supposes, Cristóbal, after such a course of +treatment, would be lame for all his life. At +any rate, he died in 1605, though whether from +the gentle handling of the stableman and herbalist +is not recorded in these entries.</p> + +<p>Still keeping to the sixteenth century, in other +parts of Spain we find the silversmiths Baltasar +Alvarez and Juan de Benavente, working at Palencia; +Alonso de Dueñas at Salamanca; and +Juan de Orna at Burgos, about the same time that +the foreigners Jacomi de Trezzo and Leo Leoni +were engaged at the Escorial. Cuenca, too, +boasted three excellent silver-workers in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +family of Becerril, mentioned by Juan de Arfe in +company with other craftsmen of the time of the +Renaissance.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> Stirling says of Cuenca and the +Becerriles: “They made for the cathedral its +great <i>custodia</i>, which was one of the most costly +and celebrated pieces of church plate in Spain. +They began it in 1528, and, though ready for use +in 1546, it was not finished till 1573. It was a +three-storied edifice, of a florid classical design, +crowned with a dome, and enriched with numberless +groups and statues, and an inner shrine of +jewelled gold; it contained 616 marks of silver, +and cost 17,725½ ducats, a sum which can barely +have paid the ingenious artists for the labour of +forty-five years. In the War of Independence, +this splendid prize fell into the hands of the +French General Caulaincourt, by whom it was +forthwith turned into five-franc pieces, bearing the +image and superscription of Napoleon.”<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p> + +<p>A more reliable notice says that this <i>custodia</i> +was begun by Alonso Becerril and finished by +his brother Francisco. The third member of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +this family of artists, Cristóbal, who flourished +towards the end of the sixteenth century, was +Francisco's son.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_95.jpg" width="350" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_95.jpg" id="img_95.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">GOTHIC <i>CUSTODIA</i><br /> +(<i>15th Century</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Towards the close of the Gothic and during the +earlier phases of the Renaissance movement in +this country, enormous quantities of gold and +silver began to be employed in making these +<i>custodias</i> or monstrances of her temples; so that +the fifteenth century may well be called, in +Spanish craftsmanship, the “age of the <i>custodia</i>.” +A century ago the reverend Townsend, loyal to +the Low Church prejudices of his day, spoke of +this object with something of a sneer as “the +depository of the Host, or, according to the ideas +of a Catholic, the throne of the Most High, when, +upon solemn festivals, He appears to command +the adoration of mankind.” Riaño's description is +more technical. “The name of <i>custodia</i>,” he says, +“is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance +or ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is +exposed, but also to a sort of temple or tabernacle, +of large size, made also of silver, inside which +is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession +on Corpus Christi day (Plate <a href="#img_95.jpg">xvi</a>.). In +order to distinguish these objects one from another, +the name of <i>viril</i> is given to the object which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +holds the consecrated Host; it is generally made +of rock crystal, with a gold stem and mount +ornamented with precious stones. The small +tabernacles are generally objects of the greatest +importance, both from their artistic and intrinsic +value.” A third description of the monstrance, +written in quaint and antiquated Spanish verse +by Juan de Arfe, is truthfully if not melodiously +translated into English rhyme by Stirling:—</p> + +<div class="poem-container"> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“Custodia is a temple of rich plate,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Wrought for the glory of our Saviour true,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Where, into wafer transubstantiate,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">He shows his Godhead and his Manhood too,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">That holiest ark of old to imitate,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Fashioned by Bezaleel, the cunning Jew,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Chosen of God to work His sov'ran will,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">And greatly gifted with celestial skill.”<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></span><br /> +</div></div></div> + +<p>Notwithstanding that the monstrance of Toledo, +surmounted by a cross of solid gold, turns the +scale at ten thousand nine hundred ounces, and +that of Avila at one hundred and forty pounds, +the weight of nearly all of these <i>custodias</i> is far exceeded +by the value of their workmanship. The +style employed in their construction is the Gothic, +the Renaissance, or the two combined. <i>Custodias</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +of the eastern parts of Spain are more affected +than the others by Italian influence, noticeable +both in decorative motives which recall the +Florentine, and in the use, together with the +silver-work, of painting and enamels. In other +parts of Spain the dominating influence is the +later Gothic. Among the former or Levantine +class of monstrances, the most important are those +of Barcelona, Vich, Gerona, and Palma de Mallorca; +and of the others, those of Cordova, Cadiz, +Sahagún, Zamora, Salamanca, and Toledo—this +last, according to Bertaut de Rouen, “à la +manière d'un clocher percé à jour, d'ouvrage de +filigrane, et plein de figures.” <i>Custodias</i> in the +purest classic or Renaissance style are those of +Seville, Valladolid, Palencia, Avila, Jaen, Madrid, +Segovia, Zaragoza, Santiago, and Orense.</p> + +<p>Juan de Arfe y Villafañe, who may be called +the Cellini of Spain's <i>custodia</i>-makers, was born +at León in 1535. He was the son of Antonio de +Arfe, and grandson of Enrique de Arfe, a German +who had married a Spanish wife and made his +home in Spain. The family of Juan, including +his brother Antonio, were all distinguished craftsmen, +and he himself informs us that his grandfather +excelled in Gothic <i>platería</i>, as may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +judged from the <i>custodias</i>, by Enrique's hand, of +Cordova, León, Toledo, and Sahagún, and many +smaller objects, such as incensories, crosiers, and +paxes.</p> + +<p>The father of Juan, Antonio de Arfe, worked +in silver in the Renaissance or Plateresque styles, +and executed in the florid manner the <i>custodias</i> of +Santiago de Galicia and Medina de Rioseco; but +the training and tastes of Juan himself were sternly +classical. His work in consequence has a certain +coldness, largely atoned for by its exquisite correctness +of design and unimpeachable proportions. +Arfe's ideal in these matters may readily be judged +of from his written verdict on the Greco-Roman +architecture. “The Escorial,” he says, in the +preface to his description of the <i>custodia</i> of Seville +cathedral, “<i>because it follows the rules of ancient +art</i>, competes in general perfection, size, or splendour +with the most distinguished buildings of +the Asiatics, Greeks, and Romans, and displays +magnificence and truth in all its detail.”</p> + +<p>In point of versatility Juan de Arfe was a kind +of Spanish Leonardo. His book, <i>De Varia Conmensuración</i>, +etc., published in 1585, is divided +into four parts, and deals, the first part with the +practice of geometry, the second with human<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +anatomy, the third with animals, and the fourth +with architecture and silver-work for use in +churches.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_99.jpg" width="322" height="400" + alt="IOAN DE ARFE" + title="IOAN DE ARFE" /> + <a name="img_99.jpg" id="img_99.jpg"></a> +</div> + +<p>This book is prefaced by the portrait of the +author, given above. It shows us—what he +really was—a quiet, cultured, gentle-hearted +man. Indeed, while Arfe was studying anatomy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +at Salamanca, it gave him pain to lacerate the +bodies even of the dead. “I was witness,” he +records, “to the flaying of several pauper men +and women whom the law had executed; but +these experiments, besides being horrible and +cruel, I saw to be of little service to my studies +in anatomy.”</p> + +<p>Arfe's workmanship of the <i>custodia</i> of Avila +cathedral, which he began in 1564 and terminated +in 1571, won for him an early and extended fame. +He also made the <i>custodia</i> of Burgos (brutally +melted during the Spanish War of Independence), +and those of Valladolid (finished in 1590), Lugo, +Osma, and the Hermandad del Santísimo at +Madrid. The <i>custodia</i> of Palencia is also thought +by some to be his handiwork.</p> + +<p>But Arfe's crowning labour was the Greco-Roman +<i>custodia</i> of Seville cathedral (Plate <a href="#img_100.jpg">xvii</a>.). +The chapter of this temple selected his design in +1580, and nominated the licentiate Pacheco to assist +him with the statuettes. Pacheco also carried out +his portion of the task with skill and judgment. A +rare pamphlet, written by Arfe and published at +Seville in 1587, gives a minute description of the +whole <i>custodia</i>. In Appendix C, I render this +description into English, together with a similarly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +detailed notice of the <i>custodia</i> (1513 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>) of +Cordova. This last, which we have seen to be +the work of Juan de Arfe's grandfather, Enrique, +is not to be surpassed for fairy grace and lightness, +seeming, in the eloquent metaphor of a modern +writer, “to have been conceived in a dream, and +executed with the breath.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_100.jpg" width="347" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_100.jpg" id="img_100.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption"><i>CUSTODIA</i> OF SEVILLE CATHEDRAL<br /> +(<i>By Juan de Arfe. Late 16th Century</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Spain in the seventeenth century had reached +the lowest depth of her decadence and impoverishment; +and yet we find that century an age—to +quote a Spanish term—of “gallantries and pearls,” +in which a craze for reckless luxury continued to +prevail in every quarter. Narratives innumerable +inform us of the life and doings of that prodigal +court and prodigal aristocracy; their ruinous and +incessant festivals; the fortunes that were thrown +away on furniture, and jewels, and costume. True, +we are told by Bertaut de Rouen that, except +upon their numerous holidays, the costume of the +Spanish men was plain enough. This author, who +calls them otherwise “debauched and ignorant,” +says that their clothes were all of “méchante frise,” +and adds that they continually took snuff, “dont +ils ont toujours les narines pleines, ce qui fait qu'ils +n'ont que des mouchoirs de laine, de toile grise, et +peinte comme de la toile de la Chine.” The same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +traveller, attending an ordinary reception in the +royal palace at Madrid, was unable to distinguish +the nobles from the lower orders, except that, by +the privilege peculiar to this country, the former +kept their hats on in the presence of the sovereign. +Even of Philip himself he says: “Le Roy d'Espagne +estoit debout avec un habit fort simple et fort +ressemblant à tous ses portraits”; alluding, probably, +to those of Philip the Fourth by Velazquez, +in which the monarch wears a plain cloth +doublet.</p> + +<p>But when the Spaniard dressed himself for any +scene of gala show, his spendthrift inclinations +swelled into a positive disease. The women, too, +squandered enormous sums on finery. The +Marchioness of Liche, said to have been the +loveliest Española of that day, is spoken of by +Bertaut as wearing “un corps de brocard d'argent +avec de grandes basques à leur mode, la jupe +d'une autre étoffe avec grand nombre de pierreries, +et cela luy fetoit fort bien.” An anonymous +manuscript of the period, published by Gayangos +in the <i>Revista de España</i> for 1884, describes the +<i>fiestas</i> celebrated at Valladolid in 1605, in honour +of the English ambassador and his retinue. In +this relation the Duke of Lerma is quoted as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +possessing a yearly income of three hundred +thousand <i>cruzados</i>, besides “as much again in +jewellery and furniture, and gold and silver services.” +At the state banquets which were given +at that wasteful court, even the pies and tarts +were washed with gold or silver; and at a single +feast the dishes of various kinds of fare amounted +to two thousand and two hundred. At the banquet +given by the Duke of Lerma, three special +sideboards were constructed to sustain the weight +of four hundred pieces of silver, “all of them of +delicate design and exquisitely wrought of silver, +gold, and enamel, together with innumerable objects +of glass and crystal of capricious form, with +handles, lids, and feet of finest gold.”</p> + +<p>The whole of Spain's nobility was congregated +at these festivals, “richly attired with quantities +of pearls and oriental gems,” while everybody, +young and old alike, wore “diamond buttons and +brooches on cloaks and doublets,” feather plumes +with costly medals, gold chains with emeralds, +and other ornaments. The ladies of the aristocracy +were also “clothed in costliest style, as +well as loaded with diamonds and pearls and +hair-ornaments of pearls and gold, such as the +women of Castile lay by for these solemnities.”</p> + +<p>The Spanish churches, too, continued to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +veritable storehouses of treasure. The manuscript +published by Gayangos says that in 1605 the +church of La Merced at Valladolid had its altars +“covered with beautiful gold and silver vessels, +of which there are a great many in the whole of +Castilla la Vieja, and particularly here at Valladolid.” +Bertaut de Rouen's notice of the shrine +of Montserrat in Cataluña has been inserted +previously. In 1775 Swinburne wrote of the +same temple:—“In the sacristy and passages +leading to it are presses and cupboards full of +relics and ornaments of gold, silver, and precious +stones; they pointed out to us, as the most remarkable, +two crowns for the Virgin and her Son, +of inestimable value, some large diamond rings, +an excellent cameo of Medusa's head, the Roman +emperors in alabaster, the sword of Saint Ignatius, +and the chest that contains the ashes of a famous +brother, John Guarin, of whom they relate the +same story as that given in the <i>Spectator</i> of a +Turkish santon and the Sultan's daughter…. +Immense is the quantity of votive offerings to this +miraculous statue; and as nothing can be rejected +or otherwise disposed of, the shelves are crowded +with the most whimsical <i>ex votos</i>, viz., silver legs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +fingers, breasts, earrings, watches, two-wheeled +chaises, boats, carts, and such-like trumpery.”</p> + +<p>Many pragmatics from the Crown vainly +endeavoured to suppress or mitigate the popular +extravagance. Such was the royal letter of 1611, +which forbade, among the laity, the wearing of +“gold jewels with decoration or enamel in relief, +or points with pearls or other stones.” Smaller +jewels, of the kind known as <i>joyeles</i> and <i>brincos</i>,<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> +were limited to a single stone, together with its +pearl pendant. The jewellery of the women was +exempted from these laws, though even here were +certain limitations. Rings for the finger might, +however, bear enamel-work, or any kind of stone. +Enamel was also allowed in gold buttons and +chains for the men's caps, as well as in the badges +worn by the knights of the military orders.</p> + +<p>“It is forbidden,” continues this pragmatic, “to +make any object of gold, silver, or other metal +with work in relief, or the likeness of a person; +nor shall any object be gilt, excepting drinking +vessels, and the weight of these shall not exceed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +three marks. All other silver shall be flat and +plain, without gilding; but this does not apply to +objects intended for religious worship.”</p> + +<p>“All niello-work is prohibited, as are silver +brasiers and buffets.”<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> + +<p>What I may call the private jewel-work of +Spain, largely retains throughout its history the +characteristic lack of finish of all the Visigothic +treasure found at Guarrazar. From first to last, +until extinguished or absorbed by foreign influences +two centuries ago, it strives to compensate in +ponderous and bulky splendour for what it lacks +in delicacy, elegance, and taste. It is just the +jewellery we should expect to find among a military +people who once upon a time possessed great +riches simultaneously with little education, and +who, from this and other causes, such as the +strenuous opposition of the national church to +pagan sentiments expressed in fleshly form, were +never genuinely or profoundly art-loving. Long +residence and observation in their midst induce +me to affirm that as a race the Spaniards are and +always have been hostile, or at least indifferent, to +the arts; and that their most illustrious artists +have made their power manifest and raised themselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +to eminence despite the people—not, as in +Italy, on the supporting shoulders of the people.</p> + +<p>Dazzle and show monopolized, and to a great +extent monopolize still, the preference of this +race. The Spanish breast-ornaments of the +seventeenth century, preserved at South Kensington +and reproduced by Riaño on pages 37 and 39 +of his handbook, are strongly reminiscent of the +Visigothic ornaments. Who would imagine that +a thousand years had come and gone between the +execution of the new and of the old? As late as +the reign of Charles the Second the culture of a +Spanish lady of high birth was little, if at all, +superior to a savage's. “False stones enchant +them,” wrote Countess d'Aulnoy. “Although +they possess many jewels of considerable value +and the finest quality, it is their whim to carry on +their person wretched bits of glass cut in the +coarsest fashion, just like those which pedlars in +my country sell to country girls who have seen +nobody but the village curate, and nothing but +their flocks of sheep. Dames of the aristocracy +adorn themselves with these pieces of glass, that +are worth nothing at all; yet they purchase them +at high prices. When I asked them why they +like false diamonds, they told me they prefer them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +to the genuine as being larger. Indeed, they +sometimes wear them of the bigness of an egg.” +Even where the stones were real, the Spanish +taste in setting and in wearing them was no less +execrable. The Countess says: “the ladies here +possess great stores of beautiful precious stones, +and do not wear, like Frenchwomen, a single +article of jewellery, but nine or ten together, some +of diamonds, others of rubies, pearls, emeralds, +and turquoises, wretchedly mounted, since they are +almost wholly covered with the gold. When I +inquired the cause of this, they told me the jewels +were so made because the gold was as beautiful +as the gems. I suppose, however, the real reason +is the backwardness of the craftsmen, who can do +no better work than this, excepting Verbec, who +has no lack of skill, and would turn out excellent +jewels if he took the trouble to finish them.”</p> + +<p>“In the neck of their bodices the ladies fasten +pins profusely set with precious stones. Hanging +from the pin, and fastened at the lower end to +the side of their dress, is a string of pearls or +diamonds. They wear no necklace, but bracelets +on their wrists and rings on their fingers, as well +as long earrings of so great a weight that I know +not how they can support them. Hanging from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +these earrings they display whatever finery they +may fancy. I have seen some ladies who wore +good-sized watches hanging from their ears, strings +of precious stones, English keys of dainty make, +and little bells. They also wear the <i>agnus</i>, together +with little images about their neck and +arms, or in their hair. They dress their hair in +various ways, and always go with it uncovered, +using many hairpins in the form of coloured +flies or butterflies of diamonds, emeralds, and +rubies.”</p> + +<p>Book-worm authorities, addicted to “dry bones” +of letters, are prone just now to doubt this visit of +Countess d'Aulnoy to the capital of Spain. But +if such patient doubters will compare her narrative +with those of other foreigners, <i>e.g.</i> Bertaut de +Rouen, or the manuscript description of Valladolid, +written by a Portuguese, and now in the British +Museum library, their scepticism will—or should—be +done away with on the moment. The letters +of the countess make it plain by copious inner +testimony that she actually performed her Spanish +visit; and though from time to time she over-colours +or misreads the truth, it was the very +usages of Spain that were absurd and out of +joint, and not, except in isolated instances, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +sprightly and observant Frenchwoman's account +of them.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> + +<p>Elsewhere the Countess says: “Utensils of +common metal are not employed here, but only +those of silver or of ware. I hear that a little +while ago, upon the death of the Duke of Alburquerque, +six weeks were needed to make out an +inventory of his gold and silver services. His +house contained fourteen hundred dozen plates, +five hundred large dishes, and seven hundred of a +smaller size, with all the other pieces in proportion, +and forty silver ladders for climbing his sideboard, +made in grades like an altar in a spacious hall.”</p> + +<p>These statements have been proved in later +years. Dating from 1560, an inventory of the +ducal house of Alburquerque was found not many +years ago. In it we find the detailed list of gold +and silver; cups and dishes, bowls and basins,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +plates and salt-cellars, trenchers, wine and water +flagons, sauce-spoons, salad-spoons, conserve-spoons, +and innumerable other articles. Here, +too, we find, upon the mighty sideboard mounted +by its forty silver stairs, such objects as the +following:—</p> + +<p>“A gold cup with festoon-work above and +beneath, wrought with leaves in relief. At +the top of the foot there issue some leaves +that fall down over a small gold staple, and +below this, about the narrowest part of the foot, +are leaves in relief and several dolphins. The +broad part of the foot is decorated with festoons. +The lid of this cup is wrought with leaves +in relief, and on the crest thereof is a lion, +crowned. The cup weighs three hundred and +fifty-one <i>castellanos</i> and a half.”</p> + +<p>“A Castilian jar from which my lord the duke +was wont to drink, weighing two marks and five +ounces.”<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> + +<p>“A cup with a high foot, gilt all over, with the +figure of a woman in its midst, and decorated in +four places in the Roman manner.”</p> + +<p>“A flagon of white silver, flat beneath the stem,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +with a screw-top surmounted by a small lion; for +cooling water.”</p> + +<p>“A small silver dish, of the kind they call meat-warmers.”</p> + +<p>“A large silver seal for sealing provisions, with +the arms of my lord the duke, Don Francisco.”</p> + +<p>“A large silver vessel, embossed, with a savage +on top.”</p> + +<p>“A gold horse, enamelled in white upon a gold +plate enamelled in green and open at the top; +also a wolf, upon another gold plate enamelled in +green, with lettering round about it; also a green +enamelled lizard upon blue enamel; and a gold +toothpick with four pieces enamelled in green, +white, and rose; also a small gold column enamelled +in black and rose.”</p> + +<p>“A silver lemon-squeezer, gilt and chiselled, +with white scroll-work about the mesh thereof, +through which the lemon-juice is strained.”</p> + +<p>“A large round silver salt-cellar, in two halves, +gilt all over, with scales about the body, and two +thick twisted threads about the flat part. One +side of it is perforated.”</p> + +<p>Among the property of the duchess, Doña +Mencía Enriquez, we find “a small gold padlock, +which opens and closes by means of letters”; two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +gold bangles; a gold necklace consisting of forty-two +pieces “enamelled with some B's”;<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> a gold +signet ring with the duchess's arms; and “a gold +and niello box with relics, for wearing round the +neck.” Also, resting on a table covered with silver +plates, “a box of combs; the said box wrought in +gold upon blue leather, containing five combs, a +looking-glass, a little brush, and other fittings; +girt with a cord in gold and blue silk.”</p> + +<p>The seventeenth century and a race of native +Spanish kings declined and passed away together. +A dynasty of France succeeded to the throne +of Spain, and with the foreigner came a fresh +reactionary movement towards the neo-classic art, +coupled with the canons of French taste. Henceforth +a century of slow political reform goes +hand in hand with slow suppression of the salient +parts of Spanish character. Madrid transforms or +travesties herself into a miniature Versailles, and +national arts and crafts belong henceforward to a +Frenchified society which found its painter in +Goya, just as the preceding and eminently Spanish +society had found its painter in Velazquez.</p> + +<p>Another of the causes of the falling-off in +Spanish <i>orfebrería</i> at this time, is stated to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +been the craftsmen's overwhelming tendency to +substitute the slighter though venerable and +beautiful gold or silver filigree (Plate <a href="#img_114.jpg">xviii</a>.), for +more artistic and ambitious, if less showy work +in massive metal. Thus, in 1699, a supplementary +chapter of the Ordinances of Seville +complained in bitter phrases of this tendency, +denouncing it as “a source of fraud and +detriment to the republic,” and deploring that +“of the last few years we have forsaken our +goodly usages of older times, in the matter of the +drawings entrusted to the candidates who come +before us for examination.”</p> + +<p>In the same year the goldsmiths' and the +silversmiths' guild of Seville enacted that none +of its members were to work in filigree, unless +they were qualified to execute the other work as +well. Such efforts to suppress this evil were not +new. More than a century before, on April 15th, +1567, the inspectors of the guild had entered the +shop of Luis de Alvarado, silversmith, and seized +some filigree earrings “of the work that is forbidden,” +breaking these objects on the spot, and +imposing a fine of half-a-dozen ducats on the +peccant of obvious Alvarado.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> + +<p>The modern gold and silver work of Spain is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +thus exempted from a lengthy notice, seeing that +its typical and national characteristics have succumbed, +or very nearly so. I may, however, +mention the giant silver candelabra in the +cathedral of Palma de Mallorca, which were made +at Barcelona, between 1704 and 1718, by Juan +Matons and three of his assistants. They measure +eight feet high by four feet and a quarter across, +weigh more than eight thousand ounces, and cost +21,942 pounds, 15 <i>sueldos</i>, and 11 <i>dineros</i> of +Majorcan money. The State seized them during +the Napoleonic wars, in order to melt them down +for money; but the chapter of the cathedral bought +them back for eleven thousand dollars.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_114.jpg" width="394" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_114.jpg" id="img_114.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">EARLY CHALICE AND CROSS IN FILIGREE GOLD-WORK<br /> +(<i>Church of Saint Isidore, León</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>During this century Riaño mentions several +factories of silver articles established at Madrid, +including that of Isaac and Michael Naudin (1772) +and the Escuela de Platería (1778), protected by +Charles the Third; but since the work of these was +purely in the French or English manner, they call +for no particular notice. The principal objects they +produced were “inkstands, dishes, dinner-services, +chocolate-stands, cruets, knives and forks, together +with buckles, needle-cases, brooches, snuff-boxes, +frames for miniatures, and similar trinkets.”</p> + +<p>Early in the nineteenth century Laborde wrote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +that “the fabrication of articles of gold and silver +might become an important object in a country +where these metals abound; but it is neglected, +and the demand is almost entirely supplied from +foreign markets. What little they do in this branch +at home is usually very ill executed, and exorbitantly +dear. Madrid, however, begins to possess +some good workmen; encouragement would +increase their number and facilitate the means +of improvement; but manual labour is there +excessively dear. Hence the Spaniards prefer +foreign articles of this kind, which, notwithstanding +the expense of carriage, the enormous duties that +they pay, and the profits of the merchants, are +still cheaper than those made at home.”</p> + +<p>Several of the inherent characteristics of the +national <i>orfebrería</i> may yet be noticed somewhat +faintly in the ornaments and jewels of the +Spanish peasants, though even these are being +discarded. A century ago Laborde described the +dress of the Mauregata women, near Astorga, +in the kingdom of León. “They wear large +earrings, a kind of white turban, flat and widened +like a hat, and their hair parted on the forehead. +They have a chemise closed over the chest, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +a brown corset buttoned, with large sleeves opening +behind. Their petticoats and veils are also +brown. Over all they wear immense coral necklaces, +which descend from the neck to the knee; +they twist them several times round the neck, +pass them over the shoulders, where a row is +fastened, forming a kind of bandage over the +bosom. Then another row lower than this; in +short, a third and fourth row at some distance +from each other. The last falls over the knee, +with a large cross on the right side. These +necklaces or chaplets are ornamented with a great +many silver medals, stamped with the figure of +saints. They only wear these decorations when +not working, or on festivals.”</p> + +<p>I have a manuscript account in French of +Spanish regional costumes at the same period. +The dress of the peasant women of Valencia is +thus described: “Elle se coiffe toujours en +cheveux, de la manière appelée <i>castaña</i>, et elle y +passe une aiguille en argent que l'on nomme +<i>rascamoño</i>; quelque fois elle se pare d'un grand +peigne (<i>peineta</i>) en argent doré. Son cou este +orné d'une chaine d'or ou d'argent (<i>cadena del +cuello</i>) à laquelle est suspendue une croix ou un +reliquaire.” This was the Valencian peasant's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +dress for every day. On festivals the same +woman would adorn her ears with “pendants +(<i>arracadas</i>) de pierres fausses; mais lorsque la +jardinière est riche, elles sont fines. Une relique +(<i>relicario</i>) dans un petit médaillon en argent, +est suspendue à son cou; ainsi qu'un chapelet +très mince (<i>rosario</i>) en argent doré.”</p> + +<p>The peasant women of Iviza, in the Balearics, +are described in the same manuscript as wearing +“un collier en verre, quelque fois en argent, et +rarement en or”; while Laborde wrote of Minorca, +another of these islands, that “the ladies are +always elegantly adorned; their ornaments consist +of necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, and chaplets. +<i>The peasants wear these also.</i>” Of the women of +Barcelona he said: “Silk stockings are very +common in every class; and their shoes are +embroidered with silk, gold, silver, pearls, and +spangles.”</p> + +<p>But Spain, like Italy or Switzerland, or many +another country, is throwing off her regional +costumes, of which these various jewels form a +prominent and even an essential feature. More +rarely now we come across the gold and seed-pearl +necklaces of Salamanca, the Moorish filigree +silver-work of Cordova, the silver-gilt necklaces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +of Santiago, and the heavy <i>arracadas</i>, hung with +emeralds and sapphires, of Cataluña. Murcia, +nevertheless, retains her Platería, a street of +venerable aspect and associations, where to this +hour the oriental-looking silver pendants of the +neighbourhood are made and trafficked in.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_119.jpg" width="150" height="123" + alt="end of chapter" + title="end of chapter" /> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Ordenanza de la Limpieza</i> (1537), Tit. 9: “We command +that nobody remove sand from the aforesaid river Darro unless to +extract gold, in which case he shall fill up the holes he made, or +pay a fine of fifty <i>maravedis</i> for damaging the watercourses that +enter this city and the buildings of the Alhambra.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> “I am not aware of any Spanish mine containing silver in a +state of absolute purity; though some, I think, would be discovered +if they were searched for.”—Bowles: <i>Historia Natural de España</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Possibly, as Bowles suggests, for Cabo de Agata—“Agate Cape.” +“It would not be strange,” he adds, “if diamonds were found +at this cape, since there are signs of their presence. I found white +sapphires, slightly clouded, together with cornelians, jaspers, agates, +and garnets.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> A fresh find of <i>torques</i> and <i>fibulæ</i> has occurred in the spring of +this year at La Moureta, near Ferrol.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> These ornaments were retained in use by the Visigoths, and +find their due description in the <i>Etymologies</i> of Saint Isidore; <i>e.g.</i>:—</p> + +<p>“<i>Inaures</i> ab aurium foraminibus nuncupatae, quibus pretiosa +genera lapidum dependuntur.”</p> + +<p>“<i>Tourques</i> sunt circuli aurei a collo ad pectus usque dependentes. +Torques autem et bullae a viris geruntur; a foeminis vero monilia +et catellae.”</p> + +<p>“<i>Fibulæ</i> sunt quibus pectus foeminarum ornatur, vel pallium +tenetur: viris in humeris, seu cingulum in lumbris.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> There is also in the Archæological Museum at Madrid a small +collection of what has been described as Visigothic jewellery, consisting +of a handsome <i>phalera</i>, necklaces, finger-rings, and earrings. +Most of these objects were found at Elche in 1776. The <i>Museo +Español de Antigüedades</i> published a full description by Florencio +Janer. Their interest is by no means as great as that of the +treasure of Guarrazar, nor is the date of their production definitely +ascertained. From various details I suspect that many of them +may be purely Roman.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The last word is commonly believed to be the name of a place—<i>Sorbaces</i>. +There has been much discussion as to its meaning.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>Description du trésor de Guarrazar</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> “<i>Ce que je puis affirmer, après l'examen le plus minutieux, c'est +que la matière qui fait le fond de cette riche ornementation est +réellement du verre.</i>”—Lasteyrie, supported by Sommerard.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> “In Spain,” said Bowles (<i>Hist. Nat. de Esp.</i>, p. 498), “are found +two species of rock crystal. The one, occurring in clusters, are transparent, +six-sided, and always have their source in rocks. There are +great quantities all over the kingdom, and at Madrid they are found +near the hills of San Isidro. The other species are found singly, and +are rounded like a pebble. I have seen them from the size of a +filbert to that of my fist. Some were covered with a thin, opaque +integument…. The river Henares abounds with these crystals, +and as it passes San Fernando, at two leagues' distance from +Madrid, sweeps some of them along which are the size of the largest +ones at Strasburg, though very few are perfect.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> A veritable cryptogram awaited the decipherers of these legends. +When King Swinthila's crown was brought to light, four of the letters +only were in place, thus:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center;">☩ ...... I ... V.R .... F ....</p> + +<p>Eight of the others were recovered shortly after; two more, an E +and L, appeared at a later date, and eight continued to be missing. +The inscription dangling from the crown of Recceswinth arrived at +Paris in this eloquent form:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center;">☩ RRCCEEFEVINSTVSETORHFEX</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Amador de los Ríos, <i>El Arte latino-bizantino en España y las +Coronas Visigodas de Guarrazar</i>, p. 121.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Sommerard: “<i>Une collection sans égale de joyaux les plus +précieux qui, par la splendeur de la matière, le mérite de l'exécution, +et plus encore, peut être, par leur origine incontestable et par leur +étonnante conservation, surpassent tout ce qui possédent d'analogue +les collections publiques de l'Europe et les trésors les plus renommés +de l'Italie</i>.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <i>Toledo and Madrid</i>; p. 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Ajbar Machmua</i>. Lafuente y Alcántara's edition; p. 27, note.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Account of the Conquest of Spain</i>, published, with an English +translation and notes, by John Harris Jones. London, 1858.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The pax or osculatory used in celebrating High Mass is +commonly, says Rosell de Torres, “a plate of gold or ivory, or other +metal or material, according to the time and circumstances of its +manufacture. The priest who celebrates the Mass kisses it after +the <i>Agnus Dei</i> and the prayer <i>ad petendam pacem</i>, and the acolytes +present it, as a sign of peace and brotherly union, to all the other +priests who may be present. This usage springs from the kiss of peace +which was exchanged, prior to receiving the communion, between the +early Christians in their churches. The pax has commonly borne +an image of the Virgin with the Holy Infant, the face of Christ, or +else the Agnus Dei.” Its Latin name was the <i>deosculatorium</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> This marvel is related by the Monk of Silos. A quotation from +another of my books is applicable here. “Last year,” I wrote in +1902—(pp. 64, 65 of <i>Toledo and Madrid: Their Records and +Romances</i>)—“the young King Alfonso the Thirteenth paid a visit to +Oviedo cathedral, and was duly shown the relics and the jewels. +Among these latter was the ‘Cross of the Angels.’