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diff --git a/44344-h/44344-h.htm b/44344-h/44344-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a06763d --- /dev/null +++ b/44344-h/44344-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,15408 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, Vol. 65, No. 400, February, 1849 by Various. + </title> + <link rel="coverpage" href="images/coverpage.jpg"/> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em; + text-indent: 1em; +} +.p2 {text-indent: 11em;} +.noind {text-indent: 0em;} + +.b15 {font-size:1.5em;} +.s08 {font-size:.8em;} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +hr.tb {width: 25%;} +hr.chap {width: 45%} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + font-style: normal; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.right {text-align: right;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.caption {font-weight: bold;} + +.space-above { margin-top: 3em; } + +.hanging {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; font-size: 15px;} + +.sig { text-align: right; margin-right: 5%; } + +.oldenglish { font-family: "Old English Text MT" } + +/* Footnotes */ + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: 55%; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Poetry */ +.poem { + margin-left:10%; + margin-right:10%; + text-align: left; +} + +.poem br {display: none;} + +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + +.poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} +.poem span.i1 {display: block; margin-left: 0.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} +.poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} +.poem span.i3 {display: block; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} +.poem span.i20 {display: block; margin-left: 10em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} +@media handheld +{ + .poetry + { + display: block; + margin-left: 1.5em; + } +} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.tn {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + border: dashed 1px; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; } + + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44344 ***</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + + + +<h1>BLACKWOOD'S<br /> + +EDINBURGH MAGAZINE.<br /><br /> + + +<span class="s08"><span class="smcap">No.</span> CCCC. FEBRUARY, 1849. <span class="smcap">Vol.</span> LXV.</span> +</h1> + + + + +<h2><br />CONTENTS.</h2> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="contents"> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Caucasus and the Cossacks</span>,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Caxtons. Part X.</span>,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Statistical Accounts of Scotland</span>,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art</span>,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">American Thoughts on European Revolutions</span>,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Dalmatia and Montenegro</span>,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Modern Biography.—Beattie's Life of Campbell</span>,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The English Universities and their Reforms</span>,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Covenanters' Night-Hymn. By Delta</span>,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Carlists in Catalonia</span>,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td></tr> +</table></div> +<p class="center space-above">————</p> + +<p class="center space-above"><big>EDINBURGH:</big></p> +<p class="center">WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, 45, GEORGE STREET:</p> +<p class="center">AND 37, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.</p> + +<p class="center"><em>To whom all Communications (post paid) must be addressed.</em></p> + +<p class="center">SOLD BY ALL THE BOOKSELLERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.</p> +<p class="center">————</p> +<p class="center"><small>PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH.</small> +</p> + + + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="center b15">BLACKWOOD'S<br /> + +EDINBURGH MAGAZINE.</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">No.</span> CCCC. FEBRUARY, 1849. <span class="smcap">Vol.</span> LXV.<br /> +</p> + + + + +<h2>CAUCASUS AND THE COSSACKS.</h2> + +<blockquote> +<p> +<cite>Der Kaukasus und das Land der Kosaken in den Jahren 1843 bis 1846.</cite> Von +<span class="smcap">Moritz Wagner</span>. 2 vols. Dresden und Leipzig, 1848. +</p></blockquote> + + +<p>A handful of men, frugal, hardy, +and valiant, successfully defending +their barren mountains and dearly-won +independence against the reiterated +assaults of a mighty neighbour, +offer, apart from political considerations, +a deeply interesting spectacle. +When, upon a map of the world's +eastern hemisphere, we behold, not +far from its centre, on the confines of +barbarism and civilisation, a spot, +black with mountains, and marked +"Circassia;" when we contrast this +petty nook with the vast territory +stretching from the Black Sea to the +Northern Ocean, from the Baltic to +Behring's Straits, we admire and wonder +at the inflexible resolution and +determined gallantry that have so +long borne up against the aggressive +ambition, iron will, and immense resources +of a czar. Sixty millions +against six hundred thousand—a hundred +to one, a whole squadron against +a single cavalier, a colossus opposed +to a pigmy—these are the odds at +issue. It seems impossible that such +a contest can long endure. Yet it +has lasted twenty years, and still the +dwarf resists subjugation, and contrives, +at intervals, to inflict severe +punishment upon his gigantic adversary. +There is something strangely +exciting in the contemplation of so +brave a struggle. Its interest is far +superior to that of any of the "little +wars" in which Europe, since 1815, +has evaporated her superabundant +pugnacity. African raids and Spanish +skirmishes are pale affairs contrasted +with the dashing onslaughts of the +intrepid Circassians. And, in other +respects than its heroism, this contest +merits attention. As an important +section of the huge mountain-dyke, +opposed by nature to the south-eastern +extension of the Russian empire, Circassia +is not to be overlooked. On +the rugged peaks and in the deep valleys +of the Caucasus, her fearless warriors +stand, the vedettes of southern +Asia, a living barrier to the forward +flight of the double eagle.</p> + +<p>Matters of pressing interest, nearer +home, have diverted public attention +from the warlike Circassians, whose +independent spirit and unflinching +bravery deserves better than even +temporary oblivion. Not in our day +only have they distinguished themselves +in freedom's fight. Surrounded +by powerful and encroaching potentates, +their history, for the last five +hundred years, records constant +struggles against oppression. Often +conquered, they never were fully subdued. +Their obscure chronicles are +illumined by flashes of patriotism and +heroic courage. Early in the fifteenth +century, they conquered their freedom +from the Georgian yoke. Then came +long wars with the Tartars, who could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +hardly, perhaps, be considered the +aggressors, the Circassians having +overstepped their mountain limits, +and spread over the plains adjacent +to the Sea of Azov. In 1555, the +Russian grand-duke, Ivan Vasilivitch, +pressed forward to Tarki upon the +Caspian, where he placed a garrison. +A Circassian tribe submitted to him; +he married the daughter of one of +their princes, and assisted them +against the Tartars. But after a +while the Russians withdrew their +succour; and the Circassians, driven +back to the river Kuban, their natural +boundary to the north-west, paid +tribute to the Tartars, till the commencement +of the eighteenth century, +when a decisive victory liberated them. +Meanwhile Russia strode steadily +southwards, reached the Kuban in the +west, whilst, in the east, Tarki and +Derbent fell, in 1722, into the hands +of Peter the Great. The fort of +Swiatoi-Krest, built by the conqueror, +was soon afterwards retaken by a +swarm of fanatical mountaineers from +the eastern Caucasus. It is now +about seventy years since Russian +and Circassian first crossed swords in +serious warfare. A fanatic dervise, +who called himself Sheikh Mansour, +preached a religious war against the +Muscovites; but, although followed +with enthusiasm, his success was not +great, and at last he was captured +and sent prisoner into the interior of +Russia. With his fall the furious +zeal of the Caucasians subsided for a +while. But the Turks, who viewed +Circassia as their main bulwark +against the rapidly increasing power +of their dangerous northern neighbour, +made friends of the mountaineers, +and stirred them up against +Russia. The fortified town of Anapa, +on the north-west coast of Circassia, +became the focus of the intercourse +between the Porte and its new allies. +The creed of Mahomet was actively +propagated amongst the Circassians, +whose relations with Turkey grew +more and more intimate, and in the +year 1824 several tribes took oath of +allegiance to the sultan. In 1829, +during the war between Russia and +Turkey, Anapa, which had more than +once changed hands in the course of +previous contests, was taken by the +former power, to whom, by the treaty +of Adrianople, its possession, and that +of the other Turkish posts on the same +coast, was finally conceded. Hence +the chief claim of Russia upon Circassia—although +Circassia had never +belonged to the Turks, nor been occupied +by them; and from that period +dates the war that has elicited from +Russia so great a display of force +against an apparently feeble, but in +reality formidable antagonist—an +antagonist who has hitherto baffled +her best generals, and picked troops, +and most skilful strategists.</p> + +<p>The tribes of the Caucasus may be +comprehended, for the sake of simplicity, +under two denominations: +the Tcherkesses or Circassians, in +the west, and the Tshetshens in the +east. In loose newspaper statements, +and in the garbled reports of the +war which remote position, Russian +jealousy, and the peculiarly inaccessible +character of the Caucasians, +suffer to reach us, even this broad +distinction is frequently disregarded.[A] +It is nevertheless important, at least +in a physiological point of view;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +and, even as regards the resistance +offered to Russia, there are differences +between the Eastern and the +Western Caucasians. The military +tactics of both are much alike, but the +character of the war varies. On the +banks of the Kuban, and on the Euxine +shores, the strife has never been +so desperate, and so dangerous for the +Russians, as in Daghestan, Lesghistan, +and the land of the Tshetshens. +The Abchasians, Mingrelians, and +other Circassian tribes, dwelling on +the southern slopes of Caucasus, and +on the margin of the Black Sea, are +of more peaceable and passive character +than their brethren to the North +and East. The Tshetshens, by far +the most warlike and enterprising of +the Caucasians, have had the ablest +leaders, and have at all times been +stimulated by fierce religious zeal. As +far back as 1745, Russian missionaries +were sent to the tribe of the Osseti, +who had relapsed from Christianity +to the heathen creed of their forefathers. +Every Osset who presented +himself at the baptismal font received +a silver cross and a new shirt. The +bait brought thousands of the mountaineers +to the Russian priests, who +contented themselves with the outward +and visible sign of conversion. These +propagandist attempts enraged the Mahomedan +tribes, and then it was that +they thronged around Sheikh Mansour, +as they have done in our day (in 1830) +around that strange fanatic Chasi-Mollah, +when in his turn he preached a +holy war against the Russian. In the +latter year, General Paskewitch had +just been called away to Poland, and +his successor, Baron Rosen, found all +Daghestan in an uproar. He immediately +opened the campaign, but met +a strenuous resistance, and suffered +heavy loss. The defence of the village +of Hermentschuk, held against him, +in the year 1832, by 3000 Tshetshens, +was an extraordinary example of heroism. +When the Russian infantry +forced their way into the place with +the bayonet, a portion of the garrison +shut themselves up in a fortified house, +and made it good against overwhelming +numbers, singing passages from +the Koran amidst a storm of bombs and +grapeshot. At last the building took +fire, and its undaunted defenders, the +sacred verses still upon their lips, +found death in the flames. In an +equally desperate defence of the fortified +village of Himri, Chasi-Mollah +met his death, falling in the very +breach, bleeding from many wounds. +The chief who succeeded him was less +venerated and less energetic, and for +a few years the Tshetshens remained +tolerably quiet, but without a thought +of submission. Nevertheless the Russians +flattered themselves that the worst +was past; that the death of the mad +dervish was an irreparable loss to the +mountaineers. They were mistaken. +Out of his most ardent adherents Chasi-Mollah +had formed a sort of sacred +band, whom he called Murides, gloomy +fanatics, half warriors, half priests. +They composed his body-guard, were +unwearied in preaching up the fight +for the Prophet's faith, and in battle +devoted themselves to death with a +heroism that has never been surpassed. +From these, within a short time of +their first leader's death, Chamyl, the +present renowned chief of the Tshetshens, +soon stood forth pre-eminent, +and the Murides followed him to the +field with the same enthusiasm and +valour they had shown under his predecessor. +He did not prove less worthy +of guiding them; and the Russians +were compelled to confess, that +it was easier for the Tshetshens to +find an able leader than for them to +find a general able to beat him. And +victories over the restless and enterprising +Caucasians were of little profit, +even when obtained. For the +most part, they only served to fill the +Russian hospitals, and to procure the +officers those ribbons and distinctions +they so greedily covet, and which, in +that service, are so liberally bestowed.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> +Thus, in 1845, Count Woronzoff +made a most daring expedition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +into the heart of Daghestan. He found +the villages empty and in flames, lost +three thousand men, amongst them +many brave and valuable officers, and +marched back again, strewing the path +with wounded, for whom the means +of transport (the horses of the Cossack +cavalry) were quite insufficient. With +great difficulty, and protected by a +column that went out to meet them, +the Russians regained their lines, harassed +to the last by the fierce Caucasians. +This affair was called a victory, +and Count Woronzoff was made +a prince. Two more such victories +would have reduced his expeditionary +column to a single battalion. Chamyl, +who had cannonaded the Russians +with their own artillery, captured in +former actions, possibly considered +himself equally entitled to triumph, +as he slowly retreated, after following +up the foe nearly to the gates of their +fortresses, into the recesses of his native +valleys. +<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<p>The interior of Circassia is still an +unknown land. The investigations of +Messrs Bell, Longworth, Stewart, and +others, who of late years have visited +and written about the country, were +confined to small districts, and cramped +by the jealousy of the natives. Mr +Bell, who made the longest residence, +was treated more like a prisoner than +a guest. Other foreigners find a worse +reception still. Even the Poles, who +desert from the Russian army, are +made slaves of by the Circassians, and +so severely treated that they are often +glad to return to their colours, and +endure the flogging that there awaits +them. The only European who, +having penetrated into the interior, +has again seen his own country, is the +Russian Baron Turnau, an aide-de-camp +of General Gurko; but the circumstances +of his abode in Circassia +were too painful and peculiar to allow +opportunity for observation. They +are well told by Dr Wagner.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"By the Emperor's command, Russian +officers acquainted with the language are +sent, from time to time, as spies into Circassia,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>—partly +to make topographical +surveys of districts previously unknown; +partly to ascertain the numbers, mode +of life, and disposition of those tribes +with whom no intercourse is kept up. +These missions are extremely dangerous, +and seldom succeed. Shortly before +my arrival at Terek, four Russian +staff-officers were sent as spies to various +parts of Lesghistan. They assumed +the Caucasian garb, and were attended +by natives in Russian pay. Only +one of them ever returned; the three +others were recognised and murdered. +Baron Turnau prepared himself long +beforehand for his dangerous mission. He +gave his complexion a brownish tint, and +to his beard the form affected by the aborigines. +He also tried to learn the language +of the Ubiches, but, finding the +harsh pronunciation of certain words quite +unattainable, he agreed with his guide to +pass for deaf and dumb during his stay +in the country. In this guise he set out +upon his perilous journey, and for several +days wandered undetected from tribe to +tribe. But one of the <em>works</em> (nobles) under +whose roof he passed a night, conceived +suspicions, and threatened the +guide, who betrayed his employer's secret. +The baron was kept prisoner, and the +Ubiches demanded a cap-full of silver for +his ransom from the Russian commandant +of Fort Ardler. When this officer +declared himself ready to pay, they +increased their demand to a bushel of +silver rubles. The commandant referred +the matter to Baron Rosen, then commander-in-chief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +of the army of the Caucasus; +the baron reported it to St Petersburg, +and the Emperor consented to pay +the heavy ransom. But Rosen represented +it to him as more for the Russian +interest to leave Turnau for a while in +the hands of the Ubiches; for, in the first +place, the payment of so large a sum was +a bad precedent, likely to encourage the +mountaineers to renew the extortion, instead +of contenting themselves, as they +previously had done, with a few hundred +rubles; and, secondly, as a prisoner, +Baron Turnau would perhaps have opportunities +of gathering valuable information +concerning a country and people of whom +little or nothing was known. The unfortunate +young officer was cruelly sacrificed +to these considerations, and passed a long +winter in terrible captivity, tortured by +frost and hunger, compelled, as a slave, +to the severest labour, and often greatly +ill-treated. Several attempts at flight +failed; and at last the chief, in whose +hands he was, confined him in a cage +half-buried in the ground, and withal so +narrow that its inmate could neither +stand upright nor lie at length."</p></blockquote> + +<p>Thus immured, a prey to painful +maladies, his clothes rotting on his +emaciated limbs, the unhappy man +moaned through his long and sleepless +nights, and gave up hope of rescue. +No tender-hearted Circassian maiden +brought to him, as to the hero of +Pushkin's well-known Caucasian +poem, deliverance and love. Such +luck had been that of more than one +Russian captive; but poor Turnau, in +his state of filth and squalor, was no +very seductive object. He might have +pined away his life in his cage, before +Baron Rosen, or his paternal majesty +the Czar, had recalled his fate to mind, +but for an injury done by his merciless +master to one of his domestics, +who vowed revenge. Watching his +opportunity, this servant, one day that +the rest of the household were absent, +murdered his lord, released the prisoner, +tied him with thongs upon his +saddle, upon which the baron, covered +with sores and exhausted by illness, +was unable to support himself, and +galloped with him towards the frontier. +In one day they rode eighty +<em>versts</em>, (about fifty-four English miles,) +outstripped pursuers, and reached +Fort Ardler. The accounts given by +Baron Turnau of the land of his captivity +could be but slight: he had +seen little beyond his place of confinement. +What he did relate was not +very encouraging to Russian invasion. +He depicted the country as one mass +of rock and precipice, partially clothed +with vast tracts of aboriginal forest, +broken by deep ravines and mountain +torrents, and surmounted by the huge +ice-clad pinnacles of the loftiest Caucasian +ridge. The villages, some of +which nestle in the deep recesses of +the woods, whilst others are perched +upon steep crags and on the brink of +giddy precipices, are universally of +most difficult access.</p> + +<p>Dr Wagner, whose extremely +amusing book forms the text of this +article, has never been in Circassia, +although he gives us more information +about it, of the sort we want, +than any traveller in that singular +land whose writings have come under +our notice. His wanderings were +under Russian guidance and escort. +During them, he skirted the hostile +territory on more than one side; +occasionally setting a foot across the +border, to the alarm of his Cossacks, +whose dread by day and dreams +by night were of Circassian ambuscades; +he has lingered at the base +of Caucasus, and has traversed its +ranges—without, however, deeming it +necessary to penetrate into those +remote valleys, where foreigners find +dubious welcome, and whence they are +not always sure of exit. He has +mixed much with Circassians, if he +has not actually dwelt in their villages. +It were tedious and unnecessary +to detail his exact itinerary. +He has not printed his entire journal—according +to the lazy and egotistical +practice of many travellers—but +has taken the trouble to condense it. +The essence is full of variety, anecdote +and adventure, and gives a clear +insight into the nature of the war. +Professedly a man of science, an antiquary +and a naturalist, Dr Wagner +has evidently a secret hankering after +matters military. He loves the sound +of the drum, and willingly directs his +scientific researches to countries where +he is likely to smell powder. We +had heard of him in the Atlas mountains, +and at the siege of Constantina, +before we met him risking his neck +along the banks of the Kuban, and +across the wild steppes of the Caucasus. +He has travelled much in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +East, and prepared himself for his +Caucasian trip by a long stay in +Turkey and in Southern Russia. +Well introduced, he derived from +distinguished Russian generals, intelligent +civilians, and Circassian chiefs, +particulars of the war more authentic +than are to be obtained either from +St Petersburg bulletins, or from the +ordinary trans-Caucasian correspondents +of German and other newspapers, +many of whom are in the pay +of Russia. His African reminiscences +proved of great value. The officers +of the army of Caucasus take the +strongest interest in the contest between +French and Arabs, finding in +it, doubtless, points of similitude with +the war in which they themselves are +engaged. Amongst these officers he +met, besides Russians and Germans, +several naturalised Poles and Frenchmen, +Flemings and Spaniards, who +gave in exchange for his tales of +razzias and Bedouins, details of Circassian +warfare which he highly +prized, as likely to be more impartial +than the accounts afforded by the +native Russians. His own journey to +the Caucasus took place in 1843; but +a subsequent correspondence with +well-informed friends, on both sides +the Caucasian range, enabled him to +bring down his sketch of the struggle +to the year 1846.</p> + +<p>Many English writers on Circassia +have been accused of an undue preference +for the mountaineers, of exaggerating +their good qualities, and of +elevating them by invidious contrasts +with the Russians. There is no +ground for suspecting a German of +such partiality; and Dr Wagner, +whilst lauding the heroic valour and +independent spirit of the Circassians—qualities +which Russian authors +have themselves admitted and extolled—does +not forget to do justice to +his Muscovite and Cossack friends, +to whom he devotes a considerable +portion of his book, many of his +details concerning them being extremely +novel and curious. He carefully +studied both Cossacks and Circassians, +living amongst the former +and meeting thousands of the latter, +who go and come freely upon Russian +territory. At Ekaterinodar, the capital +of the Tchernamortsy Cossacks, +the Friday's market swarmed with +Circassians. In Turkey, and elsewhere, +Dr Wagner had met many +individuals of that nation, but this +was the first time he beheld them in +crowds. He describes them as very +handsome men, with black beards, +aquiline noses, and flashing black +eyes. He was struck with their lofty +mien, and attributes it to their mental +energy, and to a consciousness of +physical strength and beauty.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"This superiority of the pure Circassian +blood does not belie itself under +Russian discipline, any more than it does +in Mahometan lands, where, as Mamelukes +in Cairo, and as pashas in Stamboul, +the sons of Caucasus have ever +played a prominent and distinguished +part. The Turk, who by certain imposing +qualities awes all other Orientals, +tacitly recognises the superiority of the +Circassian <i>ousden</i>, or noble. The Emperor +Nicholas, who preserves so rigid a +discipline in the various corps of his +vast army, shows himself extraordinarily +considerate towards the Circassian squadrons +of his guard. Persons well versed +in the military chronicles of St Petersburg +relate many a characteristic trait, +proving the bold stubborn spirit of these +Caucasian men to be still unbroken, and +showing how it more than once has so imposed +upon the emperor, and even upon +the grand-duke Michael, reputed the strictest +disciplinarian in Russia, that they have +shut their eyes even to open mutiny. +At a review, where the Caucasian cavalry +formally refused obedience, the emperor +contented himself with sending a courteous +reproof by General Benkendorf. +Beside the coarse common Russians, the +Circassian looks like an eagle amidst a +flock of bustards. Even capital crimes +are not visited upon Circassians with the +same severity as upon the other subjects +of the emperor. A Circassian who had +struck his dagger into the heart of a +hackney-coachman at St Petersburg, in +requital of an insolent overcharge, was +merely sent back to the Caucasus. For +a like offence a Russian might reckon +upon the knout, and upon banishment +for life to the Siberian mines.</p> + +<p>"Amongst the Circassians at Ekaterinodar, +a <em>work</em>, or noble, of the Shapsookian +tribe, was particularly remarkable +for his beauty and dignity. None +of the picturesque figures of Arabs and +Moors furnished me by my African recollections, +could bear comparison with this +Caucasian eagle. I afterwards saw, in +Mingrelia, a more ideal mould of feature, +resembling the antique Apollo type: +but there the expression was too effeminate;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +the heroic head of the dweller on +the Kuban pleased me better. I stood +a good while before the Shapsookian, as +if fettered to the ground, so extraordinary +was the effect of his striking beauty. +What a study, I thought, for a German +painter, who would in vain seek such +models in Rome; or for a Vernet, whose +Arabian groups prove the great power of +his pencil! The Arabs, rather priestly +than knightly in their aspect, produce +far less effect upon the large Algerine +pictures at Versailles than the Circassian +warrior would do in a battle-piece by +such masters as Vernet or Peter Hess. +The Shapsook chief at Ekaterinodar +seemed conscious of his magnificent appearance. +With proud mien, and that +light half-gliding gait observable in +most Caucasians, he sauntered amongst +the groups of Cossacks upon the market-place, +casting glances of profoundest +scorn upon their clumsy sheepskin-wrapped +figures. His slender form and +small foot, the grace and elegance of his +person and carriage, the richness of his +costume and beauty of his weapons, contrasted +most advantageously with the +muscular but somewhat thickset figures, +and with the ugly woolly winter dress of +the Tchernamortsies. By help of a Cossack +I made his acquaintance, and got +into conversation. His name was Chora-Beg, +and he dwelt at a hamlet thirty +versts south of Ekaterinodar."</p></blockquote> + +<p>Chora-Beg wondered greatly that +his new acquaintance was neither +Russian nor English. He had heard +vaguely that there was a third Christian +nation, which, under Sultan +Bunapart, had made war upon the +Padisha of the Russians, but he had +no notion of such a people as the +Germans. He greatly admired Dr +Wagner's rifle, but rather doubted its +carrying farther than a smooth bore, +and allowed free inspection of his own +arms, consisting of pistols and dagger, +and of the famous <i>shaska</i>—a long +heavy cavalry sabre, slightly curved, +with hilt of silver and ivory. At the +doctor's request he drew this weapon +from the scabbard, and cut twice or +thrice at the empty air, his dark eyes +flashing as he did so. "How many +Russians has that sabre sent to their +account?" asked the inquisitive Doctor. +The Circassian's intelligent +countenance assumed an expression +hard to interpret, but in which his +interlocutor thought he distinguished +a gleam of scorn, and a shade of suspicion. +"It was long," he replied, +"since his tribe had taken the field +against the Russians. Since the deaf +general (Sass) had left the land of the +Cossacks, peace had reigned between +Muscovite and Shapsookian. Individuals +of his tribe had certainly been +known to join bands from the mountains, +and to cross the Kuban with +arms in hand." And as Chora-Beg +spoke, the expression of his proud eye +belied his pacific pretensions.</p> + +<p>The general Sass above-named +commanded for several years on the +line of the Kuban, and is the only +Russian general who has understood +the mountain warfare, and proved +himself a match for the Circassians at +their own game of ambuscades and +surprises. His tactics were those of +the Spanish guerilla leaders. Lavish +in his payment of spies, he was always +accurately informed of the musters +and projects of the Circassians; +whilst he kept his own plans so secret, +that his personal staff often knew nothing +of an intended expedition until +the call to "boot and saddle" sounded. +His raids were accomplished, under +guidance of his well-paid scouts, with +such rapidity and local knowledge that +the mountaineers rarely had time to +assemble in force, pursue the retiring +column, and revenge their burnt vilages +and ravished cattle. But one +day the report spread on the lines of +the Kuban that the general was dangerously +ill; shortly afterwards it +became known that the physicians +had given him up; and finally his +death was announced, and bewailed +by the whole army of the Caucasus. +The consternation of the Cossacks, +accustomed, under his command, to +victory and rich booty, was as great +as the exultation of the mountaineers. +Hundreds of these visited the Russian +territory, to witness the interment of +their dreaded foe. A magnificent +coffin, with the general's cocked hat +and decorations laid upon it, was deposited +in the earth amidst the mournful +sounds of minute guns and muffled +drums. With joyful hearts the Circassians +returned to their mountains, +to tell what they had seen, and to congratulate +each other at the prospect of +tranquillity for themselves, and safety +to their flocks and herds. But upon +the second night after Sass's funeral,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +a strong Russian column crossed the +Kuban, and the dead general suddenly +appeared at the head of his trusty +lancers, who greeted with wild hurrahs +their leader's resurrection. Several +large <i>auls</i> (villages) whose inhabitants +were sound asleep, unsuspicious of +surprise, were destroyed, vast droves +of cattle were carried off, and a host +of prisoners made. This ingenious +and successful stratagem is still cited +with admiration on the banks of the +Kuban. Notwithstanding his able +generalship, Sass was removed from +his command when in full career of +success. All his military services +could not shield him from the consequences +of St Petersburg intrigues and +trumped-up accusations. None of his +successors have equalled him. General +Willaminoff was a man of big +words rather than of great deeds. In +his bombastic and blasphemous proclamation +of the 28th May 1837, he +informed the Circassians that "If the +heavens should fall, Russia could prop +them with her bayonets;" following +up this startling assertion with the +declaration that "there are but two +powers in existence—God in heaven, +and the emperor upon earth!"<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The +Circassians laughed at this rhodomontade, +and returned a firm and becoming +answer. There were but few of +them, they said—but, with God's blessing, +they would hold their own, and +fight to the very last man: and to +prove themselves as good as their +word, they soon afterwards made +fierce assaults upon the line of forts +built by the Russians upon the shores +of the Black Sea. In 1840 four of +these were taken, but the triumph cost +the victors so much blood as to disgust +them for some time with attacking +stone walls, behind which the Russians, +perhaps the best defensive combatants +in the world, fight like lions. +Indeed, the Circassians would hardly +have proved victorious, had not the +garrisons been enfeebled by disease. +During the five winter months, the rations +of the troops employed upon this +service are usually salt, and the consequences +are scurvy and fever. Informed +by Polish deserters of the bad +condition of the garrisons, the Circassians +held a great council in the +mountains, and it was decided to take +the forts with the sabre, without firing +a shot. It is an old Caucasian custom, +that, upon suchlike perilous undertakings, +a chosen band of enthusiastic +warrors devote themselves to +death, binding themselves by a solemn +oath not to turn their backs upon the +enemy. Ever in the van, their example +gives courage to the timid; and +their friends are bound in honour to +revenge their death. With these +fanatics have the Circassian and +Tshetshen chiefs achieved their greatest +victories over the Russians.</p> + +<p>When it was decided to attack the +forts, several hundred Shapsookians, +including gray-haired old men and +youths of tender age, swore to conquer +or to die. They kept their word. +At the fort of Michailoff, which made +the most obstinate defence, the ditch +was filled with their corpses. The +conduct of the garrison was truly +heroic. Of five hundred men, only +one third were fit for duty; the others +were in hospital, or on the sick-list. +But no sooner did the Circassian war-cry +rend the air than the sufferers +forgot their pains; the fever-stricken +left their beds, and crawled to the +walls. Their commandant called upon +them to shed their last drop of blood +for their emperor; their old <em>papa</em> exhorted +them, as Christians, to fight to +the death against the unbelieving +horde. But numbers prevailed: after +a valiant defence, the Russians retreated, +fighting, to the innermost +enclosures of the fortress. Their chief +demanded a volunteer to blow up the +fort when farther resistance should +become impossible. A soldier stepped +forward, took a lighted match, and +entered the powder magazine. The +last defences were stormed, the Circassians +shouted victory. Then came +the explosion. Most of the buildings +were overthrown, and hundreds of +maimed carcases scattered in all directions. +Eleven Russians escaped +with life, were dragged off to the +mountains, and subsequently ransomed, +and from them the details of this +bloody fight were obtained.</p> + +<p>The capture of these forts spread<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +discouragement and consternation in +the ranks of the Russian army. The +emperor was furious, and General +Rajewski, then commander-in-chief on +the Circassian frontier, was superseded. +This officer, who at the tender +age of twelve was present with +his father at the battle of Borodino, +and who has since distinguished himself +in the Turkish and Persian wars, +was reputed an able general, but was +reproached with sleeping too much, +and with being too fond of botany. +His enemies went so far as to accuse +him of making military expeditions +into the mountains, with the sole view +of adding rare Caucasian plants to his +<em>herbarium</em>, and of procuring seeds for +his garden. General Aurep, who succeeded +him, undertook little beyond +reconnoissances, always attended with +very heavy loss; and the Circassians +remained upon the defensive until the +year 1843, when the example of the +Tshetshens, who about that time +obtained signal advantages over the +Russians, roused the martial ardour +of the chivalrous Circassians, and +spurred them to fresh hostilities. But +the war at the western extremity of +Caucasus never assumed the importance +of that in Daghestan and the +country of the Tshetshens.</p> + +<p>From the straits of Zabache to the +frontier of Guria, the Russians possess +seventeen <em>Kreposts</em>, or fortified posts, +only a few of which deserve the name +of regular fortresses, or could resist a +regular army provided with artillery. +To mountaineers, however, whose sole +weapons are shaska and musket, even +earthen parapets and shallow ditches +are serious obstacles when well manned +and resolutely defended. The +object of erecting this line of forts was +to cut off the communication by sea +between Turkey and the Caucasian +tribes. It was thought that, when the +import of arms and munitions of war +from Turkey was thus checked, the +independent mountain tribes would +soon be subjugated. The hope was +not realised, and the expensive maintenance +of 15,000 to 20,000 men in +the fortresses of the Black Sea has but +little improved the position of the +Russians in the Caucasus. The Caucasians +have never lacked arms, and +with money they can always get powder, +even from the Cossacks of the +Kuban. In another respect, however, +these forts have done them much +harm, and thence it arises that, since +their erection, and the cession of +Anapa to Russia, the war has assumed +so bitter a character. So long as +Anapa was Turkish, the export of +slaves, and the import of powder, +found no hindrance. The needy Circassian +noble, whose rude mountains +supply him but sparingly with daily +bread, obtained, by the sale of slaves, +means of satisfying his warlike and +ostentatious tastes—of procuring rich +clothes, costly weapons, and ammunition +for war and for the chase. In a +moral point of view, all slave traffic is +of course odious and reprehensible, but +that of Circassia differed from other +commerce of the kind, in so far that +all parties were benefited by, and +consenting to, the contract. The +Turks obtained from Caucasus handsomer +and healthier wives than those +born in the harem; and the Circassian +beauties were delighted to exchange +the poverty and toil of their father's +mountain huts for the luxurious <em>farniente</em> +of the seraglio, of whose wonders +and delights their ears were regaled, +from childhood upwards, with +the most glowing descriptions. The +trade, although greatly impeded and +very hazardous, still goes on. Small +Turkish craft creep up to the coast, +cautiously evading the Russian cruisers, +enter creeks and inlets, and are +dragged by the Circassians high and +dry upon the beach, there to remain +till the negotiation for their live cargo +is completed, an operation that generally +takes a few weeks. The women +sold are the daughters of serfs and +freedmen: rarely does a <em>work</em> consent +to dispose of his sister or daughter, +although the case does sometimes +occur. But, whilst the sale goes on, +the slave-ships are anything but secure. +It is a small matter to have escaped +the Russian frigates and steamers. +Each of the Kreposts possesses a little +squadron of row-boats, manned with +Cossacks, who pull along the coast in +search of Turkish vessels. If they +detect one, they land in the night, and +endeavour to set fire to it, before the +mountaineers can come to the assistance +of the crew. The Turks, who +live in profound terror of these Cossack +coast-guards, resort to every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +possible expedient to escape their +observation; often covering their vessels +with dry leaves and boughs, and +tying fir branches to the masts, that +the scouts may take them for trees. +If they are captured at sea by the +cruisers, the crew are sent to hard +labour in Siberia, and the Circassian +girls are married to Cossacks, or +divided as handmaidens amongst the +Russian staff officers. From thirty +to forty slaves compose the usual +cargo of each of these vessels, which +are so small that the poor creatures +are packed almost like herrings in a +barrel. But they patiently endure the +misery of the voyage, in anticipation +of the honeyed existence of the harem. +It is calculated that one vessel out of +six is taken or lost. In the winter +of 1843-4, eight-and-twenty ships left +the coast of Asia Minor for that of +Caucasia. Twenty-three safely returned, +three were burned by the +Russians, and two swallowed by the +waves.</p> + +<p>A Turkish captain at Sinope told +Dr Wagner the following interesting +anecdote, illustrating Circassian hatred +of the Russians:—"A few years ago +a slave-ship sprang a leak out at sea, +just as a Russian steamer passed in +the distance. The Turkish slave-dealer, +who preferred even the chill +blasts of Siberia to a grave in deep +water, made signals of distress, and the +steamer came up in time to rescue the +ship and its living cargo from destruction. +But so deeply is hatred of +Russia implanted in every Circassian +heart, that the spirit of the girls revolted +at the thought of becoming the +helpmates of gray-coated soldiers, instead +of sharing the sumptuous couch +of a Turkish pasha. They had bid +adieu to their native mountains with +little emotion, but as the Russian ship +approached they set up terrible and +despairing screams. Some sprang +headlong into the sea; others drove +their knives into their hearts:—to these +heroines death was preferable to the +bridal-bed of a detested Muscovite. +The survivors were taken to Anapa, +and married to Cossacks, or given to +officers as servants." Nearly every +Austrian or Turkish steamboat that +makes, in the winter months, the voyage +from Trebizond to Constantinople, +has a number of Circassian girls on +board. Dr Wagner made the passage +in an Austrian steamer with several +dozens of these willing slaves, chiefly +mere children, twelve or thirteen years +old, with interesting countenances and +dark wild eyes, but very pale and thin—with +the exception of two, who were +some years older, far better dressed, +and carefully veiled. To this favoured +pair the slave-dealer paid particular +attention, and frequently brought them +coffee. Dr Wagner got into conversation +with this man, who was richly +dressed in furs and silks, and who, +despite his vile profession, had the +manners of a gentleman. The two +coffee-drinkers were daughters of +noblemen, he said, with fine rosy +cheeks, and in better condition than +the others, consequently worth more +money at Constantinople. For the +handsomest he hoped to obtain 30,000 +piastres, and for the other 20,000—about +£250 and £170. The herd of +young creatures he spoke of with contempt, +and should think himself lucky +to get 2000 piastres for them all round. +He further informed the doctor that, +although the slave-trade was more +dangerous and difficult since the Russian +occupation of the Caucasian coast, +it was also far more profitable. Formerly, +when Greek and Armenian +women were brought in crowds to +the Constantinople market, the most +beautiful Circassians were not worth +more than 10,000 piastres; but now +a rosy, well-fed, fifteen-year-old slave +is hardly to be had under 40,000 +piastres.</p> + +<p>The Tshetshen successes, already +referred to as having at the close of +1842 stirred into flame and action, by +the force of example, the smouldering +but still ardent embers of Circassian +hatred to Russia, are described with +remarkable spirit by Dr Wagner, in the +chapter entitled "Caucasian War-Scenes,"—episodes +taken down by him +from the lips of eye-witnesses, and +of sharers in the sanguinary conflicts +described. This graphic chapter at +once familiarises the reader with the +Caucasian war, with which he thenceforward +feels as well acquainted as +with our wars in India, the French +contest in Africa, or with any other +series of combats, of whose nature +and progress minute information has +been regularly received. The first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +event described is the storming of +Aculcho, in the summer of 1839. It +is always a great point with guerilla +generals, and with leaders of mountain +warfare, to have a centre of operations—a +strong post, whither they can +retreat after a reverse, with the confidence +that the enemy will hesitate before +attacking them there. In Spain, +Cabrera had Morella, the Count +d'Espagne had Berga, the Navarrese +viewed Estella as their citadel. In +the eastern Caucasus, Chasi-Mollah +had Himri, and preferred falling in its +defence to abandoning his stronghold; +his successor, Chamyl, who surpasses +him in talent for war and organisation, +established his headquarters at +Aculcho, a sort of eagle's nest on the +river Koisu, whither his escorts +brought him intelligence of each movement +of Russian troops, and whence +he swooped, like the bird whose eyrie +he occupied, upon the convoys traversing +the steppe of the Terek. +Here he planned expeditions and +surprises, and kept a store of arms +and ammunition; and this fort General +Grabbe, who commanded in 1839 the +Russian forces in eastern Caucasus, +and who was always a strong advocate +of the offensive system, obtained +permission from St Petersburg to +attack. General Golowin, commander-in-chief +of the whole army of +the Caucasus, and then resident at +Teflis, approved the enterprise, whose +ultimate results cost both generals +their command. The taking of +Aculcho itself was of little moment; +there was no intention of placing a +Russian garrison there; but the +double end to be obtained was to +capture Chamyl, and to intimidate +the Tshetshens, by proving to them +that no part of their mountains, however +difficult of access and bravely +defended, was beyond the reach of +Russian valour and resources. Their +submission, at least nominal and +temporary, was the result hoped for.</p> + +<p>Nature has done much for the fortification +of Aculcho. Imagine a hill +of sand-stone, nearly surrounded by +a loop of the river Koisu—a miniature +peninsula, in short, connected +with the continent by a narrow neck +of land—provided with three natural +terraces, accessible only by a small +rocky path, whose entrance is fortified +and defended by 500 resolute +Tshetshen warriors. A few artificial +parapets and intrenchments, some +stone huts, and several excavations in +the sand rock, where the besieged +found shelter from shot and shell, +complete the picture of the place +before which Grabbe and his column +sat down. At first they hoped to +reduce it by artillery, and bombs and +congreve rockets were poured upon +the fortress, destroying huts and +parapets, but doing little harm to the +Tshetshens, who lay close as conies +in their burrows, and watched their +opportunity to send well-aimed bullets +into the Russian camp. From time +to time, one of the fanatical Murides, +of whom the garrison was chiefly +composed, impatient that the foe +delayed an assault, rushed headlong +down from the rock, his shaska in his +right hand, his pistol in his left, his +dagger between his teeth; causing a +momentary panic among the Cossacks, +who were prepared for the whistling +of bullets, but not for the sudden +appearance of a foaming demon armed +<i>cap-à-pie</i>, who generally, before they +could use their bayonets, avenged in +advance his own certain death by the +slaughter of several of his foes, whilst +his comrades on the rock applauded +and rejoiced at the heroic self-sacrifice. +The first attempt to storm was +costly to the besiegers. Of fifteen +hundred men who ascended the narrow +path, only a hundred and fifty +survived. The Tshetshens maintained +such a well-directed platoon fire, that +not a Russian set foot on the second +terrace. The foremost men, mown +down by the bullets of the besieged, +fell back upon their comrades, and +precipitated them from the rock. +General Grabbe, undismayed by his +heavy loss, ordered a second and a +third assault; the three cost two +thousand men, but the lower and +middle terraces were taken. The +defence of the upper one was desperate, +and the Russians might have +been compelled to turn the siege into +a blockade, but for the imprudence +of some of the garrison, who, anxious +to ascertain the proceedings of the +enemy's engineers—then hard at +work at a mine under the hill—ventured +too far from their defences, and +were attacked by a Russian battalion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +The Tshetshens fled; but, swift of foot +though they were, the most active of +the Russians attained the topmost +terrace with them. A hand-to-hand +fight ensued, more battalions came +up, and Aculcho was taken. The +victors, furious at their losses, and at +the long resistance opposed to them, +(this was the 22d August,) raged like +tigers amongst the unfortunate little +band of mountaineers; some Tshetshen +women, who took up arms at +this last extremity, were slaughtered +with their husbands. At last the +bloody work was apparently at an +end, and search ensued amongst the +dead for the body of Chamyl. It was +nowhere to be found. At last the +discovery was made that a few of the +garrison had taken refuge in holes in +the side of the rock, looking over the +river. No path led to these cavities; +the only way to get at them was to +lower men by ropes from the crag +above. In this manner the surviving +Tshetshens were attacked; quarter +was neither asked nor given. The +hole in which Chamyl himself was +hidden held out the longest. Escape +seemed, however, impossible; the +rock was surrounded; the banks of +the river were lined with soldiers; +Grabbe's main object was the capture +of Chamyl. At this critical moment +the handful of Tshetshens still alive +gave an example of heroic devotion. +They knew that their leader's death +would be a heavy loss to their country, +and they resolved to sacrifice themselves +to save him. With a few +beams and planks, that chanced to be +in the cave, they constructed a sort +of raft. This they launched upon the +Koisu, and floated with it down the +stream, amidst a storm of Russian +lead. The Russian general doubted +not that Chamyl was on the raft, and +ordered every exertion to kill or take +him. Whilst the Cossacks spurred +their horses into the river, and the +infantry hurried along the bank, following +the raft, a man sprang out of +the hole into the Koisu, swam vigorously +across the stream, landed at an +unguarded spot, and gained the +mountains unhurt. This man was +Chamyl, who alone escaped with life +from the bloody rock of Aculcho. +His deliverance passed for miraculous +amongst the enthusiastic mountaineers, +with whom his influence, from that +day forward, increased tenfold. +Grabbe was furious; Chamyl's head +was worth more than the heads +of all the garrison: three thousand +Russians had been sacrificed for the +possession of a crag not worth the +keeping.