</p> + +<p>“‘Why is it so called?’ inquired the king.</p> + +<p>“‘Because,’ replied the bishop of the diocese, ‘it is said that the +angels made it to reward King Alfonso the Chaste.’</p> + +<p>“‘Well, but,’ insisted the young monarch, ‘what ground is there +for thinking so?’</p> + +<p>“‘Señor,’ replied the prelate, ‘none whatever. <i>The time for +traditions is passing away.</i>’”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> In many towns a hearty friendship sprang up between the +Spaniard and the Moor. This was a natural consequence in +places where the vanquished had a better education than the +victor. The warrior population of both races might be struggling +on the field at the same moment that their craftsmen were fraternizing +in the workshop. Ferdinand the First and Alfonso the Sixth +were particularly lenient in their usage of the dominated Muslim. +Thus, the former of these princes recognised the Moorish townspeople +of Sena as his vassals, while those of Toledo were freely +allowed by Alfonso to retain their worship and their mosque.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a></p> + +<div class="poem-container"> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“<i>Fallaron ay de marfil arquetas muy preçiadas</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>Con tantas de noblezas que non podrian ser contadas</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>Fueron para San Pedro las arquetas donadas;</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>Están en este dia en el su altar asentadas.</i>”</span> +</div></div></div></div> + +<p style="margin-top: 0; margin-left: 50%;"><span class="i0">Poem of <span class="smcap">Ferran Gonzalvez</span> (13th century).</span></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Together with the statuette of Ujué in Navarre, the Virgen de +la Vega of Salamanca may be classed as one of the earliest “local +Virgins” of this country. Sometimes these images are of wood +alone, sometimes of wood beneath a silver covering, sometimes, as +that of the Claustro de León, of stone. But whatever may be the +substance, the characteristics are the same:—Byzantine rigidness +and disproportion, the crude and primitive anatomy of artists only +just emerging from the dark. The Virgin and Child of Santa +María la Real of Hirache in Navarra may be instanced as +another of the series. This image dates from late in the twelfth or +early in the thirteenth century, although a crown and nimbus have +been added subsequently. It measures rather more than a yard +in height, and consists of wood covered with silver plates, except +the hands and face, which are painted. The Virgin, seated, holds +the Infant with her left arm; in her right hand is an apple. A kind of +stole bearing the following inscription in Gothic letter falls upon the +Infant's breast; “<i>Puer natus est nobis, venite adoremus. Ego +sum alpha et omega, primus et novissimus Dominus.</i>” Before this +statuette the King Don Sancho is stated to have offered his devotion.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> I quote this legend in Appendix A.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> A recent instance, not devoid of humour, is as follows. About +three years ago, a silly rogue removed and carried off the crown +from Santiago's head; but since the actual jewel is only worn on +solemn festivals, his prize turned out to be a worthless piece of tin. +An odd removal of the treasure of another Spanish church was noted +by the traveller Bowles. “The curate of the place, a worthy fellow +who put me up in his house, assured me that a detachment of a legion +of locusts entered the church, ate up the silk clothes upon the images, +and gnawed the varnish on the altars.” Perhaps these adamantine-stomached +insects have assailed, from time to time, the gold and +silver plate of Santiago.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Ford, <i>Handbook</i>, vol. ii. p. 671. I briefly notice, in Appendix B, +the Santiago jet-work, also practised by these craftsmen.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> To lend my censures further cogency, I leave this statement as +I set it down some weeks ago; since when, on picking up a Spanish +newspaper, I read the following telegram:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center;">“<span class="smcap">Theft in Santiago Cathedral</span></p> + +<p style="text-align: right;">“<span class="smcap">Santiago</span>, <i>May 7th, 1906</i> (9.15 <i>p.m.</i>).</p> + +<p>“This morning, when the canon in charge of the Chapel of the +Relics unlocked the door, he was surprised to observe that some of +these were lying in confusion on the floor. Fearing that a theft +had been committed, he sent for the dean and others of the clergy, +who had examination made, and found the following objects to be +missing:—</p> + +<p><i>“A gold cross, presented by King Alfonso the Great, when he +attended the consecration of this temple in the year 874.</i></p> + +<p>“Another cross, of silver, dating from the fifteenth century—a +present from Archbishop Spinola.</p> + +<p>“An aureole of the fifteenth century, studded with precious stones +belonging to a statuette of the apostle Santiago.</p> + +<p>“The authorities were summoned and at once began their search.</p> + +<p>“They find that two of the thick iron bars of the skylight in the +ceiling of the cloister have been filed through. This cloister has a +skylight which opens upon the chapel.</p> + +<p>“They have also found, upon the roof, a knotted rope. This rope +was only long enough to reach a cornice in the chapel wall. <i>The +wall itself affords no sign that anybody has attempted to descend +by it.</i>”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> This form of reliquary was not uncommon. Morales, in his <i>Viaje +Sacro</i>, describes another one, also preserved at Santiago, saying +that it was a bust of silver, life-size and gilded to the breast, “with +a large diadem of rays and many stones, both small and great, all +or most of them of fine quality, though not of the most precious.” +Other bust-reliquaries belong, or have belonged, to the Cathedrals +of Burgos and Toledo.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The Mudejares were the Mussulmans who submitted, in the +conquered cities, to the Spanish-Christian rule. The word <i>Mudejar</i> +is of modern growth, nor can its derivation be resolved with +certainty. From the thirteenth century onwards, and formed by the +fusion of the Christian and the Saracenic elements, we find Mudejar +influence copiously distributed through every phase of Spanish life +and art, and even literature.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Amador prefers to call these Tables “the triptych of the +learned king,” in order to distinguish them by this explicit title +from the <i>Astronomical Tables</i> prepared by order of the same +monarch.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Riaño, <i>Spanish Arts</i>, p. 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> So named because the silversmiths (<i>plateros</i>) of this country +used it in their monstrances (<i>custodias</i>) and in many other objects +or utensils of religious worship. The most refined and erudite of +Spanish silver-workers, Juan de Arfe, thus referred to it in +rhyme:—</p> + +<div class="poem-container"> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0"><i>“Usaron desta obra los plateros</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>Guardando sus preceptos con zelo;</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>Pusiéronle en los puntos postrimeros</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>De perfección mi abuelo.”</i></span> +</div></div></div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Street, <i>Gothic Architecture in Spain</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Count of Clonard.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Four pallets gules, on a field or; which were the arms of +Cataluña and subsequently of Aragon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Archives of the Crown of Aragon.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Sanpere y Miquel, <i>Revista de Ciencias Históricas</i>, art. <i>La +Platería catalana en los siglos XIV. y XV.</i>, vol. i. p. 441.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Gestoso mentions that Juan de Luna, a silversmith of Seville, +was turned into the gutter from the workshop where he was +employed, solely because his father had been punished as a Morisco +by the Inquisition (<i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. i. +p. lvi.).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> An article by Señor Saavedra on these inscribed jewels and +signets of Mohammedan Spain will be found in the <i>Museo Español +de Antigüedades</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> “As to the ornaments and jewels of the ladies of Granada, these +wear at present necklaces of rich design, bracelets, rings (upon their +ankles), and earrings of pure gold; together with quantities of silver +and of precious stones upon their shoes. I say this of the middle +class; for ladies of the aristocracy and of the older noble families +display a vast variety of gems, such as rubies, chrysolites, emeralds, +and pearls of great value. The ladies of Granada are commonly +fair to look upon, shapely, of good stature, with long hair, teeth of a +shining white, and perfumed breath, gracefully alert in their movements, +and witty and agreeable in conversation. But unfortunately +at this time their passion for painting themselves and for arraying +themselves in every kind of jewellery and costly stuffs has reached +a pitch that is no longer tolerable.”—Al-Jattib, in <i>The Splendour +of the New Moon concerning the Nasrite Sultans of Granada</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> There was, however, from long before this time a prohibition to +export from Spain the precious metals, in any form, whether as +objects of plate or as coined money. The penalty for a repetition +of this offence was death. Another law prohibited all foreigners +who were resident in Spain, not excluding the Moriscos, from buying +gold or silver in the bar (<i>Suma de Leyes</i>, p. 46). It was also forbidden +to sell the jewels or other objects of value belonging to a +place of worship (<i>ibid</i>. p. 87).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> This entertaining and inquisitive tourist describes, in 1659, a +wondrous cavern in the south of Spain, “ou l'on conte que les +Mores ont caché leurs trésors en s'en retournant en Afrique, et ou +personne n'ose aborder de peur des esprits que l'on dit que l'on y +voit souvent. Mais comme il commencait a se faire nuit, je n'eus +pas le loisir de m'y amuser beaucoup.” With this our author +shelved his curiosity, and prudently retired.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Leonard Williams. <i>Granada: Memories, Adventures, Studies, +and Impressions</i>, p. 90.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Ford was more hopeful as to the preservation of this wealth in +Spain. “No doubt much coin is buried in the Peninsula, since the +country has always been invaded and torn by civil wars, and there +never has been much confidence between Spaniard and Spaniard; +accordingly the only sure, although unproductive, investment for +those who had money, was gold or silver, and the only resource to +preserve that, was to hide it.”—<i>Handbook</i>, vol. ii. p. 682.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. ii. p. 360.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> A full description of these chests will be found in Cean Bermudez, +vol. iii. pp. 135–137.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Rada y Delgado, in his reply to the Count of Cedillo's address +in the Royal Academy of History. For particulars of the silver lamp, +which was made by Marcos and Gonzalo Hernandez, Toledanos, +and by Diego Dávila, see Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos Inéditos +para la Historia de las Bellas Artes en España</i>, vol. lv. p. 580.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> <i>Recherches sur l'Orfévrerie en Espagne</i>, pp. 61 <i>et seq</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Ulloa, <i>Memorias Sevillanas</i>, vol. i. p. 199.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> <i>Libro de diferentes Cuentas y gasto de la Casa Real en el +Reynado de Don Sancho IV. Sacado de un tomo original en folio +que se guarda en la Librería de la Santa Iglesia de Toledo.</i> Años +de 1293–1294. Por el P. Andres Marcos Burriel de la Comp<sup>a</sup> de +Jesus.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a></p> + +<div class="poem-container"> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“<i>Con estos fué mi padre en seguimiento</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>Joan Alvarez tambien el Salmantino,</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>Becerril, que tambien fué deste cuento,</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>Juan de Orna, y Juan Ruiz el Vandolino.</i>”</span> +</div></div></div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>Annals of the Artists of Spain</i>, vol. i. pp. 161, 162.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 159, note.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <i>Brinco</i> (<i>brincar</i>, to jump or spring). These jewels were so +called from their vibrating as the wearer walked. The Balearic +Islands were famous for their manufacture; and the late Marquis +of Arcicollar possessed a case of valuable examples, most of which +proceeded from this locality.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>Suma de Leyes</i>, 1628, p. 116 (2).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> But on the other hand I much suspect that the following passage +in Alvarez de Colmenar's <i>Annales d'Espagne et de Portugal</i> (vol. +iii. p. 326) is stolen from Countess d'Aulnoy. “Elles ne portent +point de colier, mais en échange elles ont des bracelets, des bagues, +et des pendans d'oreille, plus gros que tous ceux qu'on voit en +Hollande. Telle est la diversité des gouts des nations différentes, +en matière de beauté. Il y en a même quelques-unes, qui attachent +quelque beau joli bijou à leurs pendans d'oreilles, quelque ornement +de pierreries, par exemple, ou d'autres choses semblables, selon leur +quantité ou leur pouvoir.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> The mark was a standard of eight ounces, and was divided into +fifty <i>castellanos</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> For Beltran de la Cueva, ancestor of this family.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. ii. p. 134.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="IRON-WORK" id="IRON-WORK">IRON-WORK</a></h2> + +<p>The ancient iron mines of Spain were no less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +celebrated than her mines of silver and of gold. +Nevertheless, the history of Spanish iron-work +begins comparatively late. Excepting certain +swords and other weapons which require to be +noticed under <i>Arms</i>, and owing to the commonness +and cheapness of this metal, as well as to +the ease with which it decomposes under damp, +few of the earliest Spanish objects made of iron +have descended to our time.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> Even Riaño pays<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +but little notice to this craft in the Peninsula +before the second half of the fifteenth century. +Henceforth, he says, “it continued to progress +in the sixteenth, and produced, undoubtedly, +at that period works which were unrivalled in +Europe.”</p> + +<p>The decorative iron-work of Spain may suitably +be dealt with in three classes: railings, screens, +or pulpits of churches, chapels, and cathedrals; +balconies and other parts or fittings applied to +public or private buildings of a non-ecclesiastical +character; and smaller, though not necessarily less +attractive or important objects, such as knockers, +locks and keys, and nail-heads.</p> + +<p>The last of these divisions, as embracing +Spanish-Moorish craftsmanship, shall have, as far +as order is concerned, our preferential notice.</p> + +<p>Surely, in the whole domain of history, no +object has a grander symbolism than the key. +In mediæval times the keys of cities, castles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +towns, and fortresses were held to be significant +of ownership, or vigilance, or conquest. Especially +was this the case in Spain—a nation incessantly +engaged in war. Probably in no +country in the world has the ceremony of delivering +up this mark of tenure of a guarded +and defended place occurred so often as here. +Do we not read of it in stirring stanzas of her +literature? Do we not find it in her paintings, +on her stone and metal <i>rilievi</i>, or carved in +wood upon the stalls of her cathedrals? Therefore +the key, just like the sword, seemed, in +the warm imagination of the Spaniards, to be +something almost sacred. The legislative codes +of Old Castile are most minute in their relation +of its venerated attributes. Nor were the Spanish +Muslims less alive to its importance than their +foe, taking it also for an emblem of their own, +and planting it in lordly eminence upon their +gates and towers of Cordova, and Seville, and +Granada. For what was Tarik's Mountain but +the key of the narrow gate that led to their +enchanted land, as sunny as, and yet less +sultry than, their sandy home; truly a land +of promise to the fiery children of the desert, +panting for the paradise that smiled at them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +across the storied strip of emerald and sapphire +water?</p> + +<p>So was it that both Moors and Spaniards +made their keys of fortresses and citadels almost +into an object of their worship. In hearing or in +reading of such keys, the mind at once recurs to +those of Seville (Plate <a href="#img_134.jpg">xix</a>.), two in number, famed +throughout the world of mediæval art, and stored +among the holiest relics in the sacristy of her +cathedral. The larger is of silver, in the style now +known as Mudejar, and dates from the second half +of the thirteenth century. The length is rather +more than eight inches, and the whole key is +divided into five compartments, ornamented in +enamels and in gold. Castles, ships, and lions +adorn the thicker portion of the stem between +the barrel proper and the handle; and on the +rim of the latter is this inscription, in Hebrew +characters:—</p> + +<p>“<i>The King of Kings will open; the king of all the +land shall enter.</i>”<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> + +<p>The wards are also beautifully carved into the +following legend, distributed in two rows, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +superposed upon the other, of two words and of +ten letters apiece:—</p> + +<div class="poem-container"> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“<i>Dios abrirá; Rey entrará.</i>”</span><br /> +<span class="i0">“<i>God will open; the king shall enter.</i>”</span> +</div></div></div> + +<p>The iron key is purely Moorish, smaller than +its fellow, and measures just over six inches. +Like the other, it consists of five divisions, and +the wards are in the form of an inscription in +African Cufic characters, which Gayangos and +other Arabists have variously interpreted. Five +of the commonest readings are as follows:—</p> + +<p>(1) “<i>May Allah permit that the rule (of Islam) last for +ever in this city.</i>”</p> + +<p>(2) “<i>By the grace of God may (this key) last for ever.</i>”</p> + +<p>(3) “<i>May peace be in the King's mansion.</i>”</p> + +<p>(4) “<i>May God grant us the boon of the preservation of +the city.</i>”</p> + +<p>(5) “<i>To God (belongs) all the empire and the power.</i>”</p> + +<p>Our earliest tidings of this iron key are from +the Jesuit Bernal, who wrote in the seventeenth +century. It was not then the property of the +cathedral chapter, for Ortiz de Zúñiga says +that it belonged, in the same century, to a gentleman +of Seville named Don Antonio Lopez de +Mesa, who had inherited it from his father.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +Tradition declares that both this key and its +companion were laid at the feet of Ferdinand +the Third by Axataf, governor of Seville, when +the city capitulated to the Christian prince on +November 23rd, 1248. But Ortiz is careful to +inform us that he neither countenances nor rejects +the popular notion that the iron key was thus +delivered as the token of surrender, “although,” +he says, “the owners of it are strongly of this +judgment.” What we do know is that on June +16th, 1698, the iron key was presented to the +cathedral by Doña Catalina Basilia Domonte y +Pinto, niece of the Señor Lopez de Mesa aforesaid; +and that the chapter forthwith accepted it +with solemn gratitude as “one of the keys +delivered by the Moors to the Rey Santo on the +conquest of the city,” ordering it to be guarded +in a special box.</p> + +<p>Such is the popular fancy still accepted by the +Sevillanos. However, Amador de los Ríos has +sifted out a good deal of the truth, showing that +the iron and the silver key are wrought in +different styles, and were intended for a different +purpose. He places the iron instrument among +the “keys of conquered cities,” and its silver +neighbour among the “keys of honour, or of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +dedication”; and he declares as certain (although +the reasons he adduces do not quite convince me) +that this iron key is actually the one which figured +in the ceremony of surrender. The other he considers +to have been a gift from the Sevillians to +the tenth Alfonso, son of Ferdinand the saint +and conqueror, as a loyal and a grateful offering +in return for his protection of their industries and +commerce. However this may be, the decorative +aspect of the larger key, together with the choice +material of which it is made, appears to prove +that it was not associated with the rigours of a +siege, but served in some way as a symbol of +prosperity and peace. It was a common custom +at a later age for Spanish cities to present their +sovereign, when he came among them, with a +richly ornamented key. Such keys were offered +to Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second +when, in 1526 and 1570, respectively, they +visited Seville; while Riaño reminds us that +“even in the present day the ceremony is still +kept up of offering a key to the foreign princes +who stay at the royal palace of Madrid.” Similarly, +as an ordinary form of salutation, does the +well-bred Spaniard place his house at your +disposal.</p> + +<p>Five Moorish keys—one of bronze and four of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +iron—are in the Museum of Segovia, and bear, +as Amador observes, a general resemblance to +the iron key of Seville. The wards of four of +them are shaped into the following inscriptions: +the first key, “<i>In Secovia</i> (Segovia)”; the second, +“(<i>This</i>) <i>key was curiously wrought at Medina +Huelma, God protect her</i>”; the third, “<i>Open</i>”; +and the fourth, “<i>This work is by Abdallah.</i>”</p> + +<p>The first and smallest of these keys informs +us, therefore, that it was manufactured at Segovia. +The third key is that which is of bronze, and +bears the word “<i>Open</i>,” probably addressed to +Allah. The second, which is also the largest +and the most artistic and ornate, belonged, we +read upon its wards, to Huelma, a fortress-town +upon the frontiers of the kingdom of Granada. +This town was wrested from the Moors on April +20th, 1438, by Iñigo Lopez de Mendoza, first +Marquis of Santillana, who possibly sent this key +to Castile as a present to his sovereign, Juan the +Second, in company with the usual papers of +capitulation.</p> + +<p>Other Moorish keys are scattered over Spain +in various of her public and private collections, +though none are so remarkable as those of Seville<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +and Segovia. The town of Sepúlveda possesses +seven early iron keys, several of which are +Moorish. Others are at Burgos, Valencia, Palma, +Jaen, and Granada. At the last-named city the +following key, dating undoubtedly from the period +of the Muslim domination, was discovered, in +1901, among the débris of the Palace of Seti +Meriem.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_131.jpg" width="400" height="78" + alt="iron key" + title="iron key" /> + <a name="img_131.jpg" id="img_131.jpg"></a> +</div> + +<p>Keys of awe-inspiring magnitude are still preferred +among the Spaniards to a handier and +slighter instrument, this people seeming to believe +that the bigger the key the more inviolable is +the custody which it affords—a theory not at all +upheld by modern experts in this venerable +craft. Perhaps this singular and local preference +is derived from Barbary. At any rate it still +obtains across the Strait. “Our host,” wrote Mr +Cunninghame Graham in <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i>, +“knocks off great pieces from a loaf of cheap +French sugar with the key of the house, drawing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +it from his belt and hammering lustily, as the +key weighs about four ounces, and is eight or +nine inches long.” Of such a length are nearly +all the house-keys of contemporary Spain; and +with this apparatus bulging in his belt the somnolent +<i>sereno</i> or night-watchman of this sleepy, +unprogressive, Latino-Mussulmanic land prowls +to this hour along the starlit streets of Barcelona, +Seville, or Madrid.</p> + +<p>The city Ordinances of Granada form a valuable +and interesting link between the Spanish-Moorish +craftsmanship and that of Spaniards +Christian-born. The <i>Ordenanzas de Cerrageros</i>, +or Locksmiths' Ordinances, though not voluminous, +are curious and informative beyond the rest, +and show us that a general rascality was prevalent +in Granada after her reconquest from the +Moor. Locksmiths were forbidden now to make +a lock the impression of which was put into their +hands in wax, even if the order should be +sweetened by “a quantity of maravedis,” since the +effect of such commissions, whose very secrecy +betrayed illicit and improper ends in view, was +stated to be “very greatly perilous and mischief-making.”</p> + +<p>Another Ordinance reveals the Christian locksmiths<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +of Granada as arrant scoundrels, almost +as troublesome to deal with as the pestering +little shoeblacks of to-day. “Word is brought +us,” groaned the aldermen, “how many locksmiths, +foreigners that dwell within this city as well as +naturals that go up and down our thoroughfares, +in taking locks and padlocks to repair, do, at the +same time that they set the keys in order, contrive +to fit them with new wards inferior to the older ones, +so as to be able to open and close them with the +keys they have themselves in store, wherein is +grave deceitfulness, seeing that the aforesaid locks +and padlocks may be opened in such wise without +a key at all.”<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> + +<p>If we except the vast dimensions of the common +keys of houses, this branch of Spanish +craftsmanship has now no quality to point it from +the rest of Europe, having become, in Riaño's +words, “simply practical and useful.” Laborde +observed in 1809 that “locks and various iron +utensils are made in divers places. Locksmiths +are numerous at Vega de Ribadeo in Galicia, at +Helgoivar in Biscay, at Vergara in Guipuscoa, at +Solsona and Cardona in Catalonia. Different kinds +of iron goods are manufactured at Vergara, Solsona,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +and Cardona. The articles made of iron and +steel at Solsona are in high estimation, notwithstanding +they are destitute of taste and elegance, +badly finished, and worse polished; and can by +no means be put in competition with similar +articles introduced from other countries.”<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> + +<p>Iron nails with ornamented heads and decorative +door-knockers are other objects which reveal +the influence of Mohammedan Spain. A number +of artistic Spanish nails are in the South Kensington +Museum. “Some doors,” says Riaño, “still +exist at the Alhambra, Granada, covered with +enormous heads of nails of a half-spherical form +with embossed pattern. These same nails are constantly +to be found on old Spanish houses, to which +are added in the angles pieces of iron of a most +artistic order” (Pl. <a href="#img_134.jpg">xix</a>.<span class="smcap">a</span>). In the same city, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +not precisely in the Alhambra, I have seen upon +the doors of private houses nails of a decorative +kind which appear to consist of a single piece, +but which are really formed of two—an ornamental +boss perforated through its centre, and the +nail proper, which fastens through it to the woodwork +of the door behind. Thus, when the nail is +hammered tight upon the boss, the effect is naturally +that of a single piece of metal. Similar nails +are on the door of Tavera's hospital at Toledo.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_134.jpg" width="387" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_134.jpg" id="img_134.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">DECORATIVE NAIL-HEADS<br /> +(<i>Convent of San Antonio, Toledo</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The <i>Ordenanzas</i> of Granada tell us minutely +of the nails which were produced there in the +sixteenth century. They were denominated <i>cabriales</i>, +<i>costaneros</i>, <i>palmares</i>, <i>bolayques</i>, <i>vizcainos</i>, +sabetinos, and <i>moriscos</i>; of all of which I can +only find that the <i>cabriales</i> and <i>costaneros</i> were +used for beams and rafters, and the <i>moriscos</i> for +fixing horse-shoes. In Spain the custom of +fastening down the decorative coverings of chairs +or benches dates from comparatively late; and +it was probably with this innovation that iron-workers +began to exercise their ingenuity upon +the heads of nails.</p> + +<p>Towards the close of the Middle Ages the city +of Segovia was celebrated for her locks and keys, +her knockers, and her <i>rejas</i>. In 1892, collections<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +of iron objects, chiefly manufactured in this town, +were shown by the duke of Segovia, Don Nicolás +Duque, and Don Adolfo Herrera at the Exposición +Histórico-Europea of Madrid. Segovia still +preserves an old door covered with extraordinary +iron spikes, that once belonged to the castle of +Pedraza; many curious balconies, such as that in +a first floor of the Calle del Carmen; and the +grilles—proceeding from the old cathedral—of +the chapel of the Cristo del Consuelo and the +chapel of the Piedad.</p> + +<p>Another interesting collection of early decorative +Spanish iron, belonging to the well-known +painter, Señor Rusiñol, is kept at the town +of Sitjes, in Cataluña. The late Marquis of +Arcicollar possessed a number of specimens of +Spanish manufactured iron of the later Middle +Ages, such as boxes, candelabra, locks, nails, +door-knockers, <i>braseros</i>, and a rare and curious +iron desk (fourteenth century), with leather +fittings.</p> + +<p>The collection of the late Count of Valencia de +Don Juan included four door-knockers of Spanish +iron, dating from late in the fifteenth century or +early in the sixteenth. I give a reproduction of +these knockers (Pl. <a href="#img_136.jpg">xx</a>.). The two which occupy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +the centre are evidently from a sacred building; +while the other pair are just as evidently <i>señoriales</i>, +and belonged to a noble house. In the former +pair, the clumsy carving of the saints, Peter and +James, is attributed by Serrano Fatigati to the +native coarseness of the iron.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_136.jpg" width="500" height="250" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_136.jpg" id="img_136.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">DOOR-KNOCKERS<br /> +(<i>15th Century</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Proceeding from the same collection are a pair +of ceremonial maces and a ceremonial lantern, +which I also reproduce (Pl. <a href="#img_138.jpg">xxi</a>.), since the Spanish +writer from whom I have just quoted pronounces +them to be “excellent specimens of the iron-work +of our country at the close of the Middle Ages.” +He says that, as we notice in the pinnacles, they +show a tendency to copy architectural detail, and +are otherwise characteristic of the period. Towards +the fourteenth century the file replaced the +hammer, and the sheet of iron was substituted for +the bar. These objects, dating from the fifteenth +century, duly reveal this change. Also, as was +usual at the time, they are composed of separate +pieces stoutly riveted. In the knockers with +the figures of the saints “we notice the partial +use of the chisel, which became general in the +sixteenth century, at the same time that iron +objects were loaded with images, forms of animals, +and other capricious figures. These may be said<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +to belong to a period of transition, culminating in +the <i>rejas</i>.”<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> + +<p>The Madrid Museum contains a sixteenth-century +cross of <i>repoussé</i> iron, in the Greek form, +and which is certainly of Spanish make. According +to Villa-amil, it formerly had a gilded border +and was painted black, which leads this writer +to suppose that it was used at funerals. Iron +crosses may be seen occasionally on churches and +on other public buildings, and Stirling has inserted +cuts of several in his <i>Annals of the Artists of +Spain</i>. Crosses of large size were sometimes +planted on the highway. Such was the elaborate +but ugly iron cross, measuring three yards in +height, made by Sebastian Conde in 1692 for +the Plazuela de la Cerrajeriá in Seville, and now +preserved in her Museum.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_138.jpg" width="388" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_138.jpg" id="img_138.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">CEREMONIAL MACES AND LANTERN<br /> +(<i>15th Century</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The iron balustrade or <i>verja</i> of the marble +tomb of Cardinal Cisneros is finely wrought in +Plateresque-Renaissance, with elaborate designs +of gryphons, foliage, urns, birds, masks, sheep's +heads, swans, coats of arms, dolphins, and other +ornament in great profusion. The craftsman was +Nicolás de Vergara the elder. Lesser in size,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +though not less striking in its execution, is the +railing, by Francisco de Villalpando, which surrounds +the <i>Altar de Prima</i> in the choir of Toledo +Cathedral.</p> + +<p>“Iron pulpits,” says Riaño, “have been made +in Spain with great success.” He mentions five: +two in Avila Cathedral (Plate <a href="#img_140.jpg">xxii</a>.); two at +Seville; and one at the church of San Gil at +Burgos. The latter is described by Street, who +says: “It is of very late date, end of the fifteenth +century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration. +The support is of iron, resting on stone, and the +staircase modern. The framework at the angles, +top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the iron-work +is laid. The traceries are cut out of two +plates of iron, laid one over the other, and the +iron-work is in part gilded, but I do not think +that this is original. The canopy is of the same +age and character, and the whole effect is very +rich at the same time that it is very novel. I saw +other pulpits, but none so old as this.”</p> + +<p>The iron pulpits of Salamanca, “covered with +bas-reliefs representing the Evangelists and +subjects taken from the Acts of the Apostles and +the apocalypse,” were made at the same time as +the <i>reja</i> by Fray Francisco de Zalamea or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +Salamanca, Fray Juan, and other artists. The +two at Avila are stationed one on either side +of the Capilla Mayor, and are of gilded iron, +hexagonal in form, and measuring about ten feet +in height. Gryphons or other beasts support the +pulpit on its stem or column. The body of each +pulpit bears the arms of the cathedral, namely, +the <i>Agnus Dei</i>, a lion, and a castle—the whole +surmounted by a crown—and is divided lengthways +by a central band into a double tier, closed +by a richly decorated cornice at the upper and the +lower border. Otherwise the pulpits are quite +dissimilar. In one the decorative scheme is almost +purely geometrical, while in the other it consists +of foliage, birds and beasts, and niches containing +statuettes of saints. The stair-railings are modern; +but the primitive carving still adorns the end of +every step.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_140.jpg" width="383" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_140.jpg" id="img_140.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">IRON PULPIT<br /> +(<i>Avila Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>We do not know who was the maker of these +pulpits. Some believe him to have been a certain +Juan Francés, to whom our notice will again be +called as figuring among the earliest masters of +this eminently Spanish craft, and who, on strongish +evidence, is thought to be the author of the <i>rejas</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +in the same cathedral which enclose the choir, and +the front and sides of the Capilla Mayor. This +is the only reason for supposing him to have +made the pulpits also. One of these, however, +is in the Flamboyant, and the other in the +Renaissance style; so it may well be doubted +whether both were produced by the same hand, +or even at exactly the same period.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> + +<p>It is, however, in the <i>rejas</i> that the craftsmanship +of older Spain attains its loftiest pinnacle. +They consist, says Banister Fletcher, of “rich +and lofty grilles in hammered and chiselled iron … strongly +characteristic of the national art. +The formality of the long and vertical bars is +relieved by figures beaten in <i>repoussé</i>, in duplicates, +attached back to back, and by crestings +and traceries adapted to the material, and +freely employed. Few things in Spain are +more original and artistic.”<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> + +<p>The <i>reja</i> generally was not, as many have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +supposed, of late invention. It existed from the +earliest days of Christianity; but it was only in +the Gothic and Renaissance ages that Spain +converted it into a vehicle for decorative art. +The growth of these ornamental <i>rejas</i> may be +traced in cities of Old Castile, together with +Seville, Salamanca, Cuenca, and Toledo. Spain, +it is idle to observe, was at no moment so +appreciative of her craftsmen as was Italy, so +that our information as to mediæval Spanish +craftsmen and the process of their lives and +labours is, upon the whole, deplorably deficient. +Nevertheless, among the oldest of her artists +known in Spanish as <i>rejeros</i>, or (a finer and +more venerable term) <i>“reja</i>-masters”—<i>maestros +de rexas</i>—appears Juan Francés, working in +1494 in Toledo Cathedral and, in the same +capacity (for he seems to have been an armourer +besides, and to have held the title of “master-maker<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +of iron arms in Spain”)<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> at Alcalá de +Henares, as well as, in 1505, at Osma, in whose +cathedral he made the <i>rejas</i> of the choir and high +chapel.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> + +<p>Although the craftsman's name has rarely been +recorded, we know that excellent <i>rejería</i> was +made at Barcelona in the fifteenth century. Also +dating from the fifteenth century, and therefore +prior to the Plateresque, is the <i>reja</i>, ornamented +with leaves and figures of centaurs and other +creatures, mythical and real, enclosing the +sepulchre of the Anayas in the old cathedral of +Salamanca. During the first quarter of the sixteenth +century much work in decorative <i>rejería</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +was completed in Seville Cathedral by Fernando +Prieto, Fray Francisco de Salamanca,<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Sancho +Muñoz, Diego de Adrobo, and others (<i>vide</i> +Frontispiece). Taught by these, while yet belonging +to a slightly later time, and linking in +this way the riper and decadent Gothic with +the new Renaissance and the Plateresque, were +Pedro de Andino, Antonio de Palencia, and Juan +Delgado. Rosell observes that without doubt +these artists, excepting only Juan Francés—the +pioneer of them all—were Spanish-born; and +they in their turn were succeeded by other +Spaniards who worked most regularly at Toledo; +such as Bartolomé Rodriguez, Luis de Peñafiel, +and Francisco de Silva.</p> + +<p>An excellent <i>rejero</i> named Hernando de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +Arenas completed the grille of Cuenca Cathedral +in 1557. Three years before, a Cordovese, +Fernando de Valencia, had made the intricate +Renaissance <i>reja</i> of the Chapel of the Asunción +in the mosque of that most ancient capital—a +noble piece of work, which still exists. Other +<i>rejeros</i> who were either natives of, or who resided +in, this city were Pedro Sanchez, Alonso +Perez, Pedro Sanchez Cardenosa, Francisco +Lopez, Juan Martinez Cano, and Diego de +Valencia.</p> + +<p>One of these men, Alonso Perez, a native of +Jaen, contracted, on April 13th, 1576, to make +the <i>rejas</i> of the Capilla Mayor in the church of +the convent of the Trinity at Cordova. He was +to finish them within one year, at a cost of fifty-one +<i>maravedis</i> for every pound of iron, of sixteen +ounces to the pound. Ramírez de Arellano, who +has extracted these notices of Cordovese artists +from the city archives<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>, says that the <i>reja</i> in +question is no longer standing; but a document +of the time informs us that it was of an elaborate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +character, and carried architraves, cornices, +and the usual decorative detail of the Spanish +Renaissance.</p> + +<p>In 1593 Pedro Sanchez agreed to make, within +four years, a grille for the old chapel of the +Concepción, also in Cordova, at a cost of forty-nine +maravedis for every pound of iron that the +finished <i>reja</i> should contain; and a year later the +same artist signed a contract for what is thought +to be his masterpiece—the <i>reja</i> of the chapel of +the Holy Cross, in the nave of the <i>sagrario</i> of +the same temple. The stipulated time was two +years only; but the cost amounted in this instance +to one hundred maravedis for every pound of the +completed <i>reja</i>.</p> + +<p>Marvels of power and of patience are among +the <i>rejas</i> of this land. In them, obedient to the +genius of the craftsman, the ponderous metal +assumes the gossamer lightness of the finest +gauze, now seeming to be breathed rather than +built across the entrance to some side-chapel, +now tapering skyward till we fancy it to melt +away, like vapour, on the surface of the lofty +roof. Such are the screens—which here demand +a brief description—of Toledo and Palencia and +Granada; that of Cuenca, where Arenas plied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +his master-hand; and, first in merit of them all, +the peerless <i>reja</i>, royal in magnificence and faultless +taste, that closes in at Burgos the no less +royal-looking chapel of a Count of Haro, sometime +Constable of all Castile.</p> + +<p>The <i>reja</i> of the Capilla Mayor of Toledo +Cathedral is twenty-one feet high by forty-six in +breadth. “Armies of workmen,” wrote Méndez +Silva, referring to this screen and to its neighbour, +that of the <i>coro</i>, “were toiling at them for ten +years, nor would their cost have been greater had +they been of founded silver.” The cost of which +he speaks was more than a quarter of a million +<i>reales</i>, although the workmen's daily wage was +only two <i>reales</i> and a half, or, in the case of the +particularly skilled, four <i>reales</i>.</p> + +<p>The author of this admirable screen was +Francisco de Villalpando, whose plans and +estimate were approved by Cardinal Tavera in +1540. “The <i>reja</i> consists of two tiers resting on +different kinds of marble. Attic columns ornamented +with handsome <i>rilievi</i> and terminated +by bronze caryatides, divide these tiers into +several spaces. The upper tier is formed by +seven columns of ornate pattern, containing, on +a frieze of complicated tracery, figures of animals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +and angels, and other delicately drawn and +executed objects in relief. Upon the cornice are +coats of arms, angels, and other decoration; and +in the centre, the imperial arms of Charles the +Fifth, together with a large crucifix pendent from +a massive gilded chain. On the frieze of the +second tier are the words, <span class="smcap">ADORATE DOMINUM IN +ATRIO SANCTO EJUS KALENDAS APRILIS 1548</span>, and +on the inner side, <span class="smcap">PLUS ULTRA</span>.” <a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_148.jpg" width="375" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_148.jpg" id="img_148.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF CHAPEL ROYAL<br /> +(<i>Granada Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The other of the larger <i>rejas</i> in this temple—that +of the choir—is not inferior in a great +degree to Villalpando's masterpiece. It was made +by “Maestre” Domingo (de Céspedes),<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> who, in +his estimate of June 18th, 1540, engaged to +finish it at a total cost of 5000 ducats, “he to be +given the necessary gold and silver for the +plating” (<i>Archives of Toledo Cathedral</i>, quoted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +by Rosell). This Maestre Domingo was aided +by his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo, and both of +them, says de la Rada y Delgado, were probably +natives of Toledo.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> In the same city they also +made the <i>rejas</i> for the Baptismal Chapel, and +for the chapels of the Reyes Viejos and Reyes +Nuevos.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_149.jpg" width="394" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_149.jpg" id="img_149.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF CHAPEL ROYAL<br /> +(<i>View from interior. Granada Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Excellent Plateresque <i>rejas</i> are those of the +Capilla Mayor and Coro of Palencia Cathedral—the +latter from the hand of Gaspar Rodriguez of +Segovia, who finished it in 1571 at a cost of 3400 +ducats. In the same city is the <i>reja</i> of the chapel +of Nuestra Señora la Blanca, finished in 1512 by +Juan Relojero, a Palencian, who received for his +labour 25,000 <i>maravedis</i> and a load and a half +of wheat.</p> + +<p>The noble and colossal gilt and painted<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> <i>reja</i> +of the Chapel Royal of Granada Cathedral was +wrought between the years 1518 and 1523 by +one Master Bartholomew, whose name is near +the keyhole. This was a person of obscure life<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +though mighty powers as a craftsman. We know +that he resided at Jaen, and, from a document +which still remains,<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> that he petitioned Charles +the Fifth for payment (sixteen hundred ducats) +of this grille, because the clergy had continually +refused to liquidate it. He made, besides the +work I herewith describe, the <i>reja</i> of the presbytery +for Seville cathedral,<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> and possibly, as +Sentenach suggests, the iron tenebrarium, ten +feet high by five across, for the cathedral of Jaen.</p> + +<p>The <i>reja</i> of the Chapel Royal of Granada, “of +two faces, the finest that was ever made of this +material,” <a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> has three tiers. “The first tier +contains six Corinthian pilasters and a broad +frieze covered with Plateresque ornamentation, as +are the pedestals on which the pilasters rest. In +the second tier are the arms of Ferdinand and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +Isabella within a garland supported by two lions, +and other crowns together with the yoke and +arrows;<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> all intertwined with stems, leaves, and +little angels of an exquisite effect. Before the +pilasters of this tier and of the one immediately +above it are figures of the apostles on Gothic +brackets—a style we also notice on the fastening +of the gate and on the twisted railing; but every +other detail of the grille is Plateresque. Upon +the top are scenes of martyrdoms and of the life +of Christ, the whole surmounted by a decorative +scheme of leaves and candelabra, and, over this, a +crucifix together with the figures of the Virgin and +Saint John. The designing of the figures is only +moderately good, but all remaining detail and the +craftsmanship are admirable” <a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> (Plates <a href="#img_148.jpg">xxiii</a>. and +<a href="#img_149.jpg">xxiv</a>.).</p> + +<p>Last on my list of Spanish <i>reja</i>-makers I place +the greatest and most honoured of them all—Cristóbal +de Andino, who, as a modern writer +has expressed it, “uttered the last word in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +matter of giving shape to iron.” Cristóbal, son +of Pedro de Andino—himself an artist of no +mean capacity—excelled in architecture, sculpture, +<i>rejería</i>, and probably in silver-work as well. +“Good craftsmen,” wrote his contemporary, +Diego de Sagredo, “and those who wish their +work to breathe the spirit of authority and pass +without rebuke, should follow—like your fellow-townsman, +Cristóbal de Andino—ancient precepts, +in that his works have greater elegance and +beauty than any others that I witnessed heretofore. +If this (you think) be not the case, look at that +<i>reja</i> he is making for my lord the Constable, +which <i>reja</i> is well known to be superior to all +others of this kingdom.”</p> + +<p>Such is the <i>reja</i> thought, both then and now, +to be the finest ever made. The style is pure +Renaissance. Two tiers of equal height consist +of four-and-twenty ornamented rails or balusters +disposed, above, between four columns; below, +between four pilasters. An attic is upon the +cornice, and contains two central, semi-naked, +kneeling figures which support a large, crowned +shield. This is surmounted by a bust of God the +Father, enclosed in a triangular frame, and +raising the hand to bless. On either side of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +attic are S-shaped crests sustaining circular +medallions with the likenesses, in bold relief, of +Christ and Mary. Along the friezes are the +legends; <span class="smcap">EGO SUM ALPHA ET</span> Ω; <span class="smcap">EGO SUM LUX +VERA</span>; and <span class="smcap">ECCE ANCILLA DOMINI</span>, together with the +words, referring to the artist, <span class="smcap">AB ANDINO</span>, and the +date <span class="smcap">A.D. MDXXIII.</span> The decorative scheme is +spirited and delicate at once, whether we observe +it on the railing, pilasters, and columns, or on +the horizontal parts and members of the <i>reja</i>. +The attic which surmounts the double tier and +cornice is finally surmounted by a gilt Saint +Andrew's cross; and the entire screen is lavishly +painted and gilded throughout.</p> + +<p>Here is a thing—almost a being—created +out of iron, so intensely lovely that the eye +would wish to contemplate it to the end of +time; and, as we linger in its presence, if perchance +the dead are privileged to hear their +earthly praises echoed in the silence of the +tomb, surely from his marble sepulchre Cristóbal +de Andino listens to such praises at this hour. +For yonder, in the neighbouring parish church +of San Cosmé, beside a wife devoted and well-loved +the great artificer is laid to rest, where +Latin words (although of idle purport while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +<i>reja</i> of the Constable remains) are deep engraved +to thus remind us of his worth:—</p> + +<p class="noindent" style="margin-left: 10%;"> +<span class="smcap">CHRISTOPHORUS ANDINO EGREGIUS<br /> +ARTIFEX ET IN ARCHITECTURA OMNIUM<br /> +SUI SECULI FACILE PRINCEPS<br /> +MONUMENTUM SIBI PONENDUM LE<br /> +GAVIT ET CATERINA FRIAS EJUS<br /> +UXOR HONESTISSIMA STATIM MARITI<br /> +VOTIS ET SUIS SATISFACIENDUM B<br /> +ENIGNE CHRISTIANEQUE CURAVIT URNAM CU<br /> +JUS LAPIDES SOLUM AMBORUM OSSA TEGUNT<br /> +SED ADMONET ETIAM CERTIS ANNUI HE<br /> +BDOMADE CUJUSQUE DIEBUS SACRIFICIA<br /> +PRO EIS ESSE PERPETUO FACIENDA</span></p> + +<p>But if these splendid <i>rejas</i> of her temples +constitute to-day a special glory of this nation, +her private balconies and window-gratings were +in former times, though from profaner motives, +almost or quite as notable. Between the sixteenth +and the eighteenth centuries, few of the +foreigners who visited Spain omitted to record +their admiration of these balconies, crowded upon +a holiday with pretty women. “Il y avoit,” +wrote Bertaut de Rouen in 1659, “autant de +foule à proportion qu'à Paris; et mesme ce qu'il +y avoit de plus beau, c'estoit que comme il y +avoit des balcons à toutes les fenestres et qu'elles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +estoient occupées par toutes les dames de la ville, +cela faisoit un plus bel effet que les échaffauts +que l'on fait dans les rues de Paris en semblables +rencontres.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_155.jpg" width="355" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_155.jpg" id="img_155.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i><br /> +(<i>Casa de Pilatos, Seville</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Pinheiro da Veiga, in his queer <i>Pincigraphia</i>, +or “Description and Natural and Moral History +of Valladolid,” written earlier in the same century, +and published twenty years ago by Gayangos +from a manuscript in the British Museum, is +more plain-spoken than the Frenchman on the +various merits and peculiarities of the Spanish +balconies and <i>rejas</i>. “All of these churches have +the most beautiful iron balustrades and iron open-work +doors (<i>cancelas</i>) that can be found in Europe, +for nowhere is iron worked so skilfully as here +in Valladolid. These objects are made by the +Moriscos with turned balusters, foliage, boughs, +fruits, war-material, trophies, and other contrivances, +which afterwards they gild and silver +into the very likeness of these metals. I say +the same of window-balconies; for nearly every +window has its balcony. There are in Valladolid +houses up which one might clamber to +the very roof from balcony to balcony, as +though these were a hand-ladder. So too from +balcony to balcony (for the distance from one to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +other is never greater than a palm's breadth) +one might climb round the whole Plaza. By +reason of this, we Portuguese were wont to say +that if there were as many thieves or lovers in +Valladolid as in Portugal, verily both one and +other of this kind of folks would have but little +need of hand-ladders. Yet here the thieves content +themselves with stealing by the light of day, +while as for the women (crafty creatures that +they are!), they perpetrate their thefts away +from home; and, having all the day at their +disposal, prefer to thieve while daylight lasts, +rather than pass the night uncomfortably. To +this I heard a lady of Castile declare, when one of +my friends, a Portuguese, petitioned her for leave +to speak with her at night across her <i>reja</i>: ‘That +would be tantamount to passing from one <i>hierro</i> +to another <i>yerro</i>;<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> and in my house (which is +also your worship's) it would not look well for +you to seem a window-climbing thief.’”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_156.jpg" width="373" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_156.jpg" id="img_156.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF THE <i>CASA DE LAS CONCHAS</i><br /> +(<i>Salamanca</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>It is curious, in the foregoing narrative, to read +of Morisco craftsmen working as late as 1600, and +as far north as Castile. Perhaps the notice of +Moriscos doing Spanish iron-work may be traced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +to certain Ordinances of Granada, published +about three-quarters of a century before. On +October 14th, 1522, the councillors of that town +confabulated very lengthily and seriously as to +the damage caused by “balconies and <i>rejas</i> +in the streets, fixed in the basements and the +lower rooms of houses, or projecting portals which +extend beyond the level of the wall. For we +have witnessed, and do witness daily, numerous +mishaps to wayfarers, alike on horseback and on +foot, whether by day or night, because the +highways, narrow in themselves, are rendered +yet more narrow by such balconies and <i>rejas</i>. +Whereas in winter persons seeking to escape +the filth by keeping to the wall are thwarted, or +at night-time injured, by these <i>rejas</i>. Or yet in +summer, when the waters swell, and conduits +burst and overflow the middle of the street, then +neither can they keep the middle of the way, nor +pass aside (by reason of the balconies aforesaid) +to its edges.”</p> + +<p>Having regard to all these grievances, the +councillors decreed that “none of whatsoever +order or condition shall dare henceforth to +place, or cause to be placed, about the lower +floors or entrance of their dwelling, <i>rejas</i> or iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +balconies, or anything projecting much or little +from the level of the wall. But all projections +shall be set three yards, not any less, above the +street. If not so much, they shall be set within +the wall, on pain of a fine of ten thousand +<i>maravedis</i>, and five thousand <i>maravedis</i> to the +mason and the carpenter that shall repair their +fixing. Further, we order that all balconies and +<i>rejas</i> now at a height of less than the aforesaid +three yards be taken away within three days +from the crying in public of these Ordinances.”<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> + +<p>For this deplorable state of things a double +influence was to blame; namely, the oriental +narrowness of the street, and also the elaborate +ornamentation, proceeding very largely from a +northern Gothic and non-Spanish source, of these +annoying yet impressive gratings. Some of them, +sweeping the very soil, and boldly and fantastically +curved, may yet be seen at Toro. Those of +Granada are no more. Indeed, not only have the +<i>rejas</i> of the Spanish private house long ceased<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +to show the decorative cunning of the craftsman, +but even in their present unartistic form are +largely limited to Andalusia. Yet even thus, they +seem to guard a typical and national air, mixed +with a subtle, semi-Mussulmanic poetry. Across +them, while the term of courtship lasts, the lover +whispers with his mistress, oblivious of the outer +world, fixing his gaze within, until his sultaness +emerges from the gloom, and holds his hand, +and looks into his eyes, and listens to his vow. +Therefore, in “April's ivory moonlight,” beneath +the velvet skies of Andalusia, one always is well +pleased to pass beside these children of romantic +Spain, warming the frigid iron with the breath of +youth, and hope, and happiness, and telling to +each other a secret that is known unto us all—at +once the sweetest and the saddest, the newest and +the oldest story of all stories.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> A small collection, formed by Don Emilio Rotondo, of primitive +iron rings, bracelets, brooches, and other ornaments, is preserved +in the Schools of Aguirre at Madrid. Villa-amil y Castro (<i>Antigüedades +prehistóricas y célticas</i>, and <i>Castros y Mamoas de Galicia</i>, +published in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>), describes some +iron objects of uncertain use discovered in Galicia, together with +spear-heads and other weapons or pieces of weapons which will +be noticed under <i>Arms</i>, and also an object which he says may +once have been a candlestick, or else a kind of flute. All +these are probably pre-Roman. Dating from the Roman period +are an iron ploughshare and some sickles, discovered at Ronda +in Andalusia, and now in the Madrid Museum. Góngora, however +(<i>Antigüedades prehistóricas de Andalucía</i>), inclines to think +that previous to the Roman conquest the occupants of Betica +were ignorant of this metal, though not of gold, from which they +fashioned diadems and other articles of wear. See also Caballero +Infante, <i>Aureos y barras de oro y plata encontrados en el pueblo +de Santiponce</i>, Seville, 1898.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Riaño's reading was, “<i>the King of the whole Earth will +enter</i>.” But is not this contradicted by the other inscription on +the same key?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> <i>La Alhambra</i> (from which this sketch is taken) for September +30th, 1901; article on the Palace of Seti Meriem, by F. de Paula +Valladar.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i>Ordenanzas de Granada</i>, p. 191.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Those of my readers who have visited Spain will probably +have seen the inlaid iron-work of Eibar and Toledo. The objects +chiefly manufactured in this style are brooches, bracelets, scarf +and hat pins, photograph frames, jewel and trinket boxes, watches, +and cigarette cases. The workmanship is often elaborate and +costly, nor can it be denied that the red or greenish gold has an +effective look against the jet-black surface of the polished or unpolished +iron. Upon the other hand, the taste displayed in the +design is seldom good; while in a climate with the slightest tendency +to damp, the iron is apt to rust and tarnish, and the fine inlay to +loosen.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Serrano Fatigati, in the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de +Excursiones</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> For a detailed account of these pulpits see Villa-amil y Castro's +article in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Payments made to “Master Juan Francés” are recorded by +Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de las +Bellas Artes en España</i>, pp. 320, 321.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> <i>History of Architecture</i>, p. 303. They possess, too, the advantage, +from their ponderous solidity and fixedness, that most of them +are still extant and in the best of preservation, although Napoleon's +Vandals rooted up the chapel <i>rejas</i> of the Church of Santo +Domingo at Granada, and turned them into bullets; just as their +general, Sebastiani, threw down the tower of San Jerónimo to +make a trumpery bridge across the trickling stream of the Genil. +Scores of thousands of such crimes, not to forget the blowing up of +the gate and tower of the Siete Suelos, were perpetrated by the +French all over Spain; yet Washington Irving, in a strangely +infelicitous passage of his <i>Tales of the Alhambra</i>, congratulates the +invaders for their reverential treatment of the noblest monuments +of Spanish art!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> So, in Spain, does war appear to have been connected even with +the peaceful <i>reja</i>. Similarly, in 1518, the contractors for the grille +of the Chapel Royal of Granada were Juan Zagala and Juan de +Cubillana, “master-artillerymen to their highnesses.” Valladar, +<i>Guía de Granada</i>, 1st ed., p. 302, note.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> A quaint but somewhat tautological and prosy letter concerning +matters of his craft, addressed by Francés to the cardinal-archbishop +of Toledo, is published in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>, +article <i>Los Púlpitos de la Catedral de Avila</i>, by Villa-amil +y Castro. The <i>reja</i> of the presbytery at Burgo de Osma is thus +inscribed: “<i>Izo esta obra maestre Joan Francés maestre mayor.</i>” +The top consists of repetitions of a shield containing five stars +and supported by angels, lions, and gryphons. Two iron pulpits +project from the lower part of the grille, and a swan of the same +metal, with extended wings, rests upon either pulpit.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> A Dominican friar, summoned to Seville in 1518, to make her +cathedral <i>rejas</i>. He also made the pulpits of the high altar in 1531, +and was working in this city as late as 1547. Account-sheets +penned by his hand were still extant a century ago, and Cean +conveys to us some knowledge of Fray Francisco, receiving +as the wages of his labour, now a score or so of ducats, now a +bushel or two of corn. The friar, whom the canons spoke of with +affection for his many virtues, seems to have been a handy man, +seeing that between his spells of <i>reja</i>-making he put the clock of +the Giralda into trim, and built an alarum apparatus to rouse the +cathedral bell-ringer at early morning.</p> + +<p>For the sums paid to Fray Francisco and to Sancho Muñoz for +their work, see Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. ii. +pp. 365 <i>et seq</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Consult his valuable studies, <i>Artistas exhumados</i>, published +in various numbers of the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de +Excursionistas</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Rosell y Torres; <i>La Reja de la Capilla del Condestable +en la Catedral de Burgos</i>, published in the <i>Museo Español de +Antigüedades</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> He is called Domingo de Céspedes by Cean Bermudez, although, +as Zarco del Valle remarks, the surname does not appear in any of +the documents relating to this craftsman which are yet preserved in +the archives of Toledo cathedral. These documents merely tell us +that Domingo was his Christian name, that his own signature was +<i>Maestre Domingo</i>, and that he and Fernando Bravo were required +to find surety to the value of 375,000 <i>maravedis</i> for the faithful and +expert performance of their work, which they were to complete +within two years, receiving for it the sum of six thousand ducats.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Conde de Cedillo, <i>Toledo en el Siglo XVI</i>. Reply to the +Count's address, by J. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> The painting of a <i>reja</i> was commonly executed by the “image-painter” +(<i>pintor de imaginería</i>). As the term implies, it was this +artist's business to gild or colour sacred furniture, such as altars, +panels, images, and decorative doors and ceilings.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Archives of Simancas. <i>Descargos de las R.C.</i>; <i>Legajo 23 +prov.</i> Valladar, <i>Guía de Granada</i> (1st ed.), p. 302, note.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> “To Master Bartholomew, <i>rexero</i>, twenty gold ducats for the +days he took in travelling from Jaen, and for those on which he was +at work upon the <i>reja</i> of the high altar here in Seville.” On March +18th, 1524, the same craftsman was paid 13,125 <i>maravedis</i> for +making the “samples and other things belonging to the <i>reja</i> of the +high altar.”—<i>Libro de Fábrica</i> of Seville Cathedral. Gestoso, +<i>Sevilla Monumental y Artística</i>, and <i>Diccionario de Artífices +Sevillanos</i>, vol. xi. p. 362.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Pedraza, <i>Historia de Granada</i> (1636), p. 40.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> The yoke and sheaf of arrows were the emblems of these +princes—the yoke, of Ferdinand; the arrows, of his queen. Shields +of their reign, whether employed in architecture or on title-pages, +almost invariably include these emblems and the well-known motto, +<i>Tanto Monta</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Gómez Moreno, <i>Guía de Granada</i>, p. 291.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> <i>Hierro</i> means <i>iron</i>; <i>yerro</i>, a <i>fault, faux pas</i>. Thus glossed, +the somewhat feeble pleasantry or pun is able to explain itself.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> These laws affecting balconies were not, or not as time went +on, restricted to Granada. “Nobody,” prescribes the general +Spanish code in force in 1628, “shall make a balcony or oversailing +part to fall upon the street, nor yet rebuild or repair any that shall +fall.”—Pradilla, <i>Suma de Todas las Leyes Penales, Canonicas, +Civiles, y destos Reynos</i>.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="BRONZES" id="BRONZES">BRONZES</a></h2> + +<p>The earliest objects of bronze discovered in this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +country are comparatively few. As in other parts +of Europe, they consist mostly of weapons, such as +spear-heads and hatchets (which will be noticed +under <i>Arms</i>), or bracelets, necklaces, and clasps or +brooches. Earrings (<i>inaures</i>), brooches (<i>fibulæ</i>), +and other objects of a similar purpose dating from +the Roman period have been discovered in Galicia, +while plates of the same alloy<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> which imitate a +shell were used as personal ornaments by the +men and women of the ancient Spanish tribes.</p> + +<p>The province of Palencia is a fertile field for +archæological discovery. Here have been found +some curious clasps, intended, it would seem, to +represent the old Iberian mounted warrior, sometimes +brandishing the typical Iberian lance. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +following is a sketch in outline of an object of +this kind, fashioned as clumsily and crudely as the +cheapest wooden plaything of our time:—</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_164.jpg" width="250" height="267" + alt="warrior" + title="warrior" /> +</div> + +<p>Two parts—the figure of the horseman, and a +four-wheeled stand on which the warrior's steed +is resolutely set—compose this comical antiquity. +The rider's only article of clothing is a helmet; +while the horse, without a saddle or a bridle, is +completely nude. This toy, or table ornament, +or whatever it may be, was found not far from +Badajoz, where other prehistoric bronzes are +preserved in the museum of the province;<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> and +Mr E. S. Dodgson says that in possession of +an Englishman at Comillas he has seen another +bronze rider of primitive workmanship, with the +head of a wild boar under his left arm. Those +who are interested in the meaning of these early<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +bronzes should consult an article, <i>El jinete ibérico</i>, +by Señor Mélida, published in Nos. 90–92 of the +<i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_165.jpg" width="359" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_165.jpg" id="img_165.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">“MELEAGER'S HUNT”<br /> +(<i>Primitive Spanish Bronze</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>We know that the use of Roman lamps grew to +be general in this land—a fact which justifies my +noticing the specimens preserved in the museum +of Madrid; and more particularly so because their +shape and general character have been perpetuated +through the Spanish Moors and Christians +of the Middle Ages till this very moment.</p> + +<p>The Roman lamp, shaped somewhat like a boat +by reason of the <i>rostrum</i> or beakish receptacle for +the wick, consisted of an earthenware or metal +vessel with a circular or oblong body and a handle, +together with at least one hole for pouring in the +oil. The commonest material was earthenware, +and next to this, bronze. The lamp was either +suspended by a chain or chains, or else was rested +on a stand. Plato and Petronius tell us that the +stand was borrowed from the rustic makeshift of +a stick, or the stout stem of a plant, thrust into +the ground. As time went on, the stem or stick +in imitative metal-work was rendered more or less +artistic and ornate. But there was more than +a single kind of lampstand. The <i>lychnuchus</i> +(λυχνουχος), invented by the Greeks, held various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +lamps suspended from its branches, while, on +the other hand, the Roman <i>candelabrum</i> supported +but a solitary lamp upon the disc or platform +at its top extremity.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> The island of Egina +was famed for the production of these discs, and +Pliny tells us that the decorated stem or <i>scapus</i> +was chiefly manufactured at Tarentum.</p> + +<p>The Roman lampstands also varied in their +height. When the stem was long they stood upon +the ground—a fashion we have seen revived in +recent years, and even where electricity replaces +oil. When, on the contrary, the stem was short, +the stand was known as a <i>candelabrum humile</i>, +and rested on a table or a stool.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_166.jpg" width="350" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_166.jpg" id="img_166.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">A <i>CANDIL</i><br /> +(<i>Modern</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The Madrid Museum contains a remarkable +bronze lamp in the form of an ass's head adorned +with flowers and with ivy. The ass is holding in +its mouth the <i>rostrum</i> for the wick. The hole for +the oil is shaped like a flower with eleven petals, +under one of which is the monogram M†R. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +back of this lamp consists of an uncouth human +male figure, in a reclining posture, wearing a +Phrygian cap and holding the ass's head between +his legs.</p> + +<p>Other lamps of bronze, including several of an +interesting character, are in the same collection. +One of these represents a sea-deity; another has +its handle shaped like a horse's head and neck; +and in a third the orifice for the oil is heart-shaped, +while the handle terminates in the head of a swan.</p> + +<p>There is also a series of three pensile lamps—two +in the likeness of the head and neck of a +griffin, and the third in that of a theatrical mask; +as well as a candelabrum fourteen inches high, +terminating beneath in three legs with lions' claws +(foreshadowing or repeating oriental motives), and +above in a two-handled vessel on which to place +the lamp. This vessel supports at present a fine +<i>lucerna</i> in the form of a peacock.</p> + +<p>Probably no people in the world have kept +extant, or rather, kept alive, their oldest forms of +pottery or instruments for giving light more steadfastly +or more solicitously than the Spaniards. +Their iron <i>candil</i><a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> and brass <i>velón</i> of nowadays<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +(Pls. <a href="#img_166.jpg">xxviii</a>. and <a href="#img_168.jpg">xxix</a>.)—the one of these the primitive +lamp that hangs; the other, the primitive +lamp that rests upon a table or the ground—are +borrowed with but a minimum of alteration from +the lighting apparatus of the ancient Greeks and +Romans, and possess, for all their coarse and +cheap and unpretentious workmanship, a subtle +interest and elegance attributable only to the +inspiration of antiquity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_168.jpg" width="281" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_168.jpg" id="img_168.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">A <i>VELÓN</i><br /> +(<i>Modern</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>More than the shape of these old objects seems +to have passed to modern Spain—if any phase +at all of Spanish life can ever justly be accounted +modern. The ancients had an almost superstitious +reverence for a lighted lamp, and were +accustomed to declare that “<i>lucerna, cum extinguitur, +vocem emittit, quasi necata</i>”; “a lamp, +on being put out, utters a sound as though it were +being murdered.” Now, it may be a coincidence—although +I cannot but regard it as distinctly +more than a coincidence—that even at this day<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +a large proportion of the Andalusian people are +markedly averse to blowing out a kindled match; +nor do they think it of good augury to be in a +room where three lights—candles, matches, or +whatever they may be—are simultaneously aflame. +I have noticed, too, that, whether from utter carelessness +or whether from ancestral superstition +handed down from Rome, one rarely sees upon +the staircase or the doorstep of a Spanish public +building a vesta that has been (if I may be +allowed the term) extinguished <i>artificially</i>.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p> + +<p>In the Madrid Museum are several military +bronze <i>signa</i> which were found in Spain and date +from the Roman era, as well as a <i>vexillum</i>, or one +of the T-shaped frames on which the warriors of +that people used to hang their standards. One of +these <i>signa</i> is in the form of a wild boar; another +in that of a saddled and bridled horse. Beneath +this latter is the word VIVA and a cross, which +shows that the object dates from a period not +earlier than the reign of Constantine.</p> + +<p>It is strange—or rather, would be strange in any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +country that had been less constantly afflicted +both with civil and external warfare—that hardly +anything remains of all the bronze artistic objects +manufactured by the Spanish Moors. Poets of +this race have sung of gold and silver fountains, +door-knockers, and statues that adorned the buildings +of Cordova. In many of these instances the +hyperbolic gold and silver of the writers would +undoubtedly be bronze. Al-Makkari quotes an +Arab poet who extols in passionate terms +Almanzor's dazzling mansion of Az-zahyra. +“Lions of metal,” sang this poet, “bite the +knockers of thy doors, and as those doors resound +appear to be exclaiming <i>Allahu akbar</i>” (“God is +great”). Another bard describes the fountains +of the same enchanted palace. “The lions who +repose majestically in this home of princes, instead +of roaring, allow the waters to fall in murmuring +music from their mouths. <i>Their bodies seem to be +covered with gold</i>, and in their mouths crystal is +made liquid.