</p> + +<p>After the fall of Aculcho, Chamyl's +head-quarters were at the village of +Dargo, in the mountain region south +of the Russian fort of Girselaul, and +thence he carried on the war with +great vigour, surprising fortified posts, +cutting off convoys, and sweeping the +plain with his horsemen. Generals +Grabbe and Golowin could not +agree about the mode of operations. +The former was for taking the offensive; +the latter advocated the +defensive and blockade system. +Grabbe went to St Petersburg to +plead in person for his plan, obtained +a favourable hearing, and the emperor +sent Prince Tchernicheff, the minister +at war, to visit both flanks of the +Caucasus. Before the prince reached +the left wing of the line of operations, +Grabbe resolved to surprise him with +a brilliant achievement; and on the +29th May 1842, he marched from +Girselaul with thirteen battalions, a +small escort of mounted Cossacks, and +a train of mountain artillery, to attack +Dargo. The route was through forests, +and along paths tangled with wild +flowers and creeping plants, through +which the heavy Russian infantry, +encumbered with eight days' rations +and sixty rounds of ball-cartridge, +made but slow and painful progress. +The first day's march was accomplished +without fighting; only here +and there the slender active form of a +mountaineer was descried, as he peered +between the trees at the long column +of bayonets, and vanished as soon +as he was observed. After midnight +the dance began. The troops had +eaten their rations, and were comfortably +bivouacked, when they were +assailed by a sharp fire from an invisible +foe, to which they replied in +the direction of the flashes. This +skirmishing lasted all night; few were +killed on either side, but the whole +Russian division were deprived of +sleep, and wearied for the next day's +march. At daybreak the enemy retired; +but at noon, when passing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +through a forest defile, the column +was again assailed, and soon the +horses, and a few light carts accompanying +it, were insufficient to convey +the wounded. The staff urged the +general to retrace his steps, but +Grabbe was bent on welcoming +Tchernicheff with a triumphant bulletin. +Another sleepless bivouac—another +fagging day, more skirmishing. +At last, when within sight +of the fortified village of Dargo, +the loss of the column was so heavy, +and its situation so critical, that +a retreat was ordered. The daring +and fury of the Tshetshens now +knew no bounds; they assailed the +troops sabre in hand, captured baggage +and wounded, and at night +prowled round the camp, like wolves +round a dying soldier. On the 1st +June, the fight recommenced. The +valour displayed by the mountaineers +was admitted by the Russians to be +extraordinary, as was also their skill +in wielding the terrible shaska. They +made a fierce attack on the centre of +the column—cut down the artillery-men +and captured six guns. The +Russians, who throughout the whole +of this trying expedition did their +duty as good and brave soldiers, were +furious at the loss of their artillery, +and by a desperate charge retook five +pieces, the sixth being relinquished +only because its carriage was broken. +Upon the last day of the retreat, +Chamyl came up with his horsemen. +Had he been able to get these together +two days sooner, it is doubtful whether +any portion of the column would have +escaped. As it was, the Russians +lost nearly two thousand men; the +weary and dispirited survivors re-entering +Girselaul with downcast +mien. Preparations had been made +to celebrate their triumph, and, to +add to their general's mortification, +Tchernicheff was awaiting their arrival. +On the prince's return to St +Petersburg, both Grabbe and Golowin +were removed from their commands.</p> + +<p>Against this same Tshetshen fortress +of Dargo, Count Woronzoff's +expedition (already referred to) was +made, in July 1845. A capital account +of the affair is given in a letter +from a Russian officer engaged, printed +in Dr Wagner's book. Dargo had +become an important place. Chamyl +had established large stores there, +and had built a mosque, to which +came pilgrims from the remotest villages +of Daghestan and Lesghistan, +partly to pray, partly to see the +dreaded chief—equally renowned as +warrior and priest—and to give him +information concerning the state of +the country, and the movements of the +Russians. Less vigorously opposed +than Grabbe, and his measures better +taken, Woronzoff reached Dargo with +moderate loss. "The village," says +the Russian officer: "was situated +on the slope of a mountain, at the +brink of a ravine, and consisted of sixty +to seventy small stone-houses, and of a +few larger buildings, where the stones +were joined with mortar, instead of being +merely superimposed, as is usually +the case in Caucasian dwellings. One +of these buildings had several irregular +towers, of some apparent antiquity. +When we approached, a thick smoke +burst from them. Chamyl had ordered +everything to be set on fire +that could not be carried away. One +must confess that, in this fierce determination +of the enemy to refuse submission—to +defend, foot by foot, the +territory of his forefathers, and to +leave to the Russians no other trophies +than ashes and smoking ruins—there +is a certain wild grandeur which +extorts admiration, even though the +hostile chief be no better than a fanatical +barbarian." This reminds us +of the words of the Circassian chief +Mansour:—"When Turkey and England +abandon us," he said, to Bell of +the 'Vixen,'—"when all our powers +of resistance are exhausted, we will +burn our houses,and our goods, +strangle our wives and our children, +and retreat to our highest rocks, there +to die, fighting to the very last man." +"The greatest difficulty," said General +Neidhardt to Dr Wagner, who +was a frequent visitor at the house of +that distinguished officer, "with which +we have to contend, is the unappeasable, +deep-rooted, ineradicable hatred +cherished by all the mountaineers +against the Russians. For this we +know no cure; every form of severity +and of kindness has been tried in turn, +with equal ill-success." Valour and +patriotism are nearly the only good +qualities the Caucasians can boast. +They are cruel, and for the most part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +faithless, especially the Tshetshens, +and Dr Wagner warns us against +crediting the exaggerated accounts +frequently given of their many virtues. +The Circassians are said to +respect their plighted word, but there +are many exceptions. General Neidhardt +told Dr Wagner an anecdote of +a Circassian, who presented himself +before the commandant of one of the +Black Sea fortresses, and offered to +communicate most important intelligence, +on condition of a certain reward. +The reward was promised. +Then said the Circassian,—"To-morrow +after sunset, your fort will be +assailed by thousands of my countrymen." +The informer was retained, +whilst Cossacks and riflemen were sent +out, and it proved that he had spoken +the truth. The enemy, finding the +garrison on their guard, retired after +a short skirmish. The Circassian received +his recompense, which he took +without a word of thanks, and left the +fortress. Without the walls, he met +an unarmed soldier; hatred of the +Russians, and thirst of blood, again +got the ascendency: he shot the soldier +dead, and scampered off to the +mountains.</p> + +<p>Chamyl did not long remain indebted +to the Russians for their visit +to Dargo. His reputation of sanctity +and valour enabled him to unite under +his orders many tribes habitually hostile +to each other, and which previously +had fought each "on its own hook." +Of these tribes he formed a powerful +league; and in May 1846 he burst +into Cabardia at the head of twenty +thousand mountaineers, four thousand +of whom were horsemen. Formidable +though this force was, the venture was +one of extreme temerity. He left behind +him a double line of Russian +camps and forts, and two rivers, then +at the flood, and difficult to pass. +With an undisciplined and heterogeneous +army, without artillery or regular +commissariat, this daring chief +threw himself into a flat country, unfavourable +to guerilla warfare; slipping +through the Russian posts, marching +more than four hundred miles, and +utterly disregarding the danger he was +in from a well-equipped army of upwards +of seventy thousand men, to +say nothing of the numerous military +population of the Cossack settlements +on the Terek and Sundscha, and of the +fact that the Cabardians, long submissive +to Russia, were more likely +to arm in defence of their rulers than +to favour the mountaineers. Shepherds +and dwellers in the plain, and +far less warlike than the other Circassian +tribes, they never were able +to make head against the Russians; +and had remained indifferent to all +the incentives of Tshetshen fanatics +and propagandists. For years past, +Chamyl had threatened them with a +visit; but nevertheless, his sudden +appearance greatly surprised and confounded +both them and the Russian +general, who had just concentrated all +his movable columns, with a view to +an expedition, relying overmuch upon +his lines of forts and blockhouses. +The Tshetshen raid was more daring, +and at least as successful, as Abd-el-Kader's +celebrated foray in the Metidja, +in the year 1839. Chamyl addressed +to the Cabardians a thundering +proclamation, full of quotations from +the Koran, and denouncing vengeance +on them if they did not flock to the +banner of the Prophet. The unlucky +keepers of sheep found themselves between +the devil and the deep sea. +From terror rather than sympathy, +a large number of villages declared for +Chamyl, whose wild hordes burned +and plundered the property of all who +adhered to the Russians; leaving, like +a swarm of locusts, desolation in their +track. When the Cossacks began to +gather, and the Russian generals to +manœuvre, Chamyl, who knew he +could not contend in the plain with +disciplined and superior forces, and +whose retreat by the road he came +was already cut off, traversed Great +and Little Cabardia, burning and destroying +as he went; dashed through +the Cossack colonies to the south of +Ekaterinograd, and regained his mountains +in safety—dragging with him +booty, prisoners, and Cabardian recruits. +These latter, who had joined +through fear of Chamyl, remained +with him through fear of the Russians. +By this foray, whose apparent great +rashness was justified by its complete +success, Chamyl enriched his people, +strengthened his army, and greatly +weakened the confidence of the tribes +of the plain in the efficacy of Russian +protection. As usual, in cases of disaster,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +the Russians kept the affair as +quiet as they could; but the truth +could not be concealed from those +most concerned, and murmurs of dismay +ran along the exposed line fringing +the Muscovite and Circassian territories.</p> + +<p>The Russian army of the Caucasus +reckoned, in 1843, about eighty thousand +men, exclusive of thirty-five +thousand who had little to do with +the war, but were more especially +employed in watching the extensive +line of Turkish and Persian frontier, +and in endeavouring to exclude contraband +goods and Asiatic epidemics. +But the severe fighting that occurred +in 1842 and 1843, showed the necessity +of an increase of force. Subsequent +events have not admitted of a +reduction in the Caucasian establishment; +and we are probably very near +the mark, in estimating the troops +occupying the various forts and camps +on the Black Sea, and the lines of the +rivers, (Terek, Kuban, Koisu, &c.,) +at about one hundred thousand men—not +at all too many to guard so extensive +a line, against so active and +enterprising a foe. The Russian ranks +are constantly thinned by destructive +fevers, which, in bad years, have been +known to carry off as much as a sixth +of the Caucasian army. At a review +at Vladikawkas, Dr Wagner was +struck by the powerful build of the +Russian foot-soldiers—broad-shouldered, +broad-faced Slavonians, with +enormous mustaches, drilled to automatical +perfection. In point of bone +and limb, every man of them was a +grenadier. In a bayonet charge, such +infantry are formidable opponents. +Ségur mentions that, on the battle-field +of Borodino, the nation of the +stripped bodies was easily known—the +muscle and size of the Russians +contrasting with the slighter frames of +French and Germans. "You may +kill the Russians, but you will hardly +make them run," was a saying of +Frederick the Great; and certainly +Seidlitz, who scattered the French so +briskly at Rossbach, had to sweat +blood before he overcame the Russians +at Zorndorf. Those survivors of Napoleon's +famous Guard who fought in +the drawn battle of Eylau, will bear +witness to the stubborn resistance and +bull-dog qualities of the Muscovite. +But the grenadier stature, and the immobility +under fire—admirable qualities +on a plain, and against regular +troops—avail little in the Caucasus. +The burly Russian pants and perspires +up the hills, which the light-footed chamois-like +Circassians and Tshetshens +ascend at a run. The mountaineers +understand their advantages, and decline +standing still in the plain to be +charged by a line of bayonets. They +dance round the heavy Russian, who, +with his well-stuffed knapsack and +long greatcoat, can barely turn on +his heel fast enough to face them. +They catch him out skirmishing, and +slaughter him in detail. "One might +suppose," said a foreigner in the Russian +service to Dr Wagner, "that the +musket and bayonet of the Russian +soldier would be too much, in single +combat, for the sabre and dagger of +the Tshetshen. The contrary is the +case. Amongst the dead, slain in +hand-to-hand encounter, there are +usually a third more Russians than +Caucasians. Strange to say, too, the +Russian soldier, who in the serried +ranks of his battalion meets death +with wonderful firmness, and who has +shown the utmost valour in contests +with European, Turkish, and Persian +armies, often betrays timidity in the +Caucasian war, and retreats from the +outposts to the column, in spite of the +heavy punishment he thereby incurs. +I myself was exposed, during the murderous +fight near Ischkeri (Dargo,) in +1842, to considerable danger, because, +having gone to the assistance of a +skirmisher, who was sharply engaged +with a Tshetshen, the skirmisher ran, +leaving me to fight it out alone." +This shyness of Russian soldiers in +single fight and irregular warfare, is +not inexplicable. They have no +chance of promotion, no honourable +stimulus: food and brandy, discipline +and dread of the lash, convert them +from serfs into soldiers. As bits of a +machine, they are admirable when +united, but asunder they are mere +screws and bolts. Fanatic zeal, bitter +hatred, and thirst of blood, animate +the Caucasian, who, trained to +arms from his boyhood, and ignorant +of drill, relies only upon his keen +shaska, and upon the Prophet's protection.</p> + +<p>Presuming Dr Wagner's statement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +of Russian rations to be correct, it is +a puzzle how the soldier preserves the +condition of his thews and sinews. +The daily allowance consists of three +pounds of bread, black as a coal; a +water-soup, in which three pounds of +bacon are cut up for every two hundred +and fifty men; a ration of <em>wodka</em>, +or bad brandy, and once a-week a +small piece of meat. The pay is nine +rubles a-year, (about one-third of a +penny <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per diem</i>,) out of which the unfortunate +private has to purchase his +stock, cap, soap, blacking, salt, &c., &c. +Any surplus he is allowed to expend +upon his amusement. "Our soldiers +are obliged to steal a little," said a +German officer in the Russian service +to Dr Wagner; "their pay will not +purchase soap and blacking; and if +their shirts are not clean, and their +shoes polished, the stick is their portion." +"Stealing a little," in one +way or other, is no uncommon practice +in Russia, even amongst more highly +placed personages than the soldiers. +Officials of all kinds, both civil and military, +particularly those of the middle +and lower ranks, are prone to peculation. +Dr Wagner was deafened with +the complaints that from all sides met +his ear. "Ah! if the emperor knew +it!" was the usual cry. The subjects +of Nicholas have strong faith in his +justice. It is well remembered in the +Caucasus, especially by the army, +how one day, at Teflis, the emperor, +upon parade, in full view of mob and +soldiers, tore, with his own hand, the +golden insignia of a general's rank +from the coat of Prince Dadian, denounced +to him as enriching himself +at his men's expense. For several +years afterwards, the prince carried the +musket, and wore the coarse gray coat +of a private sentinel. The officers +pitied him, although his condemnation +was just. "<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Il faut profiter d'une +bonne place</i>," is their current maxim. +The soldiers rejoiced; but in secret; +for such rejoicings are not always safe. +A sentence often recoils unpleasantly +upon the accuser. Dr Wagner gives +sundry examples. A major in Sewastopol +fell in love with a sergeant's +wife; and as she disregarded his addresses, +he persecuted her and her +husband at every opportunity. In +despair, the sergeant at last complained +to the general commanding. +He was listened to; an investigation +ensued; the major was superseded; +and from his successor the sergeant +received five hundred lashes, under +pretence of his having left his regiment +without permission when he +went to lodge his charge. Corporal +punishment, of frequent application, +at the mere caprice of their superiors, +to Russian serfs and soldiers, is inflicted +with sticks or rods, the knout +being reserved for very grave offences, +such as murder, rebellion, &c., and +preceding banishment to Siberia, +should the sufferer survive. Dr +Wagner's description of this dreadful +punishment is horribly vivid. Few +criminals are sentenced to more than +twenty-five lashes, and less than +twenty often kill. Running the gauntlet +through three thousand men is the +usual punishment of deserters; and +this would usually be a sentence of +death but for the compassion of the +officers, who hint to their companies +to strike lightly. If the sufferer +faints, and is declared by the surgeon +unable to receive all his punishment, +he gets the remainder at some future +time. "Take him down" is a phrase +unknown in the Russian service, until +the offender has received the last lash +of his sentence.</p> + +<p>Severity is doubtless necessary in +an army composed like that of Russia. +Two-thirds of the soldiers are serfs, +whose masters, being allowed to send +what men they please—so long as +they make up their quota—naturally +contribute the greatest scamps and +idlers upon their estates. The army +in Russia is what the galleys are in +France, and the hulks in England—a +punishment for an infinity of offences. +An official embezzles funds—to the +army with him; a Jew is caught +smuggling—off with him to the ranks; +a Tartar cattle-stealer, a vagrant +gipsy, an Armenian trader convicted +of fraud, a Petersburg coachman who +has run over a pedestrian—all food +for powder—gray coats and bayonets +for them all. Jews abound in the +Russian army, being subjected to a +severe conscription in Poland and +southern Russia. They submit with +exemplary patience to the hardships +of the service, and to the taunts of +their Russian comrades. Poles are of +course numerous in the ranks, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +they are less enduring than the Israelite, +and often desert to the Circassians, +who make them work as servants, or +sell them as slaves to the Turks. No +race are too unmilitary in their nature +to be ground into soldiers by the mill +of Russian discipline. Besides Jews, +gipsies and Armenians figure on the +muster-roll. It must have been a +queer day for the ragged Zingaro, +when the Russian sergeant first stepped +into his smoky tent, bade him +clip his elf locks, wash his grimy +countenance, and follow to the field. +For him the pomp of war had no +seductions; he would far rather have +stuck to his den and vermin, and to +his meal of roast rats and hedgehogs. +But military discipline works miracles. +The slouching filthy vagabond of yesterday +now stands erect as if he had +swallowed his ramrod, his shoes a +brilliant jet, his buttons sparkling in +the sun—a soldier from toe to top-knot.</p> + +<p>The right bank of the Kuban, from +the Sea of Azov to the mouth of the +Laba, (a tributary of the former +stream,) is peopled with Tchernamortsy +Cossacks, who furnish ten +regiments, each of a thousand horsemen, +for the defence of their lands +and families. These cavalry carry a +musket, slung on the back, and a long +red lance: their dress is a sheepskin +jacket, except on state occasions, when +they sport uniform. They are much +less feared by the Circassians than +are the Cossacks of the Line, who +wear the Circassian dress, carry sabres +instead of lances, and are more valiant, +active and skilful, than their +Tchernamortsy neighbours. The Cossacks +of the Caucasian Line dwell on +the banks of the Kuban and Terek, +form a military colony of about fifty +thousand souls, and keep six thousand +horsemen ready for the field. There +is a mixture of Circassian blood in +their veins, and they are first-rate +fighting men. Their villages are exposed +to frequent attacks from the +mountaineers; but when these are not +exceedingly rapid in collecting their +booty, and effecting their retreat, the +Cossacks assemble, and a desperate +fight ensues. When the combatants +are numerically matched, the equality +of arms, horses, and skill renders the +issue very doubtful. The Tchernamortsies +and Don Cossacks are less +able to cope with the Circassians. In +a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mêlée</i> their lances are inferior to the +shaska. The rival claims of lance +and sabre have often been discussed; +many trials of their respective merits +have been made in English, French, +and German riding-schools; and much +ink has been shed on the subject. +Unquestionably the lance has done +good service, and in certain circumstances +is a terrible arm. "At the +battle of Dresden," Marshal Marmont +tells us, "the Austrian infantry were +repeatedly assailed by the French +cuirassiers, whom they as often beat +back, although the rain prevented +their firing, and the bayonet was their +sole defence. But fifty lancers of +Latour-Maubourg's escort at once +broke their ranks." Had the cuirassiers +had lances, their first charge, +Marmont plausibly enough asserts, +would have sufficed. This leads to +another question, often mooted—whether +the lance be properly a light +or a heavy cavalry weapon. When +used to break infantry, weight of man +and horse might be an advantage; +but in pursuit, where—especially in +rugged and mountainous countries—the +lance is found particularly useful, +the preference is obviously for the +swift steed and light cavalier. In the +irregular cavalry combats on the Caucasian +line, the sabre carries the day. +Unless the Don Cossack's first lance-thrust +settles his adversary, (which is +rarely the case,) the next instant the +adroit Circassian is within his guard, +and then the betting is ten to one on +Caucasus. Moreover, the Don Cossacks, +brought from afar to wage a +perilous and profitless war, are unwilling +combatants. They find blows +more plentiful than booty, and approve +themselves arrant thieves and shy +fighters. Relieved every two or three +years, they have scarcely time to get +broken in to the peculiar mode of +warfare. The Cossacks of the Line +are the flower of the hundred thousand +wild warriors scattered over +the steppes of Southern Russia, and +ready, at one man's word, to vault +into the saddle. Their gallant feats +are numerous. In 1843, during Dr +Wagner's visit, three thousand Circassians +dashed across the Kuban, +near the fortified village of Ustlaba.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +A dense fog hid them from the Russian +vedettes. Suddenly fifty Cossacks +of the Line, the escort of a gun, +found themselves face to face with the +mountaineers. The mist was so thick +that the horses' heads almost touched +before either party perceived the other. +Flight was impossible, but the Cossacks +fought like fiends. Forty-seven +met a soldier's death; only three were +captured, and accompanied the cannon +across the river, by which road +the Circassians at once retreated, +having taken the brave detachment +for the advanced guard of a strong +force.</p> + +<p>The word Kasak, Kosak, or Kossack, +variously interpreted by Klaproth and +other etymologists as robber, volunteer, +daredevil, &c., conveys to civilised +ears rude and inelegant associations. +Paris has not yet forgotten +the uncouth hordes, wrapped in sheepskins +and overrun with vermin, who, +in the hour of her humiliation, startled +her streets, and made her dandies +shriek for their smelling-bottles. Not +that Paris saw the worst of them. +Some of the Uralian bears, centaurs of +the steppes, Calibans on horseback, +were never allowed to pass the Russian +frontier. Their emperor appreciated +their good qualities, but left them at +home. Since then, a change has occured. +Civilisation has made huge strides +north-eastward. Near Fanagoria, Dr +Wagner passed a pleasant evening +with a Cossack officer, a prime fellow, +with all unquenchable thirst for toddy, +and an inexhaustible store of information. +He had made the campaigns +against the French; had evidently +been bred a savage, or little better; +but had acquired, during his long military +career, knowledge of the world and +a certain degree of polish. Amongst +other interesting matters, he gave a +sketch of his grandfather, a bloodthirsty +old warrior and image-worshipper, +the scourge of his Nogay +neighbours, and a great slayer of the +Turk; who in 1812, at the mature age +of ninety, had responded to Czar +Alexander's summons to fight for +"faith and fatherland," and had +taken the field under Platoff, at +the head of thirteen sons and threescore +grandsons. Whilst the Cossack +major told the history of the "Demon +of the Steppes," as his ferocious +ancestor was called, his son, a gay +lieutenant in the Cossacks of the Guard, +entered the apartment. This young +gentleman, slender, handsome, with +well-cut uniform, graceful manners, +and well-waxed mustaches, declined +the punch, "having got used at St +Petersburg to tea and champagne." +He brought intelligence of promotions +and decorations, of high play at Tcherkask, +(the capital of the Don-Cossacks' +country,) and of the establishment +at Toganrog of a French <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">restaurateur</i>, +who retailed <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Veuve Clicquot's</i> +genuine champagne at four silver +rubles a bottle. He was fascinated +by the French actresses at St Petersburg, +and enthusiastic in praise of +Taglioni, then displaying her legs and +graces in the Russian metropolis. Dr +Wagner left the symposium with a +vivid impression of the contrast between +the bearded barbarian of 1812 +and the dapper guardsman of thirty +years later; and with the full conviction +that the next Russian emperor +who makes an inroad into civilised +Europe, will have no occasion to be +ashamed of his Cossacks, even though +his route should lead him to the polite +capital of the French republic.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>THE CAXTONS.—PART X.</h2> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XLVI.</h3> + +<p>My uncle's conjecture as to the +parentage of Francis Vivian seemed +to me a positive discovery. Nothing +more likely than that this wilful boy +had formed some headstrong attachment +which no father would sanction, +and so, thwarted and irritated, thrown +himself on the world. Such an explanation +was the more agreeable to me, +as it cleared up all that had appeared +more discreditable in the mystery that +surrounded Vivian. I could never +bear to think that he had done anything +mean and criminal, however I +might believe he had been rash and +faulty. It was natural that the unfriended +wanderer should have been +thrown into a society, the equivocal +character of which had failed to revolt +the audacity of an inquisitive mind +and adventurous temper; but it +was natural, also, that the habits +of gentle birth, and that silent education +which English gentlemen commonly +receive from their very cradle, +should have preserved his honour, at +least, intact through all. Certainly +the pride, the notions, the very faults +of the wellborn had remained in full +force—why not the better qualities, +however smothered for the time? I felt +thankful for the thought that Vivian +was returning to an element in which he +might repurify his mind,—refit himself +for that sphere to which he belonged;—thankful +that we might yet +meet, and our present half intimacy +mature, perhaps, into healthful friendship.</p> + +<p>It was with such thoughts that I +took up my hat the next morning to +seek Vivian, and judge if we had +gained the right clue, when we were +startled by what was a rare sound at +our door—the postman's knock. My +father was at the Museum; my mother +in high conference, or close preparation +for our approaching departure, with Mrs +Primmins; Roland, I, and Blanche +had the room to ourselves.</p> + +<p>"The letter is not for me," said +Pisistratus.</p> + +<p>"Nor for me, I am sure," said the +Captain, when the servant entered +and confuted him—for the letter was +for him. He took it up wonderingly +and suspiciously, as Glumdalclitch +took up Gulliver, or as (if naturalists) +we take up an unknown creature, that +we are not quite sure will not bite and +sting us. Ah! it has stung or bit you, +Captain Roland! for you start and +change colour—you suppress a cry as +you break the seal—you breathe hard +as you read—and the letter seems +short—but it takes time in the reading, +for you go over it again and again. +Then you fold it up—crumple it—thrust +it into your breast pocket—and +look round like a man waking from +a dream. Is it a dream of pain, or of +pleasure? Verily, I cannot guess, for +nothing is on that eagle face either of +pain or pleasure, but rather of fear, +agitation, bewilderment. Yet the eyes +are bright, too, and there is a smile on +that iron lip.</p> + +<p>My uncle looked round, I say, and +called hastily for his cane and his +hat, and then began buttoning his coat +across his broad breast, though the +day was hot enough to have unbuttoned +every breast in the tropics.</p> + +<p>"You are not going out, uncle?"</p> + +<p>"Yes, yes."</p> + +<p>"But are you strong enough yet? +Let me go with you?"</p> + +<p>"No, sir; no. Blanche, come here." +He took the child in his arms, surveyed +her wistfully, and kissed her. +"You have never given me pain, +Blanche: say, 'God bless and prosper +you, father!'"</p> + +<p>"God bless and prosper my dear, +dear papa!" said Blanche, putting +her little hands together, as if in prayer.</p> + +<p>"There—that should bring me luck, +Blanche," said the Captain, gaily, and +setting her down. Then seizing his +cane from the servant, and putting on +his hat with a determined air, he +walked stoutly forth; and I saw him, +from the window, march along the +streets as cheerfully as if he had been +besieging Badajoz.</p> + +<p>"God prosper thee, too!" said I, +involuntarily.</p> + +<p>And Blanche took hold of my hand, +and said in her prettiest way, (and her +pretty ways were many), "I wish you<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +would come with us, cousin Sisty, and +help me to love papa. Poor papa! he +wants us both—he wants all the love +we can give him!"</p> + +<p>"That he does, my dear Blanche; +and I think it a great mistake that we +don't all live together. Your papa +ought not to go to that tower of his, at +the world's end, but come to our +snug, pretty house, with a garden full +of flowers, for you to be Queen of the +May—from May to November;—to +say nothing of a duck that is more +sagacious than any creature in the +Fables I gave you the other day."</p> + +<p>Blanche laughed and clapped her +hands—"Oh, that would be so nice! +but,"—and she stopped gravely, and +added, "but then, you see, there would +not be the tower to love papa; and I +am sure that the tower must love him +very much, for he loves it dearly."</p> + +<p>It was my turn to laugh now. "I +see how it is, you little witch," said I; +"you would coax us to come and +live with you and the owls! With all +my heart, so far as I am concerned."</p> + +<p>"Sisty," said Blanche, with an +appalling solemnity on her face, "do +you know what I've been thinking?"</p> + +<p>"Not I, miss—what?—something +very deep, I can see—very horrible, +indeed, I fear, you look so serious."</p> + +<p>"Why, I've been thinking," continued +Blanche, not relaxing a muscle, +and without the least bit of a blush—"I've +been thinking that I'll be your +little wife; and then, of course, we +shall all live together."</p> + +<p>Blanche did not blush, but I did. +"Ask me that ten years hence, if you +dare, you impudent little thing; and +now, run away to Mrs Primmins, and +tell her to keep you out of mischief, for +I must say good-morning."</p> + +<p>But Blanche did not run away, and +her dignity seemed exceedingly hurt +at my mode of taking her alarming +proposition, for she retired into a corner +pouting, and sate down with great +majesty. So there I left her, and +went my way to Vivian. He was out; +but, seeing books on his table, and +having nothing to do, I resolved to +wait for his return. I had enough of +my father in me to turn at once to the +books for company; and, by the side of +some graver works which I had recommended, +I found certain novels in +French, that Vivian had got from a +circulating library. I had a curiosity +to read these—for, except the old classic +novels of France, this mighty branch +of its popular literature was then +new to me. I soon got interested, but +what an interest!—the interest that a +nightmare might excite, if one caught +it out of one's sleep, and set to work +to examine it. By the side of what +dazzling shrewdness, what deep knowledge +of those holes and corners in +the human system, of which Goethe +must have spoken when he said somewhere—(if +I recollect right, and don't +misquote him, which I'll not answer +for)—"There is something in every +man's heart which, if we could know, +would make us hate him,"—by the +side of all this, and of much more that +showed prodigious boldness and energy +of intellect, what strange exaggeration—what +mock nobility of sentiment—what +inconceivable perversion of +reasoning—what damnable demoralisation! +I hate the cant of charging +works of fiction with the accusation—often +unjust and shallow—that they +interest us in vice, or palliate crime, +because the author truly shows what +virtues may entangle themselves with +vices; or commands our compassion, +and awes our pride, by teaching us +how men deceive and bewitch themselves +into guilt. Such painting belongs +to the dark truth of all tragedy, +from Sophocles to Shakspeare. No; +this is not what shocked me in those +books—it was not the interesting me in +vice, for I felt no interest in it at all; it +was the insisting that vice is something +uncommonly noble—it was the portrait +of some coldblooded adultress, whom +the author or authoress chooses to call +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pauvre Ange!</i> (poor angel!);—it was +some scoundrel who dupes, cheats, +and murders under cover of a duel, +in which he is a second St George; who +does not instruct us by showing through +what metaphysical process he became +a scoundrel, but who is continually +forced upon us as a very favourable +specimen of mankind;—it was the view +of society altogether, painted in colours +so hideous that, if true, instead of +a revolution, it would draw down +a deluge;—it was the hatred, carefully +instilled, of the poor against the +rich—it was the war breathed between +class and class—it was that envy of all +superiorities, which loves to show itself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +by allowing virtue only to a blouse, and +asserting that a man must be a rogue if +he belong to that rank of society in +which, from the very gifts of education, +from the necessary associations +of circumstances, roguery is +the last thing probable or natural. It +was all this, and things a thousand +times worse, that set my head in a whirl, +as hour after hour slipped on, and I +still gazed, spell-bound, on these Chimeras +and Typhons—these symbols +of the Destroying Principle. "Poor +Vivian!" said I, as I rose at last, +"if thou readest these books with +pleasure, or from habit, no wonder that +thou seemest to me so obtuse about +right and wrong, and to have a great +cavity where thy brain should have +the bump of 'conscientiousness' in +full salience!"</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, to do those demoniacs +justice, I had got through time imperceptibly +by their pestilent help; +and I was startled to see, by my watch, +how late it was. I had just resolved to +leave a line, fixing an appointment for +the morrow, and so depart, when I +heard Vivian's knock—a knock that +had great character in it—haughty, +impatient, irregular; not a neat, symmetrical, +harmonious, unpretending +knock, but a knock that seemed to +set the whole house and street at defiance: +it was a knock bullying—a +knock ostentatious—a knock irritating +and offensive—"impiger" and +"iracundus."</p> + +<p>But the step that came up the stairs +did not suit the knock: it was a step +light, yet firm—slow, yet elastic.</p> + +<p>The maid-servant who had opened +the door had, no doubt, informed +Vivian of my visit, for he did not seem +surprised to see me; but he cast that +hurried, suspicious look round the +room which a man is apt to cast +when he has left his papers about, and +finds some idler, on whose trustworthiness +he by no means depends, seated +in the midst of the unguarded secrets. +The look was not flattering; but my +conscience was so unreproachful that +I laid all the blame upon the general +suspiciousness of Vivian's character.</p> + +<p>"Three hours, at least, have I been +here!" said I, maliciously.</p> + +<p>"Three hours!"—again the look.</p> + +<p>"And this is the worst secret I have +discovered,"—and I pointed to those +literary Manicheans.</p> + +<p>"Oh!" said he carelessly, "French +novels!—I don't wonder you stayed so +long. I can't read your English +novels—flat and insipid: there are +truth and life here."</p> + +<p>"Truth and life!" cried I, every +hair on my head erect with astonishment—"then +hurrah for falsehood and +death!"</p> + +<p>"They don't please you; no accounting +for tastes."</p> + +<p>"I beg your pardon—I account for +yours, if you really take for truth and +life monsters so nefast and flagitious. +For heaven's sake, my dear fellow, +don't suppose that any man could get +on in England—get anywhere but to +the Old Bailey or Norfolk Island, if +he squared his conduct to such topsy-turvy +notions of the world as I find +here."</p> + +<p>"How many years are you my +senior," asked Vivian sneeringly, +"that you should play the mentor, +and correct my ignorance of the +world?"</p> + +<p>"Vivian, it is not age and experience +that speak here, it is something +far wiser than they—the instinct of +a man's heart, and a gentleman's +honour."</p> + +<p>"Well, well," said Vivian, rather +discomposed, "let the poor books +alone; you know my creed—that books +influence us little one way or the +other."</p> + +<p>"By the great Egyptian library, +and the soul of Diodorus, I wish you +could hear my father upon that point! +Come," added I, with sublime compassion—"come, +it is not too late—do +let me introduce you to my father. +I will consent to read French +novels all my life, if a single chat with +Austin Caxton does not send you +home with a happier face and a lighter +heart. Come, let me take you back +to dine with us to-day."</p> + +<p>"I cannot," said Vivian with some +confusion—"I cannot, for this day I +leave London. Some other time perhaps—for," +he added, but not heartily, +"we may meet again."</p> + +<p>"I hope so," said I, wringing his +hand, "and that is likely,—since, in +spite of yourself, I have guessed your +secret—your birth and parentage."</p> + +<p>"How!" cried Vivian, turning pale,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +and gnawing his lip—"what do you +mean?—speak."</p> + +<p>"Well, then, are you not the lost, +runaway son of Colonel Vivian? +Come, say the truth; let us be confidants."</p> + +<p>Vivian threw off a succession of his +abrupt sighs; and then, seating himself, +leant his face on the table, confused, +no doubt, to find himself discovered.</p> + +<p>"You are near the mark," said he +at last, "but do not ask me farther +yet. Some day," he cried impetuously, +and springing suddenly to his +feet—"some day you shall know all: +yes; some day, if I live, when that +name shall be high in the world; yes, +when the world is at my feet!" He +stretched his right hand as if to grasp the +space, and his whole face was lighted +with a fierce enthusiasm. The glow +died away, and with a slight return of +his scornful smile, he said—"Dreams +yet; dreams! And now, look at this +paper." And he drew out a memorandum, +scrawled over with figures.</p> + +<p>"This, I think, is my pecuniary +debt to you; in a few days, I shall +discharge it. Give me your address."</p> + +<p>"Oh!" said I, pained, "can you +speak to me of money, Vivian?"</p> + +<p>"It is one of those instincts of +honour you cite so often," answered +he, colouring. "Pardon me."</p> + +<p>"That is my address," said I, +stooping to write, to conceal my +wounded feelings. "You will avail +yourself of it, I hope, often, and tell +me that you are well and happy."</p> + +<p>"When I am happy, you shall +know."</p> + +<p>"You do not require any introduction +to Trevanion?"</p> + +<p>Vivian hesitated: "No, I think not. +If ever I do, I will write for it."</p> + +<p>I took up my hat, and was about to +go—for I was still chilled and mortified—when, +as if by an irresistible impulse, +Vivian came to me hastily, +flung his arms round my neck, and +kissed me as a boy kisses his brother.</p> + +<p>"Bear with me!" he cried in a +faltering voice: "I did not think to +love any one as you have made me +love you, though sadly against the +grain. If you are not my good angel, +it is that nature and habit are too +strong for you. Certainly, some day +we shall meet again. I shall have +time, in the meanwhile, to see if the +world can be indeed 'mine oyster, +which I with sword can open.' I +would be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aut Cæsar aut nullus</i>! Very +little other Latin know I to quote +from! If Cæsar, men will forgive me +all the means to the end; if <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nullus</i>, +London has a river, and in every +street one may buy a cord!"</p> + +<p>"Vivian! Vivian!"</p> + +<p>"Now go, my dear friend, while +my heart is softened—go, before I +shock you with some return of the +native Adam. Go—go!"</p> + +<p>And taking me gently by the arm, +Francis Vivian drew me from the +room, and, re-entering, locked his +door.</p> + +<p>Ah! if I could have left him Robert +Hall, instead of those execrable Typhons! +But would that medicine have +suited his case, or must grim Experience +write sterner recipes with her +iron hand?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XLVII.</h3> + +<p>When I got back, just in time for +dinner, Roland had not returned, nor +did he return till late in the evening. +All our eyes were directed towards +him, as we rose with one accord to +give him welcome; but his face was +like a mask—it was locked, and rigid, +and unreadable.</p> + +<p>Shutting the door carefully after him, +he came to the hearth, stood on it, +upright and calm, for a few moments, +and then asked—</p> + +<p>"Has Blanche gone to bed?"</p> + +<p>"Yes," said my mother, "but not +to sleep, I am sure; she made me +promise to tell her when you came +back."</p> + +<p>Roland's brow relaxed.</p> + +<p>"To-morrow, sister," said he slowly, +"will you see that she has the proper +mourning made for her? My son is +dead."</p> + +<p>"Dead!" we cried with one voice, +and surrounding him with one impulse.</p> + +<p>"Dead! impossible—you could not +say it so calmly. Dead!—how do +you know? You may be deceived.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +Who told you?—why do you think +so?"</p> + +<p>"I have seen his remains," said +my uncle, with the same gloomy +calm. "We will all mourn for him. +Pisistratus, you are heir to my name +now, as to your father's. Good-night; +excuse me, all—all you dear +and kind ones; I am worn out."</p> + +<p>Roland lighted his candle and went +away, leaving us thunderstruck; but +he came back again—looked round—took +up his book, open in the favourite +passage—nodded again, and +again vanished. We looked at each +other, as if we had seen a ghost. Then +my father rose and went out of the +room, and remained in Roland's till +the night was wellnigh gone. We +sat up—my mother and I—till he returned. +His benign face looked profoundly +sad.</p> + +<p>"How is it, sir Can you tell us +more?"</p> + +<p>My father shook his head.</p> + +<p>"Roland prays that you may preserve +the same forbearance you have +shown hitherto, and never mention his +son's name to him. Peace be to the +living, as to the dead. Kitty, this +changes our plans; we must all go +to Cumberland—we cannot leave Roland +thus!"</p> + +<p>"Poor, poor Roland!" said my +mother, through her tears. "And to +think that father and son were not +reconciled. But Roland forgives him +now—oh, yes! <em>now!</em>"</p> + +<p>"It is not Roland we can censure," +said my father, almost fiercely; "it +is—but enough. We must hurry out +of town as soon as we can: Roland +will recover in the native air of his +old ruins."</p> + +<p>We went up to bed mournfully.</p> + +<p>"And so," thought I, "ends one +grand object of my life!—I had hoped +to have brought those two together. +But, alas! what peacemaker like the +grave!"</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XLVIII.</h3> + +<p>My uncle did not leave his room for +three days, but he was much closeted +with a lawyer; and my father dropped +some words which seemed to imply that +the deceased had incurred debts, and +that the poor Captain was making +some charge on his small property. +As Roland had said that he had seen +the remains of his son, I took it at +first for granted that we should attend +a funeral, but no word of this was +said. On the fourth day, Roland, in +deep mourning, entered a hackney +coach with the lawyer, and was absent +about two hours. I did not doubt +that he had thus quietly fulfilled the +last mournful offices. On his return, +he shut himself up again for the rest +of the day, and would not see even +my father. But the next morning he +made his appearance as usual, and I +even thought that he seemed more +cheerful than I had yet known him—whether +he played a part, or whether +the worst was now over, and the +grave was less cruel than uncertainty. +On the following day, we all set out +for Cumberland.</p> + +<p>In the interval, Uncle Jack had +been almost constantly at the house, +and, to do him justice, he had seemed +unaffectedly shocked at the calamity +that had befallen Roland. There was, +indeed, no want of heart in Uncle +Jack, whenever you went straight at +it; but it was hard to find if you took +a circuitous route towards it through +the pockets. The worthy speculator +had indeed much business to transact +with my father before we left town. +The <em>Anti-Publisher Society</em> had been +set up, and it was through the obstetric +aid of that fraternity that the +Great Book was to be ushered into +the world. The new journal, the <cite>Literary +Times</cite>, was also far advanced—not +yet out, but my father was fairly +in for it. There were preparations +for its debut on a vast scale, and +two or three gentlemen in black—one +of whom looked like a lawyer, and +another like a printer, and a third +uncommonly like a Jew—called twice, +with papers of a very formidable +aspect. All these preliminaries settled, +the last thing I heard Uncle Jack say, +with a slap on my father's back, was, +"Fame and fortune both made now!—you +may go to sleep in safety, for +you leave me wide awake. Jack Tibbets +never sleeps!"</p> + +<p>I had thought it strange that, since<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +my abrupt exodus from Trevanion's +house, no notice had been taken of +any of us by himself or Lady Ellinor. +But on the very eve of our departure, +came a kind note from Trevanion to +me, dated from his favourite country +seat, (accompanied by a present of +some rare books to my father,) in +which he said briefly that there had +been illness in his family, which had +obliged him to leave town for a change +of air, but that Lady Ellinor expected +to call on my mother the next week. +He had found amongst his books some +curious works of the Middle Ages, +amongst others a complete set of +Cardan, which he knew my father +would like to have, and so sent them. +There was no allusion to what had +passed between us.</p> + +<p>In reply to this note, after due +thanks on my father's part, who seized +upon the Cardan (Lyons edition, +1663, ten volumes folio) as a silkworm +does upon a mulberry leaf, I expressed +our joint regrets that there was +no hope of our seeing Lady Ellinor, +as we were just leaving town. I +should have added something on the +loss my uncle had sustained, but my +father thought that, since Roland +shrank from any mention of his +son, even by his nearest kindred, it +would be his obvious wish not to +parade his affliction beyond that circle.</p> + +<p>And there had been illness in Trevanion's +family! On whom had it +fallen? I could not rest satisfied with +that general expression, and I took my +answer myself to Trevanion's house, +instead of sending it by the post. In +reply to my inquiries, the porter said +that all the family were expected at +the end of the week; that he had +heard both Lady Ellinor and Miss +Trevanion had been rather poorly, but +that they were now better. I left my +note, with orders to forward it; and +my wounds bled afresh as I came +away.</p> + +<p>We had the whole coach to ourselves +in our journey, and a silent journey +it was, till we arrived at a little town +about eight miles from my uncle's residence, +to which we could only get +through a cross-road. My uncle insisted +on preceding us that night, and, +though he had written, before we started, +to announce our coming, he was fidgety +lest the poor tower should not make +the best figure it could;—so he went +alone, and we took our ease at our +inn.</p> + +<p>Betimes the next day we hired a +fly-coach—for a chaise could never +have held us and my father's books—and +jogged through a labyrinth of villanous +lanes, which no Marshal Wade +had ever reformed from their primal +chaos. But poor Mrs Primmins and +the canary-bird alone seemed sensible +of the jolts; the former, who sate opposite +to us, wedged amidst a medley +of packages, all marked "care, to be +kept top uppermost," (why I know +not, for they were but books, and +whether they lay top or bottom it +could not materially affect their value,)—the +former, I say, contrived to extend +her arms over those <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">disjecta membra</i>, +and, griping a window-sill with the +right hand, and a window-sill with the +left, kept her seat rampant, like the +split eagle of the Austrian Empire—in +fact it would be well, now-a-days, +if the split eagle were as firm as Mrs +Primmins! As for the canary, it never +failed to respond, by an astonished +chirp, to every "Gracious me!" and +"Lord save us!" which the delve +into a rut, or the bump out of it, sent +forth from Mrs Primmins's lips, with +all the emphatic dolor of thἂe "Ἂῖ, ἂῖ" in a Greek chorus.</p> + +<p>But my father, with his broad hat +over his brows, was in deep thought. +The scenes of his youth were rising +before him, and his memory went, +smooth as a spirit's wing, over delve +and bump. And my mother, who +sat next him, had her arm on his +shoulder, and was watching his face +jealously. Did she think that, in that +thoughtful face, there was regret for +the old love? Blanche, who had been +very sad, and had wept much and +quietly since they put on her the +mourning, and told her that she had +no brother, (though she had no remembrance +of the lost), began now to +evince infantine curiosity and eagerness +to catch the first peep of her +father's beloved tower. And Blanche +sat on my knee, and I shared her impatience. +At last there came in view +a church spire—a church—a plain +square building near it, the parsonage, +(my father's old home)—a long +straggling street of cottages and rude +shops, with a better kind of house here<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +and there—and in the hinder ground, +a gray deformed mass of wall and +ruin, placed on one of those eminences +on which the Danes loved to pitch +camp or build fort, with one high, +rude, Anglo-Norman tower rising +from the midst. Few trees were +round it, and those either poplars or +firs, save, as we approached, one +mighty oak—integral and unscathed. +The road now wound behind the parsonage, +and up a steep ascent. Such a +road!—the whole parish ought to have +been flogged for it! If I had sent up +a road like that, even on a map, to Dr +Herman, I should not have sat down +in comfort for a week to come!</p> + +<p>The fly-coach came to a full stop.</p> + +<p>"Let us get out," cried I, opening +the door and springing to the ground +to set the example.</p> + +<p>Blanche followed, and my respected +parents came next. But when Mrs +Primmins was about to heave herself +into movement,</p> + +<p>"<em>Papæ!</em>" said my father. "I think, +Mrs Primmins, you must remain in, to +keep the books steady."</p> + +<p>"Lord love you!" cried Mrs Primmins, +aghast.</p> + +<p>"The subtraction of such a mass, or +<em>moles</em>—supple and elastic as all flesh +is, and fitting into the hard corners of +the inert matter—such a subtraction, +Mrs Primmins, would leave a vacuum +which no natural system, certainly no +artificial organisation, could sustain. +There would be a regular dance of +atoms, Mrs Primmins; my books +would fly here, there, on the floor, out +of the window!</p> + +<p class="center"> +"<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Corporis officium est quoniam omnia deorsum.</i>" +</p> + +<p class="noind">The business of a body like yours, Mrs +Primmins, is to press all things down—to +keep them tight, as you will know +one of these days—that is, if you will +do me the favour to read Lucretius, +and master that material philosophy, +of which I may say, without flattery, +my dear Mrs Primmins, that you are +a living illustration."</p> + +<p>These, the first words my father +had spoken since we set out from the +inn, seemed to assure my mother that +she need have no apprehension as to +the character of his thoughts, for her +brow cleared, and she said, laughing,</p> + +<p>"Only look at poor Primmins, and +then at that hill!"</p> + +<p>"You may subtract Primmins, if +you will be answerable for the remnant, +Kitty. Only, I warn you that +it is against all the laws of physics."</p> + +<p>So saying, he sprang lightly forward, +and, taking hold of my arm, +paused and looked round, and drew +the loud free breath with which we +draw native air.</p> + +<p>"And yet," said my father, after +that grateful and affectionate inspiration—"and +yet, it must be owned, +that a more ugly country one cannot +see out of Cambridgeshire."<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>"Nay," said I, "it is bold and large, +it has a beauty of its own. Those immense, +undulating, uncultivated, treeless +tracks have surely their charm of +wildness and solitude! And how they +suit the character of the ruin! All +is feudal there: I understand Roland +better now."</p> + +<p>"I hope in heaven Cardan will +come to no harm!" cried my father; +"he is very handsomely bound; +and he fitted beautifully just into the +fleshiest part of that fidgety Primmins."</p> + +<p>Blanche, meanwhile, had run far +before us, and I followed fast. There +were still the remains of that deep +trench (surrounding the ruins on three +sides, leaving a ragged hill-top at the +fourth) which made the favourite fortification +of all the Teutonic tribes. A +causeway, raised on brick arches, now, +however, supplied the place of the +drawbridge, and the outer gate was +but a mass of picturesque ruin. Entering +into the courtyard or bailey, the old +castle mound, from which justice had +been dispensed, was in full view, rising +higher than the broken walls +around it, and partially overgrown +with brambles. And there stood, +comparatively whole, the tower or +keep, and from its portals emerged +the veteran owner.</p> + +<p>His ancestors might have received us +in more state, but certainly they could +not have given us a warmer greeting. +In fact, in his own domain, Roland +appeared another man. His stiffness, +which was a little repulsive to those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +who did not understand it, was all +gone. He seemed less proud, precisely +because he and his pride, on +that ground, were on good terms with +each other. How gallantly he extended—not +his arm, in our modern +Jack-and-Jill sort of fashion—but +his right hand, to my mother; how +carefully he led her over "brake, +bush, and scaur," through the low +vaulted door, where a tall servant, +who, it was easy to see, had been a +soldier—in the precise livery, no doubt, +warranted by the heraldic colours, +(his stockings were red!)—stood upright +as a sentry. And, coming into +the hall, it looked absolutely cheerful—it +took us by surprise. There was +a great fire-place, and, though it was +still summer, a great fire! It did not +seem a bit too much, for the walls +were stone, the lofty roof open to the +rafters, while the windows were small +and narrow, and so high and so deep +sunk that one seemed in a vault. +Nevertheless, I say the room looked +sociable and cheerful—thanks principally +to the fire, and partly to a +very ingenious medley of old tapestry +at one end, and matting at the other, +fastened to the lower part of the walls, +seconded by an arrangement of furniture +which did credit to my uncle's +taste for the Picturesque. After we +had looked about and admired to our +hearts' content, Roland took us—not +up one of those noble staircases you +see in the later manorial residences—but +a little winding stone stair, into +the rooms he had appropriated to his +guests. There was first a small chamber, +which he called my father's study—in +truth, it would have done for any +philosopher or saint who wished to +shut out the world—and might have +passed for the interior of such a column +as Stylites inhabited; for you +must have climbed a ladder to have +looked out of the window, and then +the vision of no short-sighted man +could have got over the interval in the +wall made by the narrow casement, +which, after all, gave no other prospect +than a Cumberland sky, with an occasional +rook in it. But my father, I +think I have said before, did not much +care for scenery, and he looked round +with great satisfaction upon the retreat +assigned him.</p> + +<p>"We can knock up shelves for your +books in no time," said my uncle, +rubbing his hands.</p> + +<p>"It would be a charity," quoth my +father, "for they have been very long +in a recumbent position, and would +like to stretch themselves, poor things. +My dear Roland, this room is made +for books—so round and so deep. I +shall sit here like Truth in a well."</p> + +<p>"And there is a room for you, sister, +just out of it," said my uncle, opening +a little low prison-like door into a +charming room, for its window was +low, and it had an iron balcony; "and +out of that is the bed-room. For you, +Pisistratus, my boy, I am afraid that +it is soldier's quarters, indeed, with +which you will have to put up. But +never mind; in a day or two we shall +make all worthy a general of your +illustrious name—for he was a great +general, Pisistratus the First—was he +not, brother?"</p> + +<p>"All tyrants are," said my father: +"the knack of soldiering is indispensable +to them."</p> + +<p>"Oh, you may say what you please +here!" said Roland, in high good +humour, as he drew me down stairs, +still apologising for my quarters, and +so earnestly that I made up my mind +that I was to be put into an <em>oubliette</em>. +Nor were my suspicions much dispelled +on seeing that we had to leave +the keep, and pick our way into what +seemed to me a mere heap of rubbish, +on the dexter side of the court. But +I was agreeably surprised to find, +amidst these wrecks, a room with a +noble casement commanding the whole +country, and placed immediately over +a plot of ground cultivated as a garden. +The furniture was ample, though +homely; the floors and walls well +matted; and, altogether, despite the +inconvenience of having to cross the +courtyard to get to the rest of the +house, and being wholly without the +modern luxury of a bell, I thought +that I could not be better lodged.</p> + +<p>"But this is a perfect bower, my +dear uncle! Depend on it, it was the +bower-chamber of the Dames de Caxton—heaven +rest them!"</p> + +<p>"No," said my uncle, gravely; "I +suspect it must have been the chaplain's +room, for the chapel was to the +right of you. An earlier chapel, indeed, +formerly existed in the keep +tower—for, indeed, it is scarcely a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +true keep without chapel, well, and +hall. I can show you part of the roof +of the first, and the two last are entire; +the well is very curious, formed in the +substance of the wall at one angle of +the hall. In Charles the First's time, +our ancestor lowered his only son down +in a bucket, and kept him there six +hours, while a Malignant mob was +storming the tower. I need not say +that our ancestor himself scorned to +hide from such a rabble, for <em>he</em> was a +grown man. The boy lived to be a +sad spendthrift, and used the well for +cooling his wine. He drank up a +great many good acres."</p> + +<p>"I should scratch him out of the +pedigree, if I were you. But, pray, +have you not discovered the proper +chamber of that great Sir William, +about whom my father is so shamefully +sceptical?"</p> + +<p>"To tell you a secret," answered +the Captain, giving me a sly poke in +the ribs, "I have put your father into +it! There are the initial letters W. C. +let into the cusp of the York rose, and +the date, three years before the battle +of Bosworth, over the chimneypiece."</p> + +<p>I could not help joining my uncle's +grim low laugh at this characteristic +pleasantry; and after I had complimented +him on so judicious a mode of +proving his point, I asked him how he +could possibly have contrived to fit up +the ruin so well, especially as he had +scarcely visited it since his purchase.</p> + +<p>"Why," said he, "about twelve +years ago, that poor fellow you now +see as my servant, and who is gardener, +bailiff, seneschal, butler, and +anything else you can put him to, was +sent out of the army on the invalid +list. So I placed him here; and as he +is a capital carpenter, and has had a +very fair education, I told him what I +wanted, and put by a small sum every +year for repairs and furnishing. It is +astonishing how little it cost me, for +Bolt, poor fellow, (that is his name,) +caught the right spirit of the thing, +and most of the furniture, (which +you see is ancient and suitable,) he +picked up at different cottages and +farmhouses in the neighbourhood. As +it is, however, we have plenty more +rooms here and there—only, of late," +continued my uncle, slightly changing +colour, "I had no money to +spare. But come," he resumed, with +an evident effort—"come and see my +barrack: it is on the other side of the +hall, and made out of what no doubt +were the butteries."</p> + +<p>We reached the yard, and found +the fly-coach had just crawled to the +door. My father's head was buried deep +in the vehicle,—he was gathering up his +packages, and sending out, oracle-like, +various muttered objurgations and +anathemas upon Mrs Primmins and +her vacuum; which Mrs Primmins, +standing by, and making a lap with +her apron to receive the packages and +anathemas simultaneously, bore with +the mildness of an angel, lifting up +her eyes to heaven and murmuring +something about "poor old bones." +Though, as for Mrs Primmins's bones, +they had been myths these twenty +years, and you might as soon have +found a Plesiosaurus in the fat lands +of Romney Marsh as a bone amidst +those layers of flesh in which my poor +father thought he had so carefully +cottoned up his Cardan.</p> + +<p>Leaving these parties to adjust +matters between them, we stepped +under the low doorway, and entered +Rowland's room. Oh, certainly Bolt +<em>had</em> caught the spirit of the thing!—certainly +he had penetrated down even +to the very pathos that lay within the +deeps of Roland's character. Buffon +says "the style is the man;" there, +the room was the man. That nameless, +inexpressible, soldier-like, methodical +neatness which belonged to +Roland—that was the first thing that +struck one—that was the general character +of the whole. Then, in details, +there, in stout oak shelves, were the +books on which my father loved to +jest his more imaginative brother,—there +they were, Froissart, Barante, +Joinville, the <em>Mort d'Arthur</em>, <cite>Amadis +of Gaul</cite>, Spenser's <cite>Fairy Queen</cite>, a +noble copy of Strutt's <cite>Horda</cite>, Mallet's +<cite>Northern Antiquities</cite>, Percy's <cite>Reliques</cite>, +Pope's <cite>Homer</cite>, books on gunnery, +archery, hawking, fortification—old +chivalry and modern war together +cheek by jowl.</p> + +<p>Old chivalry and modern war!—look +to that tilting helmet with the +tall Caxton crest, and look to that +trophy near it, a French cuirass—and +that old banner (a knight's pennon) +surmounting those crossed bayonets. +And over the chimneypiece there—bright,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +clean, and, I warrant you, +dusted daily—are Roland's own +sword, his holsters, and pistols, yea, +the saddle, pierced and lacerated, +from which he had reeled when that +leg——I gasped—I felt it all at +a glance, and I stole softly to the +spot, and, had Roland not been there, +I could have kissed that sword as +reverently as if it had been a Bayard's +or a Sidney's.</p> + +<p>My uncle was too modest to guess +my emotion; he rather thought I had +turned my face to conceal a smile at +his vanity, and said, in a deprecating +tone of apology—"It was all Bolt's +doing, foolish fellow."</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XLIX.</h3> + +<p>Our host regaled us with a hospitality +that notably contrasted his +economical thrifty habits in London. +To be sure, Bolt had caught +the great pike which headed the feast; +and Bolt, no doubt, had helped to +rear those fine chickens <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ab ovo</i>; Bolt, +I have no doubt, made that excellent +Spanish omelette; and for the rest, +the products of the sheepwalk and the +garden came in as volunteer auxiliaries—very +different from the mercenary +recruits by which those metropolitan +<i lang="it" xml:lang="it">Condottieri</i>, the butcher and +green-grocer, hasten the ruin of that +melancholy commonwealth called +"genteel poverty."</p> + +<p>Our evening passed cheerfully; and +Roland, contrary to his custom, was +talker in chief. It was eleven o'clock +before Bolt appeared with a lantern +to conduct me through the court-yard +to my dormitory, among the ruins—a +ceremony which, every night, shine or +dark, he insisted upon punctiliously +performing.</p> + +<p>It was long before I could sleep—before +I could believe that but so few +days had elapsed since Roland heard +of his son's death—that son whose +fate had so long tortured him; and +yet, never had Roland appeared so +free from sorrow! Was it natural—was +it effort? Several days passed +before I could answer that question, +and then not wholly to my satisfaction. +Effort there was, or rather resolute +systematic determination. At +moments Roland's head drooped, his +brows met, and the whole man seemed +to sink. Yet these were only moments; +he would rouse himself up +like a dozing charger at the sound of +a trumpet, and shake off the creeping +weight. But, whether from the +vigour of his determination, or from +some aid in other trains of reflection, +I could not but perceive that Roland's +sadness really was less grave and +bitter than it had been, or than it was +natural to suppose. He seemed to +transfer, daily more and more, his +affections from the dead to those +around him, especially to Blanche and +myself. He let it be seen that he +looked on me now as his lawful successor—as +the future supporter of his +name—he was fond of confiding to +me all his little plans, and consulting +me on them. He would walk with me +around his domains, (of which I shall +say more hereafter,)—point out, from +every eminence we climbed, where the +broad lands which his forefathers owned +stretched away to the horizon; unfold +with tender hand the mouldering pedigree, +and rest lingeringly on those of his +ancestors who had held martial post, +or had died on the field. There was +a crusader who had followed Richard +to Ascalon; there was a knight who +had fought at Agincourt; there was a +cavalier (whose picture was still extant, +with fair lovelocks) who had +fallen at Worcester—no doubt the +same who had cooled his son in that +well which the son devoted to more +agreeable associations. But of all these +worthies there was none whom my +uncle, perhaps from the spirit of contradiction, +valued like that apocryphal +Sir William: and why?—because, +when the apostate Stanley +turned the fortunes of the field at +Bosworth, and when that cry of despair—"Treason, +treason!" burst +from the lips of the last Plantagenet, +"amongst the faithless," +this true soldier "faithful found!" +had fallen in that lion-rush which +Richard made at his foe. "Your +father tells me that Richard was a +murderer and usurper," quoth my +uncle. "Sir, that might be true or not;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +but it was not on the field of battle +that his followers were to reason on +the character of the master who +trusted them, especially when a legion +of foreign hirelings stood opposed to +them. I would not have descended +from that turncoat Stanley to be lord of +all the lands the Earls of Derby can +boast of. Sir, in loyalty, men fight +and die for a grand principle, and a +lofty passion; and this brave Sir +William was paying back to the last +Plantagenet the benefits he had received +from the first!"</p> + +<p>"And yet it may be doubted," said +I maliciously, "whether William Caxton +the printer did not—"</p> + +<p>"Plague, pestilence, and fire seize +William Caxton the printer, and his +invention too!" cried my uncle barbarously. +"When there were only a +few books, at least they were good +ones; and now they are so plentiful, +all they do is to confound the judgment, +unsettle the reason, drive the +good books out of cultivation, and +draw a ploughshare of innovation +over every ancient landmark; seduce +the women, womanize the men, upset +states, thrones, and churches; rear a +race of chattering, conceited, coxcombs, +who can always find books in +plenty to excuse them from doing +their duty; make the poor discontented, +the rich crotchety and whimsical, +refine away the stout old +virtues into quibbles and sentiments! +All imagination formerly was expended +in noble action, adventure, +enterprise, high deeds and aspirations; +now a man can but be imaginative +by feeding on the false excitement +of passions he never felt, +dangers he never shared; and he fritters +away all there is of life to spare in +him upon the fictitious love-sorrows of +Bond Street and St James's. Sir, +chivalry ceased when the press rose! +And to fasten upon me, as a forefather, +out of all men who have ever lived +and sinned, the very man who has +most destroyed what I most valued—who, +by the Lord! with his cursed invention +has wellnigh got rid of respect +for forefathers altogether—is a cruelty +of which my brother had never been +capable, if that printer's devil had not +got hold of him!"</p> + +<p>That a man in this blessed nineteenth +century should be such a +Vandal! and that my uncle Roland +should talk in a strain that Totila +would have been ashamed of, within +so short a time after my father's +scientific and erudite oration on the +Hygeiana of Books, was enough to +make one despair of the progress of +intellect and the perfectibility of our +species. And I have no manner of +doubt that, all the while, my uncle +had a brace of books in his pockets, +Robert Hall one of them! In truth, +he had talked himself into a passion, +and did not know what nonsense +he was saying, poor man. But +this explosion of Captain Roland's +has shattered the thread of my matter. +Pouff! I must take breath and +begin again!</p> + +<p>Yes, in spite of my sauciness, the +old soldier evidently took to me more +and more. And, besides our critical +examination of the property +and the pedigree, he carried me +with him on long excursions to distant +villages, where some memorial of +a defunct Caxton, a coat of arms, or +an epitaph on a tombstone, might be +still seen. And he made me pore +over topographical works and county +histories, (forgetful, Goth that he +was, that for those very authorities +he was indebted to the repudiated +printer!) to find some anecdote +of his beloved dead! In truth, +the county for miles round bore +the <em>vestigia</em> of those old Caxtons; +their handwriting was on many a +broken wall. And, obscure as they +all were, compared to that great +operative of the Sanctuary at Westminster, +whom my father clung to—still, +that the yesterdays that had +lighted them the way to dusty death +had cast no glare on dishonoured +scutcheons seemed clear, from the +popular respect and traditional affection +in which I found that the name +was still held in hamlet and homestead. +It was pleasant to see the +veneration with which this small +hidalgo of some three hundred a-year +was held, and the patriarchal +affection with which he returned it. +Roland was a man who would walk +into a cottage, rest his cork leg on +the hearth, and talk for the hour +together upon all that lay nearest to +the hearts of the owners. There is a +peculiar spirit of aristocracy amongst<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +agricultural peasants: they like old +names and families; they identify +themselves with the honours of a +house, as if of its clan. They do not +care so much for wealth as townsfolk +and the middle class do; they have a +pity, but a respectful one, for wellborn +poverty. And then this Roland, +too—who would go and dine in a +cook shop, and receive change for a +shilling, and shun the ruinous luxury +of a hack cabriolet—could be positively +extravagant in his liberalities +to those around him. He was altogether +another being in his paternal +acres. The shabby-genteel, half-pay +captain, lost in the whirl of London, +here luxuriated into a dignified case +of manner that Chesterfield might +have admired. And, if to please is +the true sign of politeness, I wish you +could have seen the faces that smiled +upon Captain Roland, as he walked +down the village, nodding from side +to side.</p> + +<p>One day a frank, hearty, old +woman, who had known Roland as a +boy, seeing him lean on my arm, +stopped us, as she said bluffly, to +take a "geud luik" at me.</p> + +<p>Fortunately I was stalwart enough +to pass muster, even in the eyes of +a Cumberland matron; and, after a +compliment at which Roland seemed +much pleased, she said to me, but +pointing to the Captain—</p> + +<p>"Hegh, sir, now you ha the bra +time before you; you maun een try +and be as geud as <em>he</em>. And if life +last, ye wull too—for there never +waur a bad ane of that stock. Wi' +heads kindly stup'd to the least, and +lifted manfu' oop to the heighest—that +ye all war' sin ye came from the Ark. +Blessins on the ould name—though +little pelf goes with it—it sounds on +the peur man's ear like a bit o' +gould!"</p> + +<p>"Do you not see now," said Roland, +as we turned away, "what we owe to a +name, and what to our forefathers?—do +you not see why the remotest ancestor +has a right to our respect and +consideration—for he was a parent? +'Honour your parents'—the law +does not say, 'Honour your children!' +If a child disgrace us, and the dead, +and the sanctity of this great heritage +of their virtues—<em>the name</em>;—if he +does—" Roland stopped short, and +added fervently, "But you are my +heir now—I have no fear! What +matters one foolish old man's sorrow?—the +name, that property +of generations, is saved, thank +Heaven—the name!"</p> + +<p>Now the riddle was solved, and +I understood why, amidst all his natural +grief for a son's loss, that proud +father was consoled. For he was +less himself a father than a son—son +to the long dead. From every grave, +where a progenitor slept, he had +heard a parent's voice. He could bear +to be bereaved, if the forefathers were +not dishonoured. Roland was more +than half a Roman—the son might +still cling to his household affections, +but the <em>lares</em> were a part of his +religion.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER L.</h3> + +<p>But I ought to be hard at work, +preparing myself for Cambridge. The +deuce!—how can I? The point in +academical education on which I require +most preparation is Greek composition. +I come to my father, who, +one might think, was at home enough +in this. But rare indeed is it to find +a great scholar who is a good teacher.</p> + +<p>My dear father! if one is content to +take you in your own way, there never +was a more admirable instructor for +the heart, the head, the principles, +or the tastes—in your own way, when +you have discovered that there is some +one sore to be healed—one defect to +be repaired; and you have rubbed +your spectacles, and got your hand +fairly into that recess between your +frill and your waistcoat. But to go +to you, cut and dry, monotonously, +regularly—book and exercise in hand—to +see the mournful patience with +which you tear yourself from that +great volume of Cardan in the very +honeymoon of possession—and then +to note those mild eyebrows gradually +distend themselves into perplexed diagonals, +over some false quantity or +some barbarous collocation—till there +steal forth that horrible "Papæ!" +which means more on your lips than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +I am sure it ever did when Latin was +a live language, and "Papæ!" a natural +and unpedantic ejaculation!—no, +I would sooner blunder through the +dark by myself a thousand times, than +light my rush-light at the lamp of that +Phlegethonian "Papæ!"</p> + +<p>And then my father would wisely +and kindly, but wondrous slowly, +erase three-fourths of one's pet verses, +and intercalate others that one saw +were exquisite, but could not exactly +see why. And then one asked why; +and my father shook his head in despair, +and said—"But you ought to +<em>feel</em> why!"</p> + +<p>In short, scholarship to him was +like poetry: he could no more teach +it you than Pindar could have taught +you how to make an ode. You +breathed the aroma, but you could +no more seize and analyse it, than, +with the opening of your naked hand, +you could carry off the scent of a rose. +I soon left my father in peace to Cardan, +and to the Great Book, which +last, by the way, advanced but slowly. +For Uncle Jack had now insisted on +its being published in quarto, with +illustrative plates; and those plates +took an immense time, and were to +cost an immense sum—but that cost +was the affair of the Anti-Publisher +Society. But how can I settle to work +by myself? No sooner have I got +into my room—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">penitus ab orbe divisus</i>, +as I rashly think—than there is a tap +at the door. Now, it is my mother, +who is benevolently engaged upon +making curtains to all the windows, +(a trifling superfluity that Bolt had +forgotten or disdained,) and who wants +to know how the draperies are fashioned +at Mr Trevanion's: a pretence +to have me near her, and see +with her own eyes that I am not +fretting;—the moment she hears I +have shut myself up in my room, she +is sure that it is for sorrow. Now +it is Bolt, who is making book-shelves +for my father, and desires to +consult me at every turn, especially +as I have given him a Gothic design, +which pleases him hugely. Now it is +Blanche, whom, in an evil hour, I +undertook to teach to draw, and who +comes in on tiptoe, vowing she'll not +disturb me, and sits so quiet that she +fidgets me out of all patience. Now, +and much more often, it is the Captain, +who wants me to walk, to ride, +to fish. And, by St Hubert! (saint +of the chase,) bright August comes—and +there is moor-game on those +barren wolds—and my uncle has +given me the gun he shot with at +my age—single-barrelled, flint lock—but +you would not have laughed at it +if you had seen the strange feats it +did in Roland's hands—while in mine, +I could always lay the blame on the +flint lock! Time, in short, passed +rapidly; and if Roland and I had +our dark hours, we chased them +away before they could settle—shot +them on the wing as they got up.</p> + +<p>Then, too, though the immediate +scenery around my uncle's was so +bleak and desolate, the country within +a few miles was so full of objects of +interest—of landscapes so poetically +grand or lovely; and occasionally we +coaxed my father from the Cardan, +and spent whole days by the margin +of some glorious lake.</p> + +<p>Amongst these excursions, I made +one by myself to that house in which +my father had known the bliss and +the pangs of that stern first love that +still left its scars fresh on my own +memory. The house, large and imposing, +was shut up—the Trevanions +had not been there for years—the +pleasure-grounds had been contracted +into the smallest possible space. There +was no positive decay or ruin—that +Trevanion would never have allowed; +but there was the dreary look of absenteeship +everywhere. I penetrated +into the house with the help of my +card and half-a-crown. I saw that +memorable boudoir—I could fancy the +very spot in which my father had +heard the sentence that had changed +the current of his life. And when I +returned home, I looked with new +tenderness on my father's placid brow—and +blessed anew that tender helpmate, +who, in her patient love, had +chased from it every shadow.</p> + +<p>I had received one letter from Vivian +a few days after our arrival. It +had been redirected from my father's +house, at which I had given him my +address. It was short, but seemed +cheerful. He said, that he believed +he had at last hit on the right way, +and should keep to it—that he and +the world were better friends than +they had been—and that the only way<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +to keep friends with the world was to +treat it as a tamed tiger, and have +one hand on a crow-bar while one +fondled the beast with the other. He +enclosed me a bank-note which somewhat +more than covered his debt to +me, and bade me pay him the surplus +when he should claim it as a millionnaire. +He gave me no address in his +letter, but it bore the post-mark of +Godalming. I had the impertinent +curiosity to look into an old topographical +work upon Surrey, and in a +supplemental itinerary I found this +passage, "To the left of the beech-wood, +three miles from Godalming, +you catch a glimpse of the elegant +seat of Francis Vivian, Esq." To +judge by the date of the work, the +said Francis Vivian might be the +grandfather of my friend, his namesake. +There could no longer be any +doubt as to the parentage of this prodigal +son.</p> + +<p>The long vacation was now nearly +over, and all his guests were to leave +the poor Captain. In fact, we had +made a long trespass on his hospitality. +It was settled that I was to +accompany my father and mother to +their long-neglected <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">penates</i>, and start +thence for Cambridge.</p> + +<p>Our parting was sorrowful—even +Mrs Primmins wept as she shook +hands with Bolt. But Bolt, an old +soldier, was of course a lady's man. +The brothers did not shake hands +only—they fondly embraced, as +brothers of that time of life rarely do +now-a-days, except on the stage. And +Blanche, with one arm round my +mother's neck, and one round mine, +sobbed in my ear,—"But I will be +your little wife, I will." Finally, the +fly-coach once more received us all—all +but poor Blanche, and we looked +round and missed her.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER LI.</h3> + +<p>Alma Mater! Alma Mater! New-fashioned +folks, with their large +theories of education, may find fault +with thee. But a true Spartan +mother thou art—hard and stern as +the old matron who bricked up her +son Pausanias, bringing the first +stone to immure him; hard and +stern, I say, to the worthless, but +full of majestic tenderness to the +worthy.</p> + +<p>For a young man to go up to Cambridge +(I say nothing of Oxford, +knowing nothing thereof) merely as +routine work, to lounge through three +years to a degree among the ὁι πολλοι—for +such an one, Oxford Street herself, +whom the immortal Opium-eater hath +so direly apostrophised, is not a more +careless and stony-hearted mother. +But for him who will read, who will +work, who will seize the rare advantages +proffered, who will select his +friends judiciously—yea, out of that +vast ferment of young idea in its lusty +vigour, choose the good and reject +the bad—there is plenty to make those +three years rich with fruit imperishable—three +years nobly spent, even +though one must pass over the Ass's +Bridge to get into the Temple of +Honour.</p> + +<p>Important changes in the Academical +system have been recently announced, +and honours are henceforth +to be accorded to the successful disciples +in moral and natural sciences. +By the side of the old throne of +Mathesis, they have placed two very +useful <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fauteuils à la Voltaire</i>. I +have no objection; but, in those three +years of life, it is not so much the thing +learned, as the steady perseverance in +learning something that is excellent.</p> + +<p>It was fortunate, in one respect, for +me that I had seen a little of the real +world—the metropolitan, before I +came to that mimic one—the cloistral. +For what were called pleasures in the +last, and which might have allured +me, had I come fresh from school, +had no charm for me now. Hard +drinking and high play, a certain +mixture of coarseness and extravagance, +made the fashion among the +idle when I was at the university <em>sub +consule Planco</em>—when Wordsworth +was master of Trinity: it may be +altered now.</p> + +<p>But I had already outlived such +temptations, and so, naturally, I was +thrown out of the society of the idle, +and somewhat into that of the laborious.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p> + +<p>Still, to speak frankly, I had no +longer the old pleasure in books. If +my acquaintance with the great world +had destroyed the temptation to puerile +excesses, it had also increased my +constitutional tendency to practical +action. And, alas! in spite of all the +benefit I had derived from Robert +Hall, there were times when memory +was so poignant that I had no choice +but to rush from the lonely room, +haunted by tempting phantoms too +dangerously fair, and sober down the +fever of the heart by some violent +bodily fatigue. The ardour which +belongs to early youth, and which it +best dedicates to knowledge, had +been charmed prematurely to shrines +less severely sacred. Therefore, +though I laboured, it was with that +full <em>sense of labour</em> which (as I found +at a much later period of life) the +truly triumphant student never knows. +Learning—that marble image—warms +into life, not at the toil of the chisel, +but the worship of the sculptor. The +mechanical workman finds but the +voiceless stone.</p> + +<p>At my uncle's, such a thing as a +newspaper rarely made its appearance. +At Cambridge, even among +reading men, the newspapers had +their due importance. Politics ran +high; and I had not been three days +at Cambridge before I heard Trevanion's +name. Newspapers, therefore, +had their charms for me. Trevanion's +prophecy about himself +seemed about to be fulfilled. There +were rumours of changes in the +cabinet. Trevanion's name was +bandied to and fro, struck from praise +to blame, high and low, as a shuttlecock. +Still the changes were not +made, and the cabinet held firm. +Not a word in the <cite>Morning Post</cite>, +under the head of <em>fashionable intelligence</em>, +as to rumours that would have +agitated me more than the rise and +fall of governments—no hint of "the +speedy nuptials of the daughter and +sole heiress of a distinguished and +wealthy commoner:" only now and +then, in enumerating the circle of +brilliant guests at the house of +some party chief, I gulped back the +heart that rushed to my lips, when +I saw the names of Lady Ellinor and +Miss Trevanion.</p> + +<p>But amongst all that prolific +progeny of the periodical press—remote +offspring of my great namesake +and ancestor, (for I hold the +faith of my father,)—where was +the <cite>Literary Times</cite>?—what had +so long retarded its promised blossoms? +Not a leaf in the shape of +advertisements had yet emerged from +its mother earth. I hoped from my +heart that the whole thing was abandoned, +and would not mention it in +my letters home, lest I should revive +the mere idea of it. But, in default +of the <cite>Literary Times</cite>, there did appear +a new journal, a daily journal +too; a tall, slender, and meagre stripling, +with a vast head, by way of prospectus, +which protruded itself for three +weeks successively at the top of the +leading article;—with a fine and subtle +body of paragraphs;—and the smallest +legs, in the way of advertisements, +that any poor newspaper ever stood +upon! And yet this attenuated journal +had a plump and plethoric title, +a title that smacked of turtle and +venison; an aldermanic, portly, grandiose, +Falstaffian title—it was called +<span class="smcap">The Capitalist</span>. And all those +fine subtle paragraphs were larded +out with receipts how to make money. +There was an El Dorado in every sentence. +To believe that paper, you +would think no man had ever yet found +a proper return for his pounds, shillings, +and pence. You would have +turned up your nose at twenty per +cent. There was a great deal about +Ireland—not her wrongs, thank Heaven! +but her fisheries: a long inquiry +what had become of the pearls for +which Britain was once so famous: a +learned disquisition upon certain lost +gold mines now happily rediscovered: +a very ingenious proposition to turn +London smoke into manure, by a new +chemical process: recommendations +to the poor to hatch chickens in ovens +like the ancient Egyptians: agricultural +schemes for sowing the waste +lands in England with onions, upon +the system adopted near Bedford, net +produce one hundred pounds an acre. +In short, according to that paper, +every rood of ground might well +maintain its man, and every shilling +be like Hobson's money-bag, "the +fruitful parent of a hundred more." +For three days, at the newspaper +room of the Union Club, men talked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +of this journal: some pished, some +sneered, some wondered; till an ill-natured +mathematician, who had just +taken his degree, and had spare time +on his hands, sent a long letter to the +<cite>Morning Chronicle</cite>, showing up more +blunders, in some article to which the +editor of <cite>The Capitalist</cite> had specially +invited attention, (unlucky dog!) than +would have paved the whole island of +Laputa. After that time, not a soul +read <cite>The Capitalist</cite>. How long it +dragged on its existence I know not; +but it certainly did not die of a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">maladie +de langueur</i>.</p> + +<p>Little thought I, when I joined in +the laugh against <cite>The Capitalist</cite>, +that I ought rather to have followed it +to its grave, in black crape and weepers,—unfeeling +wretch that I was! +But, like a poet, O <cite>Capitalist</cite>! thou +wert not discovered, and appreciated, +and prized, and mourned, till thou +wert dead and buried, and the bill +came in for thy monument!</p> + +<p>The first term of my college life +was just expiring, when I received a +letter from my mother, so agitated, +so alarming, at first reading so unintelligible, +that I could only see that +some great misfortune had befallen +us; and I stopped short and dropped +on my knees, to pray for the life and +health of those whom that misfortune +more specially seemed to menace; and +then—and then, towards the end of +the last blurred sentence—read twice, +thrice, over—I could cry, "Thank +Heaven, thank Heaven! it is only, +then, money after all!"</p> + + + +<hr class="chap" /> +<h2>STATISTICAL ACCOUNTS OF SCOTLAND.</h2> + + +<p>It is a term of very wide application, +this of statistics—extending to +everything in the state of a country +subject to variation either from the +energies and fancies of men, or from the +operations of nature, in so far as these, +or the knowledge of them, has any +tendency to occasion change in the +condition of the country. Its elements +must be either changeable in +themselves, or the cause of change; +because the use of the whole matter +is to direct men what to do for their +advantage, moral or physical—by +legislation, when the case is of sufficient +magnitude—or otherwise by the +wisdom and enterprise of individuals.</p> + +<p>Governments, it is plain, must +have the greatest interest in possessing +knowledge of this sort; but they +have not been the first to engage +very earnestly in obtaining it. It +would seem that, in all countries, the +first very noticeable efforts in this +way have been made by individuals.</p> + +<p>In this country we have now from +government more and better statistics +than from any other source; for +besides the decennial census, there is +the yearly produce in this way of +Crown Commissions and of Parliamentary +Committees; and, moreover, +there is the late institution of a statistical +department in connexion with +the Board of Trade, for arranging, +digesting, and rendering more accessible +all matter of this kind collected, +from time to time, by the different +branches of the administration. But +before statistical knowledge became +the object of much care to the government +of this country, it had been +well cultivated by individuals. So in +Germany statistics first took a scientific +form in the works of an individual +about the middle of the last century: +and in France, the unfinished <cite>Mémoires +des Intendants</cite>, prepared on the +order of the king, were scarcely an +exception, since meant for the private +instruction of the young prince. But +without attaching undue importance +to the fact of mere precedence, it may +be said that, considering the chief uses +of this kind of knowledge, it has +received more contributions from +individuals than could have been expected.</p> + +<p>This admits of being easily explained. +It has been well said that, +while history is a sort of current statistics, +statistics are a sort of stationary +history. The one has therefore much +the same invitations to mere literary +taste as the other; and if the subject<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +be not so generally engaging, the fancy +way be as strong, and produce as +pure a devotion to statistics as there +ever is to history. More than this, +the statist may care far less for his +subject than its uses,—that is, he may +choose to undergo the toil of researches +only recommended by the chance of +their ministering to the better guidance +of some part of public policy, and +therefore to the public good. The impulse +is then not literary; nor is it +legislative, for the power is wanting; +it is simply patriotic, for so it must +be considered, even when, in the words +of Mr M'Culloch, the object is only +"to bring under the public view the +deficiencies in statistical information, +and so to contribute to the advancement +of the science."</p> + +<p>This public nature of the aim of +statistical works, and the unlikelihood +of their authors choosing that medium +to set forth anything supposed worthy +of notice in the figure of their own +genius, seem to have been recognised, +except in rare instances, as giving to +works of this kind a title to be well +received, and to have their faults very +gently remarked.</p> + +<p>Again, it might be expected that +the statistics of individuals should +have a more limited range than those +of governments; that they should +refer to districts of less extent; and +to the state of the country in fewer of +its aspects. But the case is somewhat +different. The statistics of individuals +are often more national than local, +and generally consist of many branches +presented in some connexion; while +those of governments are commonly +confined to the single department on +which some question of policy may +chance for the time to have fixed +attention.</p> + +<p>On the occasion mentioned, the inquiries +instituted in France were not +so confined, but embraced all the +points of chief interest in the state of +the country. In England, nothing +similar has been attempted; although, +some years ago, it is known that a +proposal to institute a general survey +of Ireland—on the plan, we believe, +of the Ordnance Survey of the parish +of Templemore—was for some time +under consideration of the government.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the instances of +individual enterprise in this way to a +national extent are numerous, both +at home and abroad. Among the +latter, Aucherwall gives the first example, +and Peuchet probably the +best; both treating of the country +not in parts but as a whole,—not in +one respect but in many. Of the +same sort are the excellent statistical +works of Colquhoun, M'Culloch, +Porter, and others, relating to the +British empire, and directed to many +aspects of its condition. To these +we add the <cite>Statistical Account of Scotland</cite>,—occupied +with as many or +more matters of inquiry, but not so +properly national, since viewing not +the country collectively, but its parochial +divisions in succession.</p> + +<p>One advantage belongs to the collection +of statistics upon many points, +which is not found in those that are +limited to one. It is remarked by +Schlozer in his <cite>Theorie der Statistik</cite>, +that "there are many facts seemingly +of no value, but which become important +as soon as you combine them +with other facts, it may be of quite +another class. The affinities subsisting +among these facts are discovered +by the talent and genius of +the statist; and the more various the +knowledge he possesses, with so much +the more success he will perform this +last and crowning part of his task." +The observation need not be confined +to facts apparently unimportant: for +even those, whose importance is at +once perceived, may acquire a new +value from a skilful collation. In +either case, there seems a necessity +for remitting the detached statistics +collected by government to some +such department as that in connexion +with the Board of Trade; otherwise, +the works of individual statists must +continue to afford the only opportunity +of tracing the latent relations +of one branch of statistics to +another.</p> + +<p>The individual, however, who attempts +so much, is in hazard of +attempting more than any individual +can well perform. For, besides this, +he has to make another effort quite +distinct—in the investigation of facts. +All the needed scientific knowledge he +may possess; but the same sufficiency +of local or topographical knowledge is +not supposable. The work so produced,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +therefore, cannot easily avoid +the defects, either of error in the +details of some branch, of unequal +development of the parts, or of a +superficial treatment of the whole. +Against these dangers some writers +have had recourse to assistance, inviting +contributions from others favoured +with better means of information +than themselves; and to them +attributing, in so far as they assisted, +the entire merit and responsibility of +the work.</p> + +<p>This transference of responsibility is +warranted by the necessity of the +case—but it is unusual; and as it +scarcely occurs except in works of the +kind in question, it may happen that +even a professing judge of such works, +if the habit of attention be not good, +may entirely overlook the circumstance.