</p> + +<p>“Though in reality these lions are at rest, they +seem to move and, when provoked, to grow +enraged. One would imagine that they remembered +their carnage of past days, and bellowing +turned once more to the attack.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_171.jpg" width="500" height="373" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_171.jpg" id="img_171.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">BRONZE LION<br /> +(<i>Found in the Province of Palencia</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>“When the sun is reflected from their <i>bronze</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +surface, they seem to be of fire, with tongues of +flame that issue from their mouths.</p> + +<p>“Nevertheless, when we observe them to be +vomiting water, one would think this water to be +swords which melt without the help of fire, and +are confounded with the crystal of the fountain.”</p> + +<p>Figures in bronze, of eagles, peacocks, swans, +stags, dragons, lions, and many other creatures +were set about in garden and in hall, to decorate +these splendid palaces of ancient Cordova.</p> + +<p>A specimen of this class of objects is a bronze +lion of small dimensions (Plate <a href="#img_173.jpg">xxx</a>.) found not +many years ago in the province of Palencia, and +believed to date from the reign of Al-Hakem the +Second of Cordova. It belonged for some time +to the painter Fortuny—a diligent and lucky +hunter of antiquities,—and was subsequently purchased +in 1875 by M. Piot. The modelling and +decoration of this beast, especially the mannered +and symmetrical curls which are supposed to form +its mane, are quite conventional and strongly reminiscent +of Assyrian art, such as pervades the +various lions rudely wrought in stone and still +existing at Granada; whether the celebrated +dozen that support and guard the fountain in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +the courtyard of the Moorish palace,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> or else the +greater pair of grinning brutes proceeding from +the ruins of the palace of Azaque (miscalled the +Moorish Mint), which may be noticed squatting +with their rumps towards the road, beside the +garden entrance to the Carmen de la Mezquita.</p> + +<p>This little bronze lion measures about twelve +inches high by fourteen inches long. The legs +and part of the body are covered with a pattern +representing flowers. The mane is described by +comma-shaped marks. The tail, bent not ungracefully +along the animal's back, is decorated +with a kind of plait through nearly all its length. +The eyes are now two cavities, but seem in other +days to have contained two coloured stones or +gems. Upon the back and flanks is a Cufic +inscription which says, “<i>Perfect blessing. Complete +happiness.</i>”</p> + +<p>Mussulman historians have described, in terms +of cloying praise, the “red gold animals contrived +with subtle skill and spread with precious stones” +which Abderrahman placed at Cordova upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +fountains of his palaces. “Rivers of water +issued from the mouth of every animal, and +fell into a jasper basin.” The words “red gold” +are patently an oriental term for bronze. In +view of this, and of the fact that the lion of +Palencia is hollow-bellied, with his mouth wide +open for ejecting water, and with a tail of cunning +craftsmanship, which would avail, on being +rotated, to produce or check the current of the +“liquid crystal,” we may conclude that it was +intended both to form a part of, and to decorate +a Moorish fountain of old days, and is the kind +of beast “with precious stones for eyes” so +often and so ecstatically lauded by the Muslim +writers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_173.jpg" width="389" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_173.jpg" id="img_173.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">BRONZE STAG<br /> +(<i>Moorish. Museum of Cordova.</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Similar to the foregoing object, and dating from +about the same period, is a small bronze stag +(Pl. <a href="#img_173.jpg">xxxi</a>.) in the provincial museum of Cordova. It +is believed to proceed originally from the famous +palace (tenth century) of Az-zahra, and used to be +kept, some centuries ago, in the convent of San +Jerónimo de Valparaiso.</p> + +<p>The museum of Granada contains some interesting +Moorish bronzes, found on the site of the +ancient city of Illiberis, abandoned by its occupants +on their removal to Granada at the beginning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +of the eleventh century. The most remarkable +of these discoveries are pieces of a fountain, a +small temple (Plate <a href="#img_174.jpg">xxxii</a>.), an <i>almirez</i> or mortar +(Plate <a href="#img_176.jpg">xxxiii</a>.), similar to one (not mentioned by +Riaño) which was discovered at Monzón, and a +few lamps. The fragments of a fountain end in +the characteristic Assyrian-looking lions' heads, +with lines in regular zones to represent the eyes +and other features. One of the lamps (Pl. <a href="#img_176.jpg">xxxiii</a>.) +is far superior to the rest. Notwithstanding +Riaño's assertion that all of these antiquities are +“incomplete and mutilated,” this lamp is well +preserved, and still retains, secured by a chain, +the little metal trimming-piece or <i>emunctorium</i> +of the Romans. The small bronze temple is +sometimes thought (but this hypothesis seems +rather fanciful) to be a case, or part of a case, +designed for keeping jewellery. The height of it +is two-and-twenty inches, and the form hexagonal, +“with twelve small columns supporting bands of +open work, frescoes, cupola, and turrets; in the +angles are birds” (Riaño).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_174.jpg" width="324" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_174.jpg" id="img_174.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">BRONZE TEMPLE<br /> +(<i>Moorish. Museum of Granada</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The most important object in this substance +now extant in any part of Spain is probably the +huge and finely decorated lamp of Mohammed the +Third of Granada (Pl. <a href="#img_179.jpg">xxxiv</a>.), called sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +“the lamp of Oran,” from a mistaken belief that +it had formed part of the booty yielded by this +city after her capture in 1509 by Cardinal Jimenez +de Cisneros.</p> + +<p>The material of this lamp is bronze, possibly +provided by the bells of Christian churches taken +and pillaged by the Moors. It has four parts or +tiers of varying shape, delicately wrought in open-work, +and reaching a height of nearly seven feet in +all. The third and largest tier, corresponding to +the shade, is in the form of a truncated pyramid, +and shows a different design on each of its four +sides. The lamp bears several inscriptions, interrupted +here and there through breakage of the +metal. The longest of these legends is interpreted +as follows:—</p> + +<p>“In the name of God the Merciful. (May) the +blessing of God be on our lord Mohammed and his +kin; health and peace. (This lamp) was ordered +(to be made) by our Lord the egregious sultan, +the favoured, the victorious, the just, the happy, +the conqueror of cities, and the extreme boundary +of just conduct among the servants (of God); the +emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah, son of our +lord the emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah, +son of our lord Al-Galib-Billah, the conqueror<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +through God's protection, the emir of the Mussulmans +Abu-Abdillah; (may) God aid him (praised +be God).” Here is a breakage and a corresponding +gap in the inscription, which continues, “beneath +it, lighted by my light for its magnificence +and the care of its <i>xeque</i>, with righteous purpose +and unerring certainty. And this was in the +month of Rabié the first blessed, in the year 705.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> +May (God) be praised.”</p> + +<p>The history of this lamp has been explored with +scholarly care by Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos, +whose monograph will be found in the <i>Museo +Español de Antigüedades</i>. He says that the lamp +was formerly suspended from the ceiling of the +chapel of San Ildefonso in the university of Alcalá +de Henares. Here, too, he has discovered entries +which relate to it in two separate inventories, dated +1526 and 1531, from which we gather that the +lamp, excepting the lowest part or tier, which +probably proceeded from Oran, was brought to +Alcalá by Cardinal Cisneros from the mosque of +the Alhambra of Granada.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_176.jpg" width="500" height="333" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_176.jpg" id="img_176.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">MOORISH LAMP AND MORTAR<br /> +(<i>Moorish. Museum of Granada</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>All of the lamp (continues Amador) that +properly belongs to it, is the open-work shade, +together with the graduated set of spheres which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +we now observe on top.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> The lowest part is +clearly an inverted bell, from which project four +decorative pieces. This is believed by Amador +to be a Spanish bell, dating from the fifteenth +century, designed for striking with a hammer, +and proceeding from some monastery or convent +plundered by the Moors. Indeed, one of the two +inventories discovered at Alcalá mentions “a bell +with a hole in it, <i>which used to belong to a Moorish +lamp</i>,” thus countenancing the widespread supposition +that the lamps of the mosque of Cordova +were made of the Christian bells of Compostela, +which the fierce Almanzor caused to be conveyed +upon the aching backs of Christian captives to the +Moorish court and capital of Andalusia.</p> + +<p>It is probable, therefore, that the lamp of the +third Mohammed of Granada is now composed +of two lamps, and that the primitive arrangement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +of its parts was altered by the ignorant. Eight +chains would formerly suspend it, in the following +order of its tiers or stages, from the dome of the +<i>mezquita</i>. First and uppermost would come the +shade; then, next to this, the set of tapering +spheres; and, last and lowest, the saucer or <i>platillo</i>, +which has disappeared. Further, and as Koranic +law prescribed, the lamp would hold two lights—one +to be kindled on the saucer, and the other +underneath the shade.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_178.jpg" width="400" height="195" + alt="lamp" + title="lamp" /> +</div> + +<p>Other articles of Spanish-Moorish ornamented +bronze are thimbles, buckets, and the spherical +perfume-burners which were used to roll upon +the stone or marble pavement of a dwelling. +Moorish thimbles, conical and uncouthly large, +are not uncommonly met with at Granada. I +have one, of which the above is an outline +sketched to size.</p> + +<p>Sometimes these Moorish thimbles are inscribed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +in Cufic lettering with phrases such as—“(May) +the blessing of God and every kind of happiness +(be destined for the owner of this thimble)”; or +else the maker's name—“The work of Saif”; or +a single word—“Blessing.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_179.jpg" width="350" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_179.jpg" id="img_179.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">LAMP OF MOHAMMED THE THIRD<br /> +(<i>Madrid Museum</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The thimbles from which I quote these legends +are in the National Museum. The same collection +includes a very finely wrought bronze bucket or +<i>acetre</i> (Latin <i>situlus</i>; Arabic <i>as-setl</i>, the utensil +for drawing water for a bath). The outside is +covered with delicate ornamentation, varied with +inscriptions of no great interest, invoking Allah's +blessing on the owner or employer of the bucket, +which is thought by Amador to be of Granadino +workmanship, and to date from about the middle +of the fourteenth century.</p> + +<p>Not many specimens remain of early mediæval +Spanish bronzes wrought by Christian hands. +Riaño, who admits that “we can hardly trace +any bronze of this period other than cathedral +bells,” mentions as probably proceeding from +abroad the altar-fronts and statuettes, in gilt +enamelled bronze, of Salamanca and elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> +and gives a short description of the bell, about +six inches high (Pl. <a href="#img_180.jpg">xxxv</a>.), known as the Abbot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +Samson's, now in Cordova Museum. This object +bears an early date (875 A.D.), and is inscribed, +“<i>Offert hoc munus Samson abbatis in domum Sancti +Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era</i> D.C.C.C.C.XIII.”</p> + +<p>It is curious that Riaño should make no mention +of Spanish bronze processional crosses. In my +chapter on gold, silver, and jewel work I mentioned +those belonging to churches in the north of Spain. +A bronze crucifix (Plate <a href="#img_182.jpg">xxxvi</a>.), believed to date +from the beginning of the twelfth century, and +proceeding from the monastery of Arbós, in the +province of León, is now in the possession of Don +Felix Granda Builla. It is undoubtedly of +Spanish make, and probably was carried in processions. +The style is pure Romanic, and the +drawing of the ribs, extremities, and limbs is +typically primitive. The <i>sudarium</i> is secured by +the belt or <i>parazonium</i>. The feet, unpierced, rest +on a <i>supedaneum</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_180.jpg" width="349" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_180.jpg" id="img_180.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">ABBOT SAMSON'S BELL<br /> +(<i>9th Century. Museum of Cordova</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>A bronze Renaissance parish cross of the +sixteenth century, once hidden in a village of +Asturias, was bought some thirty years ago by +the museum of Madrid. The body of the cross +is wood, covered on both sides with bronze plates +wrought with figures of the Saviour as the holy +infant and as full-grown man, and also with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +figure of the Virgin. These figures were formerly +painted, and traces of the colour yet remain. The +cross was also silvered. The rest of the ornamentation +consists of vases, flowers, and other subjects +proper to Renaissance art.</p> + +<p>A similar cross belongs to the parish church of +San Julian de Recaré, in the province of Lugo, +while San Pedro de Donas, near Santiago in +Galicia, possesses a processional cross of bronze, +pierced along the edges in a pattern of trefoils +and <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>, but otherwise undecorated.</p> + +<p>Sometimes in Spanish bronze we find the +handiwork of Moors and Christians picturesquely +intermingled, as in the gates of Toledo cathedral +(1337), and the Puertas del Perdón—forming the +principal entrance to the Court of Orange Trees—of +the mosque of Cordova, made of wood and +covered with bronze plating decorated with +irregular hexagons and Gothic and Arabic inscriptions. +The knockers contain a scroll and +flowers, and on the scroll the words, <i>Benedictus +Dominus Deus Israel</i>. The gate of the same +name of Seville cathedral (Pl. <a href="#img_184.jpg">xxxvii</a>.) is similar +in workmanship, and is considered by Riaño to +be a good example of Moresque bronze-work.</p> + +<p>While speaking of these doors, we should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +remember that Moorish craftsmen were employed +to decorate or to repair the mosque of Cordova +long after it had been converted to the worship +of the Christians. When he was acting as viceroy +in the year 1275, the Infante Don Fernando +confirmed a letter of his father, King Alfonso, +remitting tolls and taxes that would otherwise be +leviable upon four Moors who worked in the +cathedral. The Infante's confirmation, after recording +that “one (of the four Moors) is dead and +the other blind, in such wise that he can work no +more,” consents to the engagement of another two, +Famet and Zahec by name, to fill their places, +and who also are hereby exempted from the +payment of all dues. Five years afterwards this +privilege was reconfirmed by King Alfonso, and +we are further told on this occasion that two of +the Moorish four were <i>albañís</i>, or masons, and the +others <i>añaiares</i>, or carpenters. As time progressed, +the situation of the vanquished and humiliated +Mussulmans grew more irksome. On October +25th, 1320, the Infante Don Sancho, who had +usurped the throne, proclaimed, in ratification of a +letter issued by his father, that all the Moorish +carpenters, masons, sawyers, and other workmen +and artificers of Cordova must work in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +cathedral (presumably without a wage) for two +days in every year.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_182.jpg" width="342" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_182.jpg" id="img_182.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">BRONZE CRUCIFIX<br /> +(<i>12th Century</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>In the latter half of the sixteenth century, +Bartolomé Morel, a Sevillano, produced some +notable work in bronze.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Three objects by his +hand—namely, the choir lectern and the tenebrarium +of Seville cathedral, and the weathercock +or <i>Giraldillo</i> which crowns the celebrated tower of +the same enormous temple—are specially distinguished +for their vigour and effectiveness.</p> + +<p>The least important of these objects is the +choir lectern, for which Morel was paid six +hundred ducats. The decoration is of statuettes +and <i>rilievi</i>, well designed and better executed. +The tenebrarium, aptly defined by Amador as +“an article of church furniture intended to make +a show of light,”<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> is more ambitious and original.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +“It was designed and made by Morel in the year +1562. Juan Giralte, a native of Flanders, and Juan +Bautista Vazquez helped him to make the statues +at the head of this candelabrum, and Pedro +Delgado, another noted sculptor of Seville, worked +at the foot of it. It is eight and a half yards high, +and the triangular head is three yards across. +Upon this upper part are fifteen statues, representing +the Saviour, the apostles, and two other +disciples or evangelists. In the vacant space of +the triangle is a circle adorned with leaves, and in +the centre of this circle is a bust of the Virgin in +relief, and, lower down, the figure of a king. All +of this part is of bronzed wood, and rests upon +four small bronze columns. The remainder of the +candelabrum is all of this material, and the small +columns are supported by four caryatides, resting +upon an order of noble design decorated with lions' +heads, scrolls, pendants, and other ornamentation, +the whole resting upon a graceful border enriched +with harpies.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_184.jpg" width="366" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_184.jpg" id="img_184.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">THE <i>PUERTA DEL PERDÓN</i><br /> +(<i>Seville Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>This description of the Seville tenebrarium is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +translated from Cean Bermudez, and is the one +most commonly quoted, though Amador complains +that it is not precise, and fails to dwell upon the +symbolism of this mighty mass of bronze.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> Thus, +what Cean affirms to be the bust of a king is +declared by Amador to be the head of a pope, +probably Saint Gregory the Great. Metal, as +Cean remarks, is not employed throughout. In +order to preserve its balance, the upper part of the +tenebrarium, containing the triangle which is said +by some to symbolize “the divinity of Jesus as +God the triple and the one,” is merely wood +bronzed over. Amador adds that the foot and +stem are intended to represent “the people of +Israel in their perfidy and ingratitude.” He also +says that the statue in the centre of the triangle is +that of Faith, and that which crowns the entire +tenebrarium, of the Virgin Mary.</p> + +<p>Morel, like Brunelleschi, was an architect as +well as a craftsman in bronze.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> He completed +this tenebrarium in 1562, and the chapter of +the cathedral were so contented with it that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +instead of paying him the stipulated price, namely, +eight hundred ducats, they added of their own +accord a further two hundred and fifty. They +also commissioned him to make a handsome case +to keep it in; but the case has disappeared, and +the naked tenebrarium now stands in the Sacristy +of Chalices of the cathedral.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> It is still used +at the Matin service during the last three days +of Holy Week, and still, in the <i>Oficio de +Tinieblas</i>, the custom is observed of extinguishing +the fifteen tapers, one by one, at the conclusion +of each psalm.</p> + +<p>The title of the object which surmounts the +famed Giralda tower of Seville is properly “the +Statue of Faith, the triumph of the Church” (Pl. <a href="#img_186.jpg">xxxviii</a>.); +but it is known in common language +as the Giraldillo (weathercock), which name has +passed into the word Giralda, now applied to all +the tower. The populace of Seville also call it, +in the <i>argot</i> of their cheerful town, the <i>muñeco</i> +or “doll,” the “Victory,” and the “Santa Juana.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_186.jpg" width="310" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_186.jpg" id="img_186.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">THE WEATHERCOCK OF THE GIRALDA TOWER<br /> +(<i>16th Century. Seville Cathedral</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>This statue, made of hollow bronze, rotates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +upon an iron rod piercing the great bronze globe +which lies immediately beneath the figure's feet. +The globe is nearly six feet in diameter. The +figure itself represents a Roman matron wearing +a flowing tunic partly covering her legs and arms. +Sandals are secured to her feet by straps. +Upon her head she wears a Roman helmet +crested by a triple plume. In her right hand +she holds the semicircular Roman standard +of the time of Constantine, which points the +direction of the wind and causes the figure to +revolve, excepting when the air is very faint, in +which case it is caught by two diminutive banners +springing from the large one.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> So huge are the +proportions of this metal lady that the medal +on her breast contains a life-size head which +represents an angel.</p> + +<p>The Spanish Moors were also well acquainted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +with the use of weathercocks. During the reign, +in the eleventh century, of the Zirite kingling +of Granada, Badis ben Habbus, a weathercock +of strange design surmounted his <i>alcázar</i>. The +historian Marmol wrote in the sixteenth century +that it was still existing on a little tower, and +consisted of a horseman in Moorish dress, with +a long lance and his shield upon his arm, the +whole of bronze, with an inscription on the shield +which says: “Badis ben Habbus declares that in +this attitude should the Andalusian be discovered +(at his post).”</p> + +<p>Not many other objects in this substance can +be instanced as the work of Spanish craftsmen of +the sixteenth and succeeding centuries, or of the +later-Gothic age immediately preceding. Among +them are the pulpits of Santiago cathedral, made +by Celma, an Aragonese, in 1563; the choir-screen +(1574–1579) in the cathedral of Zaragoza, +made by Juan Tomás Cela, also a native of +Aragon; the gilt lecterns of Toledo cathedral, +which are the work of Nicolás Vergara and his +son; the Gothic lectern of the mosque of Cordova; +the choir-lectern (1557) of Cuenca, made by Hernando +de Arenas, who will also be remembered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +as having made the <i>reja</i> of the same cathedral; +and the octagonal gilt-bronze pulpits of Toledo, +wrought by Francisco de Villalpando, as are the +bas-reliefs (1564) upon the door of Lions, executed +by the same craftsman from designs by +Berruguete.</p> + +<p>These last-named pulpits are associated with a +legend. Within this temple, once upon a time, +rested the metal sepulchre of the great Don +Alvaro de Luna, so constructed by his orders that +upon the touching of a secret spring the statue of +the Constable himself would rise into a kneeling +posture throughout the celebration of the mass. +His lifelong and relentless foe, the Infante Enrique +of Aragon, tore up the tomb in 1449; and from +its fragments, superstition says, were made these +pulpits.</p> + +<p>Spanish Renaissance door-knockers in bronze +are often curious. Fifteen large bronze rings +adorned with garlands, heads of lions and of +eagles, or with the pair of columns and the motto +<span class="smcap">PLUS OULTRE</span> of Charles the Fifth, were formerly +upon the pilasters of the roofless, semi-ruined +palace of that emperor at Granada. Removed +elsewhere for greater safety,<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> they will now be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +found among the couple of dozen curiosities +preserved in a chamber of the Moorish royal +residence of the Alhambra.</p> + +<p>Herewith I end my sketch of Spanish bronzes, +without delaying to describe the tasteless <i>transparente</i> +behind the altar of Toledo cathedral, or +the neo-classic, Frenchified productions of the +reign of Charles the Third, such as the table-mountings +of the Buen Retiro, or trifles from +the silver factory of Antonio Martinez. At the +Escorial, the shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa +Forma and the altar-front of the pantheon of the +kings of Spain, wrought by Fray Eugenio de la +Cruz, Fray Juan de la Concepción, and Fray +Marcos de Perpignan, are meritorious objects of +their time. But the history of Spanish bronzes +properly ends with the Renaissance. This material, +possibly from its cost, has not at any time been +greatly popular in Spain. Wood, plain or painted, +was preferred to bronze in nearly all her statuary. +Her mediæval and Renaissance <i>reja</i> and <i>custodia</i> +makers can challenge all the world. So can her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +potters, armourers, leather-workers, and wood-carvers. +But if we look for masterpieces in the +art of shaping bronze, our eyes must turn to Italy, +where, to astonish modern men, the powers of a +Donatello or Ghiberti vibrate across all ages in +the bas-reliefs of Saint Anthony at Padua, or in +the gates of the Baptistery of Florence.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Le Hon reminds us, in <i>L'homme fossile</i>, that before the Iron +Age all bronzes of our western world contained one part of tin to +nine of copper.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> See Romero de Castilla, <i>Inventarios de los objetos recogidos en +el Museo Arqueológico de la Comisión de Monumentos de Badajoz</i>. +Badajoz, 1896. Plate xxvii. represents another of these objects.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Undoubtedly the use of the Roman <i>candelabrum</i> was continued +by the Spanish Visigoths. “<i>Candelabrum</i>,” says Saint Isidore, +“<i>a candelis dictum, quasi candela feram, quod candelam ferat</i>” +(<i>Originum</i>, book xx., chap. x.). The Spanish word <i>candela</i> is +loosely used to-day for almost any kind of light or fire, or even for +a match; but an ordinary candle is generally called a <i>vela</i> or +<i>bugía</i> (<i>bougie</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> “A small open lamp with a beak, and a hook to hang it, within +which is another of the same make that contains oil and a wick to +give light, commonly used in kitchens, stables, and inns.”—Fathers +Connelly and Higgins, <i>Spanish-English and English-Spanish +Dictionary</i>. Swinburne wrote of these <i>candiles</i>:—“The Spaniards +delight in wine that tastes strong of the pitched skin, and of oil that +has a rank smell and taste; indeed, the same oil feeds their lamp, +swims in their pottage, and dresses their salad; in inns the lighted +lamp is frequently handed down to the table, that each man may +take the quantity he chooses.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Perhaps it is not foreign to my theme to add that the current +name in Spanish for an oil lamp is <i>quinqué</i>, from Quinquet, the +Parisian chemist who invented the <i>tuyau-cheminée</i> a hundred and +odd years ago. The same word passes also into Spanish slang, +“<i>tener quinqué</i>”—<i>i.e.</i> to be quick-witted and perceptive.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Swinburne fell into a comical error concerning these. “In the +centre of the court are twelve ill-made lions <i>muzzled</i>, their fore-parts +smooth, their hind-parts rough, which bear upon their backs an +enormous bason, out of which a lesser rises.”—<i>Travels through +Spain</i>, p. 180.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> September 20th to October 19th, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1305.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> These spheres recall the four great gilded globes of bronze, +tapering from the bottom to the top, that crowned in olden days the +Giralda tower of Seville. According to the <i>Crónica General</i> the +glitter of these globes “de tan grande obra, é tan grandes, que no +se podríen hacer otras tales,” could be distinguished at a distance +of eight leagues. On August 24th, 1395, when Seville was assailed +by a frightful tempest accompanied by an earthquake, the metal rod +which pierced and held the globes was snapped, and the globes +themselves were dashed into a myriad pieces on the <i>azotea</i>, scores +of yards below.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> See p. 50.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>Libro de las Tablas</i>, pp. 17, 18. See Madrazo, <i>Cordova</i>, pp. 273 +<i>et seq</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> In documents which relate to him (see Gestoso's <i>Dictionary of +Sevillian Artificers</i>) Morel is often called an <i>artillero</i>. His father, +Juan Morel, was also a founder of cannon, and signed a contract in +1564 to cast two bronze pieces or <i>tiros</i>, with the royal arms on them.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> The efficacy of light in illuminating, or may be in dazzling and +confounding, Christian worshippers is too self-evident to call for +illustration. The symbolic meaning of church candles is, however, +neatly indicated by the wise Alfonso in his compilation of the seven +<i>Partidas</i>. “Because three virtues dwell in candles, namely, wick, +wax, and flame, so do we understand that persons three dwell in the +Trinity—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; and we may understand +three other things that dwell in Jesus Christ; to wit, body, soul, and +godhead. Hence the twelve lighted candles manifested to each +quarter of the church exhibit unto us the twelve apostles who +preached the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ through all the earth, +and manifesting truest wisdom illumined all the world.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> The English rendering of Cean's description inserted by Riaño +is inaccurate throughout.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> As architect, he made a monument (which exists no longer) for +the festivals of Holy Week at Seville.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> In 1565 Juan del Pozo, an ironsmith, received one hundred +<i>reales</i> “on account of an engine which he made of iron for moving +the tenebrarium of the cathedral, and other heavy things.”—Gestoso, +<i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. i. p. 313.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> The statue, which looks so tiny from the street, measures nearly +fourteen feet in height, and weighs more than two thousand two +hundred pounds. The banner alone weighs close upon four +hundred pounds. The figure was raised into its place in 1568, in +which year I find that eighteen Moriscos were paid seventy-eight +<i>reales</i> between them all for doing the work of carriage (Gestoso, +<i>Diccionario</i>). Gestoso also mentions a large bronze plate made by +Morel for the pavement of the cathedral, and which has disappeared. +It weighed 2269 pounds, or about the same as the weathercock of +the Giralda, and Morel was paid for it the sum of 289,361 +<i>maravedis</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Spaniards have a very scanty confidence in one another's +honesty, as well as in the competence of their police. Often, at +Madrid, and at this day, the porter of a house, as soon as it is dark, +unscrews the knockers from the downstairs door, and guards them +in his <i>conciergerie</i> until the morning.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr95" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="ARMS" id="ARMS">ARMS</a></h2> + +<p>Lovers of the old-time crafts approach a fertile<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +field in Spanish arms; for truly with this warworn +land the sword and spear, obstinately +substituted for the plough, seem to have grown +well-nigh into her regular implements of daily +bread-winning; and from long before the age of +written chronicle her soil was planted with innumerable +weapons of her wrangling tribesmen.</p> + +<p>The history of these ancient Spanish tribes is +both obscure and complicated. If Pliny, Strabo, +Ptolemy, and other authors may be credited, the +Celtic race invaded the Peninsula some seven +centuries before the Christian era, crossing the +river Ebro, founding settlements, and fusing with +the natives into the composite people known +henceforward as the Celtiberians. Thus strengthened, +they extended over nearly all the land, and +occupied, by a dominative or assimilative policy, +the regions corresponding to the modern Andalusia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +Portugal, Galicia, and the flat and central +elevations of Castile.</p> + +<p>These Spanish tribes were ever quarrelling, +and knew, in Strabo's words, “no entertainment +save in horsemanship and in the exercise of arms.” +Quantities of their weapons have been found all +over Spain, such as the heads of spears and +arrows, or the blades of daggers, hatchets, knives, +and swords. With these Iberian tribesmen, as +with other peoples of the ancient world, the truly +prehistoric age is that of stone; hence they +advanced to bronze, and finally to iron. Beuter, +the historian of Valencia, wrote in 1534 that near +to the town of Cariñena, in Aragon, on digging +out some earthen mounds the excavators came +upon enormous bones, flint lance and arrow heads, +and knives the size of half an ordinary sword; +all these in company with “many skulls transfixed +by the said stones.” In the collection at Madrid, +formed by Don Emilio Rotondo y Nicolau, these +primitive Spanish weapons number several +thousands; and many more are in the National +Museum.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p> + +<p>Discoveries of ancient Spanish arms of bronze<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +occur less often and in smaller quantities than +those of stone or iron. Bronze hatchets, principally +of the straight-edged class (<i>à bords droites</i>) +have been found in Galicia and certain other +provinces. Villa-amil y Castro describes a bronze +dagger of curious workmanship, which was found +in Galicia in 1869. The point of the blade is +missing. If this were included, the length of the +weapon would be about six inches.</p> + +<p>Other examples, now in the Madrid Museum, +include two swords, two daggers, and two arrowheads. +The swords, sharp-pointed, narrow in the +blade, and used by preference for thrusting, were +found not far from Calatayud—the ancient town +renowned, as Roman Bilbilis, for weapons of incomparable +temper. The daggers were probably +used for fighting hand to hand.</p> + +<p>At the time of the Roman invasion we find, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +course, the Spaniards using iron weapons. I +shall not tax the patience of my readers by +enumerating all these weapons. Their names +are many, and the comments and descriptions of +old authors which refer to them are constantly at +variance. Nevertheless, the sword most popular +with the Celtiberians at the period of the Roman +conquest seems to have been a broad, two-handed +weapon with a point and double edge, and therefore +serviceable both for cutting and for thrusting. +Another of the Celtiberian swords, called the +<i>falcata</i>, was of a sickle shape. It terminated in +the kind of point we commonly associate with +a scimitar, and which is found to-day in Spanish +knives produced at Albacete. One of these +swords, in good condition, is in the National +Museum. It has a single edge, upon the concave +side of the blade, and measures rather less +than two feet. Other weapons in common use +among the Celtiberians were an iron dart—the +<i>sannion</i> or <i>soliferrea</i>; the javelin; the lance—a +weapon so immemorially old in Spain that patriotic +writers trace its origin to the prehistoric town of +Lancia in Asturias; and the <i>trudes</i> or <i>bidente</i>, a +crescent blade mounted upon a pole, mentioned +by Strabo and Saint Isidore, and identical with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +the cruel weapon used until about a quarter of +a century ago for houghing coward cattle in the +bull-ring.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_198.jpg" width="392" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_198.jpg" id="img_198.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">CREST OF JOUSTING HELMET<br /> +(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Thus, when the Romans entered Spain the +natives of this country were experienced in the +use of arms, and made their own from such +materials as their own soil yielded. Their tempering +was excellent, for Diodorus Siculus tells us +that they had already discovered the secret of +burying the metal in order that the moisture of +the earth might eat away its baser portions. +Besides the ancient Bilbilis in Aragon, a Spanish +city famous for her faultless tempering of implements +and weapons was Toledo. Martial,<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> the +most illustrious son of Bilbilis, has sung the +praises of the one; less celebrated poets, such +as Gracio Falisco, of the other.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> Even the +armourers of Rome were found to be less skilful +and successful swordsmiths than the Spaniards;<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> +and so, before the second Punic War, the model<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +or the models of the Spanish sword had been +adopted by the Roman army.</p> + +<p>Various of the native peoples of Iberia were +distinguished by a special instrument or mode of +fighting. Strabo says that the Iberians as a +general rule employed two lances and a sword. +Those of Lusitania were especially adroit in +hurling darts. Each of their warriors kept a +number of these darts contained within his shield. +Upon the head they wore a helmet of a primitive +pattern strapped beneath the chin. This helmet, +called the <i>bacula</i>, protected all the wearer's face, +and had a mitred shape, with three red feathers +on the crest. Together with these arms, the +Lusitanians used a copper-headed lance and the +typical form of Celtiberian sword. More singular +and celebrated in their mode of fighting were the +Balearic islanders, who carried, through persistent +exercise, the art of slinging stones and leaden +plummets to the utmost limit of perfection. The +beaches of these islands, we are told, abounded, +then as now, in small, smooth pebbles, “weapons +of Nature's own contrivance,” rarely suited to +the sling.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> These slings were of three patterns, +severally designed for near, far, and middling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +distances. The lead or stone projectile sometimes +weighed a pound. Accordingly—so strenuous +was their zeal to be unrivalled in the practice of +this arm—even as little children the Baleares +went without their dinner, till, with the formidable +<i>funda</i> in their hand, they struck the stick their +parents planted for them in the soil. Pliny and +Polybius, notwithstanding, state that the sling +itself was not indigenous in this region, but imported +from Phœnicia. However this may be, +the islanders within a little time contributed to +swell the power of the Roman legions.</p> + +<p>The Visigoths continued using many of the +Roman or Ibero-Roman arms. Nevertheless, the +solid armour of the Romans, such as their greaves +and thigh-pieces and breastplates, was now replaced +by primitive chain-mail resembling scales +of fishes. According to Saint Isidore, Procopius, +and other writers, the favourite weapons of the +Spanish Visigoths were the sword or <i>spatha</i>, long, +broad-bladed, with a double edge; the hatchet, +the bow, the sling, the lance, the scythe, the +mace, the <i>pilum</i> or javelin (used extensively in +Spain throughout the Middle Ages),<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> the <i>dolon</i>, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +dagger which concealed itself within a wooden +staff, and took the name of “treacherous” or +“wily” from this circumstance; and the <i>conto</i>, a +keenly pointed pike. We also find among the +military engines of the Visigoths the <i>balista</i>, for +hurling stones and darts of large size, and the +<i>ariete</i> or battering-ram, constructed from a gnarled +and powerful tree-trunk braced with iron and +suspended by a cable. Their defensive body-armour +consisted of a coat of mail composed of +bronze or iron scales, and called the <i>lóriga</i> or +<i>perpunte</i>. This was worn above the <i>thorachomachus</i>, +a kind of tunic made of felt, in order +to shield the body from the roughness of the +mail. Upon their heads they wore an ample +helmet.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_202.jpg" width="386" height="600" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_202.jpg" id="img_202.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">SPANISH CROSSBOWMAN<br /> +(<i>Late 15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>A fragment of stone carving preserved in +Seville museum shows us two Visigothic Spanish +warriors who wear a tunic and helmet of a simple +pattern, and carry a two-edged sword and a large +shield. García Llansó says, however, that the +nobles of this people wore close-fitting mail tunics +covered with steel scales, a kind of bronze bassinet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +tight breeches, and high boots, and carried, besides +the sword which was slung from their belts, a +large, oval shield.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p> + +<p>From about the time of the Moorish invasion, the +changes in the arms and armour of the Spaniards +coincided in the main with those in other parts of +western Europe. Nevertheless, as late as the +eleventh century the Spanish sword retained the +characteristic which had endeared it to the +Roman legionaries—namely, a hilt of small +dimensions and a broad and shortish blade. In +course of time the blade grows narrower and +begins to taper towards the point. The <i>quillons</i> +or crossbars (Spanish <i>arriaces</i>, from the Arabic +<i>arrias</i>, a sword-hilt) were originally straight or +semicircular, and ended in a knob (<i>manzana</i>, +literally “apple”; Latin <i>pomum</i>, English <i>pommel</i>). +Thus, in the <i>Poem of the Cid</i> we find the verse:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center;">“<i>Las manzanas é los arriaces todos de oro son.</i>”</p> + +<p>Throughout these early times the scabbard was +of wood lined with leather or with velvet, and +strengthened and adorned with leather bands; +but when the owner was of high estate, it often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +bore enamels in the <i>cloisonné</i> style; that is, +with patches of the coloured, vitreous substance +bordered and fastened in by metal wire. In +Spain this style, undoubtedly of foreign origin, +was superseded in the thirteenth century by +<i>champlevé</i> enamelling, in which the enamel lies +within a hollowed ground.</p> + +<p>Spanish mediæval weapons down to the +fourteenth century are specified in the <i>fuero</i> of +Cáceres and other documents contemporary with +their use. Next always in importance to the +sword we find the hatchet, lance, crossbow, and +mace. Montaner's <i>Chronicle of the Kings of +Aragon</i> tells us that the sovereign, mace in hand, +dealt one of his enemies “such a blow upon his +iron hat that his brains came oozing out at his +ears.” Covarrubias mentions a dart-shaped +missile called the <i>azcona</i>—a word which some +authorities derive from the Arabic, and others +from the Basque <i>gascona</i>, an arm employed by +the natives of Gascony. The former derivation +seems the likelier. The <i>fuero</i> of Cáceres +mentions the <i>tarágulo</i>, described by the Count +of Clonard as a kind of dagger; and at the close +of the thirteenth century appears in Spain the +poniard, which was called among the Germans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +<i>Panzerbrecher</i>, or “breaker of cuirasses,” and +among the French the <i>misericorde</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>fuero</i> of Cáceres tells us, furthermore, +what was the regular equipment of the Spanish +foot and mounted soldier of that period. “Each +horseman shall go forth to battle with a shield, +a lance, a sword, and spurs; and he that carries +not all these shall pay each time five sheep wherewith +to feed the soldiers…. Each mounted man +or pawn that trotteth not or runneth not to quit +his town or village as he hears the call,—the +first shall have his horse's tail cut off; the other +shall have his beard clipped.”</p> + +<p>Defensive arms included various kinds of +coverings for the head; the <i>lóriga</i> or covering +for the body, the <i>cálcias</i> or covering for the +legs, and the shield.</p> + +<p>The <i>lóriga</i> (Latin <i>lorica</i>) was the ordinary +hauberk or shirt of mail, such as was worn all +over military Europe, made of rings or scales +sewed strongly on a linen or leather under-tunic +consisting of a single piece, and reaching to +the knee. The <i>Gran Conquista de Ultramar</i> +of Alfonso el Sabio also informs us that it was +tied at certain openings known as <i>ventanas</i> +(“windows”), and that the collar of the tunic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +was called the <i>gorguera</i>. The resistance of the +Spanish <i>lóriga</i> to a pointed weapon does not +seem to have been great, for the Chronicle of +the Monk of Silos says that at the siege of +Viseo the arrows of the Moorish bowmen went +through the triple <i>lórigas</i> of their foe.</p> + +<p>Towards the twelfth century the custom arose +of wearing over the coat of mail a loose, sleeveless +frock (the <i>Waffenrock</i> of Germany), woven +of linen or some other light material, painted +or embroidered with the owner's arms. As +the Count of Clonard observes, it is clearly +this kind of frock that is referred to in the +following passage of the <i>Leyes de Partida</i>: +“For some (of the knights) placed upon the +armour carried by themselves and by their +horses,<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> signs that were different one from +another, in order to be known thereby; while +others placed them on their heads, or on their +helmets.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_206.jpg" width="500" height="359" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_206.jpg" id="img_206.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">THE BATTLE OF LA HIGUERUELA<br /> +(<i>Wall painting. Hall of Battles, El Escorial</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The Normans used a form of hauberk with +attached mail-stockings. In Spain we find in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +lieu of this leg-covering, the Roman <i>cálcia</i> (Latin +<i>caliga</i>), extending from the foot to just below the +thigh, and subsequently called the <i>brafonera</i>.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> +This was, in fact, a separate mail-stocking, made +of closely interlacing steel rings, and worn above +the leather boots or <i>trebuqueras</i>.</p> + +<p>The Spanish <i>escudo</i> or shield was usually made +of wood covered with leather, and painted with +the arms or the distinguishing emblem of its lord. +Sometimes it was made of parchment. Thus the +Chronicle of the Cid informs us that this hero +after death was equipped with “a painted parchment +helm and with a shield in the same wise.” +Another form of Spanish shield, the <i>adarga</i> +(<i>atareca</i>, <i>atarca</i>; Arabic <i>ad-darka</i>, to hold upon +the arm), of which I shall subsequently notice +specimens in the Royal Armoury, was commonly +in the shape of a rough oval or of a heart, and +made of various folds of leather sewn and glued +together. The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh +speaks of a certain famine which broke out among +the Spanish troops, and caused them such privation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +that “they chewed the leather of their +shields.”<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p> + +<p>The battle headgear of this people passed +through many changes. “The helmet of the +eighth century,” says the Count of Clonard, +“was the same which had been used by the +Cantabrians and Vascones before the general +peace proclaimed by Augustus Cæsar. Helmets +of this design are engraved upon the medals +(reproduced by Florez) of the imperial legate +Publius Carisius. They covered the entire head +and face, leaving only two holes for the eyes, as +we see upon the carved stone fragments in relief +at the door of the church of San Pedro de +Villanueva, representing the struggle of King +Froila with a bear.”</p> + +<p>Another form of helmet which the Spaniards +began to use about this time was the <i>almofar</i> +(Arabic <i>al-mejfar</i>), made of iron scales. It +covered all the head, with the exception of the +eyes, nose, and mouth, and corresponds to the +<i>camail</i> of the Normans. Beneath it was worn +the linen <i>cofia</i>, a kind of bag or cap in which +the warrior gathered up his hair. After about +another century a round or conical iron helmet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +(<i>capacete</i>), fitted with cheek-pieces, was superposed +on the <i>almofar</i> and fastened round the +chin with straps. The <i>capacete</i> of a noble was +often adorned with precious stones and coronets +of pure gold, while a spike projecting from the +top was tipped with a large carbuncle, in order to +catch and to reflect the flashing sunbeams.</p> + +<p>The substitution for this spike of multiform and +multicolor figures or devices dates from a later +age. The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh +describes as something altogether novel and surprising, +the crests upon the helmets of the foreign +knights who flocked, in 1343, to Algeciras to +aid the cause of Christianity against the Moor. +“All of them,” says this narrative, “placed their +helmets at the door of their dwellings, supporting +them on stout and lofty staves; and the figures +on the helmets were of many kinds. On some +was the figure of a lion; on others that of a wolf, +or ass's head, or ox, or dog, or divers other +beasts; while others bore the likeness of the +heads of men; faces, beards, and all. Others, +too, had wings as those of eagles or of crows; +and so, between these various kinds there were +in all as many as six hundred helmets.”</p> + +<p>This brings us to the celebrated helmet or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +<i>cimera</i> (Plate <a href="#img_198.jpg">xxxix</a>.), now in the Royal Armoury +of Madrid, believed till recently to have belonged +to Jayme the First, conqueror of Palma and +Valencia, and the greatest, both in spirit and in +stature, of the old-time kings of Aragon.</p> + +<p>Such part of this interesting helmet as is left +consists of two pieces, one of them resting loosely +on the other. Baron de las Cuatro Torres infers, +from a detail which will presently be noted, that +the lower of these two pieces is not original; and +his opinion was shared by the Count of Valencia +de Don Juan, who, notwithstanding, thought the +spurious part to be coeval with the actual crest. +The upper part consists of a fragment of a helm, +made, like some flimsy theatre property, of linen, +card, and parchment, and surmounted with the +figure of the mythical monster known in the +Lemosin language as the <i>drac-pennat</i>, or winged +dragon, which formed, conjointly with the royal +crown, the emblem or device of all the Aragonese +sovereigns from Pedro the Fourth to Ferdinand +the Second.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_210.jpg" width="372" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_210.jpg" id="img_210.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">PARADE HARNESS OF PHILIP THE THIRD<br /> +(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>There is, however, no reason to doubt the +helmet's authenticity. It is known to have +remained for centuries at Palma, in the Balearics, +where it was worn upon the day of Saint Sylvester<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +in each year, by a person who walked in the procession +of the <i>Standart</i> to celebrate the capture +of the city by Don Jayme. This would explain +the lower piece contrived and added to the crest +itself, in order to adjust the incomplete and upper +portion to the subsequent wearer's head. The +helmet as originally made was meant for tourneying +only, and is therefore fashioned, not of metal, +but of the frail theatrical materials I have stated. +Copper and wood, says Viollet-le-Duc, were +also used in making these objects. The earliest +wearer of the helm cannot have been Don Jayme. +Baron de las Cuatro Torres remarks that on +an Aragonese coin of the reign of Pedro the +Fourth, the monarch is wearing on his head +something which looks identical with this <i>cimera</i>.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> +Demay has further told us that the vogue of +such <i>cimeras</i>, whose principal purpose was to +distinguish seigniories, lasted from 1289 till the +introduction of movable visors at the end of the +fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth +century. The present helmet, therefore, probably +belonged to Don Pedro the Fourth of +Aragon (“the Ceremonious”), and was made at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +some time in his reign—that is, between 1335 +and 1387. A document has been discovered in +which this monarch's son, Don Martin of Aragon, +commands that year by year his own helmet, +“<i>nostram emprissiam sive cimbram</i>,” together +with the banner of Jayme the Conqueror, is to +be publicly exhibited in commemoration of the +capture of Majorca. Therefore we may conclude +from these important facts that here is the crest +of a tourneying helmet which belonged either +to Don Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, or else to +either of, or possibly both, his sons, Don Juan +and Don Martin.</p> + +<p>The changes which occur in Spanish arms and +armour between the fourteenth and the sixteenth +centuries keep pace, upon the whole, with those in +other parts of Europe. It is, however, opportune +to notice how the Spanish armies of this time were +organized. Their regular cavalry consisted of: +(1) the force directly mustered by the king and +under his immediate leadership; (2) the mounted +burghers who defrayed the whole or part of their +expenses, being in certain instances assisted by a +stipend which had been created by municipal and +local <i>fueros</i>; (3) the knights belonging to the +military orders; and (4) the barons, together with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +the men these last were called upon, obedient to +the summons of the royal <i>mandadero</i> (messenger), +to mount, equip, provision, and bring to war with +them. Such was the heavy cavalry of later mediæval +Spain. A lighter class, said by the Count of +Clonard to have been recruited from the southern +regions of the land, was known as <i>alfaraces</i>, +<i>almogávares</i>, or <i>omes de la gineta</i>.</p> + +<p>These latter lived in frugal fashion. Water +was their only drink; bread and the roots of +plants their only food. Their clothing, too, was +of the slightest, consisting merely of a shirt, high +boots, and a kind of net upon the head. They +wore no armour, and carried as their only weapons +an <i>azagaya</i> and a lance. Their principal value was +in skirmishing.</p> + +<p>The infantry were also of two kinds. The +first, collective or stipendiary, was levied by the +towns and cities, and from them received its maintenance. +The second was the <i>almogávares</i>, who +served for scouting, like their mounted comrades +of the same denomination. The stipendiary or +regular troops proceeded chiefly from the northern +provinces—Alava, Guipúzcoa, the Asturias, and +the mountains of León, and carried commonly the +lance, sword, sling, crossbow, and the <i>azagaya</i>—this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +last a dart-shaped missile borrowed from the +Berber tribesmen,—the ancient Moorish <i>azgaya</i>, +the modern <i>assagai</i> or <i>assegai</i> of Zululand.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_214.jpg" width="500" height="351" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_214.jpg" id="img_214.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">MOORISH CROSSBOW AND STIRRUP<br /> +(<i>Museum of Granada</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>In a country which was plunged in ruinous and +almost unremitting internecine strife; which was +(and is) inherently averse to commerce or to agriculture; +and where the bulk of all the national +wealth was either locked away in churches and in +convents, or in the coffers of great nobles who were +frequently as wealthy as, or even wealthier than, +the Crown, the armour of the common mediæval +Spanish soldier consisted of the plain and necessary +parts and nothing more. The aristocracy, upon +the other hand, often adorned their battle-harness +with the finest gold and silver work, and studded +it with precious stones. Even the esquires would +sometimes imitate their masters in this costly +mode. “We command,” said Juan the First in +one of his pragmatics dating from the end of the +fourteenth century, “that no shield-bearer shall +carry cloth of gold or any manner of gold ornament +upon his trappings, scarf, or saddle; or on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +his badge or arms, excepting only on the edges of +his bassinet and his cuisses, together with the bit +and poitral of his horse, which may be gilded.”</p> + +<p>It is also evident from Royal Letters of this +time, that the kings of Spain depended very +largely for the flower of their forces on the private +fortune or resources of the Spanish noblemen +or even commoners; nor did they ever hesitate +to turn these means of other people to their +own particular good. The Ordinance of Juan +the First, dated Segovia, 1390, commands that, +“Every man who possesses 20,000 <i>maravedis</i> +and upward shall have his proper set of harness, +habergeons and scale-pieces, and lappet-piece, +cuisses and vantbrasses, bassinet, camail, and +war-cap<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> with its gorget; or else a helmet, together +with sword and dagger, glaive and battle-axe. +And whoso possesses 3000 <i>maravedis</i> and +upward shall have his lance and javelin and shield, +his lappet-piece and coat of mail, and iron bassinet +without a camail, and a <i>capellina</i>, together with +his sword, <i>estoque</i>, and knife. And whoso has +between 2000 and 3000 <i>maravedis</i> shall have his +lance and sword or <i>estoque</i> and knife, or a bassinet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +or <i>capellina</i>, together with a shield. And whoso +has from 600 to 2000 <i>maravedis</i> shall have a +crossbow with its nut and cord and stirrup, quiver +and strap, and three dozen shafts. And whoso +has from 400 to 600 <i>maravedis</i> shall have a lance, +a javelin, and a shield. And whoso has 400 +<i>maravedis</i> shall have a javelin and a lance.”</p> + +<p>The wealthier classes responded lavishly to +this command. Describing the battle of Olmedo +and the forces of Don Alvaro de Luna sent +against the Navarrese, the chronicle of the +Constable declares that among his entire host +could hardly have been found a single cavalier +whose horse was not covered with trappings, and +its neck with mail. “For some there were that +carried divers figures painted on the aforesaid +trappings, and others that bore upon their helmets +jewels that were a token from their mistresses. +And others carried gold or silver bells suspended +from their horses' necks by thick chains; or +plates upon their helmets studded with precious +stones, or small targes richly garnished with +strange figures and devices. Nor was there less +variety in the crests upon their helmets; for some +bore likenesses of savage beasts, and others +plumes of various colours; while others carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +but a plume or two upon their helmet crest, like +unto those upon the forehead of their horses.”</p> + +<p>The fifteenth century is often called in Spain +her golden age of arms—not in the sense that +she invented anything new relating to this craft, +but that her warriors were more fully and more +frequently equipped with what had been imported +from elsewhere. As in the case of crested +helmets, foreign initiative brought about the +substitution of plate or German armour—developed +from the chain armour and the coat of mail—for +the earlier sets of disconnected pieces. Possibly, +as a chronicle which describes the Englishmen +and Gascons who were present at the siege of +Lerma in 1334 would seem to indicate, it was in +consequence of this direct association with the +foreigner that the older form of Spanish harness +yielded to the new. However this may be, plate +armour certainly appeared in Spain at some time +in the fourteenth century, and grew in vogue +throughout the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries. +Suits of armour worn by Spanish pikemen and +crossbowmen of this period may be profitably +studied in the Royal Armoury (Plate <a href="#img_202.jpg">xl</a>.); and the +same harness is reproduced in the choir-stalls of +Toledo cathedral, carved by Maestre Rodrigo in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +1495. It is also useful to consult the prolix +description of the <i>Passo Honroso</i> (1433) of Suero +de Quiñones, held at the bridge of Orbigo, as +well as the painting of the battle of La Higueruela +(Plate <a href="#img_206.jpg">xli</a>.) in the Sala de las Batallas of the +Escorial. We find from these authoritative +sources that Spanish harness then consisted of +the war-hat or <i>capacete</i>, with its <i>barbote</i> or piece +to cover the mouth and cheeks, and fringe of +mail (<i>mantillos</i>) to protect the neck: the <i>coracina</i> +or korazin of tinned steel plates;<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> the coat of +mail; armlets and gauntlets; leg-pieces with +closed greaves; and steel-pointed mail shoes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_219.jpg" width="297" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_219.jpg" id="img_219.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">MOORISH SWORD<br /> +(<i>Casa de los Tiros, Granada</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The Spanish man-at-arms of the sixteenth +century is well described by Martin de Eguiluz, +in his book, <i>Milicia, Discursos, y Regla Militar</i>. +“The man is mounted and bears a lance. His +head is covered with a visored helmet. He +wears a double breastplate, of which the outer +piece is called <i>volante</i>. His thighs are guarded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +by cuisses, his legs by greaves, and his feet by +shoes of mail or iron. His horse's face, neck, +breast, and haunches are covered with iron or +with doubled leather. These coverings are called +<i>bardas</i>, and the horses protected by them <i>bardados</i>, +of which each man-at-arms is called upon to +possess two.”</p> + +<p>These plainer sets of war-harness for horses +were made in Spain. The costlier bards, whether +for war or tournament, were made in Italy and +Germany, and often match the outfit of the rider +in the splendour and luxuriance of their decoration. +Striking examples of these bards are in the +Royal Armoury, including one (Plate <a href="#img_210.jpg">xlii</a>.) which +formerly belonged to Philip the Third. Probably +it is the same referred to in the manuscript +account of Valladolid from which I have already +quoted curious notices of other crafts. Speaking +of the Duke of Lerma in 1605, this narrative +says; “He rode a beautiful horse with richly +decorated arms and gold-embroidered bard, +fringed, and with medallions in relief. The +trappings, reaching to the ground, were of black +velvet covered with silver plates as large as +dinner-plates, and others of a smaller size that +represented arms and war-trophies, all of them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +gilt, and studded with precious stones. I heard +say that this armour which the Duke now wore, +had once belonged to the Emperor, and is now +the King's.”<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p> + +<p>The crossbow was an arm of great importance +from about the eleventh century until the seventeenth, +and Spain, throughout the latter of these +centuries, was celebrated for their manufacture. +Roquetas, a Catalan, “master-maker of crossbows,” +constructed them of steel, so skilfully and +finely that they could be carried concealed inside +the sleeve of a coat, and discharged without +awaking the suspicion of the victim. A letter of +René of Anjou, quoted by the Count of Valencia +de Don Juan, also refers to the skill of the +Catalans in making crossbows, and mentions one +of these weapons constructed by “Saracen,” of +Barcelona, “who refuses to teach his craft to +Christians.” The letter further states that this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +arm was of a curious shape, and that, “despite its +small dimensions, it carries to a greater distance +than any other I have yet possessed.”</p> + +<p>A handsome Moorish crossbow, inlaid with +bronze (Plate <a href="#img_214.jpg">xliii</a>.), exists in the provincial +museum of Granada. The Royal Armoury has +no example of the rare form of crossbow fitted +with wheeled gear, but all the commoner kinds +employed for hunting or for war are represented +here, including those with the <i>armatoste</i> or +goat's-foot lever, stirruped crossbows, and those +which have the <i>torno</i> or windlass (French <i>cranequin</i>). +Demmin appends the following note to +an illustration in his handbook of a crossbow +with a goat's-foot lever fixed to the stock:—“A +similar weapon in ironwood, sixteenth century, +belonged to Ferdinand the First, proved by the +inscription on the bow: <span class="smcap">Dom Fernando rei de +Romano</span>, followed by four Golden Fleeces. It +bears the name of the Spanish armourer Juan +Deneinas. This valuable crossbow once belonged +to M. Spengel, at Munich, but it is at present in +the collection of the Count of Nieuwerkerke.”</p> + +<p>There is also in the Royal Armoury a crossbow +of the scarcer kind known in Spanish as +<i>ballestas de palo</i>, in which the gaffle is not of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +steel, but put together from slips of springy<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">woods, including yew. The wings are tipped</span><br /> +with horn, and traces of heraldic and Renaissance +decoration, painted on parchment, yet remain +upon the weapon. Other portions are inlaid. +Except for the erasure of the painting, this arm +is splendidly preserved, and still retains its double +cord, nut, and pins, together with the separate +lever.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_222.jpg" width="349" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_222.jpg" id="img_222.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">SWORD OF BOABDIL EL CHICO<br /> +(<i>Museum of Artillery, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Another interesting crossbow in this armoury +belonged to Charles the Fifth, who used it for +the chase. It has a <i>verja</i> or yard of steel engraved +with the letter C four times repeated and +surmounted by a crown, and bears the inscription, +<span class="smcap">PRO · IMPERATORE · SEMPER · AVGVSTO · +PLVS · VLTRA ·</span>, together with · <img src="images/img_328.jpg" alt="IV DE LA FVETE" /> ·, +for Juan de la Fuente, the name of a celebrated +maker of these parts of a crossbow. The shaft +(<i>tablero</i>), ornamented in bone and iron, is from +the hand of another master, Juan Hernandez, +whose signature is <span class="smcap">IO: HRZ</span>. The Count of +Valencia de Don Juan supposed that this was +the one crossbow which Charles took with him +to the rustic solitude of Yuste, and which +is mentioned in a document at Simancas as +“a crossbow with its gear and gaffles (it is in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +His Majesty's possession, but he has not paid +for it).”</p> + +<p>Hitherto I have traced the war-equipment of +the Spanish Christians only. In the early period +of Mohammedan rule, the conquerors used a +simple dress for war, consisting of the <i>capacete</i> +or <i>almofar</i> for the head, secured by a chain +beneath the chin and covered by a piece of +cloth called <i>schasch</i>, hanging to just below the +shoulders; a wide sleeveless tunic; a shirt of +mail; tight breeches, and leather shoes. Their +weapons were the lance and sword. The foot-soldiery +wore the <i>djobba</i>, a tight-sleeved tunic of +white wool, bound to the body by a scarf, and +leather shoes, and carried as their arms a <i>capacete</i> +of beaten iron, without a crest or cheek-pieces; +a large round shield with its projecting umbo; +and either a lance, or a double-edged and double-handed +sword. Such are the details represented +in the <i>Codex of the Apocalypse</i>, preserved in +the cathedral of Gerona. As time progressed, +the weapons and defensive armour of these +Spanish Moors grew more luxurious and ornate, +being often decorated with enamels, precious +stones, or inlaid metals such as silver, gold, and +bronze. Prominent centres of this industry were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +Murcia, Zaragoza, and Toledo, which are even +said to have surpassed Damascus. Andalusia, +too, was celebrated for her gold-inlaid cuirasses +and coats of mail; while, according to El Idrisi, +the town of Jativa enjoyed a widespread fame for +every kind of decorative armour.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p> + +<p>The military outfit of the Spanish Moors was, +therefore, much the same as that of Christian +Spain. Toledo under Muslim rule continued +to be famous for her swords. Moorish Seville, +Ronda, and Valencia were also favourably known +for weapons, household knives, and scissors. +Cutlery in the Moorish style is still produced in +certain parts of eastern Spain, and in his <i>History +of the Mohammedan Dynasties</i> of this country, +Gayangos tells us of a knife which bore upon one +side of the blade the inscription in Arabic +characters, “<i>With the help of God I will inflict +death upon thy adversary</i>,” and upon the other +side, in Castilian, the words, “<i>Knife-factory of +Antonio Gonzalez. Albacete, 1705.</i>”</p> + +<p>The primitive Spanish-Moorish sword was an +arm of moderate breadth used both for cutting +and for thrusting. As time went on, this people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +gradually adopted swords of Spanish make or +pattern, such as the ponderous <i>brandimartes</i> and +<i>montantes</i> made for wielding with both hands. +The Granadino writer Aben Said complains +that the adoption of the arms, and even of the +costume of the Spanish Christians, was prevalent +at Granada in the thirteenth century. “Sultans +and soldiers alike,” he said, “dress in the manner +of the Christians, even to their arms and armour, +crimson cloaks, standards, and saddlery. They +wield in battle a shield and a long lance,<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> which +serves them to attack with; nor do they seem +to care for Arab bows or maces, but prefer to +use the Frankish ones.”</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, the warriors of Granada carried +several weapons which were not of Christian +origin. The tribe of the Beni-Merines brought +across from Africa a kind of sword called often +in the Christian chronicles the <i>espada gineta</i>, used +principally, as we gather from its name, by those +addicted to the Moorish mode of horsemanship, +or riding with short stirrups. The use of it extended +later to the Christian Spaniards, and it +is said to have contributed in later times to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +victory of the Spanish army at Pavia. Other +swords in use among the Granadinos were the +<i>alfange</i>, the <i>chifarra</i>, the <i>chifarote</i>, and the +<i>nammexi</i>. The last of these is described in an +old dictionary of the Valencian and Castilian +languages as a kind of scimitar, although Quatremère +and Fleischer believe it to have been a +dagger.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_226.jpg" width="345" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_226.jpg" id="img_226.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">DAGGER OF BOABDIL EL CHICO<br /> +(<i>Museum of Artillery, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Another author who describes the arms and +armour of the Granadinos is Al-Jattib, who says +in his <i>Splendour of the New Moon</i>; “There are +in Granada two kinds of soldiery—those of Al-Andalus +and those of Africa. Their leader is a +prince of royal blood, or some exalted personage +at court. Formerly they used the Christian arms; +that is, ample coats of mail, heavy shields, thick +iron helmets, lances with broad points, and +insecure saddles…. Now they have discarded +that equipment, and are beginning to use short +cuirasses, light helmets, Arab saddles, leather +shields, and thin lances.” Of the African troops +the same historian adds; “Their weapons for +attacking are spears, either short or long, which +they propel by pressing with the finger. These +arms they call <i>marasas</i>; but for daily exercise +they use the European bow.”</p> + +<p>Descriptions of the Spanish-Moorish swords<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +inserted in the chronicles and poems of the Middle +Ages, together with the few examples that have +been preserved until our time, enable us to form an +accurate idea of the shape and decoration of these +weapons generally. Those of the sultans and the +Muslim aristocracy were, as a rule, profusely +ornamented, either with precious stones or with +enamels, or else with delicate and lavish damascening, +or with the characteristic Oriental <i>ataujía</i>-work +of gold and silver inlay. Inscriptions, too, +were freely used upon the hilt or scabbard. Thus +we are told that the great Almanzor kept for daily +use a sword which bore the legend; “<i>Strive in +warfare till ye win great victories. Battle with +the infidels till ye win them over to Islam</i>”; and +similar inscriptions may be quoted in great number. +But four or five of these magnificent arms have +proved superior to the ravages of time, and naturally +tell us more than any weapons whose renown +survives in written records merely. Among such +extant Spanish-Moorish swords are two attributed +respectively to Aliatar and Abindarraez; two +others which are known to have belonged to the +last ill-fated monarch of the Moors of Spain, +Boabdil el Chico; and another, considered to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +also been Boabdil's property, now in possession +of the Marquises of Campotejar, owners of the +Generalife and of the Casa de los Tiros at Granada.</p> + +<p>The “sword of Aliatar,” preserved in the +Museum of Artillery at Madrid, is said to have +been wrested from the clenched hand of that +warrior, father-in-law of Boabdil and governor of +Loja, as his corpse was swept away down stream +after the rout of the Moorish expedition at Lucena. +This arm is richly damascened as well as decorated +with the characteristic <i>ataujía</i>. The centre of +the hilt is made of ivory, and the pommel and +crossbars—which latter terminate in elephants' +heads with slightly upturned trunks—of damascened +and inlaid iron, ornamented here and +there with <i>ataujía</i>. Part of the blade—probably +about an eighth—is broken off. The sheath has +disappeared.</p> + +<p>An idle superstition has attributed the so-called +“sword of Abindarraez” to the hero of the well-known +sixteenth-century romance entitled <i>The +Abencerraje and the Beautiful Jarifa.</i> This +weapon, which for many years was in possession +of the Narvaez family, belongs at present to the +Marquis of La Vega de Armijo. The decoration +is not particularly rich, and part of it is worn away;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +but the narrow blade is still engraved with figures +or portraits from the story which has given the +sword its name.</p> + +<p>The sword (Pl. <a href="#img_219.jpg">xliv</a>.) belonging to the Marquises +of Campotejar, and which is preserved in the Casa +de los Tiros at Granada, bears some resemblance +to the “sword of Aliatar,” and has about the same +dimensions. Although it is commonly believed +that Boabdil was the original owner of this sword, +Gómez Moreno considers that more probably it +belonged to one of the Moorish princes of Almería. +The handle and crossbars, as well as the shape +of the sheath, are silver-gilt, covered with minute +arabesque ornamentation forming leaves and +stems, and further decorated with enamel. The +sheath is of Morocco leather worked with silver +thread. The crossbars, curving abruptly down,<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> +terminate in elephants' trunks boldly upturned towards +the pommel. The blade is stamped with a +Toledo mark consisting of Castilian letters and a +pomegranate.