</p> + +<p>In the <cite>Statistical Account of Scotland</cite>, +the obligation to individual contributions +has been carried to the +greatest extent; indeed, it is simply a +collection of such contributions, and +nothing more. This part of the plan +was necessitated by another, in which +the work is equally peculiar—namely, +the distinct treatment of smaller divisions +of the country, than have been +taken up in any other work of the +kind, having an entire country for +its object. To obtain a body of parochial +statistics, it was necessary to +have recourse to persons well acquainted +with the bounds, and intelligent, +at the same time, upon the various +subjects of inquiry. But to find +such in nine hundred parishes would, +of itself, have required much of that +local knowledge, the want of which +was the occasion of the search—had +there not been a class or order of men +among whom the desired qualification, +in many points, might be supposed to +be pretty generally diffused; and from +whose favour to a project of public +usefulness much aid might be expected. +It was in this manner that the +co-operation of the parochial clergy +came to be suggested.</p> + +<p>The <cite>Statistical Account of Scotland</cite> +was originated, promoted, and superintended +by the late Sir John Sinclair. +The authors of such works, as one of +the best of them remarks, should be +careful to explain their motives in +undertaking it—we presume, because +undertakings of the kind are felt to +be scarcely an affair of individuals. +In this instance, a desire to promote +the public good was at once professed +and accredited by many other acts +apparently inspired by the same sentiment. +The devotion of Sir John +Sinclair's life in that direction was +complete, and the example uncommon. +In this a late reviewer perceives +nothing more than a restless pursuit of +plans of no further interest to himself +than as they bore the inscription of +his own name. But whenever public +spirit is professed, and by anything +like useful acts attested, our faith, we +think, should be more generous. On +such occasions, if on any, it is right +to waive all speculation upon private +motives, and to presume the best—for +reasons so well understood in +general that they do not need to be +explained. But if genius, with a +bent to that sort of penetration, must +have its freedom, we do demand that +some token should appear of a belief +in the possibility of the virtue which +is denied.</p> + +<p>It does not improve the grace of +any such judgments that they are +passed fifty years after the occasion; +for, in the meantime, the work may +have acquired merits which could not +belong to it at first:—and so it has +happened with the <cite>Statistical Account</cite> +of Sir John Sinclair. Results may +be fairly ascribed to that performance +which were not intended nor +foreseen, and which seem to have come +from its very defects, as well as from +the defects which it revealed in the +condition of the country, and in the +means of ascertaining what the condition +of the country was. Its population-statistics +were extremely imperfect; +the census followed in a very +few years. Its scanty and unequal +notices of agriculture suggested the +project of the County Reports; and +to these succeeded the <cite>General Report +of Scotland</cite>—a work still useful, and +of the first authority in much that +relates to the agriculture and other +industry of the country. To take advantage +of those capabilities which +the statistical accounts had shown his +country to possess, Sir John Sinclair +originated the Agricultural Society. +All of those things, and more, appear +to have resulted from the <i>Statistical Account</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +They are honours that have +arisen to it in the course of time, and +may be fairly permitted to mitigate +the notice and recollection of its +faults.</p> + +<p>After the lapse of fifty years, Scotland +had ceased to be the country represented +in the old <cite>Statistical Account</cite>; +for the greater part of what is proper +to such a work is, as we have said, +changeable and changing. It contained +not a little, however, which +remained as true and as interesting as +at first: the topography, the physical +characters, the civil divisions of the +country were the same; all that had +been said of its history, whether local +or general, might be said again as seasonably +as before. It occurred, then, +to those to whom the author had presented +the right of this work, to attempt +to restore it in those parts which +time had rendered useless, preserving +those which were under no disadvantage +from that cause. This, as we +learn, was the plain, unambitious intention +of the <cite>New Statistical Account +of Scotland</cite>. It was projected and +carried on during ten years by a Society, +whose object it is to afford aid, +where aid is needed, in the education +of the children of the clergy of the +Church of Scotland. Nothing could +be more foreign to that object than to +engage in a work of national statistics; +nothing more natural than that, in +their relation to the clergy, and with +their interest in the first work, they +should propose to renew it in the manner +mentioned. A society expressly formed +for statistical purposes, and not restrained +like the Society for the Sons +and Daughters of the Clergy, would probably +have proposed something different—something +more new; it might +have been expected to produce something +more excellent—though, even in +that case, the demand of excellence +would have been limited by the consideration, +that the means of completely +investigating the statistics of +a country are not at the command of +any statistical society that exists. A +modernisation, so to speak, of the first +work appears to have been the idea of +the second.</p> + +<p>It has been executed, however, in +the freest style, and scarcely admitted, +indeed, of being accomplished at +all in any other manner. In such +cases, it is seldom that the adaptation +is effected by mere numerical +changes; the whole statement, in form, +manner, and substance, behoves to be +remodelled. Then, certain parts of +the original may have been deficient, +and become more evidently so by the +changes that have since ensued in the +state of the object: here the task is +less one of correction than of supplement. +For example, the very interesting +and full accounts of mining and +manufacturing industry which abound +in the new work are nearly peculiar +to it, and have scarcely an example in +the old. One entire section of the +latter, that of natural history, has been +developed to an extent not attempted +in the former, nor indeed in any other +statistical work. These are rather +noticeable licenses, on the supposition +of the aim being as moderate as professed, +and they go far to form a new +and independent work—having nothing +in common with the first, except the +parochial divisions and the obligation +to the clergy, as respects the plan; and +as respects the matter, only the small +part of it which is historical, and +therefore not obsolete.</p> + +<p>We observe, accordingly, that the +society who promoted the new work +have put it forward as taking some +things from the old, for which they +are not responsible, but as containing +far more which must form a new and +separate character for itself. In both +respects, we think they have viewed +the work with a proper reference to +the conditions under which it was produced.</p> + +<p>In other points, the new Account has +improved upon the old, and might be +expected to do so. It has more matter, +by a third part, neither less suited +to the place, nor more diffuse in the +statement; and, as befits a work of +reference, the arrangement is more +orderly and more uniform. It is, on +the whole, more carefully and better +written, and shows, on the part of the +reverend contributors, a remarkable +advance in the many sorts of knowledge +requisite to the task. If the +comparison were pursued further, it +might be said that some contributions +to the first are not surpassed in the +value of what they contain; while, +from the greater novelty of the task +at that time, as well as from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +greater freedom of the method, they +are somewhat fresher and more genial +in manner. The later work, if fuller, +more exact, more statistical throughout, +possesses that advantage at the +cost of appearing sometimes more +like a collection of returns in answer +to submitted points of inquiry,—a character, +however, by no means unsuitable +to a compilation of the kind. In +all other points a decided superiority +must be attributed to the new Account.</p> + +<p>Our remarks at this time shall be +confined to the plan of the new Account, +and to the general description +of its contents.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>The chief feature of the plan is the +distinct treatment of each parish—producing +a body neither of county nor +of national, but merely of parochial +statistics. This was the design, and +there is much to recommend it. It +is the last thing that can take the +aspect of a fault in statistics, to view +the matter in very minute portions; +for thus, and thus only, it is possible to +arrive at an accurate knowledge of +the whole. There can be no good +county statistics which do not suppose +inquiries limited, at first, to lesser +divisions of the country, and which do +not express the sum of particulars +taken from subdivisions that can +hardly proceed too far. If such minor +surveys do not come before the public, +they are presumptively carried on in +private. But, in the latter case, they +are the more apt to be superficial, as +they can be so with the less chance +of being noticed; they are apt to +take aid from mere computation of +averages; they are apt, also, to result +in that vague description which is the +master-vice of statistics. "In this +town, there are manufactures which +employ <em>many</em> hands; in this district, +<em>vast</em> quantities of silk are produced. +These," says Schlozer, "are pet +phrases of tourists, who would say +something, when they know nothing; +but they are not the language of +statistics." The parochial method +stands, then, on two good grounds: it +is inevitable either in an open or a +latent form; and it favours the collection +of sufficient data for those specific +enumerations which are the true +worth and the characteristic grace of +this branch of knowledge.</p> + +<p>This plan, however, has some disadvantages; +in referring to which we +shall find occasion to bring to view +some of the proper merits of the work.</p> + +<p>In the first place, a work on this +plan is inevitably voluminous. The +territorial divisions submitted to distinct +treatment are about nine hundred +in number, and the matter is +still further augmented by the occasional +assignment to different hands +of different parts of the survey of a +single parish. In proportion to the +descent of the details, is the bulk of +the production; which we suppose to be +an evil in the same measure in which it +exceeds the necessity of the case. Now +the <cite>New Statistical Account</cite> is at once +seen to contain not a little matter of +merely local interest, and of the +smallest value considered as pertaining +to a body of national statistics; +and here, if anywhere, it is apt to be +regarded as at fault. It is right, however, +to recollect the privilege of every +work to be judged according to the +conditions of the species to which it +belongs. The present is not set +forth as a statistical account of Scotland, +but as a collection of the statistical +accounts of all the parishes in +Scotland; for this, we perceive, is +not merely implied in the plan of the +work, but is declared in the prospectus, +where the hope is expressed that, by +exhibiting the actual state of the +parishes, with whatever is therein +amiss, it may lead to parochial improvements. +It does not appear, therefore, +to have been from any miscalculation +of their worth, that matters of +merely local interest have been so +liberally admitted; and, all things +considered, more of that nature might +have been expected. Let us quote +again from the best theory of statistics +that has ever been produced. "An +object may be deserving of remark in +the description of some particular +portion of a country, and at the same +time have no claim to notice in any +general account of that country at +large. In the former case, the rivulet +is not to be omitted; in the latter, +any allusion to it would be a defect, +for it would be matter of unnecessary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +and trifling detail."<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> It is recorded, +in the <cite>New Statistical Account</cite>, +that "Will-o'-wisp had never appeared +in the parish of South Uist +previous to the year 1812." Nothing, +in a national point of view, can be +conceived more insignificant than this +fact; but, taken in connexion with a +notable superstition in that district, +its local importance appears.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> To +the credit of this method, it may be +noticed, that the accounts which are +most parochial are, at the same time, +among those which have been drawn +up with the most general intelligence; +and, this being the case, it is not a +strange wish that the accounts, in +general, had been somewhat more +parochial than they are.</p> + +<p>On this plan, it is certain there is +a risk of much repetition, many +parishes having some common characterists +which, in place of being +recounted for each, might be stated +once for all. How far does the +<cite>Statistical Account</cite> offend in this manner? +It is true that, where the same +facts occur in many parishes, a single +statement might suffice; though this +might be at the cost of violating the +plan which for the whole it might be +fittest to adopt, upon consideration +that the like resemblance is not found +among the greater number of the +parishes. But it is remarkable, how +seldom different parishes have all the +similarity requisite for such a common +description; for, in statistics, a difference +in mere number or quantity is +a vital difference, and expresses +essentially different facts. Many +parishes have the same articles of produce; +while no two produce exactly the +same quantities. A very short distance +often brings to view considerable +varieties in climate, soil, and other +physical qualities of a country. Now, +considering that the object of this +work is to present the parishes in their +distinguishing, as well as in their +common features, we do not see much +sameness in the substance of the details +which could have been avoided. +A sameness there is; but more in +form than in substance—each account +delivering its matter under the same +general heads, recurring in all cases +in exactly the same order. This is +convenient when the book is used for +reference; it may be wearisome to +one who reads only for amusement: it is +monotonous; but who looks for any +"soul of harmony" in such a quarter? +We repeat, it is not attended, on the +whole, with much importunate reappearance +of the same facts, and +cannot seem to be so, except to a very +careless or distempered eye. But if, +perchance, there may be some facts +much alike in several parishes, this +itself is an unusual fact, and we should +not object to its coming out in the +usual way of each parish speaking for +itself; in which case, there is always +a chance of some variety in the description, +from the same thing presenting +itself to different persons +under different aspects. But, on the +whole, we think there is less repetition +in these accounts, and indeed less +occasion for it, than might at first +sight be supposed.</p> + +<p>There is another obvious tendency +to imperfection in the plan of parochial +accounts. Their first, but not +their sole object, is to describe the +parishes; it is certainly meant that +they should furnish, at the same +time, the grounds of statistical computation +for the whole country. +This is the natural complement and +the proper conclusion to a work of +parish statistics. It is, however, a +part of the plan which, not being quite +necessary, and requiring a fresh effort +at the last, is apt to be omitted. It +was not till twenty-five years after +the publication of the old Account that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +Sir John Sinclair at length produced +his <em>Analysis of the Statistical Account +of Scotland considered as one District</em>. +It came too late. A similar analysis +or summary appears to have been at +first intended for the new Account: +and we regret that this part of the +design was, by force of circumstances, +not carried into effect. +One use of it would have been to +evince that parochial statistics do not +assume the character of national; +while yet, for even national statistics, +they furnish the most proper foundation. +To pass at once, however, from +parochial to national statistics would +have been too great a step; there is +an intermediate stage, at which the new +Account would certainly have paused, +though it had designed to proceed +farther; and at which, without that +design, it has here rested; presenting +the statistics of each county in a summary +of the more important particulars +concerning the included parishes; +but making no nearer approach to any +general computations for the country +at large.</p> + +<p>The method of proceeding from +parishes to counties suggests that +other plan for the entire work, which +would have followed the opposite +course—the plan that would have +begun with counties, and given County, +not Parochial reports. Somewhat in +this fashion has been formed the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie +Départementale</i> of France, now +in course of publication, in which the +whole matter is rigorously subjected +to as skilful an arrangement as has +ever been devised for matters of the +kind. It is plain, however, that greater +difficulty and more expense would have +attended the construction of the Scotch +work on that scheme, than private +parties could have undertaken; and +even the example of the French work +does not show that, for the compacter +method thus obtained, there might not +have been a sacrifice of much that is +valuable in detail.</p> + +<p>It may be added, that when parishes +are well described, and a county or +more general summary succeeds, we +ask no more; a work like this has +then accomplished its object, and what +remains must be sought for elsewhere. +What remains is this—to interpret +the statistics thus laid down, for they +are often very far from interpreting +themselves; to ascertain, by analysis +or combination of their different parts, +what they signify in regard to the condition +of the country. Thus, betwixt +the rate of wages and the habits of a +people—the prevailing occupations +and the rate of mortality—the description +of industry and the amount of +pauperism—there are relations which +it is exceedingly important to remark. +But if a statistical account simply +notes the kind, number, or quantity of +each of these particulars, it performs +its part,—no matter how blindly, how +unconsciously of the relation that subsists +betwixt them, this may be done. +The rest is so different a work, that it +must be left to other hands. It is not +to be forgotten, that, for bringing out +the more latent truths of statistics in +the manner mentioned, a work like +this is merely <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pour servir</i>; and, keeping +that in view, our prepossessions +are all in favour of abundance and +minuteness of detail.</p> + +<p>Lastly, a work made up of contributions +from nine hundred individuals +must be of unequal merit, according +to the different measures of intelligence +or care, and according to the feeling +with which a task of that nature may +happen to have been undertaken. A +slight inspection, accordingly, discovers +that it is the character of the +writer, more than of the parish, that +determines the length and interest of +any one of these reports. This is an +imperfection, and something more—for +it makes one part of the book, by implication, +reveal the defects of another. A +few years ago, when a Crown commission +considered a project for a general +survey and statistical report of Ireland, +their attention was much attracted to +the <cite>New Statistical Account of Scotland</cite>; +and, in their report, they notice, +in the course of a very fair estimate, +this inequality as the main disadvantage +of the plan. It is, however, inevitable, +except upon a scheme which, +from the expense attending it, would +have hindered the existence of the +Scottish work, and which appears +to have prevented or postponed the +Irish. From a single author, something +like proportion might be expected +in the parts of such a compilation; +but to that perfection a work like the +<cite>Statistical Account of Scotland</cite>, with +its hundreds of avowed responsible,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +and therefore uncontrolled authors, +could not pretend. For this reason, +it is the more proper to follow a rule +of judgment which, in any case, is a +good one:—to estimate the general +character of the work with a lively +recollection of its merits; and to be +much upon our guard against the +mean instinct of looking only to the +weaker and more peccant parts of it.</p> + +<p>Passing from the plan to the matter +of the work, we now ask, whether all +that it contains is properly statistical, +and whether it contains all of any +consequence that falls under that description.</p> + +<p>Nothing, we suppose, is alien to +this branch of knowledge that tends, +in however little, to show the state of +a country—social, political, moral—or +even physical.</p> + +<p>But this last, comprising somewhat +of geography and natural history, +some writers would remove entirely +from the sphere of statistics. Among +these is Peuchet, in his work before +mentioned—who gives as the reason +of the exclusion, that, in any analysis +of the wealth or power of a state, +neither its geography nor natural history +ever come into view: a fact rather +hastily assumed. The parallel work +for this country, by Mr. M'Culloch, +while it follows Peuchet's method in +much, leaves it in this instance, admitting +various branches of natural +history to ample consideration. It is +true that trespass on the proper +ground of statistics has been so common +an offence, that writers have been +careful to mark those cases in which +no title exists. Thus Schlozer, looking +to the intrusions that come from +the quarter we refer to, is averse to +all imaginative descriptions of the +physical aspect of a country, but does +not prohibit natural history. Hogel, +who also writes well upon the theory +of statistics,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> is more explicit—admitting +that natural history may encroach +too far, but asserting that its +several branches may be received to +a certain extent. "Whatever, in +the physical nature of a country, has +any influence upon the life, occupations, +or manners of the people, pertains +to statistics; by all means, +therefore, in any body of statistics, let +us have as much of mineralogy, hydrology, +botany, geology, meteorology, +as has any bearing upon the condition +of the people." All of these subjects +have been allowed to enter largely +into the <cite>New Statistical Account</cite>.</p> + +<p>They form a feature of that work +which scarcely belonged to the old +Account, and which is new, indeed, to +parochial statistics. Investigations +of natural history have usually been +carried on with reference to other +bounds than those of parishes; but, +when confined to parishes, it is remarkable +how much this has been at +once for the advantage of the science, +and for the enhancement of any interest +in these territorial divisions by +the picturesque mixture of natural +objects with the works and pursuits of +men. More of this parochial treatment +of natural history we may possibly +have hereafter, upon the suggestion of +the <cite>Statistical Account</cite>.</p> + +<p>For the abundant favour which the +work has shown to the whole subject +of natural history, reasons are not +wanting. One portion of that matter +has obviously the quality that designates +for statistical treatment,—comprising, +for example, mines, whether +wrought or unwrought; animals, profitable +or destructive; plants, in all +their variety of uses: the connexion +of which with the wealth and industry +of the country is at once apparent. +The same connexion exists for another +class of objects; but not so obviously. +For example, there is a detailed +account of the flowering periods of a +variety of plants in one parish; the +pertinence of which is not perceived, +until it is mentioned that, in the same +neighbourhood, there are two populous +and well-frequented watering-places, +which owe their prosperity to the qualities +of the climate: there the trade +of the locality connects itself with the +early honours of the hepaticas. A +third class of facts, and not the least +in amount, is not qualified by any relation +they are known to possess to +the social condition of the country; +but then they belong to a body of +facts, some of which have that relation; +and the same may be established +for them hereafter. Still, it +may be said that the matter, if appropriate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +behoves to be presented in a +statistical, not in a scientific form. +But this, perhaps, is to interpret too +strictly the laws of statistical writing, +which do not seem to forbid the predominance +of a scientific interest in +the description, when the matter fairly +belongs to the province of statistics. +And if any license at all may be +allowed in works of so severe a character, +it is precisely here where that is least +unbefitting. It is not among the faults +of the <cite>New Statistical Account</cite>, but +rather among its most interesting features, +that the mineral resources of the +country are so often described with all +the skill and passion of the mineralogist, +forgetting for the moment everything +but the phenomena of nature.</p> + +<p>Under the head of Natural History, +we have many instances of the landscape +painting proscribed by Schlozer. +But it is remarked, that the same +authority, when adverting to another +matter, lays down a principle of admission +which is equally applicable +here. "Antiquities," he observes, +"become a proper subject of statistics +in such a case as that of Rome, +where a large amount of money was +at one time annually expended by the +strangers who came to form their +taste, or to indulge their curiosity, +upon the remains of ancient art." In +like manner, if there are places in +Scotland that profit economically by +the attractions of their natural beauty, +we do not see that there is any obligation +to be silent upon the cause, by +reason merely of the seeming dissonance +betwixt an imaginative description +and the austere account of statistics. +Other and better apologies +might be offered; and, on the whole, we +are not satisfied that, in this respect, +any less indulgence of the gentler +vein would have been attended with +advantage to the work.</p> + +<p>On these grounds it appears to have +been, that so much scope is allowed to +the whole subject of natural history. +But if too much, the fault has been +redeemed by the frequent excellence +of what is put forth on that head. +Here the <cite>New Statistical Account</cite> passes +expectation; and to it we may attribute +much of the increased interest +that has lately attached to that branch +of knowledge in Scotland.</p> + +<p>Another thing of questionable connexion +with statistics is history, which +imports a reference to the past; +whereas, as the name declares, statistics +contemplates but the present, +and can look neither backward nor forward, +without trenching upon other +provinces. Many excellent statistical +works, accordingly, have allowed no +place to history at all; and the writers +before cited, on the theory of the subject, +concur in excluding it. Hogel is +most explicit. "Statistics never go +beyond the circle of the present in +their representations of the condition +of a country: they are like painting—they +fix upon a single point of time; +and the facts which they select are +those which come last in the series, +though the series they belong to may +extend backwards for ages. All that +went before rests on testimony, and +is therefore beyond the sphere of statistics, +whose grounds are in actual +observation. There is no limit to the +number of facts with which statistics +have to do, provided they are co-existing +facts, and do not present +themselves in succession: facts, and +not their causes, are the proper matter +of statistics; and they must be facts +of the present time." This doctrine, in +which there seems nothing in the main +amiss, if strictly applied to the work under +consideration, cancels a large part +of it. But against that consequence we +can suppose it to be pleaded—First, that +for relief from a continuity of details +somewhat arid to many readers, the +work borrows something from a neighbouring +branch of knowledge, and so +far, of purpose, drops its statistical +character—the more allowably, as in +this way no harm ensues to the statistical +character of the rest. And +next—that all the history of a place +has not equally little to do with its present +state; for past events are often, +casually or otherwise, related to the +present, and so become a fair subject +of retrospect, unless restraints are to +be imposed on this branch of knowledge +which are unknown to any other. +The fault, in this instance, is at least +not so great, as where no discoverable +relation exists. It may be worth +while, then, to observe how far the +historical matter of the <cite>Statistical Account</cite> +does show any connexion of the +sort in question.</p> + +<p>It includes, under the head of history,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +various classes of particulars. +1. The parish has been the scene of +some event remarkable in the history +of the country. Of this, perhaps, distinct +traces remain, not in memory +alone, but in some local custom or +institution. But the most common +case is, that, as the range extends to +the remotest periods, all influence or +effect of the event has ceased, and the +interest of its recital is purely historical. +Here the <cite>Statistical Account</cite> +transgresses one rule of such a work +by the admission of such matter, and +asks, as we perceive it does ask in the +prospectus, liberty to do so on one of +the grounds above suggested.</p> + +<p>2. The same apology is required +for the antiquities, that form a large +section under this head. These have +sometimes perceptibly the connexion +that gives the title we desire; a connexion, +perhaps, no more than perceptible. +Thus, in reference to the +round hill in the parish of Tarbolton, +on which the god Thor was anciently +worshipped, we are told that, "on the +evening before the June fair, a piece +of fuel is still demanded at each house, +and invariably given, even by the poorest +inhabitant," in order to celebrate +the form of the same superstitious rite +which has been annually performed on +that hill for many centuries. The +famous Pictish tower at Abernethy is +said to be used "for civil purposes +connected with the burgh." In these +cases it is seen how very slight is the +qualifying circumstance; but it is still +more so for much the greater number +of particulars of this kind which the +book contains—such as ancient coins, +ancient armour, barrows, standing-stones, +camps, or moat hills: all of +which particularly belong to archæology, +and obtain a place here simply by +favour. Indeed, no part of the work +adheres to it so loosely as this of antiquities. +Their objects live as curiosities; +but, to all intents that can +recommend them to the notice of statistics, +they are dead, "and to be so +extant is but a fallacy in duration."</p> + +<p>If this portion of the matter be the +least appropriate, it is, at the same +time, not the least difficult to handle; +for uncertainty besets a very great +part of it, and nothing more tries the +reach of knowledge than conjecture. +Besides, the knowledge here requisite +implies both taste and opportunities +for its cultivation,—which may belong +to individuals, but which cannot +be attributed to an entire profession, +spread over all parts of the country, +and designated to very different +studies. If antiquities could be considered +as a main part of statistics, +it is, assuredly, not to the clergy +we should look for a statistical +account; nor indeed to any other +body, however learned, if it be not +the Society of Antiquaries. The +clergyman who honours his profession +with the greatest amount of appropriate +learning, may in this particular +know but little; and if we do not, on +that account, the less value him, it is +assuredly not from undervaluing in +the slightest degree a very interesting +branch of knowledge.</p> + +<p>In these circumstances, the reasons +for allowing to antiquities so much of +this compilation appear to have been,—the +compelling example of the old Account, +the occasional aptness of the +matter, and the effect of such a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mélange</i> +upon the mass of details that form the +body of the work. But a better apology +remains; and it may be extended +to what is said of the remarkable +events of history. We are warranted +in saying, that the <cite>New Statistical Account</cite> +has contributed much to the +history and antiquities of Scotland,—evincing +on these subjects a frequent +novelty and fulness of knowledge far +surpassing what either the design or +the apparatus of the undertaking gave +any title to expect.</p> + +<p>Of one fault, in particular, there +is no appearance in the archæology of +this work. Nowhere is there any +sign of an idiosyncracy which is not +without example—that of professing +to speak of statistics, and yet speaking +of nothing but antiquities; as if these, +which are saved with so much difficulty +from the charge of being wholly +out of place, were the pith and marrow, +the most vital part of any body +of statistics. This is a small merit, +but it is allied to a greater. Throughout +these volumes, there is no tendency +to discuss such futile questions +as have sometimes lowered the credit +of antiquarian pursuits. We have +seen it solemnly inquired, whether +Æneas, upon landing in Italy, touched +the soil with the right or with the left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +foot foremost; whether Karl Haco +was in person present at the sacrifice +of his son; whether a faded inscription +upon the walls of an old church be of +this import or that—in either case the +interest having so little to support it +in the significance of the record that +it can scarce be imagined to exist at +all, except as it may centre in the +mere truth of the deciphering. Nothing +of this doting, degenerate character, +repudiated by all antiquaries, +occurs in the <cite>Statistical Account</cite>: if it +did, the sum of all the errors in names, +dates, and other things, inevitably incident +to so vast a variety of details, +would not have been an equal blemish.</p> + +<p>It is probable that neither history +nor antiquities will find a place in any +future statistics of Scotland. Not that +they have been enough examined either +in that connexion, or elsewhere; but it +is now common to make them the subject +of separate, independent essays—the +most proper form for the delivery of +anything that pertains to such matters. +The good service done in this department, +by both of these Accounts, now +falls to be performed by such works as +the "Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities +of Scotland,"<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which have this +for their single object; and the presumption +is only fair, that some further +light on such matters may be contributed +by the "Parochiale Scoticanum," +lately announced as in the +course of preparation<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>—though our +expectations would not have been at +all lessened by a somewhat less magnificent +promise than that "every man +in Scotland may be enabled to ascertain, +with some precision, the first +footing and <em>gradual progress of Christianity</em> +in his own district and neighbourhood."</p> + +<p>It is not to be supposed, however, +that some other topics which regularly +appear in this New Account, under the +head of history, will ever drop from +any work of parochial statistics. We +refer to what may be termed Parish +History, as distinct from what belongs +to the history of the country,—notices +of distinguished individuals and of +ancient families, changes of property, +territorial improvements, variations in +the social state of the people. No +part of a book is more novel, or, to a +proper curiosity, more interesting; +and no indication is needed of the fair +incidence of such matters to a work of +this description.</p> + +<p>If the <cite>New Statistical Account</cite> +contains, then, some particulars not +quite proper to the professed object, +the excess appears to be on the whole +venial. But it may still be asked, +whether any important and proper +matters appear to have been omitted.</p> + +<p>Now, considering how many things +of nature, art, institutions, and industry +pertain to statistics, we do +not expect any compilation to embrace +all, or to treat completely of all such +things as it does embrace,—we expect +imperfection in the details.</p> + +<p>Accordingly, it is seen that some +subjects well described in some accounts, +are either not at all, or not so +fully, taken up in others; while yet +the occasion may be much the same. +The climate of some districts, for +instance, is well illustrated by careful +observations from the rain-gage and +thermometer; in some parishes we +are informed of the size of the agricultural +possessions, the number of +ploughs, the rent of land; in some, +manufactories, mines, and other kinds +of industry, are viewed in all their +aspects. But, for other districts or +parishes, reports on these subjects are +wanting; and the disadvantage is, not +merely that such desirable information +is not given for such places, but that +the means are not furnished of making +any general computations for the +whole country. It is plain there have +been special reasons for the less satisfactory +representation of particular +parishes in these respects: but for +all such faults, both of omission and +imperfection, we understand the <cite>New +Statistical Account</cite> to have one general +apology; which is this.</p> + +<p>Two distinct efforts are requisite to +the preparation of a comprehensive +work of statistics. There is first, the +investigation of facts; and next, the +task of arranging and presenting them +in the report. One of the theorists +before-mentioned, views it as a necessary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +division of labour, that both +things should not be attempted by one +and the same party,—especially as the +first, when the subjects are numerous, +is not to be accomplished but by the +assistance of many hands—all of +which, as he observes, must be at +once skilful and suitably rewarded. +Now, here, the task of inquiring and +reporting was not divided; the whole +of it was placed, by the necessities of +the case, in the hands of the reverend +contributors. But, as no private +society had the means or authority to +investigate the facts completely, it is +urged that the defects to which we +have alluded, were for the most part +inevitable.</p> + +<p>We believe it; and, recognising +how much the clergy had thus to do, +which could only be done completely +by the government, we only advert to +the sources of information to which +they could have recourse.</p> + +<p><em>Public documents</em> seem to have been +consulted, when information of a later +date could not be had,—and chiefly +the parliamentary reports on population, +crime, education, and municipal +affairs, from which the parish accounts +appear to have been supplemented +with whatever was necessary to the +completion of the county summaries. +Much has also been derived from the +reports of Societies, Boards, and mercantile +companies; of this there is +evidence in the account of every considerable +town.</p> + +<p><em>Public records</em> appear also to have +been examined, and chiefly the parish +registers. Every parish has a record +of the transactions of its kirk-session,—sometimes +extending to distant +periods. Extracts from these occasionally +show, in a clear light, the +state and manners of the country in +former times; more of which authentic +illustration we could have wished, +and more the same sources might +possibly have supplied. Most parishes +have also records of births or +baptisms, marriages and deaths. +From these, and these only, this +work could derive the elements of its +important section of vital statistics; +but how far were they fitted to serve +that purpose? It is certain that +they nowhere form a complete register +of these occurrences, and +that for the most part they are +very defective. Baptisms appear to +have been entered, in the parish register, +regularly till the year 1783, +when the imposition of a small tax +first broke the custom of registration; +and, when that tax was removed, +dissenting bodies were unwilling to +resume the practice. The proportion +of registered baptisms to births, for +instance, is at the present time not +more than one fourth in Edinburgh, +and one third in Glasgow. The +marriage register is also unavailable +to statistical purposes, by reason of +the practice of double enrolment—in +the parish of each party. In many +parishes no record of burials exists: +in others, those of paupers are omitted. +In short, there is scarcely a country +in Europe that does not, by proper +arrangements, furnish better information +on these important points; and +no industry of individuals can remedy +that defect. It is therefore among +the postulates of a work like this, +for Scotland, that its vital statistics +should be imperfect.</p> + +<p><em>Books</em> relating to the history, civil +or natural, the institutions or manners +of the country, have in many instances +been well consulted; in some, not at +all; but probably as much from want +of opportunity as from any other +cause.</p> + +<p>Still much occasion for inquiry remained +after all the use that could be +made of reports, registers, and books. +Much of what related to the institutions +of Religion, education, and the +poor, might be supposed to come +readily to hand, the clergy themselves +being most conversant with such +matters. But they appear to have +charged themselves with the toil of +very different investigations. Some +have been at the pains to ascertain +the amount and occupations of the +population, betwixt the decennial +terms of the parliamentary census. +Few have omitted to state, in connexion +with the agriculture of the +parish, the quantities of land under +tillage or under wood, in pasture or +in moor, and the amount respectively +of the different kinds of produce—facts +that imply not a little correspondence +with land-owners and land-occupiers, +and much industry in the collation of +returns. They have had recourse, frequently, +to mineralogists, botanists,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +overseers of mining and manufacturing +works, whose contributions are of as +much value as the fullest and ripest +knowledge can give. Picture-galleries +are sometimes described by their +owners; family papers occasionally +disclose facts of some interest in +the history of the country. Throughout +the work there are signs not to be +mistaken, of much private and unwonted +inquiry on the part of the +reverend authors, to do, in a creditable +way, a work that, from the +nature of it, ought to have been +apportioned to at least two different +parties.</p> + +<p>The defects which remain only +suggest to us the hope which was +thus expressed in similar circumstances, +that "the circulation of this +work, by bringing the deficiencies +in the means of statistical information +under the public view, and +drawing attention to them, may, +in this respect, also contribute to the +advancement of the science." It is +implied, of course, that the work, to +be useful in this indirect way, must +have merits of another kind. On +these the <cite>New Statistical Account</cite> may +stand. No other book affords the +same insight into the various natural +resources of the country; none describes +so well, and so skilfully, the +most considerable branches of industry, +and the methods of conducting +them; none has brought together the +same variety of statistics, with the +same ample means of speculating upon +their mutual relations. It is still +more remarkable, that such a work, +embracing, as it does, so much beyond +the usual sphere of their observation, +should proceed from the clergy; but +the explanation is, that the position +and character of that body open to +them the best means of information +on many subjects with which they are +themselves not at all conversant. +They have produced here a work, +which, as a collection of parochial +statistics, stands alone, without +either rival or resemblance in any +other country, representing the state +of Scotland, at the period to which +it refers, in all its aspects, and so +affording the means of a definite +comparison between the past and the +present, such as, in all cases, it is +at once natural and profitable to +make. A peculiar interest arises from +the unusual diversity of the matter, +and the familiarity of the writers with +the bounds which they describe. It +is a useful work, and will continue +long to be so, in as many ways as it +throws light upon the condition of the +country—and, not least, in the local +improvements to which its suggestions +may give rise. But, if its uses were less +than they are, it would still leave an +impression of respect for the general +intelligence and the readiness to employ +their opportunities for the public +good, which its authors have known +to unite with exemplary devotion to +the duties of their calling.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>THE POETRY OF SACRED AND LEGENDARY ART.</h2> +<blockquote> +<p><cite>The Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art.</cite> By Mrs <span class="smcap">Jameson</span>.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>We are of the belief that art without +poetry is worthless—dead, and +deadening; or, if it have vitality, +there is no music in its speech—no +command in its beauty. We treat it +with a kind of contempt, and make +apology for the pleasure it has afforded. +<cite>Sacred and Legendary Art!</cite> +How different—how precious—how +life-bestowing! The material and immaterial +world linked, as it were, together +by a new sympathy, working +out a tissue of beautiful ideas from the +golden threads of a Divine revelation! +By <cite>Sacred and Legendary Art</cite> is +meant the treatment of religions subjects, +commencing with the Old Testament, +and terminating in traditionary +tales and legends. It is from the +latter that the old painters have, for +the most part, taken that rich poetry, +which, glowing on the canvass, shows, +even amidst the wild errors of fable, a +truth of sentiment belonging to a +purer faith.</p> + +<p>By the Protestant mind, nursed, +perhaps, in an undue contempt of histories +of saints and martyrs of the +Romish Church, the treasures of art +of the best period are rarely understood, +and still more rarely felt, in the +spirit in which they were conceived. +Those for whom they were painted +needed no cold inquiry into the subjects. +They accepted them as things +universally known and religiously to +be received, with a veneration which +we but little comprehend. With them +pictures and statues were among their +sacred things, and, together with +architecture, spoke and taught with +an authority that books, which then +were rare in the people's hands, have +since scarcely ever obtained. Men of +genius felt this respect paid to their +works, if denied too often to themselves; +and thus to their own devotion +was added a kind of ministerial +importance. Their work became a +duty, and was very frequently prosecuted +as such by the inmates of monasteries. +Besides their works on a +large scale, upon the walls and in their +cloisters, the ornamenting and illustrating +missals embodied a religious +feeling, if in some degree peculiar to +the condition of the workers, of a vital +form and beauty. Treasures of this +kind there are beyond number; but +they have been hidden treasures for +ages. A Protestant contempt for their +legends has persecuted, with long hatred, +and subsequent long indifference, +the art which glorified them. And now +that we awake from this dull state, and +begin to estimate the poetry of religious +art, we stand before the noblest +productions amazed and ignorant, and +looking for interpreters, and lose the +opportunity of enjoyment in the inquiry. +Art is too valuable for all it +gives, to allow this entire ignorance +of the subjects of its favourite treatment. +If, for the better understanding +of heathen art, an acquaintance with +classical literature is thought to be a +worthy attainment, the excellence of +what we may term Christian art surely +renders it of importance that we should +know something about the subjects of +which it treats. The inquiry will repay +us also in other respects, as well as +with regard to taste. If we would +know ourselves, it is well to see the +workings of the human mind, under its +every phase, its every condition. And +in such a study we shall be gratified, +perhaps unexpectedly, to find the good +and the beautiful still shining through +the obscurity of many errors, predominant +and influential upon our own +hearts, and scarcely wish the fabulous +altogether removed from the minds of +those who receive it in devotion, lest +great truth in feeling be removed also. +Indeed, the legends themselves are +mostly harmless, and, even as they +become discredited, may be interpreted +as not unprofitable allegories. Had +we not, in a Puritanic zeal, discarded +art with an iconoclast persecution, +<cite>The Pilgrim's Progress</cite> had long ere +this been a "golden legend" for the +people, and spoken to them in worthy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +illustration; nor would they have +been religiously or morally the worse +had they been imbued with a thorough +taste for the graceful, the beautiful, +and the sublime, which it is in the +power of well cultivated art to convey +to every willing recipient. It is a great +mistake of a portion of the religious +world to look upon ornament as a sin +or a superstition. Religion is not a +bare and unadorned thing, nor can it +be so received without debasing, without +making too low and mean the worshipper +for the worship. The "wedding +garment" was not the every-day +wear. The poorest must not, of a +choice, appear in rags before the throne +of Him who is clothed in glory, nor +with less respect of their own person +than they would use in the presence of +their betters. It was originally of +God's doing, command, and dictation, +to sanctify the beautiful in art, by +making his worship a subject for all +embellishment. For such a purport +were the minute directions for the +building of His temple. And yet how +many "religious" of our day contradict +this feeling, which seems to come +to us, not only by a natural instinct, +but with the authority of a command! +It is a deteriorated worship that prefers +four bare, unadorned, whitened +walls of a mean conventicle to the +lofty and arched majesty and profuse +enrichment of a Gothic minster. We +want every aid to lift every sense +above our daily grovelling cares, and +ought to feel that we are acceptable +and invited guests in a house far too +great, spacious, and magnificent for +ourselves alone. Even our humility +should be sublime, as all true worship +is, for we would fain lift it up as an +offering to the Heaven of heavens. It +has its aspect towards Him who deigns +to receive, together with consciousness +of the lowliness of him that offers. +It is good that the eye and the ear +should see and hear other sounds and +sights than concern things, not only of +time, but of that poor portion of it +which hems in our daily wants and +businesses. Beauty and music are of +and for eternity, and will never die; +and in our perception of them we +make ourselves a part of all that is +undying. These are senses that the +spiritualised body will not lose. Their +cultivation is a thing for ever; we +are now even here the greater for +their possession in their human perfection. +The wondrous pile so elaborately +finished; the choral service, +the pealing organ, and the low +voice of prayer, and, it may be, angel +forms and beatified saints in richly-painted +windows:—we do not believe +all this to be solely of man's invention, +but of inspiration; how given we +ask not, seeing what is, and acknowledging +a greatness around us far +greater than ourselves, and lifting up +the full mind to a magnitude emulous +of angelic stature. Yes—poetic genius +is a high gift, by which the gifted +make discoveries, and show high and +great truths, and present them, palpable +and visible, before the world—by +architecture, by painting, by sculpture, +by music—rendering religion itself +more holy by the inspiration +of its service. Take a man out of +his common, so to speak, irreverent +habit, and place him here to live for +a few moments in this religious atmosphere—how +unlike is he to himself, +and how conscious of this self-unlikeness! +Would that our cathedrals were +open at all times! Even when there +is no service, though that might be +more frequent, there would be much +good communing with a man's own +heart, when, turning away for a while +from worldly troubles and speculations, +in midst of that great solemn monument, +erected to his Maker's praise, +and with the dead under his feet—the +dead who as busily walked the streets +and ways he has just left—he would +weigh the character of his doings, +and in a sanctified place breathe a +prayer for direction. Nor would it +be amiss that he should be led to contemplate +the "storied pane" and religious +emblems which abound; he will +not fail, in the end, to sympathise with +the sentiment even where he bows not +to the legend. He may know the fact +that there have been saints and martyrs—that +faith, hope, and charity +are realities—that patience and love +may be here best learnt to be practised +in the world without.</p> + +<p>It is curious that the saints, those +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dii minores</i>, to whom so many of our +churches are dedicated, still retain +their holding. Beyond the evangelists +and the apostles, little do the +people know of the other many saints<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +while they enter the churches that +bear their names. Few of a congregation, +we suspect, could give much +account of St Pancras, St Margaret, +St Werburgh, St Dunstan, St Clement, +nor even of St George, but that +he is pictured slaying a dragon, and is +the patron saint of England. Yet +were they once "household gods" in +the land. It is a curious speculation +this of patron saints, and how every +family and person had his own. There +is a great fondness in this old personal +attachment of his own angel to every +man. That notion preceded Christianity, +and was easily engrafted upon +it: and the angel that attended from +the birth was but supplanted by some +holy dead whom the Church canonised. +And a corrupt church humoured the +superstition, and attached miracles to +relics; and thus, as of old, these came, +in latter times, to be "gods many." +And what were these but over again +the thirty thousand deities who, Hesiod +said, inhabited the earth, and +were guardians of men? Yet, it must +be confessed, there has been a popular +purification of them. They are not +the panders to vice that infested the +morals of the heathen world.</p> + +<p>But how came the heathen world +by them? Did they invent, or where +find them? And how came their characteristics +to be so universal, in all +countries differing rather in name than +personality? The most intellectually-gifted +people under the sun, the ancient +Greeks, give nowhere any rational +account how they came by the gods +they worshipped. They take them +as personifications from their poets. +There is the theogony of Hesiod, and +the gods as Homer paints them. They +have called forth the glory of art; and +wonderful were the periods that +stamped on earth their statues, as +if all men's intellect had been +tasked to the work, that they should +leave a mark and memorial of beauty +than which no age hereafter should +show a greater. We acknowledge the +perfection in the remains that are +left to us. Greek art stills sways the +mind of every country—all the world +mistrusts every attempt in a contrary +direction. The excellence of Greek +sculpture is reflected back again upon +Greek fable, the heathen mythology +from which it was taken; and perhaps +a greater partiality is bestowed upon +that than it deserves,—at least, we may +say so in comparison with any other. +We must be cautious how we take the +excellence of art for the excellence of +its subject. The Greeks were formed +for art beyond every other people; had +their creed been hideous—and indeed +it was obscene—they would have +adorned it with every beauty of ideal +form. And this is worthy of note +here, that their poetry in art was infinitely +more beautiful than their +written poetry. Their sculptors, and +perhaps their painters, of whom we +are not entitled to speak but by conjecture, +and from the opinions formed +by no bad judges of their day, did aim +at the portraying a kind of divine +humanity. If their sculptured deities +have not a holy repose, they are singularly +freed from display of human +passions; whereas, in their poetry, it is +rarely that even decent repose is +allowed them; they are generally too +active, without dignity, and without +respect to the moral code of a not +very scrupulous age. Yet have these +very heathen gods, even as their historians +the poets paint them—for it +would disgrace them to speak of their +biographers—a trace of a better origin +than we can gather out of the whimsical +theogony. There are some particulars +in the heathen mythology that +point to a visible track in the strange +road of history. Much we know was +had from Egypt; more, probably, came +with the Cadmean letters from +Phœnicia—a name including Palestine +itself. Inventions went only to corruptions—the +original of all creeds of +divinity is from revelation. We may +not be required to point out the direct +road nor the resting-places of this +"<i lang="es" xml:lang="es">santa casa</i>," holding all the gods of +Greece, so beautiful in their personal +portraiture, that we love to gaze with +the feeling of Schiller, though their +histories will not bear the scrutiny: +but it will suffice to note some similitudes +that cannot be accidental. +Somehow or other, both the historic +and prophetic writings of the Bible, +or narratives from them, had reached +Greece as well as other distant lands. +The Greeks had, at a very early period, +embodied in their myths even the personal +characters as shown in those +writings. Let us, for example, without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +referring to their Zeus in a particular +manner, find in the Hermes or +Mercury of the Greeks the identity +with Moses. What are the characteristics +of both? If Moses descended +from the Mount with the commands +of God, and was emphatically God's +messenger, so was Hermes the messenger +from Olympus: his chief office +was that of messenger. If Moses is +known as the slayer of the Egyptian, +so is Hermes, (and so is he more frequently +called in Homer,) Αργειφοντης, +the slayer of Argus, the overseer of a +hundred eyes. Moses conducted +through the wilderness to the Jordan +those who died and reached not the +promised land; nor did he pass the +Jordan. So was Hermes the conductor of +the dead, delivering them +over to Charon, (and here note the +resemblance of name with Aaron, the +associate of Moses); nor was he to +pass to the Elysian fields.</p> + +<p>Then the rod, the serpents,—the +Caduceus of Hermes, with the serpents +twining round the rod. The +appearance of Moses, and the shining +from his head, as it is commonly +figured, is again represented in the +winged cap of Hermes. There are +other minute circumstances, especially +some noted in the hymn of Hermes, +ascribed to Homer, which we forbear +to enumerate, thinking the coincidences +already mentioned are sufficiently +striking.</p> + +<p>Then, again, the idea of the serpent +of the Greek mythology, whence +did it come, and the slaying of it by +the son of Zeus—and its very name, +the Python, the serpent of corruption? +And in that sense it has been carried +down to this day as an emblem in +Christian art. But, to go back a +moment, this departure of the Israelites +from Egypt, is there no notice of +it in Homer? We think there is a +hint which indicates a knowledge of +at least a part of that history—the +previous slavery, the being put to +work, and the after-readiness of the +Egyptians to be "spoiled." Ulysses, +giving a false account of himself, if +we remember rightly, to Eumæus, +says he came from Egypt, where he +had been a merchant, that the king +of that country seized him and all his +men, whom <em>he put to work</em>, but that +at length he found favour, and was +allowed to depart with his people; +adding that he collected much property +from the people of Egypt, "for all of +them gave."</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i20">"Πολλὰ αγειρα,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Χρηματ' Αἰγυπτίους ἄνδρας, διδοσαν γαρ ἄπαντες."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>We do not mean to lay any great stress +upon this quotation, and but think at +least that it shows a characteristic of +the Egyptians as narrated by Moses; +and never having met with any allusion +to it, nor indeed to our parallel between +Moses and Hermes, which it may seem +to support, we have thought it worthy +this brief notice.</p> + +<p>We fancy we trace the history of +the cause of the fall of man, in the +eating of the pomegranate seed which +doomed Proserpine to half an existence +in the infernal regions. Can +there be anything more striking than +the Prometheus Bound of Æschylus? +Whence could such a notion come, +that a man-god would, for his love to +mankind, (for bringing down fire from +heaven,) suffer agonies, nailed not +upon a cross indeed, but on a rock, +and, in the description, crucified? "It +is, after a manner," says Mr Swayne, +who has with great power translated +this strange play of Æschylus, "a +Christian poem by a pagan author, +foreshadowing the opposition and reconciliation +of Divine justice and Divine +love. Whence the sublime conception +of the subject of this drama could +have been obtained, it is useless to +speculate. Some even suppose that +its author must have been acquainted +with the old Hebrew prophets."</p> + +<p>Even the introduction of Io in the +tale is suggestive—the virgin-mother +who was so strangely to conceive +(and this too given in a prophecy) +miraculously.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Jove at length shall give thee back thy mind,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">With one light touch of his unquailing hand,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And, from that fertilising touch, a son<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Shall call thee mother."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Her whom Prometheus thus addresses,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i2">"In that the son shall overmatch the sire."<br /></span> +<span class="i0">—"Of thine own stem the strong one shall be born."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Then again Sampson passes into the +Egyptian or Tyrian Hercules, to lose +his life by another Delilah in Dejaneira. +Whence the prophetic Sybils, whence +and what the Eleusinian mysteries? +and that strange glimpse of them in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +the significant passage of the Alcestis, +where the restored from the dead must +abstain from speech till the third day—the +duration of her consecration to +Hades!</p> + + + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Ὁύπω δέμις σοι τησδε προσφωνηματων,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Κλύειν, πρίν ἄν θεωισι τοῖσι νερτέροις<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Αφαγνῖσηται, καὶτρίτον μολῃ φαος."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>We might enter largely into the +mysteries of heathen mythology, and +discover strange coincidences and resemblances, +but it would take us too +wide from our present subject. Our +present purpose is to show that we +are apt to attribute too much to the +Grecian fable, when we ascribe to it +all the beauty which Grecian art has +elaborated from it. For, in fact, the +origin of that fabulous poetry is beyond +them in far-off time; and by +them how corrupted, shorn of its real +grandeur, and at once magnificent +and lovely beauty! How much more, +then, is it ours than theirs, as it is deducible +from that high revelation +which is part of the Christian religion. +We overlook, in the excellence +of Grecian art, the far better +materials for all art, which we in our +religion possess, and have ever possessed. +With the Greeks it was an +instinct to love the beautiful, sensual +and intellectual: it was a part of their +nature to discover it or to create it. +They would have fabricated it out of +any materials; and deteriorated, indeed, +were those which came to their +hands. And even this excess of their +love, at least in their poets, made the +sensuous to overcome the intellectual; +but the far higher than intellectual—the +celestial, the spiritual—they had +not: their highest reach in the moral +sense was a sublime pride: they had +no conception of a sublime humility. +Their highest divinity was how much +lower than the lowest order of angels +that wait around the heavenly throne +and adore,—low as is their Olympus, +where they placed their Zeus and all +his band, to the Christian "heaven +of heavens," which yet cannot contain +the universal Maker. It is bad taste, +indeed, in us, as some do, to give them +the palm of the possession of a better +field—poetic field for the exercise of +art. "Christian and Legendary art" +has a principle which no other art +could have, and which theirs certainly +had not; they were sensuous from a +necessity of their nature, lacking this +principle. We ought to ascribe all +which they have left us to their skill, +their genius: wonderful it was, and +wonderful things did it perform; but, +after all, we admire more than we +love. Their divine was but a grand +and stern repose; their loveliness, but +the perfection of the human form. +And so great were they in this their +genius, that the monuments of heathen +art are beyond the heathen creed; +for in those the unsensuous prevailed.</p> + +<p>Let us suppose the gift of their genius +to have been delayed to the Christian +era—as poetical subjects, their +whole mythology would have been set +aside for a far better adoption; and +we should be now universally acknowledging +how lovely and how great, how +full and bountiful, for poetry and for +art, are the ever-flowing fountains, +gushing in life, giving exuberance +from that high mount, to the sight of +which Pindus cannot lift its head, nor +show its poor Castalian rills. The +"gods of Greece," the far-famed +"gods of Greece," what are they to +the hierarchy of heaven—angels and +archangels, and all the host—powers, +dominions, hailing the admission to +the blissful regions of saints spiritualised, +and after death to die no more—glorified? +What loveliness is like +that of throned chastity? Graces and +Muses in their perfectness of marbled +beauty—what are they to faith, hope, +and charity, and the veiled virtues +that like our angels shroud themselves? +When these became subjects for our +Christian art, then was true expression +first invented in drapery. "Christian +and legendary art" is not denied the +nude; but no other has so made +drapery a living, speaking poetry. +There is a dignity, a grace, a sweetness, +in the drapery of mediæval +sculpture, that equally commands our +admiration, and more our reverence +and our love, than ancient statues, +draped or nude. And this is the expression +of Scripture poetry—the represented +language, the "clothing +with power," the "garment of +righteousness." We often loiter about +our old cathedrals, and look up with +wonder at the mutilated remains as a +new type of beauty, beaming through +the obscurity of the so-called dark +ages. Lovers of art, as we profess to +be, in all its forms, we profess without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +hesitation that we would not exchange +these—that is, lose them as +never to have existed—for all that +Grecian art has left us. Even now, +what power have we to restore these +specimens of expressive workmanship, +broken and mutilated as they have been +by a low and misbegotten zeal? We +maintain further, generally, that the +works of "Christian and legendary +art," in painting, sculpture, and architecture, +are as infinitely superior to +the works of all Grecian antiquity, as is +the source of their inspiration higher +and purer: we are, too, astonished at +the perfect agreement of the one with +the other, showing one mind, one +spirit—devotion. We strongly insist +upon this, that there has been a far +higher character and equal power in +Christian art compared with heathen. +It ought to be so, and it is so. It has +been too long set aside in the world's +opinion (often temporary and ill-formed) +to establish the inferior. +This country, in particular, has yielded +a cold neglect of these beautiful things, +in shameful and indolent compliance +with the mean, tasteless, degrading +Puritanism, that mutilated and would +have destroyed them utterly if it +could, as it would have treated every +and all the beautiful.</p> + +<p>Even at the first rise of this Christian +art, the superiority of the principle +which moved the artists was visible +through their defect of knowledge +of art, as art. The devotional spirit +is evident; a sense of purity, that +spiritualised humanity with its heavenly +brightness, dims the imperfections +of style, casting out of observation +minor and uncouth parts. Often, +in the incongruous presence of things +vulgar in detail of habit and manners, +an angelic sentiment stands embodied, +pure and untouched, as if the artist, +when he came to that, felt holy ground, +and took his shoes from off his feet. +It was not long before the art was +equal to the whole work. There are +productions of even an early time +that are yet unequalled, and, for +power over the heart and the judgment, +are much above comparison with any +preceding works of boasted antiquity.</p> + +<p>Take only the full embodying of all +angelic nature: what is there like to +it out of Christian art? How unlike +the cold personifications of "Victories" +winged,—though even these +were borrowed,—are the ministering +and adoring angels of our art—now +bringing celestial paradise down to +saints on earth, and now accompanying +them, and worshipping with them, +in their upward way, amid the receding +and glorious clouds of heaven! +Look at the sepulchral monuments of +Grecian art—the frigid mysteries, the +abhorrent ghost, yet too corporeal, +shrinking from Lethé; and the dismal +boat—the unpromising, unpitying +aspect of Charon: then turn to some +of the sublime Christian monuments +of art, that speak so differently of +that death—the Coronation of the +Virgin, the Ascension of Saints. The +dismal and the doleful earth has +vanished—choirs of angels rush to +welcome and to support the beatified, +the released: death is no more, but +life breathing no atmosphere of earth, +but all freshness, and all joy, and all +music; the now changed body glowing, +like an increasing light, into its +spirituality of form and beauty, and +thrilling with</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"That undisturbed song of pure consent,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Aye sung before the sapphire-colour'd throne<br /></span> +<span class="i1">To Him that sits thereon;<br /></span> +<span class="i1">With saintly shout and solemn jubilee,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Where the bright seraphim, in burning row,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Their loud uplifted angel-trumpets blow;<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And the cherubic host, in thousand choirs,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Touch their immortal harps of golden wires,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">With those just spirits that wear victorious palms,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Hymns devout and holy psalms<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Singing everlastingly."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noind">Then shall we doubt, and not dare to +pronounce the superior capabilities of +Christian art, arising out of its subject—poetry? +We prefer, as a great poetic +conception, Raffaelle's Archangel, +Michael, with his victorious foot upon +his prostrate adversary, to the far-famed +Apollo Belvidere, who has +slain his Python; and his St Margaret, +in her sweet, her innocent, and clothed +grace, to that perfect model of woman's +form, the Venus de Medici. +Not that we venture a careless or +misgiving thought of the perfectness +of those great antique works: their +perfectness was according to their +purpose. Higher purposes make a +higher perfectness. Nor would we +have them viewed irreverently; for +even in them, and the genius that +produced them, the Creator, as in +"times past, left not Himself without +witness." In showing forth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +the glory of the human form, they +show forth the glory of Him who +made it—who is thus glorified in the +witnesses; and so we accept and love +them. But to a certain degree they +must stand dethroned—their influence +faded. Lowly unassuming virtues—virtues +of the soul, far greater +in their humility, in the sacred poetry +of our Christian faith, shine like +stars, even in their smallness, on the +dark night of our humanity; and they +are to take their places in the celestial +of art; and we feel that it is His will, +who, as the hymn of the blessed +Virgin—that type of all these united +virtues—declares, "hath put down +the mighty from their seat, and hath +exalted the humble and meek."</p> + +<p>We trust yet to see sacred art +resumed; for the more we consider +its poetry, the more inexhaustible +appears the mine. Nor do we require +to search and gather in the field of +fabulous legends; though in a poetic +view, and for their intention, and resumed +merely as a fabulous allegory, +they are not to be set aside. But +sure we are that, whatever can move +the heart, can excite to the greatest +degree our pity, our love, or convey +the greatest delight through scenes +for which the term beautiful is but a +poor describer, and personages for +whose magnificence languages have +no name—all is within the volume +and the history of our suffering and +triumphant religion.</p> + +<p>Would that we could stir but one +of our painters to this, which should +be his great business! Genius is +bestowed for no selfish gratification, +but for service, and for a "witness," +to bear which let the gifted offer only +a willing heart, and his lamp will not +be suffered to go out for lack of oil. +Why is the tenderness of Mr Eastlake's +pencil in abeyance? That +portion of the sacred history which +commences with his "Christ weeping +over Jerusalem," might well be continued +in a series. Even still more +power has he shown in the creative +and symbolic, as exemplified in his +poetic conception of Virtue from +Milton—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"She can teach you how to climb<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Higher than the sphery chime;<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Or if Virtue feeble were,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Heaven itself would stoop to her."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>If we believe genius to be an inspiring +spirit, we may contemplate it +hereafter as an accusing angel. With +such a paradise of subjects before +them, why do so many of our painters +run to the kennel and the stable, or +plunge their pencils into the gaudy +hues of meretricious enticement? We +do verily believe that the world is +waiting for better things. It is taking +a greater interest in higher subjects, +and those of a pure sentiment. It is +that our artists are behind the feeling, +and not, as they should be, in the advance. +It is a great fact that there +is such a growing feeling. The resumption +of sacred art in Germany is +not without its effect, and is making +its way here in prints. Most of these +are from the Aller Heiligen Kapelle +at Munich, the result of the taste of +at least one crowned head in Europe, +who, with more limited means and +power, has set an example of a better +patronage, which would have well +become Courts of greater splendour, +and more imperial influence. Must +it be asked what our own artists—the +Academy, with all its staff—are +doing?</p> + +<p>We must stay our hand; for we +took up the pen to notice the two +volumes just published of Mrs Jameson's +<cite>Sacred and Legendary Art</cite>. +They have excited, in the reading, an +enthusiastic pleasure, and led the +fancy wandering in the delightful +fields sanctified by heavenly sunshine, +and trod by sainted feet; and, like a +traveller in a desert, having found an +oasis, we feel loath to leave it, and +would fain linger and drink again of +its refreshing springs. These volumes +have reached us most seasonably, at a +period of the year when the mind is +more especially directed to contemplate +the main subjects of which they +treat, and to anticipate only by days +the vision of joy and glory which will +be scripturally put before us—to see +the Virgin Mother and the Holy +Babe—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"And all about the courtly stable,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Bright harness'd angels sit in order serviceable."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Mrs Jameson disclaims in this +work any other object than the poetry +of Sacred and Legendary Art; and to +enable those who are, or wish to be, +conversant with the innumerable +productions of Italian and other +schools, in an artistic view, likewise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +at once to know the subjects +upon which they treat. Even as a +handbook, therefore, these volumes +are valuable. Much of the early +painting was symbolical. Ignorance +of the symbols rejects the sentiment, +or at least the intention, and at the +same time makes what is only quaint +appear absurd.</p> + +<p>"The first volume contains the legends +of the Scripture personages, and +the primitive fathers. The second +volume contains those sainted personages +who lived, or are supposed to +have lived, in the first ages of Christianity, +and whose real history, +founded on fact or tradition, has been +so disguised by poetical embroidery, +that they have in some sort the air of +ideal beings." Possibly this poetical +disguise is favourable upon the whole +to art, but it renders a key necessary, +and that Mrs Jameson has supplied—not +pretending, however, to more than +a selection of the most interesting; +and, what is extremely valuable, there +are marginal references to pictures, +and in what places they are to be met +with, and by whom painted, of the +subjects given in the text, and of the +view the artists had in so painting +them. The emblems are amply noted +with their meanings; and even the +significance of colours, which has been +so commonly overlooked, and is yet so +important for the comprehension of +the full subject of a picture, is clearly +laid down. It is well said:</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"All the productions of art, from the +time it has been directed and developed +by the Christian influences, may be regarded +under three different aspects:—1st, +The purely religious aspect, which +belongs to one mode of faith; 2d, The +poetical aspect, which belongs to all; +3d, The artistic, which is the individual +point of view, and has reference only to +the action of the intellect on the means +and material employed. There is a pleasure, +an intense pleasure, merely in the +consideration of art, as art; in the faculties +of comparison and nice discrimination +brought to bear on objects of beauty; +in the exercise of a cultivated and refined +taste on the productions of mind in any +form whatever. But a threefold, or rather +a thousandfold, pleasure is theirs, +who to a sense of the poetical unite a +sympathy with the spiritual in art, and +who combine with a delicacy of perception +and technical knowledge, more elevated +sources of pleasure, more variety of +association, habits of more excursive +thought. Let none imagine, however, +that in placing before the uninitiated +these unpretending volumes, I assume any +such superiority as is here implied. Like +a child that has sprang on a little way +before its playmates, and caught a glimpse +through an opening portal of some varied +Eden within, all gay with flowers, and +musical with birds, and haunted by divine +shapes which beckon forward, and, +after one rapturous survey, runs back and +catches its companions by the hand, and +hurries them forwards to share the new-found +pleasure, the yet unexplored region +of delight: even so it is with me: I am on +the outside, not the inside, of the door I +open."</p></blockquote> + +<p>This is a happy introduction to that +which immediately follows of angels +and archangels.</p> + +<p>Mrs Jameson has so managed to +open the door as to frame in her subject +to the best advantage; and the +reader is willing to stand for a moment +with her to gaze upon the inward +brightness of the garden, ere he ventures +in to see what is around and +what is above. It is on the first +downward step that we stand breathless +with Aladdin, and feel the influence +of the first—the partial and +framed-in picture—glowing in the unearthly +illumination of its magical +creation.</p> + +<p>There is nothing more interesting +than these few pages upon angels. +The information we receive is very +curious. It is beautiful poetry to see +orders, and degrees, and ministrations +various, types of an embodied, a ministering +church here, and ordained, +together with the saints of earth, +to make one glorified triumphant +church hereafter. Without entering +upon the theological question, as to +the extension and mystification of the +ideas of angels after the Captivity, +(yet we think it might be shown that +there was originally no Chaldaic belief +on the subject not taken, first or last, +from the Jews themselves,) it may +not be unworthy of remark, that the +word "angel," signifying messenger, +could scarcely with propriety have +been at the first applied to Satan, the +deceiving serpent, until, in the after-development +of the history of the +human race, the ministering offices +gave the general title, which, when +established, included all who had not +"kept their first estate." Nor do we +think, with Mrs Jameson, that Chaldea<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +had anything to do with the introduction +of the worship of angels into +the Christian church. The "gods +many" of the heathen countries in +which Christianity established itself, +will sufficiently account for the readiness +of the people to transfer the multifarious +worship to which they had +been accustomed to names more suitable +to the new religion. It is with +the poetical development we have +here to do; and what ground is there +for that full development in the New +Testament, wherein they are represented +as "countless—as superior to all +human wants and weaknesses—as deputed +messengers of God? They rejoice +over the repentant sinner; they +take deep interest in the mission of +Christ; they are present with those +who pray; they bear the souls of the just +to heaven; they minister to Christ +on earth, and will be present at his +second coming." From such authority, +from such a sacred theatre of +scenes and celestial personages, arose +the beautiful, the magnificent visions +of the workers of sacred art. Heresy, +however, reached it, as might have +been expected; and the agency of +angels, in the creation of the world and +of man, has been represented, to the +deterioration of its great poetry. +From the beginning of the fourteenth +century, a great change seems to have +taken place in the representation of +the angel with reference to the Virgin: +the feeling is changed; "the veneration +paid to the Virgin demanded +another treatment. She becomes not +merely the principal person, but the +superior being; she is the 'regina +angelorum,' and the angel bows to +her, or kneels before her, as to a +queen. Thus, in the famous altar-piece +at Cologne, the angel kneels; +he bears the sceptre, and also a sealed +roll, as if he were a celestial ambassador +delivering his credentials. About +the same period we sometimes see the +angel merely with his hands folded +over his breast, and his head inclined, +delivering his message as if to a superior +being."</p> + +<p>It is a great merit in this work of +Mrs Jameson's, that we are not only +referred to the most curious and to +the best specimens of art, but have +likewise beautiful woodcuts, and +some etchings admirably executed by +Mrs Jameson's own hand in illustration. +There is a greatness in the +simplicity of Blake's angels: "The +morning stars sang together, and all +the sons of God shouted for joy." +Poor Blake! Yet why say poor? he +was happy in his visions—a little before +his time, and one of whom the +world (of art) in his day were not +worthy: though, with a wild extravagance +of fancy, his creations were +his faith, often great, and always +gentle. Exquisitely beautiful are the +"angels of the planets" from Raffaelle, +and copied by Mrs Jameson from +Gruner's engravings of the frescoes +of the Capella Chigiana. That great +painter of mystery, Rembrandt, whom +the mere lovers of form would have +mistakenly thought it a profanation to +commission with an angelic subject, is +justly appreciated. A perfect master +of light, and of darkness, and of colour, +it mattered not what were the +forms, so that they were unearthly, +that plunged into or broke through +his luminous or opaque. Of the picture +in the Louvre it is thus remarked: +"Miraculous for true and +spirited expression, and for the action +of the soaring angel, who parts the +clouds and strikes through the air like +a strong swimmer through the waves +of the sea." Strange—but so it is—we +cannot conceive an alteration of +his pictures, all parts so agree. Attention +to the more beautiful in form +would have appeared to him a mistrust +in his great gift of colour and +chiaroscuro; and, stranger still, that +without, and seemingly in a marked +defiance of mere beauty, he is, we +would almost say never, vulgar, never +misses the intended sentiment, nor +fails where it is of tenderness, even of +feminine tenderness, for which, if he +does not give beauty, he gives its +equivalent in the fulness of the feeling. +We instance his Salutation—Elizabeth +and the Virgin Mary. There is +something terrifically grand in the +crouching angel in the Campo Santo,—not +in the form, nor in the face, which +is mostly hid, but in the conception of +the attitude of horror with which he +beholds the awful scene. It is from +the Last Judgment of Orcagua in +the Campo Santo. We must not +speak of Rubens as a painter of angels; +and, for real angelic expression, +perhaps the earlier painters are the +best. It is surprising that Mrs Jameson,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +from whose refined taste, and +from whose sense of the beautiful +and the graceful in their highest qualities, +we should have expected another +judgment, could have ventured to +name together Raffaelle and Murillo +as angel painters. It is true, in speaking +of the Visit to Abraham, she +admits that the painter has set aside +the angelic and mystic character, and +merely represented three young men +travellers; but she generally, throughout +these volumes, speaks of that +favourite Spaniard in terms of the +highest admiration,—terms, as we +think, little merited. The angels in the +Sutherland Collection are as vulgar +figures as can well be, and quite antagonistic +in feeling to a heavenly mission. +We confess that we dislike +almost all the pictures by this so much +esteemed master: their artistic manner +is to us uncertain and unpleasing,—disagreeable +in colour, deficient in +grace. We often wonder at the excess +of present admiration. We look upon +his vulgarity in scriptural subjects as +quite profane. His highest power was +in a peasant gentleness; he could not +embody a sacred feeling: yet thus is +he praised for a performance beyond +his power:—"St Andrew is suspended +on the high cross, formed not of +planks, but of the trunks of trees laid +transversely. He is bound with cords, +undraped, except by a linen cloth, +his silver hair and beard loosely +streaming on the air, his aged countenance +illuminated by a heavenly +transport, as he looks up to the opening +skies, whence two angels, of really +celestial beauty, like almost all Murillo's +angels, descend with the crown +and palm." The angels of Correggio +are certainly peculiar: they are not +quite celestial, but perhaps are sympathetically +more lovely from their +touch of humanity; they are ever +pure. Those in the Ascension of the +the Virgin, in the Cupola at Parma, +seem to be rather adopted angels +than of the "first estate;" for they +are of several ages, and, if we mistake +not, many of them are feminine, and, +we suspect, are meant really to represent +the loveliest of earth beatified, +adopted into the heavenly choir. +Those who have seen Signor Toschi's +fine drawings of the Parma frescoes, +(now in progress of engraving), will +readily give assent to this impression. +We remember this feeling crossing our +mind, and as it were lightly touching +the heart with angelic wings—if we +have lost a daughter of that sweet +age, let us fondly see her there. We +cannot forbear quoting the passage +upon the angels of Titian:—"And +Titian's angels impress me in a similar +manner: I mean those in the +glorious Assumption at Venice, with +their childish forms and features, but +an expression caught from beholding +the face of 'our Father which is in +heaven:' it is glorified infancy. I +remember standing before this picture, +contemplating those lovely spirits one +after another, until a thrill came over +me, like that which I felt when Mendelssohn +played the organ: I became +music while I listened. The face of +one of those angels is to the face of a +child, just what that of the Virgin, in +the same picture, is, compared with +the fairest daughter of earth. It is +not here superiority of beauty, but +mind, and music, and love, kneaded +together, as it were, into form and +colour." This is very eloquent, but it +was not <em>the thought</em> which supplied +that ill word "kneaded."</p> + +<p>It is remarked by Mrs Jameson, as +a singular fact, that neither Leonardo +da Vinci, nor Michael Angelo, nor +Raffaelle, have given representations +of the Four Evangelists. In very +early art they are mostly symbolised, +and sometimes oddly and uncouthly; +and even so by Angelico da Fiesole. +In Greek art, the Tetramorph, or +union of the four attributes in one +figure, is seen winged. "The Tetramorph, +in Western art, in some instances +became monstrous, instead of +mystic and poetical." The animal +symbols of the Evangelists, however +familiarised in the eyes of the people, +and therefore sanctioned to their feeling, +required the greatest judgment to +bring within the poetic of art. We +must look also to the most mysterious +subjects for the elucidation, such as +Raffaelle's Vision of Ezekiel. There +we view in the symbols a great prophetic, +subservient to the creating and +redeeming power, set forth and coming +out of that blaze of the clouds of +heaven that surround the sublime +Majesty.</p> + +<p>The earlier painters were fond of +representing everything symbolically: +hence the twelve apostles are so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +treated. In the descending scale, to +the naturalists, the mystic poetry was +reduced to its lowest element. The set +of the apostles by Agostino Caracci, +though, as Mrs Jameson observes, +famous as works of art, are condemned +as absolutely vulgar. "St John is +drinking out of a cup, an idea which +might strike some people as picturesque, +but it is in vile taste. It is +about the eighth century that the keys +first appear in the hand of St Peter. +In the old churches at Ravenna, it is +remarked, St Peter and St Paul do not +often appear." Ravenna, in the fifth +century, did not look to Rome for her +saints.</p> + +<p>After his martyrdom, St Paul was, +it is said, buried in the spot where +was erected the magnificent church +known as St Paolo fuorè-le mura. "I +saw the church a few months before +it was consumed by fire in 1823. I +saw it again in 1847, when the restoration +was far advanced. Its cold magnificence, +compared with the impressions +left by the former structure, rich +with inestimable remains of ancient +art, and venerable from a thousand +associations, saddened and chilled me." +We well remember visiting this noble +church in 1816. A singular coincidence +of fact and prophecy has imprinted +this visit on our memory. +Those who have seen it before it was +burnt down, must remember the series +of portraits of popes, and that there +was room but for one more. We +looked to the vacant place, as directed +by our cicerone, whilst he told us +that there was a prophecy concerning +it to this effect, that when that space +was filled up there would be no more +popes. The prophecy was fulfilled, +at least with regard to that church, +for it was burnt down after that vacant +space had been occupied by the papal +portrait.</p> + +<p>The subject of the Last Supper is +treated of in a separate chapter. +There has been a fresco lately discovered +at Florence, in the refectory +of Saint Onofrio, said to have been +painted by Raffaelle in his twenty-third +year. Some have thought it to +be the work of Neri de Bicci. Mrs +Jameson, without hesitation, pronounces +it to be by Raffaelle, "full of +sentiment and grace, but deficient, it +appears to me, in that depth and +discrimination of character displayed +in his later works. It is evident that +he had studied Giotto's fresco in the +neighbouring Santa Croce. The arrangement +is nearly the same." All +the apostles have glories, but that +round the head of Judas is smaller +than the others. Does the prejudice +against thirteen at table arise from +this betrayal by Judas, or from the +legend of St Gregory, who, when a +monk in the monastery of St Andrew, +was so charitable, that at length, having +nothing else to bestow, he gave +to an old beggar a silver porringer +which had belonged to his mother? +When pope, it was his custom to +entertain twelve poor men. On one +occasion he observed thirteen, and +remonstrated with his steward, who, +counting the guests, could see no more +than twelve. After removal from the +table, St Gregory called the unbidden +guest, thus visible, like the ghost of +Banquo, to the master of the feast +only. The old man, on being questioned, +declared himself to be the old +beggar to whom the silver porringer +had been given, adding, "But my +name is Wonderful, and through me +thou shalt obtain whatever thou shalt +ask of God." There is a famous fresco +on this subject by Paul Veronese, in +which the stranger is represented to +be our Saviour. To entertain even +angels unknowingly, and at convivial +entertainments, and visible perhaps +but to one, as a messenger of good or +of evil, would be little congenial with +the purport of such meetings.</p> + +<p>Mrs Jameson objects to the introduction +of dogs in such a subject +as the Last Supper, but remarks +that it is supposed to show that +the supper is over, and the paschal +lamb eaten. It is so common that +we should rather refer it to a more +evident and more important signification, +to show that this institution +was not for the Jews only, and alluding +to the passage showing that "dogs +eat of the crumbs which fell from their +masters' table." The large dogs, +however, of Paul Veronese, gnawing +bones, do not with propriety represent +the passage; for there is reason to +believe that the word "crumbs" describes +the small pet dogs, which its +was the fashion for the rich to carry +about with them. The early painters +introduced Satan in person tempting +Judas. When Baroccio, with little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +taste, adopted the same treatment, +the pope, Clement VIII., ordered the +figure to be obliterated—"Che non gli +piaceva il demonio si dimésticasse +tanto con Gesu Christo." We know +not where Mrs Jameson has found the +anecdote which relates that Andrea +del Castagno, called the Infamous, +after he had assassinated Dominico +his friend, who had intrusted him with +Van Eyck's secret, painted his own +portrait in the character of Judas, from +remorse of conscience. We are not +sure of the story at all respecting +Andrea del Castagno: there may be +other grounds for doubting it, but this +anecdote, if true to the fact, would +rather indicate insanity than guilt. +The farther we advance in the history +and practice of art, the more we find +it suffering in sentiment from the infusion +of the classical. In the Pitti +Palace is a picture by Vasari of St +Jerome as a penitent, in which he has +introduced Venus and cupids, one of +whom is taking aim at the saint. It +is true that, as we proceed, legends +crowd in upon us, and the painters +find rather scope for fancy than subjects +for faith and resting-places for +devotion. Art, ever fond of female +forms, readily seized upon the legends +of Mary Magdalene. Her penitence +has ever been a favourite subject, and +has given opportunity for the introduction +of grand landscape backgrounds +in the lonely solitudes and +wildernesses of a rocky desert. The +individuality of the characters of +Mary and Martha in Scripture history +was too striking not to be taken advantage +of by painters. There is a +legend of an Egyptian penitent Mary, +anterior to that of Mary Magdalene, +which is curious. Whether this was +another Mary or not, she is represented +as a female anchoret; and we +are reminded thereby of the double +story of Helen of Troy, whom a real +or fabulous history has deposited in +Egypt, while the great poet of the +Iliad has introduced her as so visible +and palpable an agent in the Trojan +war, and not without a touch of penitence, +not quite characteristic of that +age. Accounts say that it was her +double, or eidolon, which figured at +Troy.</p> + +<p>Mrs Jameson makes a good conjecture +with regard to the famous +picture by Leonardo da Vinci, known +as Modesty and Vanity, and that it is +Mary Magdalene rebuked by her sister +Martha for vanity and luxury, which +exactly corresponds with the legend +respecting her. We cannot forbear +quoting the following eloquent passage:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"On reviewing generally the infinite +variety which has been given to these +favourite subjects, the life and penance of +the Magdalene, I must end where I began. +In how few instances has the result +been satisfactory to mind, or heart, or +soul, or sense! Many have well represented +the particular situation, the appropriate +sentiment, the sorrow, the hope, the +devotion; but who has given us the +<em>character</em>? A noble creature, with strong +sympathies and a strong will, with powerful +faculties of every kind, working for +good or evil. Such a woman Mary Magdalene +must have been, even in her humiliation; +and the feeble, girlish, commonplace, +and even vulgar women, who +appear to have been usually selected as +models by the artists, turned into Magdalenes +by throwing up their eyes and +letting down their hair, ill represent the +enthusiastic convert, or the majestic patroness!"</p></blockquote> + +<p>The second volume commences with +the patron saints of Christendom. +These were delightful fables in the +credulous age of first youth, when +feeling was a greater truth than fact; +and we confess that we read these +legends now with some regret at our +abated faith, which we would not +even "now have shaken in the chivalric +characters of the seven champions +of Christendom."