</p> + +<p>But the most important, interesting, and beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +specimens of Spanish-Moorish arms preserved +to-day are those which were captured from +Boabdil at the battle of Lucena (1482), when the +monarch was made prisoner by the young Alcaide +de los Donceles, Don Diego Fernandez de +Cordova. A manuscript <i>History of the House +of Cordova</i>, quoted by Eguilaz Yanguas,<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> says +that upon the day in question, irretrievably disastrous +to the Moorish cause in Spain, Boabdil +carried “a short, silver-handled sword, a damascened +dagger, and a lance and buckler of great +strength” (Plates <a href="#img_222.jpg">xlv</a>. and <a href="#img_226.jpg">xlvi</a>.). These arms, together +with another and a larger sword (<i>montante</i> +or <i>estoque real</i>) for wielding with both hands, and +certain articles of Boabdil's clothing, continued in +the captor's family for centuries, and were, some +years ago, presented by the Marquises of Villaseca, +his direct descendants, to the National Museum +of Artillery.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_230.jpg" width="334" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_230.jpg" id="img_230.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">MOORISH SWORD<br /> +(<i>Hilt and upper part of sheath</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The smaller or <i>gineta</i> sword<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> is handsomer and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +more important than the large <i>estoque</i>. The +crossbars, as we find so often in weapons of this +character and date, are bent abruptly down, and +then curve up in a design of dragons' heads—the +well-known emblem of the Nasrite sultans of +Granada. Part of the handle is of solid gold +adorned with crimson, white, and blue enamel +distributed about the top and bottom of the hilt, +the pommel, and the <i>arriaces</i> or crossbars. The +centre of the hilt consists of ivory, richly carved. +On either side of it are two octagonal intersecting +figures, bearing upon one side, in semi-Cufic +characters, the words, “<i>Achieve thy aim</i>,” and on +the other, “<i>in preserving his</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the owner's) +<i>life</i>.” Round the upper border of the ivory is +carved the sentence; “<i>In the name of God; the +power belongs to Him, and there is no Divinity but +He. Happiness proceeds from God alone</i>”; and +round the lower border, “<i>The marvellous belongs +to God. Assuredly at the outset the ignorant do +not know their God; seeing that error is their +custom.</i>”</p> + +<p>Other inscriptions of a sacred character, combined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +with delicate <i>ataujía</i>-work, are on the +pommel and the upper portion of the hilt; but +it has been remarked that, although the entire +decoration is amazingly elaborate and rich, these +inscriptions nowhere indicate that the weapon +belonged to a personage of royal blood.</p> + +<p>The sheath of this most sumptuous arm is also +lavishly adorned with silver and enamel on a purple +leather ground. The blade is of a later date +than either sheath or hilt, and bears the letter S, +believed to be the mark of Alonso Sahagun the +elder, of Toledo. The total length of this weapon +is thirty-nine inches; and Gayangos declares that +it was worn suspended by a belt between the +shoulders.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p> + +<p>The large <i>montante</i> which belonged to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +same ill-fated monarch has a cylindrical hilt, +narrower in the centre of the handle than at either +end. This hilt is made of steel inlaid with <i>lacería</i> +or network ornament in ivory. In a small shield +within the decoration of the pommel, appear the +words “<i>To God</i>”; and in the centre of the +handle, the familiar motto of the Nasrite sultans +of Granada; “<i>The only Conqueror is God.</i>”</p> + +<p>Part of the blade is broken off. That which is +left is broad and straight, with two grooves (one +of which extends about three inches only) on each +side, and bears an oriental mark consisting of +five half-moons. The sheath is of brown Morocco +decorated with a small gilt pattern forming shells +and flowers. The mouth and chape are silver-gilt.</p> + +<p>In beautiful and skilful craftsmanship Boabdil's +dagger or <i>gumía</i> matches with his swords. The +handle is of steel inlaid in ivory with floral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +patterns, and terminates in a large sphere, +similarly decorated. The blade has a single edge, +and is exquisitely damascened in gold designs +which cover more than half of all its surface. +Along one side we read the inscription; “<i>Health, +permanent glory, lasting felicity, permanent glory, +lasting felicity, and lasting and permanent glory +belong to God</i>”; and on the other side, “<i>It was +made by Reduan.</i>”</p> + +<p>The sheath of this little arm is made of crimson +velvet richly embroidered with gold thread, and +hanging from it is a large tassel of gold cord and +crimson silk. The chape and mouth are silver-gilt, +profusely decorated, and the latter of these +pieces is embellished with circular devices of a +lightish green enamel, in addition to the chasing.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_234.jpg" width="300" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_234.jpg" id="img_234.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">WAR HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH<br /> +(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The small, plain knife, also preserved among the +spoil, was carried in this sheath, together with the +dagger.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a></p> + +<p>The Royal Armoury at Madrid is often thought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +by foreigners<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> to contain a representative collection +of the arms, offensive and defensive, used +by the Spanish people through all their mediæval +and post-mediæval history. This is not so. +Although it is the choicest and the richest gallery +in Europe, the Armería Real was formed almost +entirely from the <i>cámaras de armas</i> or private +armouries of Charles the Fifth and of his son, and +is, as Mélida describes it, “a splendid gallery of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +royal arms,” dating, with very few exceptions, from +the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>The greater part of its contents were made +within a limited interval, as well as not produced +in Spain. Such are the glittering and gorgeous +harnesses constructed for the actual use of Charles +the Fifth by celebrated German and Italian +armourers, ponderous suits for jousting or parade, +or lighter suits for combat in the field, whether +on foot or horseback (Plate <a href="#img_234.jpg">xlviii</a>.), fashioned, +chiselled, and inlaid by craftsmen such as the +Negroli and Piccini of Milan, Bartolommeo +Campi of Pesaro, or Kollman of Augsburg, bombastically +called, by a Spanish poet in the mode +of Gongora, “the direct descendant of Vulcanus.”</p> + +<p>This German and Italian armour, with its +multitude of accessorial pieces,<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> falls outside the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +province of a book on Spanish arts and crafts. +Nevertheless, I reproduce, as being too little +known outside Madrid, the sumptuous jousting +harness (Plate <a href="#img_238.jpg">xlix</a>.), of Charles the Fifth, made +for the emperor when he was a lad of only +eighteen years by Kollman Helmschmied of +Augsburg.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> Laurent Vital, describing the royal +jousts at Valladolid in 1518, relates that “après +marchait le Roy bien gorgiasement monté et +armé d'un fin harnais d'Alemaigne, plus reluisant +que d'argent brunti.” This is the very harness +told of by the chronicler. The helmet turns the +scale at forty pounds; the entire suit at two +hundred and fifty-three pounds; and the length +of the lance exceeds eleven feet.</p> + +<p>There is, however, also in this armoury a +jousting harness (Plate <a href="#img_242.jpg">l</a>.) formerly the property +of Philip the First of Spain, a part of which, +including the cuirass, is known to be of Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +make. The cuirass in question bears the mark +of a Valencia armourer, and the harness generally +dates from about the year 1500, at which +time Gachard tells us in his <i>Chroniques Belges</i> +that Philip was learning to joust “à la mode +d'Espaigne.” Besides the enormous helmet and +the Spanish-made cuirass, covered with gold +brocade, this ornament includes a tourneying +lance with a blunt three-pointed head,<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> and a +curious form of rest, said by the Count of +Valencia de Don Juan to be peculiar to the +Spaniards and Italians. This rest is stuffed with +cork, on which, just as the fray began, the iron +extremity of the lance was firmly driven. Another +interesting detail is the <i>cuja</i>, fastened to +the right side of the cuirass, and also stuffed with +cork, made use of to support the lance upon its +passage over to the rest. Nor in this instance +was the <i>cuja</i> a superfluous device, seeing that +the lance is over fifteen feet in length.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_238.jpg" width="362" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_238.jpg" id="img_238.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">JOUSTING HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH<br /> +(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>These are the principal portions of the harness. +The seemingly insufficient protection for the +arms is explained by the fact that the solid wooden +shield completely covered the fighter's left arm,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +while the right would be defended by the shield-like +disc or <i>arandela</i> of the lance.</p> + +<p>Spanish shields and swords of great antiquity +and interest are also in this armoury. The +oldest of the shields dates from the twelfth +century, and proceeds from the monastery of San +Salvador de Oña, Burgos. The material is a +wood resembling cedar, although much eaten by +moth, and is covered on both sides with parchment +bearing traces of primitive painting of a +non-heraldic character. Inside the shield, this +decoration consisted of a black ground crossed +diagonally by a broad red band, and outside, of +a red ground covered with rhomboid figures, some +in gilt and some in colour. Such figures were a +popular pattern at this time and on this class of +objects. The general stoutness of this shield +shows that it was meant for war. It still retains +the strap which slung it from the warrior's neck, as +well as fragments of the braces—made of buffalo +leather covered with crimson velvet—for the hand.</p> + +<p>Another shield, proceeding from the same +monastery, dates from the thirteenth century. +The material, here again, is wood and parchment; +but in this hundred years formal heraldic ornament +had superseded fancy or conventional devices.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +Accordingly, this shield is painted with a blazon, +now much worn, of which, however, enough remains +to show that it consisted once upon a time of four +black chaperons crowned with gold <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> +upon a gold ground—said to have been the arms +of Don Rodrigo Gomez, Count of Bureba.</p> + +<p>The <i>scut</i>, or polished metal shield, with painted +blazonry or other decoration, was limited to +Aragon and Cataluña.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></p> + +<p>Among the smaller and more modern shields +preserved in this collection are two wooden bucklers +dating from the sixteenth century. One is in +the Spanish-Moorish style and of a convex shape, +with iron bordering and umbo, and a lining of +yellow brocade. The other, of the Christian +Spaniards, is small and lined with painted parchment, +and was intended, so the inventory says, +“for going about at night.”<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></p> + +<p>There is also a richly gilt and silvered buckler +of the seventeenth century, made at Eugui in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +Navarre, and covered with a scene—decadent in +design and workmanship—which represents the +judgment of Paris. Defensive armour, chiefly of +a highly decorative kind, was made all through +this century at the capital of Navarre, Pamplona. +The Royal Armoury contains a Pamplonese +parade harness (Plate <a href="#img_250.jpg">lii</a>.), offered as a gift to +Philip the Third, as well as six diminutive sets of +armour made to his order for the youthful princes +Don Felipe, Don Fernando, and Don Carlos.</p> + +<p>The <i>adarga</i> was a kind of targe used by the +light cavalry, and had its origin in Africa. Those +which were stored in the palace of the Nasrite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +sultans of Granada are described by Al-Makkari +as “solid, without pores, soft to the touch, and +famed for their imperviousness.” The material +was strong leather, such as cowhide, often embroidered +with a scutcheon or with arabesques. +Two Spanish-made <i>adargas</i> in this armoury +are particularly handsome. One is of Moorish +craftsmanship, and dates from the end of the +fifteenth century. The other (Plate <a href="#img_254.jpg">liii</a>.), apparently +the work of a Spanish Christian and dating +from a century later, is embroidered in silver +thread and coloured silk with arabesque devices +and also with four coats of arms, one of which +belongs to the noble family of Fernández de +Cordova. The dimensions of this shield are a +yard in height by thirty inches in breadth.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_242.jpg" width="308" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_242.jpg" id="img_242.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">JOUSTING HARNESS OF PHILIP THE HANDSOME<br /> +(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>There also are preserved in this collection a +shield (late sixteenth century) adorned by Mexican +Indians with a most elaborate “mosaic of feather-work,” +and a number of Spanish <i>adargas</i> of the +same period, for playing the <i>juego de cañas</i> or +“game of canes.” The armoury contained in +former days as many as forty-two <i>adargas</i>; but +the fire of 1884 completely destroyed sixteen and +badly damaged twenty-three, obliterating their +heraldic and other decoration. A yet more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +sinister event befell on December 1st, 1808, +when the Spanish mob, exasperated by the +French, broke in and seized three hundred swords, +not one of which was afterwards recovered. +Mention of these disasters leads me to recall the +quantity of beautiful or historic military gear that +Spain has lost through many tribulations and +vicissitudes. Formerly her noble families had +excellent collections in their palaces or castles. +Such were the private armouries of the Dukes of +Pastrana at Guadalajara, and of the Dukes of +Alburquerque at Cuéllar Castle, near Segovia. +Bertaut de Rouen describes the first as “une des +plus belles qui se voyent pour un seigneur +particulier. Il y a quantité d'armes anciennes, et +l'on y void une épée qui s'allonge et s'accourcit +quand on veut, de deux pieds et demy.”<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> The +Cuéllar armoury was pulled to pieces by Philip +the Fourth to arm his troops against the French. +“Send me,” he wrote to the Duke from Madrid, +in a letter dated April 16th, 1637, “all your +pistols, carbines, harness for horses, breastplates +and other arms for mounted fighting”; +and the loyal nobleman complied upon the spot, +despatching more than five hundred pieces,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +many of which were doubtless of the greatest +interest.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p> + +<p>Had I the erudition and the time, I would +attempt to write, as it deserves to be written, an +introduction to the history of Spanish swords. +Of all the objects mentioned in these volumes, +here is the most inherently symbolic of the +Spanish character and history. The Spanish +Moors and Spanish Christians spoke of it as +something superhuman. “Once the sword is in +the hand of man,” observed, in solemn tones, the +Wise Alfonso, “he hath it in his power to raise +or lower it, to strike with it, or to abandon it.” +The Spanish Mussulmans talked of putting +“clothes and breeches” on a sword that had a +sheath, as though it were a breathing person; +while a Spaniard of the time of Gongora would +often use such language as the following: “Truly +in point of look there is as great a difference +between a costly sword and a <i>Toledan Loyalty</i> or +<i>Soldier's Dream</i>, as between a marquis and a +muleteer, or a washerwoman and the Infanta. +Yet every sword is virtually an hidalgo. Does +not the basest of our Toledanas, even to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +<i>perrillos</i> and <i>morillos</i>, which have no core, and +cost a dozen <i>reales</i> merely, afford a chivalrous +lesson to its wearer, as it bids him <i>no me saques +sin razon, ni me envaines sin honor</i>?<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> The +horse and the sword,” he continued, taking a +magnificently damascened rapier, and stroking it +caressingly, “are the noblest friends of man, +albeit the nobler is the sword; for the horse at +times is obstinate or faint-hearted, but the sword +is ready continually. The sword, moreover, +possesses the chiefest of all virtues—justice, or +the power of dividing right and wrong; a soul of +iron, which is strength; and, last and greatest, +the Cross, which is the symbol of the blessed +Catholic Faith.”<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p> + +<p>Notices of early Spanish sword-makers are +far from common. Don Manuel G. Simancas +quotes the following, dated in the thirteenth +century:—</p> + +<p>“<i>Master Almerique.</i> By letters of the King +and Queen, to Master Almerique, for making the +(sword) blades for the King; out of the MCC<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +<i>maravedis</i> of his salary he received CCCC +<i>maravedis</i>.”</p> + +<p>“<i>Master Enrique.</i> By letters of the King and +Queen, to Master Enrique, for making the swords, +MCCCC, (of which) he received CCCCXII +<i>maravedis</i>.”</p> + +<p>Other entries of the same period relate to Juan +Ferrández, armourer, who received a sum for +making coverings for arms and saddles; and to +Master Jacomin, who was paid three gold <i>doblas</i>, +or sixty-three <i>maravedis</i>, for making a breastplate.</p> + +<p>In the inventory (1560) of the Dukes of Alburquerque +occurs a very curious notice which seems +to show that mediæval Spanish swords were +manufactured even in the rural districts. The +entry runs; “an old grooved sword of a broad +shape, bearing the words <i>Juanes me fezió</i> (“John +made me”). In the middle of the same a P +within a parted wave, with Portuguese fittings, +varnished, black silk hilt and fringes, and double +straps of black leather, with varnished ends and +buckles and black leather sheath. <i>Juan de +Lobinguez made this sword at Cuéllar.</i>”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_246.jpg" width="407" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_246.jpg" id="img_246.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">MOORISH BUCKLER<br /> +(<i>Osier and metal. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The Spanish guilds of armourers enjoyed high +favour,<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> since the examination for admission to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +this craft was very strict, as well as fenced +about with curious prohibitions. Thus at Seville, +“no Moor, Jew, black man, or other person +such as the law debars, shall set up a shop for +making and selling defensive arms, or undergo +examination in this craft.”<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> The penalty for +infringement of this law was confiscation of the +arms, together with a fine of twenty thousand +<i>maravedis</i>.</p> + +<p>Throughout these times the armourer's and the +gilder's crafts are found in closest union; just as +the armourer's craft would often alternate with +that of the goldsmith or the silversmith. At +Seville, the Ordinance of 1512 prescribed that +every candidate who came to be examined must +make “a set of horse harness, complete with +stirrups, headstalls, spurs, poitral, and the fittings +of a sword; and he must silver several of these +pieces and blue them with fine blue; and make of +iron, and gild the spurs and fittings of the sword. +Thus shall he make, and gild, and silver the aforesaid +pieces.”</p> + +<p>Equally severe and comprehensive are the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +swordsmiths' Ordinances (1527 to 1531) of +Granada. The aspirant to the title of <i>oficial</i> +“shall mount a sword for wear with ordinary +clothes, fitted in black, together with its straps, and +fringed and corded hilt; besides a sword gilded +a low gold, together with its straps and other parts, +all of a single colour. Also he shall fit a velvet-scabbarded, +silver-hilted sword, and a two-handed +sword, fully decorated, with the knife attaching to +the same, one-edged and with a smooth hilt; also +a sword whose scabbard shall be fitted with knives +numbering not less than three; and a hilt of +<i>lacería</i> (network ornament); and another sword +in a white sheath, with woven hilt; and another of +a hand and a half.”<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p> + +<p>The Royal Armoury at Madrid contains an +excellent collection of these weapons. Among +the earliest known to be of Spanish make are +two which date from the thirteenth century. One +of them (Plate <a href="#img_258.jpg">liv</a>., No. 1), with fittings of a +later time, is frequently miscalled the “Cid's +Colada,” and seems to have been confounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +with the genuine weapon of that hero which was +acquired in the thirteenth century by one of the +sovereigns of Castile, and which has probably +disappeared.</p> + +<p>The blade of this remarkable sword has two +edges and tapers gradually to the point. Part +of the blade is slightly hollowed, and bears, +extending through about a quarter of the hollow +or <i>canal</i>, the following inscription or device:—</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_249.jpg" width="400" height="146" + alt="inscription" + title="inscription" /> +</div> + +<p>This is believed by some authorities to +represent the words <span class="smcap">SI, SI, NO, NON</span> (“Yes, yes, no, +no”); and by others to be a purely meaningless +and decorative pattern. The weapon, in any +case, is in the best of preservation, and is +especially interesting from the fact that engraved +blades dating from this early period are very +seldom met with. The Count of Valencia de +Don Juan believes this weapon to be the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +<i>Lobera</i> which belonged to Ferdinand the Third, +and aptly quotes the following passage from the +chronicle. When Ferdinand, conqueror of +Seville, was lying on his death-bed in that +capital, surrounded by his children, he gave his +blessing to his younger son, the Infante Don +Manuel, and addressed him in these words. “I +can bequeath no heritage to you; but I bestow +upon you my sword Lobera, that is of passing +worth, and wherewith God has wrought much +good to me.” If the Count's surmise be accurate, +another passage which he quotes from the work +<i>Nobleza y Lealtad</i>, written by the twelve +councillors of Ferdinand, fully explains the legend +on the blade. “<i>Sennor, el tu si sea asi, e el tu +non, sea non; que muy gran virtud es al Príncipe, +ó á otro qualquier ome ser verdadero, e grand +seguranza de sus vasallos, e de sus cosas.</i>”<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_250.jpg" width="344" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_250.jpg" id="img_250.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">ARMOUR MADE AT PAMPLONA<br /> +(<i>17th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>I said that the chiselled and gilded iron +fittings to the blade are of a later period. They +date from the earlier part of the sixteenth +century, and are the work of Salvador de Avila, +of Toledo.</p> + +<p>The other sword in this collection, and which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +also belongs to the thirteenth century, has a long, +broad blade with two edges and a central groove, +thinly engraved with circles (Pl. <a href="#img_258.jpg">liv</a>., No. 3, and +Pl. lv.). The crossbars are of silver-gilt, engraved +with <i>ataurique</i>, curving towards the blade and +terminating in trefoils. A shield midway between +them bears the arms of Castile upon one side, and +those of León upon the other. The grip is of +wood, covered with silver plates with decorated +borders, and the pommel is of iron, also covered +with ornamental plates of silver-gilt. Formerly +this arm was studded with precious stones, but +all of these excepting one have disappeared.</p> + +<p>The scabbard is of wood lined with sheepskin, +and is covered with a series of five silver-gilt +plates, profusely decorated with Hispano-Moresque +<i>lacería</i>, studded with various kinds of gems. +These gems upon the scabbard amounted once +upon a time to seventy-six, which sum, through +pilfering or accident (probably the former, since +the finest stones are gone), has been diminished +by one-half. An inventory, made in the reign +of Philip the Second, states that the inner +side of the sheath, now wholly worn away, was +covered with lions and castles, and that the belt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +was of broad orange-coloured cloth, with silver +fittings.</p> + +<p>This sword has been absurdly attributed to the +nephew of Charlemagne, who lived not less than +half a thousand years before its date of manufacture. +The Count of Valencia de Don Juan +thought that it may have been the property of a +Spanish monarch of the thirteenth century,—perhaps +Alfonso the Learned, or Ferdinand the +Third, Alfonso's father. Ferdinand, we know, +possessed a sword which he delivered with due +ceremony to his elder son, the Infante Don +Fernando, upon his leading out a force against +the town of Antequera. This sword the chronicler +Alvar García de Santa María described as +having “a sheath in pieces, with many precious +stones.”</p> + +<p>Of even greater interest than the foregoing +weapon is the great two-handed and two-edged +<i>estoque</i> or ceremonial sword of Ferdinand and +Isabella, which measures forty-two inches in +length. The fittings are of iron, gilded and +engraved. The crossbars, terminating in small +half-moons, with the concave side directed +outward, are inscribed with the well-known motto +of the Catholic sovereigns, <span class="smcap">TANTO MONTA</span>, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +with a supplication to the Virgin, <span class="smcap">MEMENTO MEI O +MATER DEI MEI</span>. The pommel is a flat disc, +suggestive in its outline of a Gothic cross, and +bears upon one side the figure of Saint John +together with the yoke, emblem of Ferdinand +the Catholic, and upon the other the sheaf of +arrows, emblem of his consort Isabella. The +hilt is covered with red velvet bound with wire.</p> + +<p>The sheath of this most interesting sword—affirmed +by the Count of Valencia de Don Juan +to have been used by Ferdinand and Isabella, and +subsequently by Charles the Fifth, in the ceremony +of conferring knighthood, and also, during the +Hapsburg monarchy, to have been carried by the +master of the horse before the king upon his +formal visit to a city of his realm—is made of +wood covered with crimson silk, bearing in +“superposed” embroidery the arms of Spain +posterior to the conquest of Granada, together +with a repetition of the emblems of the Catholic +sovereigns (Plate <a href="#img_258.jpg">liv</a>., No. 2).</p> + +<p>In the same collection are two other swords +which probably belonged to Ferdinand the +Catholic. One of them (Pl. <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 1), has a +discoid pommel and a gilded iron handle. The +flat crossbars grow wider and bend down towards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +the blade, and on the hilt we read the words <span class="smcap">PAZ +COMIGO NVNCA VEO, Y SIEMPRE GVERA DESEO</span> +(“Never does peace attend me, and always do +I yearn for war”).</p> + +<p>This sword has been attributed to Isabella. +The evidence for this belief is slight, although +the Count of Valencia de Don Juan discovered +that in the year 1500 Isabella was undoubtedly +the possessor of certain weapons and armour +which she sometimes actually wore. Among +these objects were several Milanese breastplates, +a small dagger with a gold enamelled hilt in the +shape of her emblem of the sheaf of arrows, and +two swords, one fitted with silver and enamel, +and the other with iron.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_254.jpg" width="408" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_254.jpg" id="img_254.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption"><i>ADARGA</i><br /> +(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The other sword, which probably belonged to +Ferdinand the Catholic, is of the kind known as +“of a hand and a half” (<i>de mano y media</i>; see +p. 248, <i>note</i>), and also of the class denominated +<i>estoques de arzón</i>, or “saddle-bow swords,” being +commonly slung from the forepart of the saddle +upon the left side of the rider. Ferdinand, however, +had reason to be chary of this usage, for +Lucio Marineo Sículo affirms that at the siege +of Velez-Málaga the sword which he was wearing +thus suspended, jammed at a critical moment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +the fray, and very nearly caused his death. +Sículo adds that after this experience Ferdinand +invariably wore his sword girt round his person, +just as he wears it in the carving on the choir-stalls +of Toledo.</p> + +<p>The Royal Armoury contains another sword +improperly attributed both to Ferdinand the +Third and Ferdinand the Catholic. It dates +from the fifteenth century, and has a blade +of unusual strength intended to resist plate +armour. This blade, which has a central ridge +continued to the very point, is very broad towards +the handle, tapers rapidly, and measures +thirty-two inches. At the broader end, and on +a gilded ground embellished with concentric +circles, are graven such legends as:—</p> + +<p>“The Lord is my aid. I will not fear what +man may do to me, and will despise my enemies. +Superior to them, I will destroy them utterly.”</p> + +<p>“Make me worthy to praise thee, O sweet and +blessed Virgin Mary.”</p> + +<p>The handle is of iron, with traces of gilded +decoration, and corded with black silk. The +Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that no +reliable information can be found concerning +this fine arm. Its length and general design<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> +would allow of its being used with one hand or +with both, and either slung from the saddle-bow +or round the middle of a warrior on foot.</p> + +<p>Another handsome sword, wrongly attributed +by the ignorant to Alfonso the Sixth, is kept at +Toledo, in the sacristy of the cathedral. The +scabbard is adorned with fourteenth-century +enamel in the <i>champlevé</i> style. Baron de las +Cuatro Torres considers that this sword belonged +to the archbishop Don Pedro Tenorio (see <a href="#Page_269">p. 269</a>), +and adduces his proofs in the <i>Boletín de la +Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i> for March +1897. The prelate in question, appointed to +command an army sent against Granada, was, +like so many of the Spanish mediæval clerics, +of a warlike temper, and “exchanged with great +alacrity his rochet for his harness, and his mitre +for his helm.”</p> + +<p>One of the most ridiculous and barefaced +forgeries in the Royal Armoury is a sixteenth-century +sword which has inscribed upon its blade +the name of the redoubtable Bernardo del Carpio. +The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says he +remembers to have met with other blades of +later mediæval make, engraved with such legends +as “belonging to Count Fernán-Gonzalez,” or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> +even “Recaredus Rex Gothorum,” while others +in this armoury are ascribed, without the least +authority of fact or common sense, to García de +Paredes, Alvaro de Sande, and Hernando de +Alarcón. Others, again, with less extravagance, +though not on solid proof, are said to have belonged +to Hernán Cortés, the Count of Lemos, +and Diego Hurtado de Mendoza.</p> + +<p>Some, upon the other hand, belonged undoubtedly +to celebrated Spanish warriors of the +olden time. Such are the swords of the Count +of Coruña, of Gonzalo de Córdova, and of the conqueror +of Peru, Francisco Pizarro. The first of +these weapons (Pl. <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 4) has a superb hilt +carved in the style of the Spanish Renaissance, +with crossbars curving down, a <i>pas d'âne</i>, and a +Toledo blade of six <i>mesas</i> (“tables”) or surfaces, +grooved on both sides, and ending in a blunt +point. The armourer's mark, which seems to +represent a <i>fleur-de-lis</i> four times repeated, is +that of the swordsmith Juan Martinez, whose +name we read upon the blade, together with the +words <span class="smcap">IN TE DOMINE SPERAVI</span>, and on the other +side, in Spanish, <span class="smcap">PARA DON BERNARDINO XVAREZ +DE MENDOZA, CONDE DE CORVÑA</span>.</p> + +<p>The sword of “the great captain,” Gonzalo de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> +Córdova (1453–1515), is not of Spanish make +(Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 3). It has a straight blade with +bevelled edges. The pommel and <i>quillons</i> are +decorated with Renaissance carving, and the +bars, which are of gilded iron, grow wider at +their end and curve towards the blade. The +pommel, of gilded copper, is spherical, and +bears, upon one side, a scene which represents +a battle, together with the words <span class="smcap">GONSALVI +AGIDARI VICTORIA DE GALLIS AD CANNAS</span>. Upon +the other side are carved his arms. Other inscriptions +in Latin are also on the pommel and +the blade.</p> + +<p>The Count of Valencia de Don Juan believed +that this sword was a present to Gonzalo from +the corporation of some Italian town, and that it +replaced, as an <i>estoque real</i>, or sword of ceremony, +the state sword (see <a href="#Page_252">p. 252</a>) of Ferdinand and +Isabella.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_258.jpg" width="360" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_258.jpg" id="img_258.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">SPANISH SWORDS<br /> +(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Pizarro's sword remained in possession of his +descendants, the Marquises of La Conquista, until +as recently as 1809, in which year this family +presented it to a Scotch officer named John +Downie, who had fought in the Peninsular War +against the French. Downie, in turn, bequeathed +it to his brother Charles, lieutenant-colonel in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +Spanish army, from whom it passed into the hands +of Ferdinand the Seventh. The appearance of +this sword is not remarkable. It has a stout, +four-surfaced blade, with a powerful <i>recazo</i> or +central ridge, engraved with the Christian name +of Mateo Duarte, a swordsmith who was living at +Valencia in the middle of the sixteenth century. +The hilt is of blued (<i>pavonado</i>) steel, inlaid with +leaves and other ornament in gold. The pommel +is a disc; the <i>quillons</i> are straight, or very nearly +so, and there is a <i>pas d'âne</i> (Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 2).</p> + +<p>The sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries +are famous as the epoch of the Spanish rapier. +Toledo, as the world is well aware, enjoyed an +undisputed name for the production of these +weapons. Within this ancient and historic capital +generations of artists bequeathed, from father to +son, and son to grandson, the secret (if there +were a secret) of the tempering of these matchless +arms; nor have Toledo blades deteriorated to this +day. Many an idle superstition seeks to justify +the talent and dexterity of these swordsmiths; +though probably the key to all their skill was +merely in the manual cunning, based on constant +practice, of the craftsman, as well as in the native +virtues of the water of the Tagus.</p> + +<p>In one of my books I have described the workshop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +of an armourer of Toledo in the sixteenth +century. “After a few moments we entered the +Calle de las Armas, which struck me as having +grown a good deal narrower; and my companion, +pausing beside an open doorway topped with a +sign depicting a halberd and a sword, invited me +to enter. Two or three steps led downwards to +a dark, damp passage, and at the end of this was +a low but very large room, blackened by the +smoke from half a dozen forges. The walls were +hung with a bewildering variety of arms and parts +of armour—gauntlets and cuirasses; morions, +palettes, and lobster-tails; partisans and ranseurs; +halberds, bayonets, and spontoons; as well as +swords and daggers without number. Several +anvils, with tall, narrow buckets filled with water +standing beside them, were arranged about the +stone-paved floor; and beside each forge was a +large heap of fine, white sand.</p> + +<p>“The showers of sparks, together with a couple +of ancient-looking lamps whose flames shook fitfully +to and fro in the vibration, showed thirty or +forty workmen busily engaged; and what with +the clanging of the hammers, the roaring of the +bellows, and the strident hissing of the hot metal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +as it plunged into the cold water, the racket was +incessant.</p> + +<p>“My cicerone surveyed the discordant scene +with all the nonchalance of lifelong custom, +daintily eluding the columns of scalding steam, or +screening his <i>chambergo</i> from the sparks. Finding, +however, that I was powerless to understand the +remarks he kept addressing to me, he finally held +up his finger and gave the signal to cease work; +upon which the <i>oficial</i> handed him a bundle of +papers which I took to be accounts, and the men, +doffing their leathern aprons, and hanging them +in a corner, filed eagerly away.