</p> + +<p>The Romish Church (we say not +the Catholic, as Mrs Jameson so frequently +improperly terms <em>her</em>) readily +acted that part, to the people at large, +which nurses assume for the amusement +of their children; and in both +cases, the more improbable the story the +greater the fascination; and the people, +like children, are more credulous than +critical. Had we not known in our +own times, and nearly at the present +day, stories as absurd as any in these +legends, gravely asserted, circulated, +and credited, and maintained by men +of responsible station and education—to +instance only the garment of Treves—we +should have pronounced the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aurea +legenda</i> to have been a creation of +the fancy, arising, not without their +illumination, from the fogs and fens of +the Middle Ages, adapted solely for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +minds of that period. But the sanction +of them by the Church of Rome +leads us to view them as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ignes fatui</i> of +another character, meant to amuse +and to bewilder. We must even think +it possible now for people to be +brought to believe such a story as +this:—"It is related that a certain +man, who was afflicted with a cancer +in his leg, went to perform his devotions +in the church of St Cosmo and +St Damian at Rome, and he prayed +most earnestly that these beneficent +saints would be pleased to aid him. +When he had prayed, a deep sleep fell +upon him. Then he beheld St Cosmo +and St Damian, who stood beside +him; and one carried a box of ointment, +the other a sharp knife. And +one said, 'What shall we do to replace +this diseased leg, when we have cut it +off?' And the other replied, 'There +is a Moor who has been buried just +now in San Pietro in Vincolo; let us +take his leg for the purpose!' Then +they brought the leg of the dead man, +and with it they replaced the leg of +the sick man—anointing it with celestial +ointment, so that he remained +whole. When he awoke, he almost +doubted whether it could be himself; +but his neighbours, seeing that he was +healed, looked into the tomb of the +Moor, and found that there had been an +exchange of legs; and thus the truth +of this great miracle was proved to all +beholders." It is, however, rather a +hazardous demand upon credulity to +serve up again the feast of Thyestes, +cooked in a caldron of even more +miraculous efficacy than Medea's. Such +is the stupendous power of St Nicholas:—"As +he was travelling through +his diocese, to visit and comfort his +people, he lodged in the house of a +certain host, who was a son of Satan. +This man, in the scarcity of provisions, +was accustomed to steal little children, +whom he murdered, and served up +their limbs as meat to his guests. On +the arrival of the Bishop and his retinue, +he had the audacity to serve up +the dismembered limbs of these unhappy +children before the man of God, +who had no sooner cast his eyes on +them than he was aware of the fraud. +He reproached the host with his +abominable crime; and, going to the +tub where their remains were salted +down, he made over them the sign of +the cross, and they rose up whole and +well. The people who witnessed this +great wonder were struck with astonishment; +and the three children, +who were the sons of a poor widow, +were restored to their weeping mother."</p> + +<p>But what shall we say to an entire +new saint of a modern day, who has +already found his way to Venice, +Bologna, and Lombardy,—even to +Tuscany and Paris, not only in pictures +and statues, but even in chapels +dedicated to her? The reader may be +curious to know something of a saint +of this century. In the year 1802 the +skeleton of a young female was discovered +in some excavations in the +catacomb of Priscilla at Rome; the +remains of an inscription were, "Lumena +Pax Te Cum Tri." A priest in +the train of a Neapolitan prelate, +who was sent to congratulate Pius +VII. on his return from France, begged +some relics. The newly-discovered +treasure was given to him, and the +inscription thus translated—"Filomena, +rest in peace." "Another +priest, whose name is suppressed <em>because +of his great humility</em>, was favoured +by a vision in the broad noonday, +in which he beheld the glorious +virgin Filomena, who was pleased to +reveal to him that she had suffered +death for preferring the Christian +faith, and her vow of chastity, to the +addresses of the emperor, who wished +to make her his wife. This vision +leaving much of her history obscure, +a certain young artist, whose name is +also suppressed—perhaps because of +his great humility—was informed in a +vision that the emperor alluded to was +Diocletian; and at the same time the +torments and persecutions suffered by +the Christian virgin Filomena, as well +as her wonderful constancy, were also +revealed to him. There were some +difficulties in the way of the Emperor +Diocletian, which inclines the writer of +the <em>historical</em> account to adopt the +opinion that the young artist in his +vision <em>may</em> have made a mistake, and +that the emperor may have been his +colleague, Maximian. The facts, +however, now admitted of no doubt; +and the relics were carried by the priest +Francesco da Lucia to Naples; they +were inclosed in a case of wood, resembling +in form the human body.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +This figure was habited in a petticoat +of white satin, and over it a crimson +tunic, after the Greek fashion; the +face was painted to represent nature; +a garland of flowers was placed on the +head, and in the hands a lily and a +javelin—with the point reversed, to +express her purity and her martyrdom; +then she was laid in a half sitting posture +in a sarcophagus, of which the +sides were glass; and after lying for +some time in state, in the chapel of the +Torres family in the Church of Saint +Angiolo, she was carried in procession +to Magnano, a little town about twenty +miles from Naples, amid the acclamations +of the people, working many and +surprising miracles by the way. Such +is the legend of St Filomena, and such +the authority on which she has become, +within the last twenty years, +one of the most fashionable saints in +Italy. Jewels to the value of many +thousand crowns have been offered at +her shrine, and solemnly placed round +the neck of her image, or suspended +to her girdle."</p> + +<p>We dare not in candour charge the +Romanists with being the only fabricators +or receivers of such goods, remembering +our own Saint Joanna, +and Huntingdon's Autobiography. +There are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aurea legenda</i> in a certain +class of our sectarian literature, +presenting a large list of claimants of +very high pretensions to saintship, +only waiting for power and an established +authority to be canonised.</p> + +<p>It is not surprising, as the world is—working +often in the dark places of +ignorance—if a few glossy threads of a +coarser material, and deteriorating +quality, be taken up by no wilful mistake, +and be interwoven into the true +golden tissue. Nevertheless the +mantle may be still beautiful, and fit +a Christian to wear and walk in not +unbecomingly. There are worse things +than religious superstition, whose badness +is of degrees. In the minds of +all nations and people there is a +vacuum for the craving appetite of +credulity to fill. The great interests +of life lie in politics and religion. +There are bigots in both: but we look +upon a little superstition on the one +point as far safer than upon the other, +especially in modern times; whereas +political bigotry, however often duped, +is credulous still, and becomes hating +and ferocious. We fear even the +legends are losing their authority in +the Roman States, whose history may +yet have to be filled with far worse +tales. A generous, though we deem +it a mistaken feeling, has induced Mrs +Jameson to make what we would +almost venture to call the only mistake +in her volumes: the following +passage is certainly not in good taste, +quite out of the intention of her book, +and very unfortunately timed—"But +Peter is certainly the democratical +apostle <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">par excellence</i>, and his representative +in our time seems to have +awakened to a consciousness of this +truth, and to have thrown himself—as +St Peter would most certainly have +done, were he living—on the side of +the people and of freedom." A democratical +successor to St Peter! He is, +then, the first of that character. With +him the "side of freedom" seems to +have been the inside of his prison, +and his "side of the people" a precipitate +flight from contact with them +in their liberty—and for his tiara the +disguise of a valet. We more than +pardon Mrs Jameson—we love the +virtue that gives rise to her error; for +it is peculiarly the nature of woman +to be credulous, and to be deceived. +We admire, and more than admire, +women equally well, whether they are +right or wrong in politics: these are the +business of men, for they have to do with +the sword, and are out of the tenderer +impulses of woman. But we are +amused when we find grave strong +men in the same predicament of ill +conjectures. We smile as we remember +a certain dedication "To Pio +Nono," which by its simple grandeur +and magnificent beauty will live +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">splendide mendax</i> to excuse its +prophetic inaccuracy. It is not wise +to foretell events to happen whilst we +live. Take a "long range," or a +studied ambiguity that will fit either +way. The example of Dr Primrose +may be followed with advantage, who +in every case of domestic doubt and +difficulty concluded the matter thus—"I +wish it may turn out well this day +six months;" by which, in his simple +family, he attained the character of a +true prophet.</p> + +<p>We fear we are losing sight of the +"Poetry of Sacred and Legendary +Art," and gladly turn from the thought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +of what is to be, to those beautiful personified +ideas of the past, whether +fabulous or historical, in which we are +ready to take Mrs Jameson as our +willing and sure guide. The four +virgin patronesses and the female +martyrs are favourite subjects, which +she enters into with more than her +usual spirit and feeling. These two +have chiefly engaged and fascinated +the genius of the painters of the best +period, and will ever interest the world +of taste by their sentiment, as well as +by their grace of form and beauty, and +why not say improved them too? The +really beautiful is always true. It is +not amiss that we should be continually +reminded, or, as Mrs Jameson +better expresses it—"It is not a thing +to be set aside or forgotten, that generous +men and meek women, strong in +the strength, and elevated by the sacrifice +of a Redeemer, did suffer, did +endure, did triumph for the truth's +sake; did leave us an example which +ought to make our hearts glow within +us." The memory of Christian heroism +should never be lost sight of in a +Christian country, and we earnestly +recommend this part of Mrs Jameson's +volumes to the attention of our painters: +they will find not unfrequent +instances of fine subjects yet untouched, +which may sanctify art, and dignify +the profession by making it the teacher +of a purer taste—not that true genius +will ever lack materials, for materials +are but suggestive to an innate inventive +power. It is curious that the +authoress should not yet have satisfied +our expectation with regard to the +legends of the Virgin. Whatever the +motive of her forbearance, we hope +this subject will take the lead in the +promised third volume, which is to +treat of the legends of the monastic +orders, considered, as she cautiously +observes, "merely in their connexion +with the development of the fine arts +in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries."</p> + +<p>The numerous pictures in Italy +which represent parts of the legends +of the Virgin render this work incomplete +without a full development of the +subject. If her forbearance arises +from a fear that at this particular time, +when mariolatry is dreaded by a large +portion of the religious world, we +would remind her that the Virgin +Mother is still "the blessed" of our +own church.</p> + +<p>It is a question if the list of sainted +martyrs in repute has not been left to +the arbitrament of the painters; for +we find many deposed, and the adopted +favourites of art not found in the +early list, as represented in their processions. +We find a Saint Reparata, +after having been the patroness saint +of Florence for six hundred years, +deposed, and the city placed under +the tutelage of the Virgin and St John +the Baptist.</p> + +<p>Yet these were early times for the +influence of art; but, at a period when +pictures were thought to have a kind +of miraculous power, it is not improbable +that some potent work of art +representing the Virgin and St John +may have caused the new devotional +dedication—as was the case in modern +times, when the imaged Madonna +de los Dolores was appointed +general-in-chief of the Carlist +army. Painters were what the +poets had been—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vates sacri</i>. Events +and the memory of saints may have +perished, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carent quia vate sacro</i>. We +wish our own painters were more fully +sensible of the power of art to perpetuate, +and that it is its province to +teach. With us it has been too long +disconnected with our religion. It +will be a glorious day for art, and for +the people that shall witness the reunion.</p> + +<p>In taking leave of these two fascinating +volumes, we do so with the +less regret, knowing that they will +be often in our hands, as most valuable +for instant reference. No one +who wishes to know the subjects and +feel the sentiment of the finest works +in the world, will think of going +abroad without Mrs Jameson's book. +We must again thank her for the +beautiful woodcuts and etchings; the +latter, in particular, are lightly and +gracefully executed, we presume +mostly (to speak technically) in dry +point. Mrs Jameson writes as an enthusiast, +her feeling flows from her +pen. Her style is fascinating to a +degree, forcible and graceful; but +there is no mistaking its character—feminine. +We know no other +hand that could so happily have set +forth the <cite>Poetry of Sacred and Legendary +Art</cite>.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>AMERICAN THOUGHTS ON EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS.</h2> + + +<p class="sig"> +<span class="smcap">Boston</span>, <em>December 1848</em>. +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Year of Constitutions</span> is +drawing to its end, to be succeeded, I +doubt not, by the Year of Substitutions. +I am sorry, my Basil, that +you do not quite agree with me as to +the issue of all this in France; but I +am sure you will not dispute my opinion +that this year's work is good for +nothing, so far as it has attempted +construction, instead of fulfilling its +mission by overthrow. Its great +folly has been the constitution-fever, +which has amounted to a pestilence. +When mushrooms grow to be oaks, +then shall such constitutions as this +year has bred, stand a chance of outliving +their authors. Will men learn +nothing from the past? How can +they act over such rotten farces,—make +themselves such fools!</p> + +<p>You admit the difference, which I +endeavoured to show you, between +the American constitution and that of +any conceivable constitution which +may be cooked up for an old European +state. I am glad if I have directed +your attention, accordingly, to the +great mistake of France. She supposes +that a feeble, and debauched old +gentleman can boil himself in the +revolutionary kettle, and emerge in +all the tender and enviable freshness +of the babe just severed from the maternal +mould. Politicians have committed +a blunder in not allowing the +natural, and hence legitimate, origin +of the American constitution in that +of its British parent. They have thus +favoured the theory that a tolerably +permanent constitution can be drafted +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">a priori</i>, and imposed upon a state. +This is the absurdity that makes revolutions. +If the silly French, instead +of reading De Tocqueville, would +study each for himself the history of +our constitution, and see how gradually +it grew to be our constitution, +before pen was put to paper to draft +it, they might perhaps stop their +abortive nonsense in time, to save +what they can of their national character +from the eternal contempt of +mankind.</p> + +<p>But you cannot think the French +will find so fair a destiny as a Restoration! +Tell me, in what French +party, at present existing, there is +any inherent strength, save in that of +the legitimists? Other parties are +mere factions; but the legitimists +have got a seminal principle among +them, which dies very hard, and of +which the nature is to sprout and +make roots, and then show itself. I +am no admirer of the Bourbons: +their intrigues with Jesuitism have +been their curse, and are the worst +obstacle to their regaining a hold on +the sympathies of freemen. The +reactionary party have in vain endeavoured +to overcome it for fifty +years. Yet there is such tenacity of +life in legitimacy, that it seems to +me destined to outlive all opposition, +and to succeed by necessity. The +rapid developments of this memorable +year strengthen the probability of my +prediction. Revolutionism is spasmodic, +but not so long in dying as it +used to be. I cannot but think this +year has done more for a permanent +restoration of the Bourbons than any +year since Louis XVI. ascended the +scaffold. In this respect the Barricades +of 1848 may tell more impressively +on history than the Allies of +1814, or even the carnage of Waterloo.</p> + +<p>Why should I be ashamed of my +theory, when everything, so far, has +gone as I supposed it would, only a +hundred times more rapidly than any +body could have thought possible? +What must be the residue of a series +which thus far has tended but one +way?—what say you of the Bartholomew-butchery +in June?—what of Lamartine's +fall?—what of the dictatorship +of Cavaignac? If things have +gone as seems probable, Louis Napoleon +is president of the republic. If +so, what is the instinct which has thus +called him into power? The hereditary +principle is abolished on paper, +and instantly recognised by the first +popular act done under the new constitution! +But, for all we can tell in +America, things may have taken +another turn. Is Cavaignac elected? +Then a military master is put over +the republic, who can <em>Cromwellise</em> the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +Assembly, and <em>Monk</em> the state, as +soon as he chooses. The republic +has given itself the form of a dictatorship, +and demonstrated that it +does not exist, except on paper. +Has there been an insurrection? +Then the republic is dead already. +But I shall assume that Louis has +succeeded: then it is virtually an +hereditary empire. To be sure, instinct +has for once failed to know +"the true prince,"—has accorded, to +the mere shadow of a usurper, what, +in a more substantial form, is due to +the heir of France; but long-suspended +animation must make a mistake +or two in coming to life again. +The events of the year have been all +favourable to a restoration, because +they have crushed a thousand other +plans and plottings for the sovereignty, +and because they must have +forced upon at least as many theorists +the grand practical conclusion, that +there is to be no rational liberty in +France until she returns to first principles, +and finds the repose which old +nations can only know under their +legitimate kings.</p> + +<p>I am ashamed of you for more +than hinting that legitimacy must be +given up, as far as kings are concerned. +Alas! Diogenes must light +his lantern, and hunt through England +for a Tory! You are bewhigged, +indeed, if you give it up that George +III. was a legitimate king, and that +his grand-daughter is to you what no +other person alive can possibly be,—your +true and hereditary sovereign +lady! Must I, a republican, say this +to an English monarchist, who votes +himself a conservative, and who is +the son of a sturdy old English Tory? +Is there no virtue extant, that even +you allow yourself to be flippant +about "the divinity that hedges +kings," and to trifle with suggestions +which your immortal ancestor, who +fell at Prestonpans, would have +drummed out of doors with poker and +tongs? Why, even I, who have a +right to be whatever I choose, by +way of amateur allegiance, and who +have always found myself a Jacobite +whenever the talk has been against +the White Rose—even I, in sober +earnest, yield the point, that George +I. was a legitimate sovereign, and +that Charlie was a bit of a rebel. +Those stupid Dutchmen! it makes +me mad to say as much for them; +but I love Old England too well to +own that she bore with such sovereigns +on any lower grounds than +that of their right to reign.</p> + +<p>I am sorry you give in to the silly +cant of revolutionists, and confess +yourself posed with their challenge. +What if they do insist upon a definition? +Are you bound to keep your +heart from beating till you can tell +why it throbs over a page of Shakspeare's +Richard II., and bounces, +in precisely an opposite manner, over +Carlyle's Cromwell? Am I going to +let a Whig choke me with a dictionary, +because it contains no explanation +of my good old-fashioned +word? Let him, with his "Useful +Knowledge Society" information, give +me an explanation of the magnetic +needle, or tell me why it turns to the +pole, and not to the antipodes? The +fellow will recollect some twopenny +picture of the compass, and retail me +half a column of the Penny Magazine +about the mysteries of nature. And +what if I talk as sensibly from nature +in my own heart, and tell the stereotype +philosopher that I am conscious +of an ennobling affection, which honest +men never lack, and which God Almighty +has made a faculty of the +human soul to dignify subordination; +and that loyalty has no lode-star but +legitimacy? At least, my dear +Whigo-Tory, you must allow, I should +succeed in answering a fool according +to his folly. But I claim more: I +have defined legitimacy when I say it +is the home of loyalty.</p> + +<p>I have amused myself during the +summer with some study of the history +of reaction in France, and flatter +myself that I have discovered the +secret of its failure, and the great distinction +between its spirit and that of +English Conservatism. But this by +the way; for I was going to say that +I have found, in the writings of one +of the chief of the reactionary party, +some very sensible hints upon the +subject I am discussing with you. +Though in many respects a dangerous +teacher, and, I fear, a little jesuitical +in practice as well as in +theory, I have been surprised to find +the Count de Maistre willing "to be +as <em>his master</em>" on this point, and to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +rest legitimacy very nearly on the +sober principles of Burke. He is far +from the extravagances of Sir Robert +Filmer, though he often expresses, in +a startling form, the temperate views +of English Anti-Jacobins. Thus he +says, with evident relish of its smart +severity, <em>the people will always accept +their masters, and will never choose +them</em>. Strongly and unpalatably put, +but most coincident with history, and +not to be disputed by any admirer of +the glorious Revolution of 1688! I +suspect the Frenchman made his aphorism +without stopping to ask whether +it suited any other case. But Burke +has virtually said the same thing in +his reply to the Old Jewry doctrine +of 1789, in which he so forcibly urges +the fact, that the settlement of the +crown upon William and the Georges +"was not properly <em>a choice</em>, ... +but an act of necessity, in the strictest +moral sense in which necessity can +be taken." Mary and the Hanoverians, +then, were acknowledged by the +nation, in spite of itself, as legitimate +sovereigns; and even William was +smuggled into the acknowledgment as +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasi</i>-legitimate. It is the clear, reasonable, +and truly English doctrine of +Burke, that <em>the constitution of a country +makes its legitimate kings</em>; and that +the princes of the House of Brunswick, +coming to the crown according to constitutional +law, at the date of their +respective accessions, were as legitimate +as King James before he broke +his coronation oaths, and abdicated, +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ipso facto</i>, his crown and hereditary +rights. But De Maistre talks more +like the schoolmen, though he comes +to the same practical results. Constitutions, +the native growth of their +respective countries, he would argue, +are the ordinance of <span class="smcap">God</span>; and kings, +though not the subjects of their +people, are bound to do homage to +them, as, in a sense, divine. Legitimacy, +therefore, is the resultant of +hereditary majesty and constitutional +designation; it being always understood +that constitutional laws are +never written till after they become +such by national necessities, which are +divine providences. Apply this to +1688. The Bill of Rights was an +unwritten part of the constitution +even when James was crowned; and +so was the principle, that the king +must not be a Papist, at least in the +government of his realms. Such, if I +may so speak, was the Salic law of +England, by which his public and +political Popery stripped him of his +right to the throne. It was the same +principle that invested the House of +Brunswick with a legitimacy which +the heart of the nation did not hesitate +to recognise, in spite of unfeigned +disgust with the prince in whom the +succession was established. To throw +the proposition into the abstract—there +can be no legitimacy without +hereditary majesty, but that member +of a royal line is the legitimate king +in whom concur all the elements of +<em>constitutional designation</em>. If the +phrase be new, the idea is as old as +empire. I mean that constitutional +power which, without reference to +national choice or personal popularity, +selects the true heir of the throne, +among the descendants of its ancient +possessors, on fixed principles of national +law. Thus, in Portugal, the +constitution sets aside an idiot heir-apparent +for a cadet of the same +family, or, if need be, for a collateral +relative; while, in France, it proclaims +the line of a king extinct in his +female heir, and ascends, perhaps, to +a remote ancestor for a trace of his +rightful successor. It is a principle +essentially the same which, in England, +pronounces a Popish prince as +devoid of hereditary right to the crown, +as a bastard, or the child of a private +marriage; and by which the hereditary +blood, shut off from its natural +course, immediately opens some auxiliary +channel, and widens it into the +main artery of succession, with all the +precision of similar resources in physical +nature. With such an argument, +if I understand him, the Count de +Maistre would put you to the blush +for sneering <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub rosâ</i> at the legitimacy +of your Sovereign. I wish his principles +were always as capable of being +put to the proof, without any absurdity +in the reduction. Hereditary +majesty is the only material of which +constitutions make sovereigns; and +that, too, deserves a word in the light +which this sage Piedmontese Mentor +of France has endeavoured to throw +on the subject. It is interesting in +the present dilemma of France, which +stands like the ass between two haystacks—rejecting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +one dynasty, but not +yet choosing another. I am a republican, +you know, holding that my +loyalty is due to the constitution of +my own country; and yet I subscribe +to the doctrine that this idea of <em>majesty</em> +is a reality, and that, confess it +or not, even republicans feel its reality. +<em>The king's name is a tower of strength</em>; +and inspiration has said to sovereign +princes, with a pregnant and monitory +meaning—<em>ye are gods</em>. This is not +the fawning of courts, but the admonition +of Him who invests them with +His sword of avenging justice, and +gives them, age after age, the natural +homage of their fellow-men. Not +that I would flatter monarchs: I see +that they <em>die like men</em>, and, what is +worse, live, very often, like fools, if not +like beasts. Yet I am sure that they +have something about them which is +personally theirs, and cannot be given +to others, and which is as real a thing +as any other possession. <span class="smcap">God</span> has +endowed them with history, and they +are the living links which connect +nations with their origin, and the +men of the passing age with bygone +generations. Reason about it as we +may, it is impossible not to look with +natural reverence on the breathing monuments +of venerable antiquity. For +a Guelph, indeed, I cannot get up any +false or romantic enthusiasm; and +yet I find it quite as impossible not +to feel that the house of Guelph entitles +its royal members to a degree +of consideration which is the ordinance +of Heaven. For how many +ages has that house been a great reality, +casting its shadow over Europe, +and stretching it over the world, and +as absolutely affecting the destinies of +men as the geographical barriers and +highways of nations! The Alps and +the Oceans are morally, as well as +naturally, majestic; and a moral +majesty like theirs attaches to a line +of princes which has stood the storms +of centuries like them, and like them +has been always a bulwark or a bond +between races and generations. Like +the solemnity of mountains is the +hereditary majesty of a family, of +which the origin is veiled in the +twilight of history, but which is always +seen above the surface of cotemporary +events, a crowned and sceptred thing +that never dies, but perpetuates, from +generation to generation, a still increasing +emotion of sublimity and +awe, which all men feel, and none can +fully understand. There are many +women in England who, for personal +qualities and graces, would as well +become the throne as she whom you so +loyally entitle "Our Sovereign Lady." +Why is it that no election, nor any +imaginable possession of her place, +could commend the proudest or the +best of them to the homage of the +nation's heart? Such a one might +wear the robes, and glitter like a star, +outshining the regalia, and might +walk like Juno; but not a voice would +cry <em>God save her!</em>—while there is a +glory, not to be mistaken, which invests +the daughter of ancient sovereigns, +even when she is recognised, +against her will, in the costume of +travel, or when she shows herself +among her people, and treads the +heather in a trim little bonnet and +a Highland plaid. Why is it that ten +thousand feel a thrill when her figure +is seen descending from the wooden +walls of her empire, and alighting +upon some long unvisited portion of +its soil? It is not the same emotion +which would be inspired by the landing +of Wellington. Then the roaring of +cannon and the waving of ensigns +would appear to be a tribute rendered +to the hero by a grateful country; but +when her Majesty touches the shore, +she seems herself to wake the thunders +and to bow the banners which announce +her coming. The pomp is all +her own, and differs from the tributary +pageant, as the nod of Jove is different +from the acclamation of Stentor. +Even I, who "owe her no subscription," +can well conceive what a true +Briton cannot help but feel, when, +with an ennobling loyalty, he beholds +in her the concentrated blood of famous +kings, and the propagated soul of +mighty monarchs; and when he calls +to mind, at the same moment, the +thousand strange events and glorious +histories which have their august +and venerable issue in Victoria, his +queen.</p> + +<p>But you will bring me back to my +main business, by asking—who, then, +was the legitimate king of France at +the beginning of this year? The King +of the Barricades was not lacking in +hereditary majesty, and you will make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +out a case of <em>constitutional designation</em>, +by a parallel between England in +1688, and France in 1830. If you do +so, you will greatly wrong your country. +The loyalty of England settled +in the house of Brunswick, and would +have been even less tried if there had +been a continuance of the house of +Orange; but no French loyalist could +ever be reconciled to the dynasty of +Orleans. And why? It was not the +natural constitution of France, but the +mere blunder of a mob, that selected +Louis Philippe as the king of the +French. It was an election, as the +accession of William and Mary was +not: it was a choice, and not a necessity—the +mere caprice of the hour, +and in no sense the rational designation +of law. Did ever his Barricade +Majesty himself, in all his dreams of +a dynasty, pretend that any unalterable +principle, or fundamental law of +France, had turned the tide of succession +from the heir-presumptive of +Charles X., and forced heralds upon +the backward trail of genealogy, +till they could again descend, and so +find the hereditary king of the French +in the son of Egalité? Louis Philippe +was not legitimate, in any reasonable +sense of the word; and, could he have +made such men as Chateaubriand regard +him as other than a usurper, he +would not be at Claremont now. +That splendid Frenchman uttered the +voice of a smothered, but not extinguished, +constitution, when he closed +his political life in 1830, by saying to +the Duchess de Berry—"<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Madame, votre +fils est mon roi.</i>" He lived to see the +secret heart of thousands of his countrymen +repeating his memorable +words, and died not till Providence +itself had overturned the rival throne, +and directed every eye in hope, or in +alarm, to the only prince in Europe +who could claim to be their king.</p> + +<p>I care very little what may be the +personal qualifications of Henry of +Bordeaux; it seems to me that he +is destined to reign upon the throne +of his ancestors—and God grant he +may do it in such wise as shall make +amends for all that France has suffered, +by reason of his ancestors, since +France had a Henry for her king before! +The prestige of sovereignty is +his; and while he lives, no republic +can be lasting; no government, save +his, can insure the peace which the +state of Europe so imperatively demands. +If "experience has taught +England that in no other course or +method than that of an hereditary +crown her liberties can be regularly +perpetuated and preserved sacred,"<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>—why +should not an experience, a +thousandfold severer, teach France +the same lesson? It has already been +taught them by a genius which France +cannot despise, and to whose oracular +voice she is now forced to listen, because +it issues from his fresh grave! +"Legitimacy is the very life of +France. Invent, calculate, combine +all sorts of illegitimate governments, +you will find nothing else possible as +the result, nothing which gives any +promise of duration, of tolerable existence +during a course of years, or even +through several months. Legitimacy +is, in Europe, the sanctuary in which +alone reposes that sovereignty by +which states subsist." So I endeavour +to render the eloquent sentence of +Chateaubriand;<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> and though, since he +wrote it, a score of years have passed, +it is stronger now than ever—for what +was then his prophecy is already the +deplorable history of his country. +Had ever a country such a history, +without learning more in a year than +France has gained from a miserable +half-century?</p> + +<p>Just so long as France has been +busy with experiments, in the insane +effort to separate her future from her +past, just so long have all her labours +to lay a new foundation been miserable +failures, covering her, in the eyes +of the world, with shame and infamy. +What has been wanting all the time? +I grant that the first want has been +a national conscience—a sense of religion +and of duty. But I mean, what +has been wanting to the successive +administrations and governments? +Certainly not splendour and personal +dignity, for the Imperial government +had both; and the King of the Barricades +made himself to be acknowledged +and feared as one who bore not +the sword in vain. But the prestige +of legitimacy was wanting; and that +want has been the downfall of everything +that has been tried. You will +ask, what was the downfall of Charles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +X? The answer is, that it was +not a downfall further than concerned +himself; for everybody feels +that the Bourbon claim survives, while +every other has been forced to yield +to destiny and retribution. How is +it that legitimacy makes itself felt +after years of exile and obscurity? Is +it not that instinct of loyalty which +cannot be duped or diverted, and +which detects and detests all shams? +Is it not the instinct which constitution-makers +have endeavoured to appease +by pageants and by names, but which +has continually revolted against the +emptiness of both? The existence of +that instinct has been perpetually exposed +by miserable attempts to satisfy +its demands with outside show and +splendid impositions. The French +cannot even go to work, under their +present republic, as we do in America. +The common-sense of our people +teaches them that a republican government +is a mere matter of business, +which must make no pretences to splendour; +and hence, the constitution once +settled, the president is elected and +sworn-in with no nonsense or parade; +and Mr Cincinnatus Polk sits down +in the White House, and sends every +man about his business. A young +country has as yet but the instincts of +infancy; there is as yet nothing to +satisfy but the craving for nourishment, +and the demand for large room. +But it is not so where nations are full-grown. +<em>Can a maid forget her ornaments, +or a bride her attire?</em> Can +France forget that she had once a +court and a throne that dazzled the +world? No! says every craftsman of +the revolution; and therefore our +republic, too, must be splendid and +imperial! So, instead of going to work +as if their new constitution were a +reality, there must be a fète of inauguration. +In the same conviction, Napoleon +is nominated for the presidency, +because he has a name; and he immediately +withdraws from vulgar +eyes, to keep his "presence like a +robe pontifical," against the investiture. +Oh, for some Yankee farmer +to look on and laugh! It would not +take him long to <em>calculate</em> the end of +such a republic. Jonathan can understand +a queen, and would stare at a +coronation in sober earnest, convinced +that it had a meaning—at least, in +England! But a republic of kettle-drums +and trumpets will never do with +him; and if he were favoured with an +interview with the pompous aspirant +to the French presidency, it would +probably end in his telling Louis Napoleon +the homely truth—that he has +nothing to be proud of, and had better +eat and drink like other folk, and +"define his position" as a candidate, +if he don't want to find himself <em>used-up</em>, +and sent on a long voyage up +Salt River; which, you may not +know, my Basil, is a Stygian stream, +and the ancients called it Lethe. So +much, then, for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ultima ratio</i> of +illegitimate governments—the attempt +to satisfy the demand for national +dignity by pageants and by names, +and to drown the outcries of natural +discontent by the sounding of brass +and the tinkling of cymbals.</p> + +<p>In vain did the sage Piedmontese +foretell it all, like a Cassandra. "Man +is prohibited," said that admirable +Mentor, "from giving great names to +things of which he is the author, and +which he thinks great; but if he has +proceeded legitimately, the vulgar +names of things will be rendered illustrious, +and become grand." How +specially does England answer to the +latter half of this maxim! and who +can read the former without seeing +France, in her fool's-cap, before his +mental eye? De Maistre himself has +instanced the revolutionary follies of +Paris, and lashed them with unsparing +severity. Whatever is national in +England seems to have grown up, like +her oaks, from deep and strong roots, +and to stand, like them, immovable, +They make their own associations, +and dignify their own names. Everything +is home-born, natural, and real. +The Garter, the Wool-sack, Hyde +Park, Epsom and Ascot—these things +in France would be the <em>Legion of +Honour</em>, the <em>Curule-chair</em>, the <em>Elysian +fields</em>, the <em>Olympic games</em>! The veritable +attempt was made to reinstitute, +in the Champ-de-Mars, the sports of +antiquity; and they received the +pompous name of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les jeux Olympiques</i>. +De Maistre ridicules their nothingness, +and adds that, when he saw a building +erected and called the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Odéon</i>, he was +sure that music was in its decline, +and that the place would shortly be to +let. In like manner, he says of the +motto of Rousseau, with intense <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">naïvete</i>, +"Does any man dare to write<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +under his own portrait, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitam impendere +vero</i>? You may wager, without further +information, fearlessly, that it is +the likeness of a liar." How quick +the human heart perceives what is +thus put into words by a philosopher! +It is in vain for France to think of +covering her nakedness with a showy +veil. The Empire was a glittering +gauze, but how transparent! They +saw one called Emperor and a second +Charlemagne; and the Pope himself +was there to give him a crown. But +it was a meagre cheat. Poor Josephine +never looked ridiculous before, but +then she acted nonsense. The imperial +robes were gorgeous, but they +meant nothing on the Citizen Buonaparte. +Everybody saw behind the +scenes. They detected Talma in the +strut of Napoleon; they pointed at +the wires that moved the hands and +eyes of the Pope. All stage-effect, +machinery, and pasteboard. The imperial +court was all what children call +<em>make-believe</em>: it vanished like the +sport of children.</p> + +<p>The great feast of fraternity, last +spring, was, on de Maistre's principles, +the natural harbinger of that fraternal +massacre in June; and the ineffectual +attempt to be festive over the +late inauguration of the constitution, +has but one redeeming feature to prevent +a corresponding augury of disaster. +Its miserable failure makes it +possible that the constitution will survive +its anniversary. Then there will +be a demonstration, at any rate, and +then the thing will be superannuated. +Since 1790, there has been no end to +such glorifications; each chased and +huzza'd, in turn, by a nation of full-grown +children, and all hollow and +transient as bubbles. Perpetual beginnings, +every one warranted to be +<em>no failure this time</em>, and each going +out in a stench. What continual +<i lang="frla" xml:lang="fr">Champs-de-Mars</i> and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Champs-de-Mai</i>! +what wavings of new flags, and +scattering of fresh flowers! and all +ending in confessed failure, and beginning +the same thing over again! "Nothing +great has great beginnings"—says +Mentor again. "History shows no +exception to this rule. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Crescit occulto +velut arbor ævo</i>,—this is the immortal +device of every great institution."</p> + +<p>Legitimacy never makes such mistakes, +except when permitted by <span class="smcap">God</span>, +to accomplish its own temporary +abasement. It needs not to support +itself by tricks and shams. It has a +creative power which dignifies everything +it touches; which often turns +its own occasions into festivals, but +makes no festivals on purpose to +dignify itself. When Henry V. is +crowned at Rheims, or at Notre-Dame, +he will not send over the Alps +for <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">Pio Nono</i>, nor consult <i>Savans</i> to +learn how Cæsar should be attired +that day. That youth may safely +dispense with all superfluous pageantry, +for he is not <em>new Charlemagne</em>, +but <em>old Charlemagne</em>. The blood of +the Carlovingians has come down to +him from Isabella of Hainault, through +St Louis and Henry IV. Chateaubriand +should not have forgotten +this, when (speaking of this prince's +unfortunate father, the Duke de +Berry) he enthusiastically sketched a +thousand years of Capetian glory, +and cried—"<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">He bien! la revolution a +livré tout cela au couteau de Louvel</i>." +Another revolution has thus far relegated +the same substantial dignity +to exile and obscurity, as if France +could afford to lose its past, and begin +again, as an infant of days. But +besides the evident tendency of things +to reaction, there is something about +the legitimate king of France which +looks like destiny. He was announced +to the kingdom by the dying lips of +his murdered sire, while yet unborn, +as if the fate of empire depended on +his birth. <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ménagez-vous, pour l'enfant +que vous portez dans votre sein</i>," said +the unhappy man to his duchess, and +the group of bystanders was startled! +It was the first that France heard of +Henry the Fifth, and it seemed to inspire +Chateaubriand with the spirit +of prophecy, and he eloquently remarks +upon it as a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dernière espérance</i>. +"The dying prince," he says, "seemed +to bear with him a whole monarchy, +and at the same moment to announce +another. Oh <span class="smcap">God</span>! and is our salvation +to spring out of our ruin? Has +the cruel death of a son of France +been ordained in anger, or in mercy? +is it <em>a final restoration of the legitimate +throne, or the downfall of the empire +of Clovis</em>?" This grand question now +hangs in suspense: but, as I said, +Chateaubriand must have taken courage +before he died, and inwardly +answered it favourably. That great +writer seems to have felt beforehand,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +for his countrymen, the loyalty to +which they will probably return. To +the prince he stood as a sort of sponsor +for the future. When the royal +babe was baptised, he presented +water from the Jordan, in which the +last hope of legitimacy received the +name of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dieu-donné</i>: when Charles +the Tenth was dethroned, he stood +up for the young king, and consented +to fall with his exclusion; and the +last years of France's greatest genius +were a consistent confessorship for +that legitimacy with which he believed +the prosperity of his country +indissolubly bound. Now, I should +like to ask a French republican—if I +could find a sane one,—what would +you wish to do with Henry of Bordeaux? +Would you wish this heir +of your old histories to renounce his +birth-right, declare legitimacy an imposition, +and undertake to settle +down in Paris as one of the people? +Why not, if you are all republicans, +and see no more in a prince than in a +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">gamin</i>? Why should not this Henry +Capet throw up his cap for the constitution, +and stick up a tradesman's +sign in the Place de la Revolution, as +"Henry Capet, <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">parfumeur</i>?" Why +not let him hire a shop in the lower +stories of the Palais Royal and teach +the Parisians better manners than to +cut off his head, by devoting himself +to shaving their beards? Everybody +knows the reason why not; and that +reason shows the reality of legitimacy. +Night and day such a shop would be +mobbed by friends and foes alike. +Go where he might, the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">parfumeur</i> +would be pointed at by fingers, and +aimed at by <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">lorgnettes</i>, and bored to +death by a rabble of starers, who +would insist upon it that he was the +hereditary lord of France. Mankind +cannot free themselves from such impressions, +and, what is more conclusive, +princes cannot free themselves +from the impressions of mankind, or +undertake to live like other men, as +if history and genealogy were not +facts. For weal or for woe, they are +as unchangeable as the leopard with +his spots. Let Henry Capet come to +America, and try to be a republican +with us. Our very wild-cats would +assert their inalienable right to "look at +a king," and he would certainly be torn +to pieces by good-natured curiosity.</p> + +<p>It is curious to see the natural +instinct amusing itself, for the present, +with such a mere <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nominis umbra</i> as +Louis Napoleon. In some way or +other the hereditary <em>prestige</em> must be +created; nothing less is satisfactory, +and the "imperial fetishism" will +answer very well till something more +substantial is found necessary. Richard +Cromwell was necessary to Charles +II., and so is Louis Napoleon to +Henry V. Napoleon still seems capable +of giving France a dynasty; this +possibility will be soon extinguished +by the incapability of his representative. +Louis will reign long enough +to exhibit that recompense to Josephine, +in the person of her grandson, +which heaven delights to allot to a +repudiated wife; and then, for his +own sake, he will be called <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coquin</i> +and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">poltron</i>. Napoleon will take his +historical position as an individual, +having no remaining hold on France; +and the imperial fetishism will be +ignominiously extinguished. Richard +Cromwell made a very decent old +English gentleman, and Louis Napoleon +may perhaps end his days as +respectably, in some out-of-the-way +corner of Corsica. Let me again +quote the French Mentor. He says, +"There never has existed a royal +family to whom a plebeian origin could +be assigned. Men may say, if Richard +Cromwell had possessed the genius of +his father, he would have fixed the +protectorate in his family; which is +precisely the same thing as to say—if +this family had not ceased to reign, +it would reign still." Here is the +formula that will suit the case of Louis +Napoleon; but future historians will +moralise upon the manner in which +Napoleon himself worked out his +own destruction. For the sake of a +dynasty, he puts away poor Josephine. +The King of Rome is born to him, but +his throne is taken. The royal youth +perishes in early manhood, and men +find Napoleon's only representative +in the issue of the repudiated wife. +Her grandson comes to power, and +holds it long enough to make men +say—how much better it might have +been with Napoleon had he kept his +faith to Josephine, and contentedly +taken as his heir the child in whom +Providence has revealed at last his +only chance of continuing his family +on a throne! It makes one thing of +Scripture, "Yet ye say wherefore?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +because the Lord hath been witness +between thee and the wife of thy +youth, against whom thou hast dealt +treacherously; ... therefore take +heed to your spirit, and let none deal +treacherously against the wife of his +youth, for the Lord, the <span class="smcap">God</span> of Israel, +saith that he hateth putting away."</p> + +<p>A traveller from the south of France +says that he saw everywhere the portrait +of Henry V. Besides the mysterious +hold which legitimacy keeps upon +the vulgar and the polite alike, there +are associations with it which operate +on all classes of men. Tradesmen and +manufacturers are for legitimacy, because +they love peace, and want to +make money. The <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">roturiers</i> sooner +or later learn the misery of mobs, and +the love of change makes them willing +to welcome home the king, especially +as they mistake their own hearts, and +flatter themselves that their sudden +loyalty is proof of remaining virtue. +Then the profligate and abandoned, +they want a monarchy, in hopes of +another riot in the palace. It may +be doubted whether the <em>blouses</em> can +be permanently contented without a +king to curse. The national anthem +cannot be sung with any spirit, unless +there be a monarch who can be +imagined to hear all its imprecations +against tyrants: in fact, the king +must come back, if only to make sense +of the Marseilles Hymn.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Que veut cette horde d'esclaves,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">De traîtres, de rois conjurés?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Pour qui ces ignobles entraves,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Ces fers, dès long-tems préparés?<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noind">What imaginable sense is there in +singing these red-hot verses at a feast +of fraternity, and in honour of the full +possession of absolute liberty? Then, +where is the sport of clubs, and the +excitement of conspiracies, if there's +no king to execrate within locked +doors? Is Paris to have no more of +those nice little <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">émeutes</i>? What's to +be done with the genius that delights +in infernal machines? Who's to be +fired at in a glass coach? Everybody +knows that Cavaignacs and Lamartines +are small game for such sport. +Your true assassin must have, at least, +a duke of the blood. These are considerations +which must have their +weight in deciding upon probabilities; +though, for one, I am not sure but +France is doomed, by retributive +justice, to be thus the Tantalus of +nations, steeped to the neck in liberty, +but forbidden to drink, with kings +hanging over them to provoke the eye, +and yet escaping the hand.</p> + +<p>In 1796 de Maistre published his +<cite>Considérations sur la France</cite>. They +deserve to be reproduced for the present +age. Nothing can surpass the +cool contempt of the philosophical +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">réactionnaire</i>, or the confidence with +which, from his knowledge of the past, +he pronounces oracles for the future. +Do you ask how Henry V. is to recover +his rights? In ten thousand +imaginable ways. See what Cavaignac +might have done last July, had +the time been ripe for another Monk! +There's but one way to keep legitimacy +out; it comes in as water enters +a leaky ship, oozing through seams, +and gushing through cracks, where +nobody dreamed of such a thing. As +long as even a tolerable pretender +survives, a popular government must +be kept in perpetual alarm. But you +shall hear the Count, my Basil! Let +me give you a free translation.</p> + +<p>"In speculating about counter-revolutions, +we often fall into the mistake +of taking it for granted that such +reactions can only be the result of +popular deliberation. <em>The people won't +allow it</em>, it is said; <em>they will never consent; +it is against the popular feeling</em>. +Ah! is it possible? The people just +go for nothing in such affairs; at most +they are a passive instrument. Four +or five persons may give France a +king. It shall be announced to the +provinces that the king is restored: +up go their hats, and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">vive le roi</i>! +Even in Paris, the inhabitants, save +a score or so, shall know nothing of +it till they wake up some morning and +learn that they have a king. '<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Est-il +possible?</i>' will be the cry: '<em>how very +singular! What street will he pass +through? Let's engage a window in +good time, there'll be such a horrid +crowd!</em>' I tell you the people will +have nothing more to do with re-establishing +the monarchy, than they +have had in establishing the revolutionary +government!... At the +first blush one would say, undoubtedly, +that the previous consent of the French +is necessary to the restoration; but +nothing is more absurd. Come, we'll +crop theory, and imagine certain +facts.</p> + +<p>"A courier passes through Bordeaux,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +Nantes, Lyons, and so <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en route</i>, +telling everybody that the king is +proclaimed at Paris; that a certain +party has seized the reins, and has +declared that it holds the government +only in the king's name, having despatched +an express for his majesty, +who is expected every minute, and +that every one mounts the white +cockade. Rumour catches up the +story, and adds a thousand imposing +details. What next? To give the republic +the fairest chance, let us suppose +it to have the favour of a majority, +and to be defended by republican +troops. At first these troops shall +bluster very loudly; but dinner-time +will come; the fellows must eat, +and away goes their fidelity to a +cause that no longer promises rations, +to say nothing of pay. Then +your discontented captains and lieutenants, +knowing that they have nothing +to lose, begin to consider how +easily they can make something of +themselves, by being the first to set +up <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vive-le-roi</i>! Each one begins to +draw his own portrait, most bewitchingly +coloured; looking down in scorn +on the republican officers who so lately +knocked him about with contempt; +his breast blazing with decorations, +and his name displayed as that of an +officer of His Most Christian Majesty! +Ideas so single and natural will work +in the brains of such a class of persons: +they all think them over; every one +knows what his neighbour thinks, and +they all eye one another suspiciously. +Fear and distrust follow first, and +then jealousy and coolness. The common +soldier, no longer inspired by his +commander, is still more discouraged; +and, as if by witchcraft, the bonds of +discipline all at once receive an incomprehensible +blow, and are instantly +dissolved. One begins to +hope for the speedy arrival of his +majesty's paymaster; another takes +the favourable opportunity to desert +and see his wife. There's no +head, no tail, and no more any such +thing as trying to hold together.</p> + +<p>"The affair takes another turn with +the populace. They push about +hither and thither, knocking one another +out of breath, and asking all sorts +of questions; no one knows what he +wants; hours are wasted in hesitation, +and every minute does the business. +Daring is everywhere confronted by +caution; the old man lacks decision, +the lad spoils all by indiscretion; and +the case stands thus,—one may get +into trouble by resisting, but he that +keeps quiet may be rewarded, and +will certainly get off without damage. +As for making a demonstration—where +is the means? Who are the +leaders? Whom can ye trust? There's +no danger in keeping still; the least +motion may get one into trouble. +Next day comes news—<em>such a town +has opened its gates</em>. Another inducement +to hold back! Soon this news +turns out to be a lie; but it has been +believed long enough to determine +two other towns, who, supposing that +they only follow such example, present +themselves at the gates of the first +town to offer their submission. This +town had never dreamed of such a +thing; but, seeing such an example, +resolves to fall in with it. Soon it +flies about that Monsieur the mayor +has presented to his majesty the keys +of his good city of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Quelquechose</i>, and +was the first officer who had the honour +to receive him within a garrison +of his kingdom. His Majesty—of +course—made him a marshal of France +on the spot. Oh! enviable brevet! +an immortal name, and a scutcheon +everlastingly blooming with <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleurs-de-lis</i>! +The royalist tide fills up every +moment, and soon carries all before it. +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vive-le-roi!</i> shouts out long-smothered +loyalty, overwhelmed with transports: +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vive-le-roi!</i> chokes out hypocritical +democracy, frantic with terror. No +matter! there's but one cry; and his +Majesty is crowned, and <em>has all the +royal makings of a king</em>. This is the +way counter-revolutions come about. +God having reserved to himself the +formation of sovereignties, lets us learn +the fact, from observing that He never +commits to the multitude the choice +of its masters. He only employs them, +in those grand movements which decide +the fate of empires, as passive +instruments. Never do they get what +they want: they always take; they +never choose. There is, if one may +so speak, an <em>artifice</em> of Providence, by +which the means which a people take +to gain a certain object, are precisely +those which Providence employs to +put it from them. Thus, thinking to +abase the aristocracy by hurrahing for +Cæsar, the Romans got themselves +masters. It is just so with all popular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +insurrections. In the French +revolution the people have been perpetually +handcuffed, outraged, betrayed, +and torn to pieces by factions; +and factions themselves, at the mercy +of each other, have only risen to take +their turn in being dashed to atoms. +To know in what the revolution will +probably end, find first in what points +all the revolutionary factions are +agreed. Do they unite in hating +Christianity and monarchy? Very +well! The end will be, that both will +be the more firmly established in the +earth."</p> + +<p>Cool, certainly; is it not, my Basil? +The legitimists are the only Frenchmen +who can keep cool, and bide their +time. Chateaubriand has observed, +in the same spirit, that there is a +hidden power which often makes war +with powers that are visible, and that +a secret government was always following +close upon the heels of the +public governments that succeeded +each other between the murder of +Louis XVI. and the restoration of +the Bourbons. This hidden power he +calls the eternal reason of things; the +justice of <span class="smcap">God</span>, which interferes in +human affairs just in proportion as +men endeavour to banish and drive it +from them. It is evident that the +whole force of de Maistre's prophecy +was owing to his religious confidence +in this divine interference. +He wrote in 1796. That year the +career of Napoleon began at Montenotte; +and, for eighteen years succeeding, +every day seemed to make +it less and less probable that his predictions +could be verified. The +Bourbon star was lost in the sun of +Austerlitz. The Republic itself was +forgotten; the Pope inaugurated the +Empire; Austria gave him a princess, +to be the mould of a dynasty, and the +source of a new legitimacy. France +was peopled with a generation that +never knew the Bourbons, and which +was dazzled with the genius of Napoleon, +and the splendour of his imperial +government. But the time came +for this <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">puissance occulte, cette justice +du ciel</i>! When the Allies entered +Paris in 1814, it was suggested to +Napoleon that the Bourbons would +be restored; and, with all his sagacity, +he made the very mistake which de +Maistre had foreshown, and said, in +almost his very words—"Never! +nine-tenths of the people are irreconcilably +against it!" One can almost +hear what might have been the Count's +reply—"<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Quelle pitié! le peuple n'est +pour rien dans les revolutions. Quatre +ou cinq personnes, peut-être, donneront +un roi à la France.</i>" What could +Talleyrand tell about that? The +facts were, that in four days the +Bourbons were all the rage! The +Place Vendôme could hardly hold the +mob that raved about Napoleon's +statue; and, with ropes and pulleys, +they were straining every sinew to +drag it to the ground, when it was +taken under the protection of Alexander!<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> +What next? In terror for +his very life, this Napoleon flies to +Frejus, now sneaking out of a back-window, +and now riding post, as a +common courier, actually saving himself +by wearing the white cockade +over his raging breast, and all the +time cursing his dear French to Tartarus! +A British vessel gives him his +only asylum, and the salute he receives +from a generous enemy is all +that reminds him what he once had +been in France. Meantime these detested +Bourbons are welcomed home +again, with De Maistre's own varieties +of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vive-le-roi</i>! The Duke d'Angouleme, +advancing to the capital, sees +the silver lilies dancing above the +spires of Bordeaux: the Count +d'Artois hails the same tokens at +Nancy: not captains and lieutenants, +but generals and marshals, rush to +receive His Most Christian Majesty; +and the successor of the butchered +Louis XVI. comes to his palace, after +an exile of twenty years, with the +title of Louis the Desired! Nor are +subsequent events anything more +than the swinging of a pendulum, +which must eventually subside into a +plummet. If the first disaster of Napoleon, +in the fulness of his strength, +could make France welcome her legitimacy +in 1814, why should not the +imbecility of the mere shadow of his +name produce a stronger revulsion +before this century gains its meridian? +There is a residuary fulfilment of de +Maistre's augury, which remains to +the Bourbons, when all of Napoleon +that survives has found its ignominious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +extinction. Then will the ripe +fruit fall into the lap of one who, if +he is wise, will make the French forget +his kindred with the fourteenth +and fifteenth Louises, and remember +only that Henry of Bordeaux has +before him the example of Henry of +Navarre.</p> + +<p>There is, indeed, another conceivable +end. <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">C'est l'arrêt que le ciel prononce +enfin contre les peuples sans +jugement, et rebelles à l'expérience.</i><a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> +If France does not soon come back to +reason, we shall be forced to think +her given up of <span class="smcap">God</span>, to become such +a country as Germany, or perhaps as +miserable as Spain. But we must +not be too hasty in coming to conclusions +so deplorable. Let the republic +have its day. It will work its +own cure; for the chastisement of +France must be the curse of ancient +Judah. "The people shall be oppressed, +every one by another, and +everyone by his neighbour; the child +shall behave himself proudly against +the ancient, and the base against the +honourable." For the mob of Paris, +who got drunk with riot, and must +grow sober with headache; for the +blousemen and the boys who have +pulled a house upon their head, and +now maul each other in painful efforts +to get from under the ruins; and for +the miserable <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">philosophes</i> who see, in +the charming state of their country, +the fruit of their own atheistic theories; +for all these it is but retribution. +They needed government; they resolved +on license: <span class="smcap">God</span> has sent them +despotism in its worst form. One +pities Paris, but feels that it is just. +My emotions are very different when +I think of what were once "the pleasant +villages of France." Miserable +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">campagnards</i>! There are thousands +of them, besides the poor souls starving +in provincial towns, who curse +the republic in their hearts; and, +from Normandy to Provence and +Languedoc, there are millions of such +Frenchmen, who care nothing for +dynasties, or fraternities, or democracy, +but only pray the good Lord to +give peace in their time, that they +may sit under their own vine, and +earn and eat their daily bread. For +them—may <span class="smcap">God</span> pity them!—what a +life Dame Paris leads them! If, with +the simplicity of rustics, they were +for a moment disposed to be merry +last February—when they heard that +thereafter loaves and fishes were to +fling themselves upon every table, for +the mere pleasure of being devoured—how +bitterly the simpletons are undeceived! +Their present notions of +fraternity and equality they get from +hunger and from rags. It is not now +in France as in the days of Henry +IV., when every peasant had a pullet +in the pot for his Sunday dinner. +That was despotism. It is liberty +now—liberty to starve. There is no +more oppression, for the very looms +refuse to work, and water-wheels +stand still; and the vines go gadding +and unpruned, and the grape disdains +to be trampled in the wine-vat. Yes—and +the old <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">paysan</i> and his sprightly +dame, who used to drive dull care +away in the sunshine—she, with her +shaking foot and head, and he with +his fiddle and his bow, they have +liberty to the full; for their seven +sons, who were earning food for them +in the sweat of their brow, have come +home to the old cabin, ragged and +unpaid; and they lounge about in +hungry idleness, longing for war, but +only because war would provide them +with a biscuit or a bullet. What care +they for glory, or for constitutions? +They ask for bread, and their teeth +are ground with gravel-stones. Let +England look and learn. If she has +troubles, let her see how easily troubles +may be invested at compound interest, +with the certainty of dividends for +years to come. Is hard thrift in a +kingdom so bad as starvation in a +democracy? And whether is it better +to wear out honestly, in this work-day +world, as good and quiet subjects; +or to be thrust out of it, kicking and +cursing, behind a barricade of cabs +and paving-stones, in the name of +equality? These are the common-sense +questions, that every English +labourer should be made to feel and +answer.</p> + +<p>It provokes me, Basil, that my letter +may be superannuated while it is +travelling in the steamer! The +changes of democracy are more frequent +than the revolutions of a paddle-wheel. +Adieu. Yours,</p> + +<p class="sig"> +<span class="smcap">Ernest.</span> +</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>DALMATIA AND MONTENEGRO.</h2> +<blockquote> +<p><cite>Dalmatia and Montenegro.</cite> By Sir <span class="smcap">J. Gardner Wilkinson</span>. London: Murray.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>It is really astonishing that our +want of information respecting Dalmatia, +and its neighbourhood, has not +long ago been supplied. It is by no +means easy, now-a-days, to hit upon +a line of country that may afford subject-matter +for acceptable illustration. +Travellers are so numerous, and +authorship is so generally affected, +that the best part of Europe has been +described over and over again. You +may get from Mr Murray a handbook +for almost any place you will. +Manners and customs, roads, inns, +things to be suffered, and notabilities +to be visited—in short, all the probable +contingencies of travel between +this and the Vistula, are already noted +and set down. We take it upon ourselves +to say, that it is one of the most +difficult things in life to realise the +sense of desolation and unwontedness +that are poetic characteristics of the +traveller. How can a man feel himself +strange to any place where he is +so thoroughly up to usages that no +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">locandière</i> can cheat him to the amount +of a <i lang="de" xml:lang="de">zwanziger</i>? And, thanks to the +books written, it is a man's own fault +if he wend almost anywhither except +thus μύστης γενόμενος.</p> + +<p>In truth, European travelling is +pretty nearly reduced to the work +of verification. Events are according +to prescription; and there remains +very little room for the play of +an exploring spirit. The grand thing +to be explored is a matter pysychological +rather than material; it is to +prove experimentally what are the +emotions that a generous mind experiences, +when vividly acted upon by +association with the world of past +existences. Beyond doubt, this is the +highest range of intellectual enjoyment; +and to its province may be +referred much that at first sight would +appear to be heterogeneous, as, for instance, +delights purely scientific. But +at any rate, we must all agree that the +main privilege of a traveller is, that +he is enabled to test the force of this +power of association. It is an enjoyment +to be known only by experiment. +No power of description can +give a man to understand what is the +sensation of gazing on the Acropolis, +or of standing within Ἁγία Σοφία. It +is as another sense, called into existence +by the occasion of exercise.</p> + +<p>To any but the uncommonly well +read, there has hitherto been meagre +entertainment in travelling among the +Slavonian borderers on the Adriatic. +It has been impossible to realise on +their subject these high pleasures of +association, because so little has been +known of the facts of their history; +rather should we perhaps say, that, of +what has been known, so little has +been generally accessible. But we +are happy to find that the right sort +o' "chiel has been amang them, takin' +notes." The way is now open; and +henceforth it will be easy to follow +with profit. The book which Sir +Gardner Wilkinson has given us +seems to be exactly the thing which +was wanted; and certainly the use +of it will enable a man to travel in +Dalmatia as a rational creature should. +No mere dotter down of events could +have passed through the course of +this country without producing a +document of considerable value. The +widespread family of which its inhabitants +are a branch have been intimately +mixed up with the history of the +Empire and of Christendom; and now +again we behold them playing a conspicuous +part in European politics. Modern +Panslavism deepens the interest to +be felt in this family, and quickens the +anxiety to know what they are doing +and thinking now, as well as what +they have done in days of old. In +the present volumes we have, besides +the memoranda of things existing, a +compendium of Slavonian history and +antiquities, and an exhibition of the +degree in which the race have been mixed +up with European history. Besides +this, an account is given of their more +domestic traditions, of which monuments +survive; and it must be a man's +own fault if, having this book with +him, he miss extracting the utmost +of profit from a visit to the country.</p> + +<p>In one way, we can surely prophesy +that this book will prove the means +of bringing to us increase of lore from +out of that land of which it treats.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +It will naturally be taken on board +every yacht that, when next summer +shall open skies and seas, may find its +way into the Mediterranean. Among +these birds of passage, it can scarcely be +but that some one will shape its course +for this land of adventure, thus, as it +were, newly laid open. It is a little, a +very little out of the direct track, in +which these summer craft are apt to be +found, plentiful as butterflies. They +may rest assured that in no place, +from the Pillars of Hercules to the +Pharos of Alexandria, can they hope +to find such provision of entertainment. +The stories they may thence +bring will really be worth something—a +value much higher than we can vote +ascribable to much that we hear of +the well-frequented shores of the +French lake.</p> + +<p>We prophesy, also, that an inspiriting +effect will be produced on men +better qualified even than the yachtsmen +for the work of travel—we +mean on the gallant officers who garrison +the island of Corfu. They +occupy a station so exactly calculated +to facilitate excursions in the desirable +direction, that it will be too bad +if some of them do not start this +very next spring. We do not recommend +the Adriatic in winter time, and +so give them a few months' grace, +just to keep clear of the Bora. Let +them, as soon as possible after the +equinox, avail themselves of one of +those gaps which will be occurring in +the best-regulated garrison life. +Times will come round when duty +makes no exaction, and when the +indigenous resources of the island +afford no amusement. Should such +occasion have place out of the shooting +months—or when, haply, some +row with the Albanians has placed +Butrinto under interdict—woful are +the straits to which our ardent young +fellow-countrymen are reduced. A +ride to the Garoona pass, or a lounge +into Carabots; or, to come to the +worst, an hour or two's <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">flané</i> round +old Schulenberg's statue, are well in +their way, but cannot please for ever. +All these things considered, it is, we +say, but likely that we shall reap +some substantial benefit from the +leisure of our military friends, so +soon as their literary researches shall +have carried them into the enjoyment +of this book. Dalmatia is almost +before their very eyes. If hitherto +they have not drifted thither, under +the combined influences of a long +leave and an uncertain purpose, it is +because they have not been in a condition +to prosecute researches. We +must not blame them for their past +neglect, any more than we blame the +idleness of him who lacks the implements +of work. Give a man tools, and +then, if he work not, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">monstrare digito</i>. +Henceforth they must be regarded as +thoroughly equipped, and without excuse. +Let us hope that some two or +three may be roused to action on the +very next opportunity—that is to say, +on the very next occasion of leave. +Let us hope that, instead of sloping +away to Paxo, or Santa Maura, they +may shape their course through the +North Channel, and begin, if they +please, by exploring the Bocca di +Cattaro.</p> + +<p>Sir Gardner speaks of difficulties +and vexatious delays interposed between +the traveller and his purpose +by the Austrian authorities. These +scrutineers of passports seem to grow +worse; and with them bad has long +been the best. We used to think +that the palm of pettifogging was +fairly due to the officials of his Hellenic +majesty. It was bad enough, +we always thought, to be kept waiting +and watching for a license to move +from the Piræus to Lutraki, by steam; +but we confess that Sir Gardner +makes out a case, or rather several +cases, that beat our experience hollow. +We should like to commit the +passport system to the verdict to be +pronounced by common-sense after +perusal of the two or three pages he +has written on this subject. But common-sense +must be far from us, or the +mob would not be raving for liberty +while still tolerant of passports.</p> + +<p>There is another point in respect of +which a change for the worse appears +to have taken place, and that is in +the important point of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bienveillance</i> +towards English travellers. We learn +that, at present, Austrian officers are +shy of English companionship; and +that it is even enjoined on them authoritatively +that they avoid intimacy +with stragglers from Corfu. The +reason assignable is found in the late +sad and absurd conspiracy hatched in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +that island—a conspiracy which would +have been utterly ridiculous, had it +not in the event proved so melancholy. +It will freely be admitted that +the English would deserve to be sent, +as they are, to Coventry, were it fact +that the insane project of the young +Bandieras had found English partisans, +and that such partisanship had +been winked at by the authorities. +But the real state of the case is exactly +contrary to this supposition. +Humanity must needs have mourned +over the cutting off of the young men, +and the sorrow of their father, the +gallant old admiral. But common-sense +must have condemned the undertaking +as utterly absurd and mischievous. +It is a pity that any +misunderstanding should be permitted +to qualify the good feeling towards us, +for which the Austrians have been +remarkable. This good feeling has +been observable eminently among +their naval officers, who have got up +a strong fellowship with us, ever +since they were associated with our +fleet in the operations on the coast of +Syria. That particular service has done +much towards the exalting of them in +their own estimation; and, of course, +the increase of friendship for us has +been in the direct proportion of the +lift given to them. The Austrian +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">militaires</i>, also, used to be a very good +set of fellows, and only too happy to +be civil to an Englishman. At their +dull stations an arrival is an event, +and any considerable accession of +visitors occasions quite a jubilee. +These gentlemen, however, cannot +have among them much of the spirit +of enterprise, or they would take +more trouble than they do to learn +something of the condition of their +neighbours. They will complain +freely of the dulness of the place of +their location, but at the same time +will evince little interest in the condition +of the world beyond their immediate +ken. Many of them who +live almost within hail of the Montenegrini, +have never been at the +trouble of ascending the mountains. +Nothing seems to astonish them more +than the erratic disposition which +leads men in quest of adventure; +they cannot conceive such an idea as +that of volunteering for a cruise. Yachts +puzzle them: the owners must be +sailors. Of any military officers who +may chance to visit them in yachts, +they cannot conceive otherwise than +that they belong to the marine. +Nevertheless they are, or used to be, +kind and hospitable; and would treat +you well, although they could not +quite make you out.</p> + +<p>That this country is a neglected +portion of the Austrian empire is very +evident. The officials sigh under the +very endearments of office. The +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sanità</i> man, who comes off to greet +your arrival, will tell you how insufferably +dull it is living in the Bocca,—and +how he longs to be removed +anywhither. Place, people, climate, +all will be condemned. Yet, to a +stranger, many of the localities seem +exquisitely beautiful. The same cause +seems to mar enjoyment here that +spoils the beauty of our own Norfolk +Island. The Austrian residents regard +themselves as being in a state of +banishment, and take up their abode +only by constraint: the constraint, that +is to say, of mammon. By the government, +its possessions in this quarter +have been neglected in a manner most +impolitic. The value of this strip of +coast to an empire almost entirely +inland, yet wishing to foster trade, +and to possess a navy, is obvious. +Yet even the plainest use of it they +seem, till lately, to have missed. +Promiscuous conscriptions were the +order of the day, and men born sailors +were enrolled in the levies for the +army. Of course they were miserable +and discontented, and the public service +suffered by the use of these unfit +instruments. Recently it seems that +a change has been made in this +respect, and we doubt not that the +navy has consequently been greatly +improved. But many glaring instances +of neglect in the administration of +the affairs of the country continue to +astonish beholders, and to prove that +the paternal government is not awake +to its own interests.</p> + +<p>But of all objections to be made +to the wisdom of the government, +the strongest may be grounded on +the condition of the agricultural population +in various parts of Dalmatia. +Nothing is done to improve their knowledge +of the primary art of civilisation. +Their implements of husbandry +are described as being on a par with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +those used by the unenlightened inhabitants +of Asia Minor. The waggons +to be encountered in the neighbourhood +of Knin are referable to +the same date in the progress of invention, +as are the conveniences in +vogue in the plains about Mount Ida. +The mode of tillage is like that followed +in the remote provinces of +Turkey; the ploughs of the rustic +population are often inferior to those +to be seen in the neighbouring Turkish +provinces. Lastly—most incredible +of all!—we learn that there is not to +be found in the whole district of the +Narenta such a thing as a mill, +wherein to grind their corn. Will it +be believed that the rustics have to +send all the corn they grow into +the neighbouring province of Herzegovina +to be ground? The inconvenience +of such an arrangement +may easily be conceived. Their best +of the bargain—<em>i. e.</em> the being obliged +to seek from across the frontier all +the flour they want—is bad enough, +and must be sufficiently expensive; +but their predicament is apt to be +much worse than this. In that +part of the world, people are subject +to stoppages of intercommunication. +The plague may break out in the +Turkish province, and thus a strict +quarantine be established, to the interdiction +even of provisions that +generally pass unsuspected; or the +country may be flooded, and the ways +impassable. What are the poor people +to do then for flour? Why, the +only thing they can do is, to send their +corn to their nearest neighbours possessed +of mills—that is to say, to +Salona, or to Imoschi. As these places +are distant, the one about thirty-five +miles, and the other about seventy +miles, we may fancy how serious must +be the pressure of this necessity. +The ordinary expense of grinding +their corn is stated to be about 13 +per cent. What it must be when the +seventy miles' carriage of their produce +is an item in the calculation, we +are left to conjecture. Now these +poor folks are not to be blamed—they +have no funds to enable them to build +mills; but that they are left to themselves +in this inability is a reproach +to the government under which they +live. This inconvenience so intimately +affects their social wellbeing, +that we cannot put faith in the benevolence +of the rulers who allow them +to remain so destitute.</p> + +<p>Despite, however, of the disadvantages +under which the people of Dalmatia +labour, it will be seen that +pictures chiefly pleasurable are to be +met by him who shall travel amongst +them. Their honest nature seems to +comprise within itself some compensating +principle, which makes amends +for the damage of circumstances. The +Morlacci, especially, seem to be a +simple, hardy set, of whom one cannot +read without pleasure. These are the +rustic inhabitants of the agricultural +districts, who eschew the great towns. +They made their entry into the roll +of the peasantry of Dalmatia at a +comparatively late date. The first +notice of them, we are told, is about +the middle of the fourteenth century. +After that time they began to retire +with their families from Bosnia, as +the Turks made advances into the +country. They are of the same Slavonic +family as the Croatians; though +their hardy manner of life, and the +purity of the air in which they have +dwelt, on the mountains, have co-operated +to confer on them superiority of +personal appearance, and of physical +condition. On a general estimate of +the people of the land, and of their +mode of receiving strangers, we +are disposed to rank highly their +claims to the title of hospitable and +honest.</p> + +<p>Sir Gardner Wilkinson certainly +travelled amongst them most effectually. +North, south, east, and west, +he intersected the country. One part +of his travels possesses especial interest, +because, so far as we know, no +denizen of civilised Christendom has +ever before been so completely over +the ground. We refer to his expedition +into, and through the territory of the +Montenegrini. Others—some few +only, but still some others—have been +far enough to get a peep at these +wild children of the mountains; and +more than once of late years, Maga +has given notices concerning them:<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> +but only scanty knowledge of their +domestic condition has been attainable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +Sir Gardner went right through their +country to the Turkish border, and +tarried amongst them long enough to +form pretty accurate notions of their +state. +. +In the account of our author's first +journey, no serious stop is made till we +come alongside of the island of Veglia: +apropos to the passage by which, we +have given to us, at some length, an +interesting extract from the report of +a Venetian commissioner sent to the +island, in 1481, to inquire into its +state. Of this document we will say +no more than that it is exceedingly +curious, and will well reward the pains +of reading. A passing notice is given +to Segna, situated on the mainland, +near Veglia, for the memory's sake of +those desperate villains the Uscocs, to +whom it belonged of old. A good +deal of their history is given in the +last chapter of the second volume, +which serves as a documentary appendix +to the work. Everything necessary +to beget interest in the islands +scattered hereaway is told; but we +pass them by, and are brought to Zara. +What of antiquities is here discoverable +is rooted out for our benefit, but +not much remains. The most interesting +relic in the place, to our mind, +is the inscription recording the victory +of Lepanto. As Zara is the capital +of Dalmatia, occasion is taken, while +speaking of the city, to give some +account of the government of the +province, and of the general condition +of the people.</p> + +<p>An incident mentioned by Sir Gardner +displays, in a painful light, the kind +of feeling entertained by the Austrian +government towards these its subjects, +and permitted by its officials to find +expression before the natives. We +cannot take it as a case of isolated +insolence: because men in responsible +situations, especially where the social +system comprises an indefinite supply +of spies, do not ostentatiously commit +themselves, unless they have a foregone +conviction, that what they say +is according to the authorised tone. +Men under inspection of the higher +powers do not put themselves out of +their way to make a display of bitterness, +unless they think thereby to conciliate +the good-will of their superiors. +This is the incident in question: On +a certain occasion, the conversation +happened to turn on the subject of a +then recent disturbance in a Dalmatian +town. The soldiery and the +people had quarrelled, and in the +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">émeute</i> two of the soldiers had been +killed. On these data forth spake a +Jack in office. He knew not, nor did +he care to know, how many of the +peasants had fallen, nor does he appear +to have entered at all curiously +into the question of the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">casus belli</i>. He +simply recommended, as the disturbance +had taken place, and as the actual +perpetrators of the violence were not +forthcoming, that the whole population +of the town should be "decimated +and shot." "The butchery of any +number of Dalmatians," says our author, +"was thought a fit way of remedying +the incapacity of the police." +One would hardly imagine that this +counsel could have been met by the +applauses of persons holding official +situations; but so, we are assured, it +was in fact received. This manifestation +of feeling is a sort of thing +which, when emanating from a group +of merely private individuals, may be +disregarded. Idle people will talk, and +their hard words will break no bones. +But the hard words of the ministers of +government do break bones; and +such words must be accepted as +serious indications of subsistent evil. +Such receipts for keeping people in +peace and quietness are consistent +enough with the genius of their neighbours +the Turks. Retrenchment of +heads, and of causes of complaint, are +to their apprehension one and the same +thing—πολλων ὀνομάτων, μορφὴ μία. +We know this, and expect it. It is +not so very long ago since the Capitan +Pasha gave the word to heave +the officer of the watch overboard, +because his ship missed stays in going +about in the Black Sea. But the +Austrians are civilised and Christian; +we expect better things of them, and +can but mourn over their misapprehension +of the true principles of +polity. The Englishman who stood +by rebuked the promoters of these +atrocious sentiments, and for this act +of championship he was subsequently +thanked by the Dalmatians who +were present. They could not have +ventured to undertake their own defence, +but must have listened in +silence to this outrageous language.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +Our author doubts not that this exhibition +of simple humanity on his part, +had the effect of causing him to be +forthwith placed under the surveillance +of the police; and that such a +consequence should be so very likely +to follow the honest expression of a +common-sense opinion in society is a +fact that shows clearly enough how +<em>unsound</em> that state of things must be. +Assuredly one of the best effects of +intercourse with civilised nations is, +that we thereby become enabled to +institute a comparison between their +social condition and our own. Even +those unhappy Chartists, who lately +have acquired the habit of addressing +one another as "brother slaves," +would learn to value British freedom, +if they knew something of the social +condition of their European brethren: +they would see some difference between +the security of their own hours +of relaxation, and the degree in which +a man's freedom in Austria is invaded +by the espionage of the police.</p> + +<p>From Zara the course of the narrative +takes us to Sebenico, a town +situated on the inner side of the lake +or bay into which the waters of the +Kerka debouch. It is one of the +coaling stations of the steamer; and, +when the time of arrival will allow +such concession, the passengers are +permitted to take a trip in a four-oared +boat, to visit the falls of the +Kerka. Here the costume of the +women is noticed as being singularly +graceful. In coasting along from +Sebenico to Spalato, the headland of +la Planca is remarkable. Near it is +a little church which is famous in +local chronicle for having once upon +a time served as a trap, wherein an +ass caught a wolf. How this marvellous +feat was accomplished, we will +not just now stop to tell, but must +refer the curious to the book itself. +This point is also remarkable, because +here begins abruptly a change in the +climate. Some plants unknown to +the northward begin to appear; and +henceforward, to one proceeding +southward, the dreaded Scirocco will +be a more frequent infliction. To +the southward of la Planca, this +objectionable wind is constantly blowing; +and at Spalato, we are told, it +assumes for its allowance 100 days +out of the 365. Apropos to the Scirocco, +we have an episode on <em>anemology</em>, +and are taught how the old +Greeks and Romans used to box the +compass—at least how they would +have done so, had they had compasses +to box. In the distance, to +the south of the promontory of la +Planca, is the island of Lissa, famous +in modern history for Sir William +Hoste's action in 1811. "Such an +action," says James, "stands unrivalled +in the annals of the naval +history of Great Britain, or that of +any other country, from the great +disproportion in numerical force, as +well as the beauty and address of its +manœuvres; it stands surpassed by +none in the spirit and enterprise with +which it was encountered, and carried +through to a successful issue." +There is not much risk in making this +assertion, when we consider that on +that occasion the French squadron +consisted of four forty-gun frigates, +two of a smaller class, a sixteen-gun +corvette, a ten-gun schooner, one six-gun +xebec, and two gunboats; and +that the English squadron was of +three frigates, and one twenty-two +gunship. Lissa was also famous in +the time of the Romans, being then +called Issa. We have a notice of its +history, and then pass on to Bua, +and so to Spalato.</p> + +<p>Concerning Spalato details are given, +as might be expected, at some length. +Much is told us of its past and present +condition; in fact, there is presented +to us a very sufficient assemblage of +<em>indicia</em> concerning it. We recommend +any one who wishes to enjoy a +visit to Spalato to take with him this +book, and chapter 13th of Gibbon. +The extract from Porphyrogenitus, +given by Gibbon, tells us what the +palace of Diocletian was; and Sir +Gardner Wilkinson tells us what it is +now, and what has been its history. +Besides verbal description, his pencil +affords some apt illustrations of the +actual condition of the buildings. We +see by these, and by his account, that +the treasures of Spalatine architecture +have been obscured by the building +up of modern edifices on their sites. +"The stranger," he says, "is shocked +to see windows of houses through the +arches of the court, intercolumniations +filled up with petty shops, and the +peristyle of the great temple masked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +by modern houses." Doubtless, many +a precious relic has been appropriated +by modern barbarians to common +uses, and so perished out of sight. But +with joy we learn that the government +has taken measures to prevent the +continuance of such destruction, and +that the remaining monuments are +safe, however they may be mixed up +with the houses and shops of the present +generation. We are told that, +under the care of the present director +of antiquarian researches, there is good +reason to hope that the collection at +Spalato may become truly valuable. +The high character of Professor +Carrara is a sure warrant that all will +be done which is within scope of the +means afforded. But as the government +allowance for excavations at +Salona is only £80 yearly, we cannot +think that the work is likely to +proceed rapidly. While we condemn +as barbarous this carelessness on the +part of the Austrians, we must bear in +mind that we are open to a retort of +the censure. We neglect altogether +the remains of Samos in Cephalonia, +and nothing at all is allowed for the +expense of operations there; yet +these remains are very extensive, and +there is every reason to believe that +their actual condition would amply repay +a diligent search.</p> + +<p>We must stop here a moment to +congratulate Sir Gardner, on his rencontre +with the sphinx.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"A captive when he gazes on the light,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">A sailor when the prize has struck in fight,"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noind">and so forth, are the only people who +may venture to talk of Sir Gardner's +delight at the sight of a sphinx, or a +mummy. With great gusto he gives +the description of the black granite +sphinx, in the court of the palace, near +the vestibule; and in the drawing +which he has made of the same court, +the sphinx is conspicuous.</p> + +<p>From Spalato to Salona, is a distance +of some three miles and a half, +by a good carriage-road. This road +crosses the Jader, or Il Giadro—a +stream so famous for its trout, that it +has been thought necessary seriously +to prove that it was <em>not</em> for the sake +of these—not in order that of them he +might eat his <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">soûl</i> in peace and +quietness—that Diocletian retired from +the command of the world.</p> + +<p>Salona is rich in antiquarian remains, +though nothing is extant to +redeem from improbability the testimony +of Porphyrogenitus, that Salona +was half the size of Constantinople. Of +its origin no record exists, nor is +much known of its history till the time +of Julius Cæsar. Subsequently to that +era it was subject to various fortunes, +and bore various titles. At last, in +Christian times it became a Bishop's +see, and was occupied by 61 bishops +in succession. Diocletian was its +great embellisher and almost rebuilder. +Later in the day, we find that it was +from Salona that Belisarius set out in +544, when recalled to the command of +the army of Justinian, and intrusted +with the conduct of the war against +Totila. The town remained populous +and fortified, till destroyed by the +Avars in 639. These ferocious barbarians +having established themselves +in Clissa, the terror of their propinquity +scared away the Salonitans. The +terrified inhabitants, after a short and +ineffectual resistance, fled to the +islands. The town was pillaged and +burnt, and from that time Salona has +been deserted and in ruins.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"With these historical facts before us, +it is interesting to observe the present +state of the place, which affords many +illustrations of past events. The positions +of its defences, repaired at various times, +may be traced: an inscription lately discovered +by Professor Carrara, shows that +its walls and towers were repaired by +Valentinian II., and Theodosius; and the +ditch of Constantianus is distinctly seen +on the north side. Here and there, it has +been filled up with earth and cultivated; +but its position cannot be mistaken, and +in places its original breadth may be +ascertained. A very small portion of the +wall remains on the east side, and nearly +all traces of it are lost towards the river: +but the northern portion is well preserved, +and the triangular front, or salient +angle of many of its towers, may be +traced.</p> + +<p>"In the western part of the town are +the theatre, and what is called the amphitheatre. +Of the former, some portion of +the proscenium remains, as well as the +solid tiers of arches, built of square +stone, with bevelled edges, about 6¼ feet +diameter, and 10 feet apart."</p></blockquote> + +<p>We have a good description of the +annual fair of Salona. The description +will be suggestive of picturesque<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +recollections to those who have seen +the open air festivities celebrated by +the orthodox—<em>i. e.</em> by the children of +the Greek Church, about Easter time. +We can take it upon ourselves to recommend +highly the lambs, wont to be +roasted whole on these occasions. +The culinary apparatus is rude—consisting +merely of a few sticks for a fire, +and another stick to be used as a spit—but +the result of their operations is +most satisfactory.