</p> + +<p>“‘It is quite simple,’ said my companion, as +though divining the query I was about to put to +him; ‘and indeed, I often wonder why we are so +famous. They say it is the water; but any water +will do. Or else they say it is the sand; and yet +this sand, though clean and pure, is just the same +as any other. Look! The blade of nearly all +our swords is composed of three pieces—two +strips of steel, from Mondragón in Guipúzcoa, +and an iron core. This latter is the <i>alma</i>, or soul. +The three pieces are heated and beaten together; +and when they grow red-hot and begin to throw +out sparks, they are withdrawn from the fire, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> +few handfuls of sand are thrown over them. The +welding of the pieces is then continued on the +anvil; and, finally, the file is brought to bear on +all unevennesses, and the weapon passes on to +the temperer, the grinder, and the burnisher.’</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_262.jpg" width="261" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_262.jpg" id="img_262.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">SWORD<br /> +(<i>13th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>“‘It is in the tempering that we have earned +our principal renown, although this process is +quite as simple as the rest. Upon the forge—see, +here is one still burning—a fire is made in the +form of a narrow trench, long enough to receive +four-fifths of the length of the weapon. As soon +as the metal reaches a certain colour’ (I thought +I noted a mischievous twinkle in the armourer's +eyes, as though this <i>certain colour</i> were the key +to all our conversation), ‘I take these pincers, +and, grasping the portion which had remained +outside the fire, drop the weapon so, point downwards, +into the bucket of water. Any curve is +then made straight by beating upon the concave +side, and the part which had been previously kept +outside the trench of fire returns to the forge and +is duly heated. The entire blade is next smeared +with mutton fat, and rested against the wall to +cool, point upwards. There is nothing more except +the finishing. Your sword is made.’”<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p> + +<p>The following passage from Bowles' <i>Natural</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +<i>History of Spain</i>, written in 1752, is also of +especial interest here:—“At a league's distance +from Mondragón is a mine of varnished, or, as +miners term it, frozen iron. It lies in the midst +of soft red earth, and produces natural steel—a +very curious circumstance, seeing that, as I am +assured, there is no other mine of this description +in the kingdom. A tradition exists that the +iron from this mine was used for making the +swords, so celebrated for their tempering, presented +by Doña Catalina, daughter of the Catholic +Sovereigns, to her husband, Henry the Eighth of +England. A few of these swords are yet extant +in Scotland, where the natives call them <i>André +Ferrara</i>,<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> and esteem them greatly. The famous +sword-blades of Toledo, and the Perrillo blades +of Zaragoza, which are still so highly valued, as +well as others made elsewhere, are said to have +been forged from the iron of this mine, which +yields forty per cent. of metal. It is, however, +somewhat hard to melt. With a little trouble it +is possible to secure excellent steel, because this +mine, like many another, possesses in itself the +quality of readily taking from the coal of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +forge the spirit which is indispensable for making +first-rate swords; but without cementation I do +not think it would serve for making good files +or razors.”</p> + +<p>“The swords of which I spoke as being so +famed were generally either of a long shape, for +wearing with a ruff; or broad, and known as the +<i>arzón</i>, for use on horseback. It is probable that +when the ruff was suddenly abandoned at the +beginning of this century, large quantities of +ready-fitted swords began to be imported from +abroad, of such a kind as was demanded by the +novel clothing. This would account for the +decline and the eventual collapse of our factories, +and the loss of our art of tempering swords. +Concerning the mode of executing this, opinions +differ. It is said by some that the blades were +tempered in winter only, and that when they were +withdrawn for the last time from the furnace, the +smiths would shake them in the air at great speed +three times on a very cold day. Others say that +the blades were heated to a cherry-colour, then +plunged for a couple of seconds into a deep +jar filled with oil or grease, and changed forthwith +to another vessel of lukewarm water, after +which they were set to cool in cold water; all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +these operations being performed at midwinter. +Others, again, declare that the blades were +forged from the natural iron of Mondragón by +placing a strip of ordinary iron along their core +so as to give them greater elasticity; and +that they were then tempered in the ordinary +manner, though always in the winter. Such +are the prevailing theories about the iron +swords of Mondragón, which are, in truth, of +admirable quality.“</p> + +<p>Magnificent examples of Toledo sword-blades, +produced while her craft was at the zenith of its +fame—that is, throughout the sixteenth and the +seventeenth centuries—are in the Royal Armoury +(Pl. <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., Nos. 5, 6, 7). Among them are a series +of <i>montantes</i> made for tournament or war, and a +superb blade, dated 1564, forged for Philip the +Second by Miguel Cantero. The Count of +Valencia de Don Juan considered this to be one +of the finest weapons ever tempered; adding that +the sword-blades of the city of the Tagus were +held in such esteem all over Europe that he had +seen, in numerous museums of the Continent, +weapons professing to be Toledo-made, in which +the blade and mark are evidently forged; bearing, +for instance, <i>Ernantz</i> for Hernandez, <i>Johanos</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +for Juanes, and <i>Tomas Dailae</i> for Tomás de +Ayala.</p> + +<p>It is generally agreed that the changes in the +national costume, together with the importation +of a lighter make of sword from France, were +directly responsible for the decline of the Toledo +sword-blades early in the eighteenth century. +However, this decline was only temporary. +Townsend wrote in 1786: “From the Alcazar +we went to visit the royal manufactory of arms, +with which I was much pleased. The steel is excellent, +and so perfectly tempered, that in thrusting +at a target, the swords will bend like whalebone, +and yet cut through a helmet without turning +their edge. This once famous manufacture +had been neglected, and in a manner lost, but it +is now reviving.”</p> + +<p>Laborde endorsed these praises subsequently: +“Within a few years the fabrication of swords +has been resumed at Toledo; the place allotted to +this object is a handsome edifice, a quarter of a +league distant from the city, which commands +the banks of the Tagus. This undertaking has +hitherto been prosperous; the swords are celebrated +for the excellence of their blades, which are +of finely tempered steel.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_266.jpg" width="298" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_266.jpg" id="img_266.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">OLD SWORD<br /> +(<i>Erroneously attributed to the Cid. Collection +of the Marquis of Falces</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The modern small-arms factory of Toledo,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +situated on the right bank of the Tagus, a mile +from the city walls, had, in fact, been opened in +1783, when the same industry was also reviving +at Vitoria, Barcelona, and elsewhere. Toledo +worthily maintains to-day her ancient and illustrious +reputation for this craft. The Tagus still +supplies its magic water for the tempering, while +part of the prime material of the steel itself +proceeds from Solingen and Styria, and the rest +from Trubia and Malaga.</p> + +<p>Cutlery continued to be made in Spain all +through the eighteenth century. Colmenar says +that the knives of Barcelona were considered excellent. +According to Laborde, cutlery was made +at Solsona and Cardona in Cataluña, at Mora +in New Castile, and at Albacete in Murcia. +“The cutlery of Solsona is in great repute; but +the largest quantity is made at Albacete. In +the latter place are about twenty-eight working +cutlers, each of whom employs five or six journeymen, +who respectively manufacture annually six +or seven thousand pieces, amounting in the +whole to about one hundred and eighty thousand +pieces.”<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p> + +<h3>FIREARMS</h3> + +<p>Cannon of a primitive kind were used in Spain +comparatively early. A large variety of names +was given to these pieces, such as <i>cerbatanas</i>, +<i>ribadoquines</i>, <i>culebrinas</i>, <i>falconetes</i>, <i>pasavolantes</i>, +<i>lombardas</i> or <i>bombardas</i>, and many more; but +the oldest, commonest, and most comprehensive +name of all was <i>trueno</i>, “thunder,” from the +terrifying noise of the discharge. This word was +used for both the piece and the projectile. The +Count of Clonard quotes Pedro Megía's <i>Silva de +Varias Lecciones</i> to show that gunpowder was +known in Spain as early as the eleventh century. +“Thunders” of some description seem to have +been used at the siege of Zaragoza in 1118; and +a Moorish author, writing in 1249, describes in +fearsome terms “the horrid noise like thunder, +vomiting fire in all directions, destroying everything, +reducing everything to ashes.” Al-Jattib, +the historian of Granada, wrote at the beginning +of the fourteenth century that the sultan of that +kingdom used at the siege of Baza “a mighty +engine, applying fire thereto, prepared with +naphtha and with balls.” The Chronicle of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +Alfonso the Eleventh describes in a quaint and +graphic passage the crude artillery of that period, +and the panic it occasioned. At the siege of +Algeciras in 1342, “the Moors that were within +the city threw many ‘thunders’ at the (Christian) +host, together with mighty balls of iron, to such a +distance that several overpassed the army, and +some did damage to our host. Also, by means +of ‘thunders’ they threw arrows exceeding great +and thick, so that it was as much as a man +could do to lift them from the ground. And as +for the iron balls these ‘thunders’ hurled, men +were exceedingly afraid thereof; for if they +chanced to strike a limb they cut it off as clean as +with a knife, and though the wound were but a +slight one, yet was the man as good as dead; nor +was any chirurgery that might avail him, both +because the balls came burning hot, like flame, +and because the powder which discharged them +was of such a kind that any wound it made was +surely mortal; and such was the violence of these +balls, that they went through a man, together +with all his armour.”</p> + +<p>Towards the close of the same century the +testament of Don Pedro Tenorio (see <a href="#Page_256">p. 256</a>), the +bellicose archbishop of Alcalá de Henares, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> +ruled that diocese from 1376 to 1399, contains +the following passage:—“<i>Item</i>. We bought +crossbows and bassinets both for foot and horse, +together with shields, pikes, javelins, darts, +lombards, hemp, powder, and other munitions for +the castles of our Church; of which munitions we +stored the greater quantity at Talavera and at +Alcalá de Henares, purposing to deposit them at +Cazorla and in the castles of Canales and of +Alhamin, which we are now repairing after they +were thrown down by the King Don Pedro, and +for the tower of Cazorla, which we are now +erecting. And it is our will that all of these +munitions be for the said castles and tower; and +that no one lay his hand on them, on pain of +excommunication, excepting only the bishop +elected and confirmed who shall succeed us; and +he shall distribute them as he holds best among +the aforesaid castles. And all the best of these +munitions shall be for the governorship of Cazorla, +as being most needed there to overthrow the +enemies of our faith; and we have duly lodged +the shields and crossbows, parted from the rest, +upon the champaign of Toledo; whither should +arrive more shields from Valladolid, that all +together may be carried to Cazorla.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_270.jpg" width="455" height="600" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_270.jpg" id="img_270.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">SPANISH SWORDS<br /> +(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The article from which I quote this passage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +adds that the palace of the archbishop at Alcalá +de Henares was fortified with cannon until the +beginning of the nineteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p> + +<p>Cannon are mentioned with increasing frequency +throughout the fifteenth century; and in +the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella we read of +lombards of enormous size, which had to be +dragged across the Andalusian hills and plains +by many scores of men and beasts; which frequently +stuck fast and had to be abandoned on +the march; and which, even in the best of circumstances, +could only be discharged some twice or +thrice a day.</p> + +<p>In reading documents and chronicles of older +Spain, it is easy to confound the early forms of +cannon with the engines similar to those employed +by the Crusaders in the Holy Land, and built +for hurling stones or arrows of large size. Such +engines were the <i>trabuco</i>, the <i>almajanech</i> or +<i>almojaneque</i>, the <i>algarrada</i>, and the <i>fundíbalo</i> or +Catalan <i>fonevol</i>. Beuter, in his <i>Chronicle of +Spain and of Valencia</i>, describes the latter as “a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> +certain instrument which has a sling made fast +to an extremity of wood … made to revolve +so rapidly that the arm, on being released, projects +the stone with such a force as to inflict much +harm, even in distant places, whither could reach +no missile slung by the hand of man.”</p> + +<p>Turning to portable Spanish firearms, we find +that the precursor of the arquebus, musket, and +rifle seems to have been a weapon which was +introduced about the middle of the fifteenth +century, and called the <i>espingarda</i>. Alfonso de +Palencia says it was employed against the rebels +of Toledo in 1467; and the Chronicle of Don +Alvaro de Luna relates that when this nobleman +was standing beside Don Iñigo d'Estúñiga, upon +a certain occasion in 1453, “a man came out in +his shirt and set fire to an <i>espingarda</i>, discharging +the shot thereof above the heads of Don +Alvaro and of Iñigo d'Estúñiga, but wounding +an esquire.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_272.jpg" width="500" height="435" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_272.jpg" id="img_272.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">MARKS OF TOLEDAN ARMOURERS (15TH–17TH CENTURIES), +FROM SWORDS IN THE ROYAL ARMOURY AT MADRID</p> +</div> + +<p>As time advanced, portable firearms of first-rate +quality were made throughout the northern +Spanish provinces, and also in Navarra, Cataluña, +Aragon, and Andalusia. The inventory of the +Dukes of Alburquerque mentions, in 1560, “four +flint arquebuses of Zaragoza make … another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> +arquebus of Zaragoza, together with its fuse,” and +“arquebuses of those that are made within this +province” (<i>i.e.</i> of Segovia). Cristóbal Frisleva, +of Ricla in Aragon, and Micerguillo of Seville +were celebrated makers of this arm; but probably +these and all the other Spanish masters of this +craft derived their skill from foreign teaching, +such as that of the brothers Simon and Peter +Marckwart (in Spanish the name is spelt <i>Marcuarte</i>,) +who were brought to Spain by Charles +the Fifth.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p> + +<p>The Royal Armoury contains some finely +decorated guns, made for the kings of Spain at +the close of the seventeenth century and early in +the eighteenth, by Juan Belen, Juan Fernandez, +Francisco Baeza y Bis, and Nicolás Bis. The +last-named, pupil of Juan Belen, was a German; +but all these gunsmiths lived and worked at +Madrid. Nicolás was arquebus-maker to Charles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> +the Second from 1691, and afterwards held the +same post from Philip the Fifth. He died in +1726, and the Count of Valencia de Don Juan +says that in 1808—that is, before it was plundered +by the mob—the Royal Armoury contained no +fewer than fifty-three weapons of his manufacture. +One of the guns which bear his mark, and still +exist, is inscribed with the words, “I belong to +the Queen our lady” (Isabel Farnese, first wife +of Philip the Fifth), combined with the arms of +León and Castile, and of the Bourbon family. +This weapon was used, or intended to be used, +for hunting.</p> + +<p>Diego Esquivel, another gunsmith of Madrid, +was also famous early in the eighteenth century, +as, later on, were Manuel Sutil, José Cano, +Francisco Lopez, Salvador Cenarro, Isidro Soler +(author of a <i>Compendious History of the Arquebus-makers +of Madrid</i>), Juan de Soto, and Sebastián +Santos.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_274.jpg" width="362" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_274.jpg" id="img_274.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption"><i>BRIDONA</i> SADDLE<br /> +(<i>15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Swinburne wrote from Cataluña in 1775; “the +gun-barrels of Barcelona are much esteemed, and +cost from four to twenty guineas, but about five +is the real value; all above is paid for fancy and +ornament; they are made out of the old shoes of +mules.”</p> + +<p>Until 1793, the smaller firearms of the Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> +army were made at Plasencia in Guipúzcoa. In +that year the government factory, where hand-labour +alone continued to be used till 1855, was +removed to Oviedo. To-day this factory employs +about five hundred workmen. In 1809 Laborde +wrote that “firearms, such as fusees, musquets, carbines, +and pistols are manufactured at Helgoivar, +Eybor, and Plasencia; at Oviedo, Barcelona, +Igualada, and at Ripoll; the arms made at the +latter city have long had a distinguished reputation. +Seven hundred and sixty-five gunsmiths, +it is estimated, find employment in the factories of +Guipúzcoa.”</p> + +<p>Both Townsend and the foregoing writer give +a good account of Spanish cannon at this time. +According to Laborde, “two excellent founderies +for brass cannon are royal establishments at +Barcelona and Seville; in the latter city copper +cannon are cast, following the method recommended +by M. Maritz. Iron ordnance are made +at Lierganez and Cavada.” Townsend wrote +of Barcelona, in 1786; “The foundery for +brass cannon is magnificent, and worthy of +inspection. It is impossible anywhere to see +either finer metal, or work executed in a neater<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> +and more perfect manner. Their method of +boring was, in the present reign, introduced by +Maritz, a Swiss. Near two hundred twenty-four +pounders are finished every year, besides mortars +and field-pieces.”</p> + +<h3>SADDLERY AND COACHES</h3> + +<p>Probably no relic of the former of these crafts +in Spain is older or more curious than the iron +bit (Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 8), inlaid with silver +dragons' heads and crosses, and attributed, from +cruciform monograms which also decorate it, to +the Visigothic King Witiza (who died in 711), +or sometimes to the conqueror of Toledo, Alfonso +the Sixth (eleventh century). The spurs or +<i>acicates</i> (Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 9) of Ferdinand the +Third of Castile, who conquered Seville from the +Moors, are also treasured in the Royal Armoury, +and bear upon an iron ground remains of gold and +silver decoration representing castles. The Count +of Valencia de Don Juan believed these spurs to +be authentic, because they are identical with the +ones which Ferdinand wears in his equestrian +seal, preserved among the National Archives of +France, and dating from the year 1237.</p> + +<p>Saddles of various kinds were used in Spain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> +throughout the Middle Ages. Among them +were the ordinary travelling-saddle or <i>silla de +barda</i> (Arabic <i>al-bardá</i>); saddles <i>de palafrén</i>,<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> the +<i>silla de la guisa</i>, or <i>de la brida</i> or <i>bridona</i>, for +riding with long stirrups, and consequently the +antithesis of the <i>gineta</i> saddle;<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> or saddles +made for use exclusively in war, on which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> +rider was accustomed to make the sign of the +cross before or after mounting, such as the <i>lidona</i>, +<i>gallega</i> (“<i>siellas gallegas</i>” are mentioned in the +<i>Poem of the Cid</i>), and <i>corsera</i> or <i>cocera</i> (Arabic +<i>al-corsi</i>), or else the <i>silla de conteras</i>, “whose +hindmost bow,” according to the Count of +Valencia de Don Juan, “terminated in converging +pieces to protect the wearer's thighs.”</p> + +<p>A saddle known as the <i>silla de rua</i>, or “street +saddle,” was generally used in Spain throughout +the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. It +was intended, not for war, but promenade and +show, and therefore richly decorated. The Royal +Armoury has nineteen of these saddles, all of +which are Spanish-made. In the same collection +is a plain <i>bridona</i> saddle (Plate <a href="#img_274.jpg">lix</a>.), with iron +stirrups and two gilt-metal bells, such as were +commonly used in tournaments or other festivals. +This saddle has been erroneously ascribed to the +thirteenth century. It dates from the beginning +of the fifteenth century, and proceeds from +Majorca.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_278.jpg" width="500" height="341" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_278.jpg" id="img_278.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">HANGING <i>JAECES</i> FOR HORSES</p> +</div> + +<p>The old belief that one of the saddles in this +armoury, whose bows are chased with a design +in black and gilt of leaves and pilgrim's shells, +was once upon a time the Cid Campeador's,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> +has been exploded recently. The saddle in +question is known to be Italian, dates from the +sixteenth century, and bears the arms of a town +in the duchy of Montferrato.</p> + +<p>The inventory (1560) of the dukes of Alburquerque +mentions some curious saddles, including +one “<i>de la brida</i>, of blue velvet, with the bows +painted gold, and on the front bow a cannon with +its carriage, and on the hind bow another cannon +with flames of fire.” Among the rest were “a +<i>gineta</i> saddle of red leather, used by my lord the +duke,” together with saddles of bay leather, of +dark brown leather, of “smooth leather with +trappings of blue cloth,” of Cordova leather, and +“a date-coloured <i>gineta</i>-saddle, complete.”</p> + +<p>The same inventory specifies innumerable +smaller articles of harness, such as stirrups, spurs, +reins, headstalls, and poitrals or breast-leathers. +Many of these pieces were richly ornamented; <i>e.g.</i>, +“some silver headstalls of small size, enamelled +in blue, with gilt supports of iron,”<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> as well as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> +“some silver headstalls, gilded and enamelled +green and rose, with shields upon the temples.” +Others of these headstalls were made of copper, +and nearly all were colour-enamelled.</p> + +<p>The stirrups included “two Moorish stirrups of +gilded tin, for a woman's use”;<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> “some large +Moorish stirrups, gilt, with two silver plates upon +their faces, enamelled gold, green, and blue, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> +eight nails on either face”; “some other Moorish +stirrups, wrought inside with <i>ataujía</i>-work in gold, +and outside with plates of copper enamelled in +green, blue, and white; the handles gilt, with +coverings of red leather”; and “some silver +stirrups with three bars upon the floor thereof, +round-shaped in the manner of an urinal, with +open sides consisting of two bars, a flower within +a small shield on top, and, over this, the small +face of a man.”</p> + +<p>The many sets of reins included several of +Granada make, coloured in white, red, and +bay; while one of the most elaborate of the +poitrals was of “red leather, embroidered with +gold thread, with fringes of rose-coloured silk, +buckles, ends, and rounded knobs; the whole of +copper enamelled green, and blue, and white.”</p> + +<p>Small but attractive accessories to these handsome +sets of mediæval Spanish harness were the +decorative medals (Plate <a href="#img_278.jpg">lx</a>.) hung from the +horse's breast in tourneying or in war. In France +these medals were known as <i>annelets volants</i>, +<i>branlants</i>, or <i>pendants</i>; although in Spain, where +it is probable that they were used more widely +than in other countries, they have no definite +name. The term <i>jaeces</i> is sometimes applied to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> +them; but <i>jaez</i> properly means the entire harness +for a horse, and the word is thus employed by +classic Spanish authors, such as Tirso de Molina. +A recent term, invented by a living writer, is +<i>jaeces colgantes</i>, or “hanging <i>jaeces</i>.”</p> + +<p>These ornaments, which had their origin among +the Romans and Byzantines, are figured in certain +of the older Spanish codices such as the <i>Cántigas +de Santa Maria</i>. In Christian Spain, however, +their vogue was greatest in the thirteenth and +the fourteenth centuries. They disappeared altogether +in the sixteenth century; and among the +Spanish Moors their use, though not unknown, +was always quite exceptional.</p> + +<p>The mottoes and devices on these little plates +are very varied. Sometimes the motto has an +amorous, sometimes a religious import. Sometimes +the vehicle of the motto is Latin, sometimes +Spanish, sometimes French. Sometimes +the device contains, or is composed of, a blazon, +and commonly there is floral or other ornament. +A collection of nearly three hundred of these +medals belonged to the late Count of Valencia +de Don Juan, all of which were probably made +in Spain. The material as a rule is copper, +adorned with <i>champlevé</i> enamelling, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +colours often used to decorate and relieve the +interspaces of the gilded metal are red, blue, +black, white, and green.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_282.jpg" width="500" height="371" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a name="img_282.jpg" id="img_282.jpg"></a> +<p class="caption">TRAVELLING LITTER<br /> +(<i>Attributed to Charles the Fifth. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>According to Florencio Janer, coaches were +not known in Spain until the middle of the sixteenth +century. Before that time the usual conveyance +was the litter. The Madrid Armoury +contains an object which is thought to have been +the campaigning-litter of Charles the Fifth +(Plate <a href="#img_282.jpg">lxi</a>.). The Count of Valencia de Don +Juan also inclined to this belief from the circumstance +that an engraving exists in the British +Museum which represents a German litter of the +sixteenth century, identical in all respects with +this one. Probably, however, these litters were +the same all over Europe. The inventory of the +Dukes of Alburquerque includes, in 1560, a “cowhide +litter, black, lined with black serge; also +poles stained black, and harness for mules.” +This, together with other travelling gear, belonged +to “my lady the duchess”; and it is +worth noting that the litter attributed to Charles, +though cased with a protective covering of +whitish canvas, is also of black leather and lined +with black serge, besides being evidently built for +carriage by two mules. The interior contains a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> +small armchair rising some inches only from the +floor, and which, requiring him to keep his legs +continually outstretched, could hardly fail to prove +excruciatingly uncomfortable to the traveller.</p> + +<p>Mendez Silva says that the precise date of the +introduction of coaches into Spain was 1546, +and other writers do not greatly differ from him. +The Alburquerque inventory includes “two four-wheeled +coaches,” as well as “a triumphal car +with four wheels, its body painted with red and +gold stripes.” Vanderhamen, who says that the +first coach ever seen in Spain was brought here +by a servant of Charles the Fifth in 1554, adds +that within a little time their use became “a hellish +vice that wrought incalculable havoc to Castile.” +Certainly this vehicle for many years was far from +popular among the Spaniards, and was assailed +with special vehemence by all who lacked the +income to support one. The Duke of Berganza +is said to have remarked that “God had fashioned +horses for the use of men, and men had fashioned +coaches for the use of women”; while a priest, +Tomás Ramón, declared that it was “a vast +disgrace to see bearded men, with rapiers at their +side, promenading in a coach.” Even the governing +powers thought fit to interfere. In 1550,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> +1563, and 1573 the Cortes demanded the total +prohibition of these modish yet detested vehicles, +while the Cortes of 1578 decreed four horses as +the statutory and invariable number for a private +carriage. A further law enacted in 1611 that +coaches must be strictly private property, and not, +on pain of rigorous chastisement, be lent or hired +by their owner;<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> while the owner, to own or use +a coach at all, required a special licence from the +Crown.</p> + +<p>Some curious facts relating to these vehicles in +older Spain are instanced by Janer. In the +seventeenth century a Spanish provincial town +would normally contain a couple of hundred +coaches. Among such boroughs was Granada. +Here, in 1615, the authorities, backed by +nearly all the citizens, protested that the coaches +ploughed the highway into muddy pits and +channels, and gave occasion, after nightfall, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> +disgraceful and immoral scenes.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> After a while +the protest grew so loud that the use of coaches in +this capital was totally suppressed. One of the +first persons to employ a coach in Granada had +been the Marquis of Mondejar; and yet, in spite +of his extensive influence, this nobleman, each +time he wished to drive abroad, required to +sue for licence from the town authorities, and +these, in making out the written permit, took +care to specify the streets through which he was +allowed to pass.</p> + +<p>Assailed by numerous pragmatics,<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> chiefly of a +sumptuary tenor and repeated at spasmodic +intervals until as late as 1785, the private coach +became at last an undisputed adjunct to the +national life of Spain. Doubtless the use by +royalty of gala-coaches or <i>carrozas</i> went far to +sanction and extend their vogue. However, I +will not describe these lumbering, uncouth, and +over-ornamented gala-carriages (some of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> +were made in Spain) belonging to the Spanish +Crown, but quote the following pragmatic, dated +1723, as aptly illustrative of the progress of this +industry, and other industries akin to it, in the +Peninsula:—</p> + +<p>“In order to restrain the immoderate use of +coaches, state-coaches, <i>estufas</i>, litters, <i>furlones</i>,<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> +and calashes, we order that from this time forth +no one of these be decorated with gold embroidery +or any kind of silk containing gold, nor yet with +bands or fringes that have gold or silver points; +but only with velvets, damasks, and other simple +silken fabrics made within this realm and its dependencies, +or else in foreign countries that have +friendly commerce with us. Also, the fringes +and galloons shall be of silk alone; and none, of +whatsoever dignity and degree, shall cause his +coach, state-coach, etc., to be decorated with the +fringes that are known as net-work, tassel-pointed, +or bell-pointed; but only with undecorated, simple +fringes, or with those of Santa Isabel; nor shall +the breadth of either kind of these exceed four +fingers. Also, he shall not cause his coach, state-coach,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> +etc., to be overlaid with any gilt or silvered +work, or painted with any manner of design—meaning +by such, historic scenes, marines, landscapes, +flowers, masks, knots of the pattern known +as coulicoles, coats of arms, war devices, perspectives, +or any other painting, except it imitate +marble, or be marbled over of one single colour +chosen at the owner's fancy; and further, we +allow in every coach, state-coach, etc., only a +certain moderate quantity of carving. And this +our order and pragmatic shall begin to rule upon +the day it is made public; from which day forth +no person shall construct, or buy, or bring from +other countries, coaches or <i>estufas</i> that infringe +our law herein expressed; wherefore we order +the <i>alcaldes</i> of this town, our court and capital, to +make a register of all such vehicles that each +house contains, without excepting any. Nevertheless, +considering that if we should prohibit +very shortly those conveyances that now be +lawful, the owners would be put to great expense, +we grant a period of two years wherein +they may consume or rid themselves thereof; +upon the expiration of which term our law +shall be again made public, and thenceforward +all, regardless of their quality and rank, shall be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> +compelled to pay obedience to the same. Also +we order that no person make or go abroad in +hand-chairs fitted with brocade, or cloth of gold +or silver, or yet with any silk containing gold and +silver; nor shall the lining be embroidered or +adorned with any of the stuffs aforesaid; but +the covering of the chair, inside and out, shall +only be of velvet, damask, or other unmixed silk, +with a plain fringe of four fingers' breadth and +button-holes of the same silk, and not of silver, +gold, or thread, or any covering other than those +aforesaid; but the columns of such chairs may be +adorned with silken trimmings nailed thereto. +And we allow, as in the case of coaches, a period +of two years for wearing out the hand-chairs now +in use…. Also, we order that the coverings +of coaches, <i>estufas</i>, litters, calashes, and <i>furlones</i> +shall not be made of any kind of silk, or yet the +harness of horses or mules for coaches and travelling +litters; and that the said coaches, gala-coaches, +<i>estufas</i>, litters, calashes, and <i>furlones</i> shall not be +back-stitched (<i>pespuntados</i>), even if they should +be of cowhide or of cordwain (goatskin); nor shall +they contain any fitting of embroidered leather.”</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> According to Tubino, the existence of a prehistoric age of +stone was not suspected in Spain until the year 1755, when Mann +y Mendoza affirmed that a state of society had existed in the +Peninsula before the age of metals. Since then the Celtic remains +of Spain and Portugal have been investigated by many scientists, +including Assas, Mitjana, Murguía, and Casiano de Prado, who +discovered numbers of these weapons. Towards the middle of +last century Casiano de Prado, aided by the Frenchmen Verneuil +and Lartet, explored the neighbourhood of San Isidro on the +Manzanares, and found large quantities of arms and implements +of stone. Valuable service in the cause of prehistoric Spanish +archæology has also been performed by Vilanova, Torrubia, and +Machado.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> “<i>Gerone qui ferrum gelat.</i>” This river, the purity and coldness +of whose waters lent, or so it is supposed, its virtues to the steel, +rolls past the walls of Calatayud, and is called in later ages the Jalon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> “<i>Imo Toletano præcingant ilia cultro.</i>”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> “<i>Romani patriis gladiis depositis Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium +assumpserunt … sed ferri bonitatem et fabrica solertiam +imitari non potuerunt.</i>”—Suidas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> <i>Descripciones de las Islas Pithiusas y Baleares.</i> Madrid, 1787.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> A javelin made throughout of iron was found in Spain some +years ago, completely doubled up, so as to admit of its being thrust +into a burial urn. The javelin in question is now in the Madrid +museum, and a similar weapon may be seen in the provincial +museum of Granada.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> <i>Historia General del Arte</i>: García Llansó; <i>Armas</i>, pp. +439, 440.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> The horse was also covered with a <i>lóriga</i>, on which, from +about the twelfth century, were thrown the decorative trappings +of <i>cendal</i> or thin silk, painted or embroidered with the warrior's +arms.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a></p> + +<div class="poem-container"> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“<i>Calzó las brafoneras que eran bien obradas</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>Con sortijas de acero, sabet bien enlazadas;</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>Asi eran presas é bien trabadas,</i></span><br /> +<span class="i0"><i>Que semejaban calzas de las tiendas taiadas.</i>”</span><br /> +</div></div></div> + +<p style="margin-top: 0; margin-left: 55%;"><i>Poem of the Cid.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Count of Clonard, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i>; Nos. 16 +and 17.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> One of these weapons may be seen in the Royal Armoury (No. +I. 95). It is made of iron covered with leather, and has a laurel-shaped +blade with sharpened edges. The other end consists of two +projecting pieces of the metal, shaped to resemble the plumes of an +arrow. The length of this arm is 5 feet 8 inches.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> <i>Capellina</i>. The Count of Clonard says that this was in the +shape of half a lemon, and fitted with a visor with a cutting edge.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> The following armourers' marks are stamped on various +korazins in the Royal Armoury, made in Aragon and dating from +the fifteenth century:— +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_218.jpg" width="500" height="71" + alt="marks" + title="marks" /> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> My theory that this harness and the one in the Royal Armoury +are the same is strengthened by the official inventory, which +specifies “a band of gold and silver, striped, and with devices in +relief, studded with lapis lazuli, and yellow gems and luminous +crystals.” The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that this fine +outfit, except the portions which are represented in the plate, was +mutilated and dispersed in later years, and that he has discovered +fragments in the museums of Paris and Vienna, and in the collection +of Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <i>Historia General del Arte</i>: García Llansó; <i>Armas</i>; pp. 440, +441.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> This weapon can have been no other than the typical Iberian +lance.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> In the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, this characteristically +eastern downward curve of the crossbars grew to be popular even +with the Christian Spaniards, as we observe from the swords of +Ferdinand himself, preserved in the Royal Armoury at Madrid, and +the Chapel Royal of the cathedral of Granada.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <i>Las Pinturas de la Alhambra</i>, p. 15.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> The Count of Valencia de Don Juan states that seven Hispano-Moresque +<i>gineta</i> swords are known to exist to-day: the one which +is here described, and those belonging to the Marquises of Viana +and Pallavicino, Baron de Sangarrén, the Duke of Dino, Señor +Sánchez Toscano, the archæological museum at Madrid, the +museum of Cassel in Germany, and the national library at Paris, +A <i>gineta</i> sword in the Madrid Armoury popularly attributed to +Boabdil can never have belonged to him. The hilt is modern, and +the blade proceeds from Barbary.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> A number of Moorish swords are mentioned in the inventory, +compiled in 1560, of the Dukes of Alburquerque. One is +particularly interesting. It is described as “a Moorish <i>gineta</i> +sword which belongs to the Count of Monteagudo, and is pawned for +six thousand <i>maravedis</i>. The sheath is of bay leather, worked in +gold thread. The chape and fittings are of silver, decorated with +green, blue, purple, and white enamel. There are two serpents' +heads upon the fitting, together with the figure of a monster +worked in gold thread on a little plate, and two large scarlet +tassels: the little plate has three ends of the same enamel and a +silver-gilt buckle.” A note at the margin adds; “The chape is +wanting, and is owed us by the Marquis of Comares, who lost it at +the cane-play at Madrid.”</p> + +<p>The two serpents' heads formed part of the arms of the Alahmar +sultans of Granada; so that from this and from the richness of this +weapon we may infer that it had once belonged to Mussulman +royalty. The same inventory describes “a Moorish scimitar with +gilded hilt; the cross and pommel, and a great part of the scimitar +itself, being of gilded <i>ataujía</i> work. The sheath is green inside, and +black and gilt upon the face; and hanging from the hilt is a gold +and purple cord with a button and a black tassel.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> To-day the craft of finely decorating arms is not forgotten in +Morocco. “A silversmith advanced to show a half-completed +silver-sheathed and hafted dagger, engraved with pious sentences, +as, “God is our sufficiency and our best bulwark here on earth,” and +running in and out between the texts a pattern of a rope with one of +the strands left out, which pattern also ran round the cornice of the +room we sat in, and round the door, as it runs round the doors in +the Alhambra and the Alcazar, and in thousands of houses built by +the Moors, and standing still, in Spain. The dagger and the sheath +were handed to me for my inspection, and on my saying that they +were beautifully worked, the Caid said keep them, but I declined, +not having anything of equal value to give in return.”—Cunninghame +Graham; <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i>, p. 234.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i>, by Townsend, who wrote of it, with ill-informed enthusiasm, +as “an epitome of Spanish history.” Swinburne's notice of the +same armoury is also curious: “At the bottom of the palace-yard +is an old building, called the Armeria, containing a curious assortment +of antique arms and weapons, kept in a manner that would have +made poor Cornelius Scriblerus swoon at every step; no notable +housemaid in England has her fire-grates half so bright as these +coats of mail; they show those of all the heroes that dignify the +annals of Spain; those of Saint Ferdinand, Ferdinand the Catholic, +his wife Isabella, Charles the Fifth, the great Captain Gonsalo, the +king of Granada, and many others. Some suits are embossed with +great nicety. The temper of the sword blades is quite wonderful, +for you may lap them round your waist like a girdle. The art of +tempering steel in Toledo was lost about seventy years ago, and the +project of reviving and encouraging it is one of the favourite schemes +of Charles the Third, who has erected proper works for it on the +banks of the Tagus.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> Throughout this time, the full equipment of the knight consisted +of no less than four complete suits, for tournament or battle, +or for foot or mounted fighting, together with their lances, swords, +and targes. The Alburquerque inventory describes in detail a +complete set (“all of it kept in a box”) of war and tourneying +harness belonging to the duke. Although the warriors of that day +were short of stature, their muscular strength is undeniable, for +one of their lances has to be lifted nowadays by several men. +When the author of <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i> wrote contemptuously of the +“scrofulous champions tapping on each other's shields,” he was +perhaps, forgetful for a moment of this fact.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> The Count of Valencia de Don Juan has found, from documents +at Simancas, that in the year 1525 Kollman visited Toledo to +measure Charles for armour. It is also certain, adds the Count, +that, in order to produce this armour of a perfect fit, Kollman first +moulded Charles' limbs in wax, and then transferred the moulds to +lead. In a budget of accounts which coincides with Kollman's +visit to Toledo appears the following item: “Pour trois livres de +cire et de plomb pour faire les patrons que maître Colman, +armoyeur, a fait”—followed by details of the cost.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> This, in the later Middle Ages, was a favourite form of tourneying +lance.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> <i>Historia General del Arte; Armas</i>, by García Llansó; p. 445.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> “Dès que le soir arrive, on ne va point n'y à Madrid ny ailleurs, +sans cotte de maille et sans <i>broquet</i> qui est une rondache.”—Bertaut +de Rouen, <i>Voyage d'Espagne</i> (1659 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>), p. 294.</p> + +<p>The arms of Spaniards promenading after dark were even fixed +by law. The <i>Suma de Leyes</i> of 1628 ordains that after ten o'clock +nobody is to carry arms at all unless he also bears a lighted torch +or lantern. No arquebus, on pain of a fine of ten thousand +<i>maravedis</i>, may have a barrel less than a yard long. Nobody may +carry a sword or rapier the length of whose blade exceeds a yard +and a quarter, or wear a dagger unless a sword accompanies it. +Sometimes these prohibitions extended even to seasons of the +year. In 1530 an Ordinance of Granada proclaims that from +the first of March until the last day of November nobody may +carry a hatchet, sickle, or dagger, “except the dagger which is +called a <i>barazano</i>, of a palm in length, even if the wearer be a +shepherd.” The penalty for infringement of this law was a fine of +ten thousand <i>maravedis</i>; but labourers who worked upon a farm +were exempted from the prohibition.</p> + +<p>Swinburne wrote from Cataluña, in 1775, that “amongst other +restrictions, the use of slouched hats, white shoes, and large brown +cloaks is forbidden. Until of late they durst not carry any kind of +knife; but in each public house there was one chained to the table, +for the use of all comers.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> <i>Voyage d'Espagne</i>, p. 199.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Gonzalo de la Torre de Trassierra; Articles on Cuéllar +published in the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> “Draw me not without a cause, nor sheathe me without +honour.” A sword with this inscription is in the Royal Armoury—(G. +71 of the official catalogue).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Leonard Williams; <i>Toledo and Madrid: their Records and +Romances</i>; p. 102.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> In the Corpus Christi festival at Granada the banner which +preceded all the rest was that of the armourers and knife-makers, +followed by that of the silk-mercers. <i>Ordenanzas de Granada</i>; +tit. 126.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> <i>Armourers' Ordinances of Seville</i>, extant in ms. (quoted by +Gestoso; <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>; vol. I., p. xxxvi).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> “<i>De mano y media</i>”; <i>i.e.</i> for wielding either with one hand or +both. Specimens of this kind of sword existing at Madrid will be +described immediately.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> “Señor, let thy yea be yea, and thy nay be nay; for of great +virtue is it in the prince, or any man, to be a speaker of the truth, +and of great security to his vassals and to his property.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> <i>Toledo and Madrid: their Records and Romances</i>; pp. 99–101.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Andrés Ferrara was a well-known armourer of Zaragoza.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Vol. iv. p. 358.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Escudero de la Peña; <i>Claustros, Escalera, y Artesonados del +Palacio Arzobispal de Alcalá de Henares</i>; published in the <i>Museo +Español de Antigüedades</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> The brothers Marckwart, or possibly one or other of them, +are believed to have stamped their arquebuses with a series of +small sickles, thus:</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_273.jpg" width="97" height="150" + alt="marks" + title="marks" /> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> An old account copied into a book (see <a href="#Page_89">p. 89</a>, <i>note</i>) in the National +Library at Madrid, and dating from the reign of Sancho the Fourth, +states that Pedro Ferrández, saddler, received a certain sum for +making various saddles, including two “<i>de palafrés</i>, wrought in +silk with the devices of the king.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> “In mediæval Spain, good riders were often designated as +‘Ginete en ambas sillas,’ that is, accustomed to either saddle, <i>i.e.</i> +the Moorish and the Christian, and I now understand why +chroniclers have taken the trouble to record the fact. Strangely +enough, the high-peaked and short-stirruped saddle does not cross +the Nile, the Arabs of Arabia riding rather flat saddles with an +ordinary length of leg. The Arab saddle of Morocco, in itself, is +perhaps the worst that man has yet designed; but, curiously enough, +from it was made the Mexican saddle, perhaps the most useful for +all kinds of horses and of countries that the world has seen.” +Cunninghame Graham: <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i>, p. 66. The same +writer naïvely adds the following footnote to the words <i>Ginete en +ambas sillas</i>. “This phrase often occurs in Spanish chronicles, +after a long description of a man's virtues, his charity, love of the +church, and kindness to the poor, and it is apparently inserted as +at least as important a statement as any of the others. In point +of fact, chronicles being written for posterity, it is the most +important.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> As I have stated in another chapter, the precious stones +and metals were continually employed in arms and harness, +both of Spanish Moors and Spanish Christians. In 1062 +Pedro Ruderiz bequeathed to the Monastery of Arlanza all his +battle harness, together with his silver bit (<i>frenum argenteum</i>). +Thousands of such bequests have been recorded. The +Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh says that after the victory +of the Rio Salado, this monarch found among his spoil “many +swords with gold and silver fittings, and many spurs, all of +enamelled gold and silver…. And all this spoil was gathered +by the king into his palaces of Seville (<i>i.e.</i> the Alcázar), the +doubloons in one part, and the swords in another part.” The +testament (sometimes considered to be a forgery) of Pedro the +Cruel mentions “my sword in the Castilian manner, that I +caused to be made here in Seville with gems and with <i>aljofar</i>.” In +1409 Yusuf, King of Granada, presented Juan the Second and the +Infante Don Enrique with silver-fitted swords. Referring to a +later age, Davillier discovered at Simancas a detailed list of weapons +sumptuously decorated with gold and coloured enamels, made for +Philip the Second by Juan de Soto, “<i>orfebrero de su Alteza</i>.” +<i>Recherches</i>, pp. 149–151.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> The women of mediæval Spain had few amusements besides +riding. Another—though owing to the temperate climate it must have +been on few occasions—was skating, since this inventory mentions +“two pairs of skates, for a man, for travelling over ice. Two pairs +of skates, for the same purpose, for a woman.” This entry almost +matches in its quaintness with the “irons for mustaches,” or the +“triggers for extracting teeth,” set forth in Spanish documents such +as the <i>Tassa General</i> of 1627.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> This prohibition was not inopportune. Swinburne wrote towards +the end of the eighteenth century; “Having occasion one day +for a coach to carry us about, the stable-boy of our inn offered his +services, and in a quarter of an hour brought to the door a coach +and four fine mules, with two postillions and a lacquey, all in +flaming liveries; we found they belonged to a countess, who, like +the rest of the nobility, allows her coachman to let out her equipage +when she has no occasion for it; it cost us about nine shillings, +which no doubt was the perquisite of the servants.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Towns still exist in Spain where vehicles are not allowed to +proceed at more than a walking-pace through any of the streets. +One of such towns is Argamasilla de Alba (of <i>Don Quixote</i> fame), +where I remember to have read a notice to this effect, painted, by +order of the mayor, on a house-wall of the principal thoroughfare.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> A royal degree of 1619 disposed that “every one who sows and +tills twenty-five <i>fanegas</i> of land each year, may use a coach.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> The <i>estufa</i> (literally <i>stove</i>) was a form of family-coach. The +<i>furlon</i> is described in an old dictionary as “a coach with four seats +and hung with leather curtains.”</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p class="title">PRINTED BY<br /> +NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,<br /> +EDINBURGH.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p> + +<p>The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have +been maintained.</p> + +<p>Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked as a misprint.</p> + +<table summary="corrections"> + <tr> + <td><b>The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.</b></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 11: for securing the cloak; the <i>torquis</i> → <i>torques</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 12: <i>Fibulae</i> → <i>Fibulæ</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 17: Amador de los Rios → Ríos</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 28: Amador de los Rios → Ríos</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 28: de joyaux les plus precieux → précieux</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 65: is generally of the fifteeenth → fifteenth</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 70: He carried, too, a → “a</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 72: The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths → silversmiths'</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 82: Mores ont caché leurs tresors → trésors</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 90: a friar of Guadelupe → Guadalupe</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 91: Juan González → Gonzalez</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 93: As soon as Cristobal → Cristóbal</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 94: fué deste cuento, Jan → Juan</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 102: et cela luy feioit → fetoit</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 105: pearls or other stones. → stones.”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 123: in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i> → <i>Antigüedades</i>)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 140: Museo Español de Antiguedades → Antigüedades</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 143: Museo Español de Antiguedades → Antigüedades</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 176: the emir of the Mussulmans Abi-Abdillah → Abu-Abdillah</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 180: D.C.C.C.C.XIII. → D.C.C.C.C.XIII.”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 181: and the Puertas del Perdon → Perdón</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 188: consisted of ”a → a</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 205: among the Germans <i>panzerbrecher</i> → <i>Panzerbrecher</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 206: frock (the <i>waffenrock</i> → <i>Waffenrock</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 220: which specifies “a bard → band</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 222: It has a <i>verga</i> → <i>verja</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 229: as well as the chape → shape</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 232: button and a black tassel. → tassel.”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 244: published in the <i>Boletin</i> → <i>Boletín</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 262: and the burnisher. → burnisher.’</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 264: making good files or razors. → making good files or razors.”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>p. 273: of Segovia). Cristobal → Cristóbal</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN, VOLUME I (OF 3)***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 44391-h.txt or 44391-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/4/3/9/44391">http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/3/9/44391</a></p> +<p> +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p> +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. +</p> + +<h2>*** START: FULL LICENSE ***<br /> + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE<br /> +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</h2> + +<p>To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license">www.gutenberg.org/license</a>.</p> + +<h3>Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works</h3> + +<p>1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.</p> + +<p>1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below.</p> + +<p>1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.</p> + +<p>1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States.</p> + +<p>1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:</p> + +<p>1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed:</p> + +<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> + +<p>1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9.</p> + +<p>1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.</p> + +<p>1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.</p> + +<p>1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License.</p> + +<p>1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.</p> + +<p>1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.</p> + +<p>1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that</p> + +<ul> +<li>You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."</li> + +<li>You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works.</li> + +<li>You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work.</li> + +<li>You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.</li> +</ul> + +<p>1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.</p> + +<p>1.F.</p> + +<p>1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment.</p> + +<p>1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE.</p> + +<p>1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem.</p> + +<p>1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.</p> + +<p>1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.</p> + +<p>1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.</p> + +<h3>Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm</h3> + +<p>Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life.</p> + +<p>Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and +the Foundation information page at <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> + +<h3>Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation</h3> + +<p>The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.</p> + +<p>The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 +North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email +contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the +Foundation's web site and official page at <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org/contact">www.gutenberg.org/contact</a></p> + +<p>For additional contact information:<br /> + Dr. Gregory B. Newby<br /> + Chief Executive and Director<br /> + gbnewby@pglaf.org</p> + +<h3>Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation</h3> + +<p>Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS.</p> + +<p>The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org/donate">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a></p> + +<p>While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate.</p> + +<p>International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.</p> + +<p>Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org/donate">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a></p> + +<h3>Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works.</h3> + +<p>Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.</p> + +<p>Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.</p> + +<p>Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> + +<p>This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.</p> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4378b38 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/frontispiece.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/frontispiece.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c13aab2 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/frontispiece.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_05.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_05.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6732550 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_05.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_100.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_100.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2fe6f6c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_100.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_114.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_114.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3280dfd --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_114.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_119.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_119.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..006da74 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_119.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_131.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_131.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c2e661e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_131.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_134.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_134.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..525fa2a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_134.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_136.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_136.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0f24074 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_136.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_138.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_138.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..45db61e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_138.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_140.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_140.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9790ba5 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_140.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_148.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_148.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..df7ba8d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_148.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_149.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_149.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..92da66f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_149.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_155.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_155.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..987ddbf --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_155.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_156.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_156.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1622596 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_156.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_164.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_164.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4019a05 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_164.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_165.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_165.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0490d9b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_165.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_166.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_166.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a682b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_166.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_168.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_168.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a119faa --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_168.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_171.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_171.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2234191 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_171.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_173.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_173.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a9304df --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_173.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_174.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_174.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3b8bcbb --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_174.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_176.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_176.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..76b8a76 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_176.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_178.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_178.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d729bc6 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_178.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_179.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_179.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c64105 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_179.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_180.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_180.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..11c9c1f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_180.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_182.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_182.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..671a7ce --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_182.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_184.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_184.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb02485 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_184.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_186.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_186.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0e060d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_186.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_198.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_198.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8f7e70a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_198.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_202.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_202.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0cd667f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_202.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_206.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_206.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ede81d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_206.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_210.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_210.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f53e1f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_210.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_214.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_214.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..997edf2 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_214.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_218.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_218.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..01ef3fc --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_218.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_219.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_219.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..da72ea6 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_219.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_22.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_22.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..341da2d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_22.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_222.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_222.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..59c4e92 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_222.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_226.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_226.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..da18181 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_226.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_230.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_230.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4fb3ab7 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_230.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_234.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_234.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..43f2a7f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_234.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_238.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_238.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3204f1f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_238.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_242.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_242.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a43c061 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_242.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_246.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_246.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..62b51f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_246.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_249.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_249.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e68e71 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_249.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_250.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_250.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..38bb1f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_250.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_254.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_254.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5bd0c46 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_254.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_258.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_258.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cf42e73 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_258.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_262.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_262.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ae9572 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_262.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_266.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_266.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..140039f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_266.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_270.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_270.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..62f8811 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_270.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_272.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_272.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0d81a20 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_272.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_273.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_273.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e34004a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_273.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_274.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_274.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d989b56 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_274.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_278.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_278.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a180795 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_278.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_282.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_282.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ea4e22 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_282.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_328.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_328.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f90018 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_328.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_36.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_36.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..77a3c18 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_36.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_42.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_42.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e3e9876 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_42.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_46.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_46.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1b7a8d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_46.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_50.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_50.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ad3a53 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_50.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_52.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_52.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aafc69d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_52.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_54.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_54.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..46996e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_54.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_57.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_57.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..715e602 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_57.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_60.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_60.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0984360 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_60.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_62.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_62.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6899f7e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_62.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_64.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_64.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..129e010 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_64.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_65.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_65.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c2b14c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_65.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_77.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_77.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..808ea10 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_77.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_83.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_83.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..250a103 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_83.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_85.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_85.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9b06bc2 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_85.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_95.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_95.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fe49878 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_95.jpg diff --git a/old/44391-h/images/img_99.jpg b/old/44391-h/images/img_99.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..eefa3d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44391-h/images/img_99.jpg |