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"All Spalato is of course at the fair; +and the road to Salona is thronged with +carriages of every description, horsemen, +and pedestrians. The mixture of the +men's hats, red caps, and turbans, and +the bonnets and Frank dresses of the +Spalatine ladies, contrasted with the +costume of the country women, presents +one of the most singular sights to be soon +in Europe, and to a stranger the language +adds in no small degree to the novelty. +Some business is done as well as pleasure; +and a great number of cattle, sheep, and +pigs are bought and sold—as well as +various stuffs, trinkets, and the usual +goods exhibited at fairs. Long before +mid-day, the groups of peasants have +thronged the road, not to say street, of +Salona; some attend the small church, +picturesquely placed upon a green, surrounded +by the small streams of the +Giadro, and shaded with trees; while +others rove about, seeking their friends, +looking at, and looked at by strangers, as +they pass; and all are intent on the +amusements of the day, and the prospect +of a feast.</p> + +<p>"Eating and drinking soon begin. On +all sides sheep are seen roasting whole on +wooden spits, in the open air; and an +entire flock is speedily converted into +mutton. Small knots of hungry friends +are formed in every direction: some +seated on a bank beneath the trees, +others in as many houses as will hold +them; some on grass by the road-side, +regardless of sun and dust—and a few +quiet families have boats prepared for +their reception.</p> + +<p>"In the mean time, the hat-wearing +townspeople from Spalato and other places, +as they pace up and down, bowing to an +occasional acquaintance, view with complacent +pity the primitive recreations of +the simple peasantry; and arm-in-arm, +civilisation, with its propriety and affectation, +is here strangely contrasted with +the hearty laugh of the unrefined Morlacchi."</p></blockquote> + +<p>We do not know the country where +men will meet together and eat without +drinking also: at the al-fresco +entertainments of this kind which we +have seen, the kegs of wine have ever +been in goodly proportion to the spitted +lambs. And wherever a mob of men +set to drinking together, they will most +assuredly take to fighting. The rows +at this fair used to be considerable; +and, considering that more wine is +said to be consumed here on this one +day than during the whole of the rest +of the year, we cannot be surprised +that fights should come off worthy of +Donnybrook. At present, better order +is preserved than of old, because these +rows have been so excessive that they +have enforced the attendance of the +police.</p> + +<p>At this fair is to be seen the picturesque +<em>collo</em> dance of the Morlacchi, +of which our author affords a capital +pencil-sketch, as well as the following +description:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"It sometimes begins before dinner, +but is kept up with greater spirit afterwards. +They call it <em>collo</em>, from being, +like most of their national dances, in a +circle. A man generally has one partner, +sometimes two, but always at his right +side. In dancing, he takes her right +hand with his, while she supports herself +by holding his girdle with her left; and +when he has two partners, the one nearest +him holds in her right hand that of her +companion, who, with her left, takes the +right hand of the man; and each set +dances forward in a line round the circle. +The step is rude, as in most of the Slavonic +dances, including the polka and the +<em>radovatschka</em>; and the music, which is +primitive, is confined to a three-stringed +violin."</p></blockquote> + +<p>Dancing for dancing's sake, is what +enters into no Englishman's category +of the enjoyable, nor into many an +Englishwoman's either, we should +think, after the passage out of her +teens; but that it is, in sober earnest, +an enjoyment to many people under +the sun, there is no doubt. Surely +there is something wonderful in the +faculty of finding pleasure in the elephantine +manœuvres of the <em>romaika</em>, +or in the still more clumsy gyrations +of a <i>palicari's</i> performance. The <i>collo</i> +we readily believe to be a picturesque +dance: but such qualification is not +the general condition on which the +people of a nation accept dances as +national. Most of these exhibitions +in Greece and Eastern Europe must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +condemned as graceless and unmeaning: +as an exhibition of earnest tomfoolery, +they may be accepted as wonderful; +and, at all events, may safely +be pronounced co-excellent with the +music that inspires them.</p> + +<p>In passing from Salona to Traü, a +distance of about thirteen miles and a +half to the westward, the traveller +passes by several of the villages called +Castelli. The name has been given +them from the circumstance of their +having been built near to, and under +the protection of, the castles which, +in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, +were constructed here by some of the +nobles.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"The land was granted to them by the +Venetians, on condition of their erecting +places of refuge for the peasants during +the wars with the Turks. A body of +armed men lived within them, and, on +the approach of danger, the flocks and +herds were protected beneath the walls; +and, at harvest time, the peasantry had a +place of security for their crops within +range of the castle guns."</p></blockquote> + +<p>The rights of lordship over the villages, +which used to be exercised by +the nobles in virtue of the protection +afforded, have nearly all fallen into +disuse. The only relic of feudalism +that seems to survive is found at Castel +Cambio, over which two nobles still +possess certain rights. One of these +was the hospitable host of Sir Gardner, +and his friend Professor Carrara, on +their passage to and from Traü.</p> + +<p>A fact connected with the peculiarity +of the position of this town +is, we think, well worthy of notice, +and deservedly recorded by our author. +The town stands partly on a +peninsula, and partly on the island +of Bua. A fosse, cut across the +narrow neck of the peninsula, has +completed its isolation. This ditch +has proved, on occasion, the most +effectual of fortifications to the Traürines. +They were, in 1241, besieged +by the Tartars in pursuit of King +Bela IV., who had fled hither before +them. These impetuous assailants +were unable to pass the ditch; and, +having waited on the other side till +food and forage were exhausted, they +were obliged to retire. One cannot +read this story without thinking of the +account that Sir Francis Head gives +of the La Plata Indians, whose habits +of warfare are in many respects so exactly +akin to those of the Tartars. +These terrific horsemen would be +scarcely resistible by their less robust +enemies, save for their inability to cross +anything in the shape of a ditch. Out +of the saddle they can do nothing, +and their horses will not leap; so that, +if you wish to be safe from their inroads, +you have but to surround your +dwellings with a moderate trench. +And very striking is the story that +Sir Francis Head tells of the handful +of men who, under such protection, +held out successfully against a host of +Indians. Traü, however, has been +elaborately fortified in European fashion, +though now the works are neglected, +as being a useless precaution +against dangers no longer existent. +It has also a fine old cathedral, and +some pictures of pretension.</p> + +<p>After a brief notice of the islands of +Brazza and Solta—a notice, however, +sufficient for all useful purposes—we +pass on to the picturesque neighbourhood +of the falls of the Kerka. Sir +Gardner speaks of the delay to which +the passage by boat from Sebenico to +Scardona is subject, but does not exactly +complain of it. In fact, we can +easily understand that, for the sake of +the passenger, it is expedient that +some authoritative note should be +taken of his departure under charge +of the particular boatmen who undertake +his convoy. We never did ascend +to Kerka, but from what we have +seen of the class of men under whose +guidance the expedition has to be performed, +we are disposed to vote the +caution of the police to be anything but +superfluous. Every now and then one +hears dreadful stories of the atrocities +of boatmen in convenient parts of the +Mediterranean; and there is good +reason to be thankful that the Austrians +think it worth while to be so +careful of strangers.</p> + +<p>The people about Sebenico, through +whose lands the course of the lake +leads, are spoken of as not paying +much attention to agriculture or to +their fisheries; but it seems that they +are sedulously bent on raising grapes, +and neglect no patch of ground at all +likely to be available for this purpose. +The lake of Scardona is considerably +larger than that of Sebenico. On the +shore here the Romans had a settlement,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +of which scarcely any remains +are perceptible. They are, however, +remarkable as affording a manifest +proof of the rise of the level of the +lake, for some of them are under +water.</p> + +<p>Scardona, we are told, does not occupy +the site of the old Scardon, +which was a place of considerable importance +under the empire. Some have +even imagined that the old city stood +on the opposite bank of the river. +The town at present is small, but well +furnished for the convenience of strangers. +It boasts an inn, at which Sir +Gardner put up for one night. He +then proceeded to the falls, which are +distant from the inn a three-quarters-of-an-hour +journey. As he intended +to ascend the river above the falls, he +had to send to the monks of Vissovaz +to ask for a boat, and they readily +complied with his request. The falls +do not seem to have been full on +the occasion of this visit—but, when +full, the effect must be striking. They +are divided into two parts, and their +picturesque effect is greatly enhanced +by the surrounding scenery.</p> + +<p>At a distance of a few minutes' walk +up the river, above the falls, the boat +was waiting to transport Sir Gardner +to the convent of Vissovaz. It is to +this fraternity that we have before +alluded, as being the sole mill-owners +on the Kerka. Their convent must +indeed be beautifully situated, and +we can quite enter into the eulogium +bestowed on it. The fathers are of +the Franciscan order. The name of +Vissovaz is of curious allusion; and +as probably few of our courteous +readers will be the worse for a little +help in the matter of Slavonian etymology, +we may as well tell them +that its import is "the place of hanging." +Not a very complimentary or +well-omened name, certainly, we would +think at first sight; but we see that +it is so when we learn that the allusion +is to the martyrdom of two +priests, who were hanged here by the +Turkish governor of Scardona. By +the record left of the event, we cannot +see that the death of these unfortunate +victims was in any sense martyrdom: +they were cruelly and unjustly +put to death, but for a cause +entirely worldly. However, they +were Christians, and their murderers +were Turks; and this has been enough +to constitute a claim to canonisation +in more places than at Vissovaz.</p> + +<p>Sir Gardner arrived at the picturesque, +red-tiled convent in time for +dinner; but as the day happened to +be a fast, the fare provided was not +sufficiently tempting to induce a +wish to stay. He therefore was +preparing, with many thanks, to +take his leave of the good fathers, +and proceed on his journey, when +he found himself brought up by +an unexpected difficulty. He was +informed that he could not proceed +except by favour of the monks of the +Greek convent of St Archangelo, another +religious house still farther up +the stream. His hospitable entertainers +readily volunteered to send +in quest of the requisite assistance. +These are the conditions of travelling, +because there are no carriages for hire +hereaway, nor any boats to let. The +Franciscans had volunteered to do +what, when it came to the point, was +found to be rather an awkward thing. +No great cordiality subsists generally +between the Latins and the orthodox. +Each charges the other with destructive +heresy; and doubtless both of +these great branches of the church +esteem a Protestant safe, by comparison +with the arch-heretics that they +each see the other to be. Thus, though +dwelling on the confines of Christendom, +and in a solitude that might +have rendered them neighbourly, we +find that very little intercourse takes +place between the two religious establishments. +Accordingly, the writing +of the letter was found to be no easy +affair; and their guest saw them lay +their heads together in consultation, +after a fashion that boded ill for the +prospects of his journey. They confessed +themselves to be in a fix; and +were afraid of exposing themselves to +some affront if, contrary to their wont, +they should open a communication +with the Greeks, asking of them a +favour.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"'Did you ever go as far as the convent?' +said an old father to a more +restless and locomotive Franciscan, and +a negative answer seemed to put an end +to the incipient letter; when one of the +party suggested that those Greeks had +shown themselves very civil on some occasion, +and the writer of the epistle once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +more resumed his spectacles and his pen. +'They are,' he observed, 'after all, like ourselves, +and must be glad to see a stranger +who comes from afar; and besides, our +letter may have the effect of commencing a +friendly intercourse with them, which we +may have no reason to regret.'"</p></blockquote> + +<p>This very sensible hint of the Franciscan +philosopher was happily acted +out. The letter was sent, and in due +course of time—<em>i. e.</em> in time for a start +next morning—an answer arrived from +the Archimandrite. It was to welcome +the stranger to their hospitality, and +to inform him that a boat awaited +him at the falls. As the issue on +the first intention was so favourable, +let us hope that the other good results +anticipated from the sending of +the letter will have been by this time +realised. At all events, Sir Gardner +may congratulate himself on having +afforded occasion for the opening of +personal as well as epistolary communication +between the convents, as one +of the Franciscans accompanied him +in the expedition to St Archangelo.</p> + +<p>Much praise is bestowed on the +beauty of the Kerka, and the view of +the Falls of Roncislap is especially +distinguished. Sir Gardner praises it +in artistic language; and we may be +allowed to regret that he has not +added a sketch of this scene to the +views with which his book is embellished. +The waters of the Kerka +possess a petrifying quality that is +common in Dalmatia. Much of the rock +has been formed under the water, and +must present a singular appearance.</p> + +<p>Near the Falls of Roncislap a depôt +for coal has been established, that, by +all accounts, would seem to be anything +but a good speculation. We +mention it merely for the sake of a +good story that hangs by it. It +seems that the Austrian Lloyds' Company +patronise this coal because it is +cheap. It is one reason, certainly, +for buying it; but, as the coal will not +burn, we may doubt their wisdom. +We do not wish to spoil the market +of the Company of Dernis, but we +agree with Sir Gardner, that there are +reasonable objections to the using of +food for the furnaces that will get up +no steam, and must be taken on board +in such quantities, as to lumber up +the decks. Besides this, hear how it +goes on when it does burn:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"It has also the effect of causing much +smoke, and the large flakes of soot that +fall from the chimney upon the awning +actually burn holes in it, till it looks like +a sail riddled with grape-shot; and I remember +one day seeing the awning on +fire from one of these showers of soot; +when the captain calmly ordered it to be +put out, as if it had been a common occurrence."</p></blockquote> + +<p>"A Russian consul,"—this is the +story:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"A Russian consul, who happened to +be on board, and who was not much accustomed +to the smoky doings of steamers, +seemed to be deeply impressed with the +inconvenience of the falling flakes of soot. +His voice had rarely been heard during +the voyage, and he appeared to shun +communication with his fellow-passengers; +when one afternoon, the awning +not being up, he burst forth with these +startling remarks, uttered with a broad +Slavonian accent,—'<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Que ces baateaux à +vapeur sont sales! Par suite de maaladie, +il y a dix ans que je ne me zuis paas lavré, +mais maintenant j'ai zenti le bezoin de me +lavver, et je me zuis lavvé!!</i>'"</p></blockquote> + +<p>This must have been a Russian of +the old school.</p> + +<p>Arrived at the convent of St Archangelo, +they had every reason to be +content with their hospitable reception. +The Archimandrite is praised +as being gentlemanlike, and of mien +as though educated in a European +capital. This is a very unusual characteristic +of any Greek ecclesiastic, +and what we could predicate of but +one or two out of the numbers that +we have seen. Greek priests of any +kind are bad enough, but those living +in convents seem generally to go on +the principle of the Russian consul +just mentioned, and might fitly be +invited to associate with him. All +honour, then, to Stefano Knezovich, +and may his example be abundantly +followed among his brethren!</p> + +<p>There was not much in the Greek +convent to induce a long visit; so the +next morning Sir Gardner pushed on +to Kistagne, in his progress through +the country. Here he was again the +victim of letter-writing, but in a different +way. The sirdar of Kistagne +took offence at the tone of the letter +sent to him by the Archimandrite, ordering +horses for the next morning; +and the luckless traveller was consequently +left in the lurch. However,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +the monk did his best to make up for +the deficiency. He lent him his own +horse, and had his baggage conveyed +by some peasants—an excellent arrangement, +saving that the porters +were <em>female</em> peasants. This is a sort +of thing that sadly shocks our sense +of decorum, but which many folks +besides the Dalmatians take as a +matter of course. Sir Gardner says +that the custom of assigning the heavy +burden to the women is prevalent +among the Montenegrini; it is so also +among the Albanians; and to a most +atrocious extent in the Peloponnesus. +In this particular case, they were well +off to get the job; it was to exchange +their task of carrying heavy loads of +water up the hill for that of shouldering +his light <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impedimenta</i>.</p> + +<p>Arrived at Kistagne, he found the +sirdar, who had been so disobliging +at a distance, much improved on acquaintance, +and from him he received +all requisite assistance for the prosecution +of his journey to Knin; and by +him was guided in his visit to the +Roman arches, which point out the +site of the ancient city of Burnum.</p> + +<p>Knin is still a place of considerable +strength, and has been once upon a +time still stronger. It is identified +with the ancient Arduba. The marshy +character of the ground in its immediate +neighbourhood renders it an unhealthy +place of abode; but this evil +is easily removable by a moderate attention +to drainage. Not very far +from Knin, but over the Turkish border, +on the other side of Mount +Gniath, is supposed to be situated the +gold mine that of old conferred on +Dalmatia the title of auriferous. The +mine is said to exist here; but so +much mystery is observed on its subject +by the Turks that nothing certain +can be affirmed of it. From Verlicca, +to Sign we pass as quickly as may be, +merely noticing that there is another +convent to be visited <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en route</i>, and +that we have the opportunity of putting +up at the Han, as Sir Gardner +did. These people certainly have admitted +a great many Turkish words +into their vocabulary: we have <em>Sirdar</em>, +and <em>Han</em>, and <em>Arambasha</em>—to say +nothing of others. At last we come +to <em>Sign</em>; and, touching this place, we +must give an extract from the book. +An annual tilting festival has been +established here, in commemoration of +the brave defence maintained in 1715, +against the Pasha of Bosnia with +forty thousand men.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"The privilege of tilting is confined to +natives of Sign, and its territory. Every +one is required to appear dressed in the +ancient costume, with the Tartar cap, +called kalpak, surmounted by a white +heron's plume, or with flowers interlaced +in it. He is to wear a sword, to carry a +lance, and to be mounted on a good horse +richly caparisoned."</p> + +<p>"The opening of the <em>giostra</em> is in this +manner: The <em>footmen</em>, richly dressed and +armed, advance two by two before the cavaliers. +In the usual annual exhibitions +each cavalier has one <em>footman</em>; and on extraordinary +occasions, besides the footman, +he has a <em>padrino</em> well mounted and equipped. +After the <em>footmen</em> come three persons +in line—one carrying a shield, and the other +two by his side bearing a sort of ancient +club; then a fair <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">manège</i> horse, led by +the hand, with large housings and complete +trappings, richly ornamented, followed +by two cavaliers—one the adjutant, +the other the ensign-bearer. Next comes +the <i>Maestro-di-Campo</i>, accompanied by +the two <em>jousters</em>, and followed by all the +others, marching two and two. The rear of +the procession is brought up by the <i>Chiauss</i>, +who rides alone, and whose duty it is to +maintain order during the ceremony."</p></blockquote> + +<p>We have a description of a fair at +Sign that is almost as suggestive of +the picturesque as was the account of +similar doings at Salona. Sir Gardner +shall give his own account of his departure +from the town.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"In the midst of the bustle and business +going on at Sign, I found some difficulty +in getting horses to take me on to +Spalato; but a letter to the Sirdar removed +every impediment, and, after a +few hours' delay, the animals being +brought out, I prepared to start from the +not very splendid inn.' 'Can you ride +in that?' asked the ostler, pointing to a +huge Turkish saddle that nearly concealed +the whole animal, with stirrups that +might pass for a pair of coal scuttles; +and finding that I was accustomed to the +use as well as sight of that un-European +horse-furniture, he seemed well satisfied—observing, +at the same time, that it was +fortunate, as there was no other to be +had.... I was glad to take what +I could get, and my only question in return +was, whether the horse could trot; +which being settled, I posted off, leaving +my guide and baggage to come after me—for, +thanks to the Austrian police, there +is no fear of robbers appropriating a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +portmanteau in Dalmatia: the interesting +days of adventure and the Haiduk +banditti have passed, and the Morlacchi +have ceased to covet, or at least to take +other men's goods."</p></blockquote> + +<p>And now we make a resolute halt, +and determine to pass <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub silentio</i> all +that intervenes between this part of +the book and the coming into the +country of the Montenegrini. Unless +we act thus discreetly, we shall never +contrive to compress all we have to +say into due limits; and even now we +hardly know how this desirable result +is to be effected. What we thus +leave as fallow-ground for the reader +will yield to his research a history of +the coast and islands between Spalato +and Cattaro. The notice of Ragusa +is especially and deservedly full, and +presents an admirable condensation of +Ragusan history.</p> + +<p>But it is high time for us to get +amongst the children of the Black +Mountain. Among things excellent +it is permitted to institute comparison +without disparagement to any of +them: and, in virtue of this license, +we are free to say that this part of +Sir Gardner's book shines forth as +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inter minora sidera</i>. The subject itself +is of deep intrinsic interest; and he +has treated it as we well knew that +he would. A picture is given of the +actual condition of a scion of the +Christian stock that must astonish +those who, by this book, first learn to +think of the Montenegrini; and must +delight those who, having heard somewhat +of them, or haply even paid them +a flying visit, have looked in vain for +some accurate statement of detail to +help out their personal observations.</p> + +<p>The Montenegrini are descended from +the old Servian stock, and still look to +modern Servia with affection, as to +their mother country. Thither also we +find them, by Sir Gardner's account, +retiring, when forced by poverty to +emigrate from their own territory. +Among them the Slavonian language +is preserved in unusual purity. The +present population is about 100,000; +and the number of fighting men +amounts to 20,000—a number which, +on occasion of need, would be greatly +augmented by the calling out of the +veterans. In fact every individual +man of the nation, whose arm has +power to wield a weapon, is a warrior; +and the very women are ready to assist +in defence. On the Turkish border, +as is well known, a constant +system of bloody reprisals is going +on; and the endeavours of the Vladika +to reduce their hostilities to +civilised fashion have hitherto failed +of success. They are sustained at +the highest pitch of confident daring +by the successful war which they +have so long been able to carry on +against their powerful neighbours. +One is glad of the opportunity of +giving, on the authority of Sir Gardner, +some of the stories of their prowess; +for to retail, without the authority +of some such <em>padrino</em>, the tales +current in Cattaro, would be to win the +reputation of talking like Mendez Pinto.</p> + +<p>In judging the Montenegrini, we +should give charitable consideration +to their circumstances. War is a +system of violence; and with them, +unhappily, war is a permanent condition +of existence. The treachery +and cruelty of the Turks—are these +such recent developments that we need +make any doubt of them?—have +worked out cruel consequences in the +character of the Montenegrini. They +believe a Turk to be utterly without +honesty and good faith—one with +whom it is impossible to hold terms—and +such, probably, is about the right +estimate of some of their Turkish neighbours. +Who, for instance, that knows +anything about them, has any other +opinion of the Albanians? Are +Kaffirs much more hopeless subjects? +The Montenegrini are far from the +commission of the horrid cruelties +that are of everyday occurrence among +the Albanians. Their imperfect appreciation +of Christianity allows them +to behold in revenge a virtue; and +hence the acts of violence which are +quoted to their dispraise. Their marauding +expeditions are but according +to the usages of war; and if they +sometimes break through the restrictions +of a truce, it would seem to be +because they really do not understand +what a truce is. We think +that a very apt apology for the +Montenegrini is found in the speech of +a German traveller quoted by Sir +Gardner. He had been mentioning +several occurrences of English and +Scotch history, and spoke in allusion +to them.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"'What think you,' he observed, 'of +the state of society in those times? Were +the border forays of the English and +Scotch more excusable than those of the +Montenegrins? And how much more +natural is the unforgiving hatred of the +Montenegrins against the Turks, the +enemies of their country, and their faith, +than the relentless strife of Highland +clans, with those of their own race and +religion! Has not many an old castle in +other parts of Europe, witnessed scenes +as bad as any enacted by this people? +I do not wish to exculpate the Montenegrins; +but theirs is still a dark age, +and some allowance must be made for +their uncivilised condition.'"</p></blockquote> + +<p>The character of the present Vladika +affords good hope that an improvement +will take place among the +people; for he evidently has devoted +all his energies to their amelioration. +Sir Gardner entered their territory, +by what we believe to be the only +route—that is to say from Cattaro—whence +he took letters of introduction +from the Austrian governor to +the Vladika.</p> + +<p>We shall best illustrate the condition +of the Montenegrini by quoting +some of Sir Gardner's accounts.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"Four Montenegrins, and their sister, +aged twenty-one, going on a pilgrimage +to the shrine of St Basilio, were waylaid +by seven Turks, in a rocky defile, so +narrow that they could only thread it +one by one; and hardly had they entered +between the precipices that bordered it +on either side, when an unexpected discharge +of fire-arms killed one brother, +and desperately wounded another. To +retrace their steps was impossible without +meeting certain and shameful death, +since to turn their backs would give their +enemy the opportunity of destroying +them at pleasure.</p> + +<p>"The two who were unhurt, therefore, +advanced and returned the fire, killing +two Turks—while the wounded one, +supporting himself against a rock, fired +also, and mortally injured two others, +but was killed himself in the act. His +sister, taking his gun, loaded and fired +simultaneously with her two brothers, +but, at the same instant, one of them +dropped down dead. The two surviving +Turks then rushed furiously at the only +remaining Montenegrin—who, however, +laid open the skull of one of them with +his yatagan, before receiving his own +death-blow. The hapless sister, who had +all this time kept up a constant fire, +stood for an instant irresolute; when +suddenly assuming an air of terror and +supplication, she entreated for mercy; +but the Turk, enraged at the death of +his companions, was brutal enough to +take advantage of the unhappy girl's +agony, and only promised her life at the +price of her honour. Hesitating at first, +she pretended to listen to the villain's +proposal; but no sooner did she see him +thrown off his guard, than she buried in +his body the knife she carried at her +girdle. Although mortally wounded, the +Turk endeavoured to make the most of +his failing strength, and plucking the +dagger from his side, staggered towards +the courageous girl,—who, driven to +despair, threw herself on the relentless +foe, and with superhuman energy hurled +him down the neighbouring precipice, at +the very moment when some shepherds, +attracted by the continued firing, +arrived just too late for the rescue."</p></blockquote> + +<p>Fancy the tone that must be given +to their lives by the constant necessity +of being ready for encounters +such as this. They never lay aside +their arms; but in the field, or by the +wayside, are armed and alert. One +hand may be allowed to the implement +of tillage, but the other must be +reserved for the weapon of defence.</p> + +<p>On many occasions, Montenegrin +courage has prevailed against odds +far greater than in the above case—indeed +such odds as, but for authentication +of facts, would be incredible. +In the year 1840, "seventy Montenegrins, +in the open field, withstood the +attack of several thousand Turks; +and having made breastworks with the +bodies of their fallen foes, maintained +the unequal conflict till night; when +forty who survived forced their way +through the hostile army, and escaped +with their lives." Another astonishing +achievement was the successful defence +of a house held by seven-and-twenty +Montenegrins, against a body of about +six thousand Albanians. Of this last +action, trophies are preserved by the +Vladika in his palace at Tzetinié, and +there Sir Gardner saw them.</p> + +<p>We cannot wonder that the effect +on their minds of these astonishing +successes, should be an unbounded +confidence in their superiority over +the Turks. Sir Gardner Wilkinson +found them impressed with the idea, +that bread and arms were the only +needful requisites to enable them to +drive the Turks out of Albania and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +Herzegovina. It seems certain that, +in their rencontres With these enemies, +they dismiss all ordinary considerations +of prudence. The spirit +of their feeling with regard to the +Turks is thus portrayed:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"It is not the courage, but the cruelty +of the Turks which inspires him (the +Montenegrin) with hatred; and the sufferings +inflicted upon his country by their +inroads makes him look upon them with +feelings of ferocious vengeance.</p> + +<p>"These savage sentiments are kept +alive by the barbarous custom, adopted +by both parties, of cutting off the heads +of the wounded and the dead; the consequences +of which are destructive of all +the conditions of fair warfare, and preclude +the possibility of peace. The bitter +remembrance of the past is constantly +revived by the horrors of the present; +and the love of revenge, which strongly +marks the character of the Montenegrin, +makes him insensible to reason or justice, +and places the Turks, in his opinion, out +of the pale of human beings. He dreams +only of vengeance; he cares little for the +means employed, and the man who +should make any excuse for not persecuting +those enemies of his country and +his faith, would be treated with ignominy +and contempt. Even the sanctity of a +truce is not always sufficient to restrain +him; and the hatred of the Turk is paramount +to all ordinary considerations of +honour or humanity."</p></blockquote> + +<p>This cutting off of heads is not +peculiar to the Montenegrins. The +Turks are, in this respect, just as bad, +and Sir Gardner found, on the occasion +of his visit to Mostar, that, in +point of this barbarism, there is not a +pin to choose between them. The +Turks, however, exceed in cruelty. +It appears, on the evidence of the +letter of the Vladika, given in the +second volume, that they (the Turks) +impale men alive; whereas the Montenegrins +are chargeable with no +wanton cruelty. Indeed, they do not +restrict the performance of this operation +to the case of enemies; but, as +an act of friendship, decapitate any +comrade who may so be wounded in +action as to have no other means of +avoiding capture by the enemy. "You +are very brave," said a well-meaning +Montenegrin to a portly Russian officer, +who was unable to keep up with +his detachment in its retreat,—"you +are very brave, <em>and must wish that I +should cut off your head</em>: say a prayer, +and make the sign of the cross."</p> + +<p>Life, passed amidst every hardship, +and threatened by constant and deadly +peril, ought, we suppose, according to +all rule, to be short in duration. But +we find that these people are remarkable +for longevity. A family is mentioned, +in one of the villages, which +reckoned six generations, there and +then extant. The head of the family +was a great-great-great-grandfather.</p> + +<p>The Vladika received his visitor +most courteously, as he always does +those who have the privilege of being +presented to him. He afforded to Sir +Gardner every facility for seeing the +country, and engaged his secretary to +draw up for him a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">précis</i> of Montenegrin +history. We will condense +some of its more important facts. +The supremacy in things spiritual and +temporal has not been very long +vested, as it at present is, in the person +of the Vladika. The two chieftain-ships +were of old distinct, and the +figment of a separate temporal authority +was continued till comparatively +lately: the year 1832 is mentioned +as the epoch at which the office of +civil chief was definitely suppressed. +The present family (Petrovich) have +possessed the dignity of the Vladikate +since the close of the seventeenth +century. The reigning Vladika—this +man of magnificent presentment—this +brave, intellectual, and athletic +ruler of an indomitable race—is +nephew of the late Vladika, who has +been canonised, although but few +years have passed since his death. +The prince-bishop is not theoretically +absolute in power, as the form of a +republic is kept up: the general +assembly has the right of deliberation, +under the presidency of the Vladika. +But this restriction of power is +pretty nearly nominal only: we give +Sir Gardner's account of the native +Diet.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"In a semicircular recess, formed by +the rocks on one side of the plain of +Tzetinié, and about half a mile to the +southward of the town, is a level piece of +grass land, with a thicket of low poplar +trees. Here the diet is held, from which +the spot has received the name of <i>mali +sbor</i> (the small assembly.) When any +matter is to be discussed, the people meet +in this their Runimede, or 'meadow of +council,' and partly on the level space,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +partly on the rocks, receive from the +Vladika notice of the question proposed. +The duration of the discussion is limited +to a certain time, at the expiration +of which the assembly is expected to +come to a decision; and when the +monastery bell orders silence, notwithstanding +the most animated discussion, it +is instantly restored. The Metropolitan +asks again what is their decision, and +whether they agree to his proposal or not. +The answer is always the same: '<i lang="cs" xml:lang="cs">Budi +po to oyema, Vladika</i>,'—'Let it be as +thou wishest, Vladika.'"</p></blockquote> + +<p>Montenegro first secured its independence +about a generation or two +before the time of the famous Scanderbeg, +on the breaking up of the +kingdom of Servia. Since that time +they have constantly been subject to +the inroads of the Turks, who, claiming +them as tributaries, have continued +to invade their country every now +and then with savage cruelty. More +than once they have carried fire and +sword to Tzetinié, but have never +been able to hold their ground. The +Montenegrins sought the protection of +Russia in the time of Peter the Great, +and still continue to be subsidised by +Russia. At the desire of Peter, they +invaded the Turkish territory, and +were subjected to reprisals on a grand +scale. At one time 60,000 Turks, at +another 120,000, broke into Montenegro. +The first invasion was +gloriously repulsed; but the second, +combining treachery with violence, +was successful. Great damage was +done to the country; but the invaders +were at last obliged to quit, on the +breaking out of war between Turkey +and Venice. The Montenegrins then +returned to their desolate homes, and +have since been unintermitting in +their diligence to pay off old scores. +They co-operated with the Austrians +and Russians, when they had the +opportunity of such assistance; and +when they stood alone, they did so +nobly and bravely. The last great +expedition of the Turks was in the +time of the late Vladika. The Pasha +of Scutari, with an enormous force, +invaded the country; and the result +of the expedition was that 30,000 +Turks were killed, and among them +the Pasha of Albania, whose head +now serves as a trophy of victory to +decorate Tzetinié.</p> + +<p>The capital of the Vladika, has +been described before—for instance, in +the pages of this Magazine; so, with +one brief extract concerning it, we +will follow Sir Gardner in his progress +through the country.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"On a rock immediately above the +convent is a round tower pierced with +embrasures, but without cannon, on which +I counted the heads of twenty Turks +fixed upon stakes round the parapet—the +trophies of Montenegrin victory; and below, +scattered upon the rock, were the +fragments of other skulls, which had fallen +to pieces by time,—a strange spectacle in +a Christian country, in Europe, and in the +immediate vicinity of a convent and a +bishop's palace!"</p></blockquote> + +<p>And, as we said before, when he +got to Mostar, in Herzegovina, he +found a spectacle of the same shocking +kind. He did allow his horror at +this sight to evaporate ineffectually; +but in earnest tried to interpose his +good offices to prevent a continuance +of these doings. He talked to the two +people mainly concerned—<em>i. e.</em> to the +Vizir of Herzegovina, and to the Vladika. +He also, at Constantinople, +endeavoured to effect the making of +an appeal to the highest Turkish authority. +His correspondence with the +Vladika on the subject is evidence of +his zeal; but no positive good seems +to have been the result of his intercession.</p> + +<p>The road leading from the capital +to Ostrok is described as being very +bad at first, and bad beyond description +as it recedes from the capital. +The Vladika kindly sent with Sir +Gardner one of his guards and an interpreter. +The party passed by several +villages, and arrived at Mishke, +the principal village of the Cevo district, +where they put up for the night +at the house of the principal senator +of the province. Here some amusement +was afforded by Sir Gardner's +proceeding to sketch the domestic +party.</p> + +<p>In the course of the evening a scene +occurred, which sets forth their social +condition as graphically as the artist's +pencil has their personal appearance. +A party of friends came in to have a +quiet pipe, and to plan a foray over +the border.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"On inquiry, I found the expedition +was to take place immediately. "Is there +not," I asked, "a truce at this moment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +between you and the Turks of Herzegovina?" +They laughed, and seemed +much amused at my scruples. "We +don't mind that," said a stern swarthy +man, taking his pipe from his mouth, and +shaking his head to and fro; "they are +Turks"—and all agreed that the Turks +were fair game. "Besides," they said, +"it is only to be a plundering excursion;" +and they evidently considered that any +one refusing to join in a marauding expedition +into Turkey, at any time, or in an +open attack during a war, would be unworthy +the name of a brave man. They +seemed to treat the matter like boys in "the +good old times," who robbed orchards; +the courage it showed being in proportion +to the risk, and scruples of conscience +were laughed at as a want of spirit."</p></blockquote> + +<p>In a freshly-decapitated head, affixed +to a stake at Mostar, he shortly +afterwards recognised the features of +one of these very men.</p> + +<p>On the next day he proceeded to +Ostrok, and found occasion to admire +the scenery by the way, especially the +vale of Oranido, distant from Mishke +about four hours. From the vale of +Oranido to Ostrok is a journey of +about the same time. At Ostrok he +underwent a grand reception, and +fully won the hearts of his new friends +by proposing a ride to the Turkish +frontier, and affording them by the +way an exhibition of Memlook riding. +On the frontier is constantly maintained +a guard of Montenegrins, to give +timely warning of any suspicious +movement among the Turks; and so +well do they execute this office that +no Turk can approach the border +without being shot at. Near this +border it was that, some little time +ago, in 1843, an affair took place +which does not tell well for the Montenegrini; +and which seems for the present +to preclude hope of amicable arrangement +with the Turks. A deputation +of twenty-two Turks, returning +from Ostrok, were attacked by the +people, and nine of them killed. This +breach of faith is, to their minds, +excused by the suspicion of meditated +treachery on the part of the Turks. +But it is a sad affair; and the only +circumstance which goes in mitigation +of its guilt is, that the Vladika +took precautions against its occurrence. +He sent an armed guard to +protect the deputation, but their defence +proved insufficient.</p> + +<p>The Archimandrite of Ostrok is the +person who holds the place of second +dignity in the government. He ranks +next to the Vladika; and we are glad +to find, by Sir Gardner's account, that +he cordially co-operates with the Vladika +in his plans of amelioration. Here +also was met the celebrated priest and +warrior, Ivan Knezovich, or Popé Yovan—a +man who, in this nation of +brave men, is renowned as the bravest. +There are two convents at Ostrok, of +which one fulfils also the function of +powder magazine and store depot. Its +position is very remarkable; and certainly +it does bear a strong family +likeness to Megaspelion. The same +quality of not being within reach of +any missile from above belongs to both +of them, and has proved the saving of +both.</p> + +<p>The return to Tzetinié was by a +different route, which took Sir Gardner +within near view of the northern +end of the lake of Scutari. The island +of Vranina, situated at this extremity +of the lake, is likely to afford the next +ostensible ground for an outbreak. It +belonged to Montenegro, but, a few +years ago, was treacherously seized +by the Albanians, who effected a surprise +in time of peace. Remonstrances +and hard blows have equally +failed to promote a restoration, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">et adhuc +sub judice lis est</i>. Throughout the +course of his journey, Sir Gardner experienced +much and genuine kindness +from the rude people of the country; +they brought him presents of such +things as they had to offer, and would +accept no compensation. When at last +he bade them farewell, and returned +to the haunts of civilisation, it was +evidently with kindly recollections of +them, and with the best of good-will +towards them. He was able to give +a satisfactory account of his impressions +to the Vladika, who inquired +thus,—"What do you think of the +people? Do they appear to you the +assassins and barbarians some people +pretend to consider them? I hope you +found them all well-behaved and civil—they +are poor, but that does not +prevent their being hospitable and +generous."</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>MODERN BIOGRAPHY.</h2> + +<h3>BEATTIE'S LIFE OF CAMPBELL.</h3> +<blockquote> +<p><cite>Life and Letters of Thomas Campbell.</cite> Edited by <span class="smcap">William Beattie, M.D.</span>, one of +his Executors. 3 vols. London: Moxon, 1849.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>The ancients, who lived beyond +the reach of the fangs and feelers of +the printing press, had, in one respect, +a decided advantage over us unlucky +moderns. They were not beset by +the terrors of biography. No hideous +suspicion that, after he was dead and +gone—after the wine had been poured +upon the hissing embers of the pyre, +and the ashes consigned, by the hands +of weeping friends, to the oblivion of +the funereal urn—some industrious +gossip of his acquaintance would incontinently +sit down to the task of +laborious compilation and collection +of his literary scraps, ever crossed, +like a sullen shadow, the imagination +of the Greek or the Latin poet. Homer, +though Arctinus was his near relative, +could unbosom himself without +the fear of having his frailties posthumously +exposed, or his amours +blazoned to the world. Lucius Varius +and Plotius Tucca, the literary executors +of Virgil, never dreamed of +applying to Pollio for the I O Us +which he doubtless held in the handwriting +of the Mantuan bard, or to +Horace for the confidential notes +suggestive of Falernian inspiration. +Socrates, indeed, has found a liberal +reporter in Plato; but this is a pardonable +exception. The son of Sophroniscus +did not write; and therefore +it was incumbent on his pupil to +preserve for posterity the fragments of +his oral wisdom. The ancient authors +rested their reputation upon their published +works alone. They knew, what +we seem to forget, that the poet, +apart from his genius, is but an ordinary +man, and, in many cases, has +received, along with that gift, a larger +share of propensities and weaknesses +than his fellow-mortals. Therefore +it was that they insisted upon that +right of domestic privacy which is +common to us all. The poet, in his +public capacity as an author, held +himself responsible for what he wrote; +but he had no idea of allowing the +whole world to walk into his house, +open his desk, read his love-letters, +and criticise the state of his finances. +Had Varius and Tucca acted on the +modern system, the ghost of Virgil +would have haunted them on their +death-beds. Only think what a legacy +might have been ours if these +respectable gentlemen had written to +Cremona for anecdotes of the poet +while at school! No doubt, in some +private nook of the old farm-house at +Andes, there were treasured up, +through the infinite love of the mother, +tablets scratched over with +verses, composed by young Master +Maro at the precocious age of ten. +We may, to a certainty, calculate—for +maternal fondness always has been +the same, and Virgil was an only +child—that, in that emporium, themes +upon such topics as "Virtus est sola +nobilitas" were religiously treasured, +along with other memorials of the +dear, dear boy who had gone to college +at Naples. Modern Varius would +remorselessly have printed these: +ancient Tucca was more discreet. +Then what say you to the college +career? Would it not be a nice thing +to have all the squibs and feuds, the +rows and rackettings of the jovial +student preserved to us precisely as +they were penned, projected, and +perpetrated? Have we not lost a great +deal in being defrauded of an account +of the manner in which he singed the +wig of his drunken old tutor, Parthenius +Nicenus, or the scandalously +late hours which he kept in company +with his especial chums? Then comes +the period, darkly hinted at by Donatus, +during which he was, somehow +or other, connected with the imperial +stable; that is, we presume, upon the +turf. What would we not give for +a sight of Virgil's betting-book! Did +he back the field, or did he take +the odds on the Emperor's bay +mare, Alma Venus Genetrix? How +stood he with the legs? What sort +of reputation did he maintain in +the ring of the Roman Tattersall?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +Was he ever posted as a defaulter? +Tucca! you should have told us +this. Then, when sobered down, and +in high favour with the court, where +is the private correspondence between +him and Mæcenas, the President of +the Roman Agricultural Society, +touching the compilation of the +Georgics? The excellent Equestrian, +we know, wanted Virgil to construct +a poem, such as Thomas Tusser afterwards +wrote, under the title of a "<cite>Hondreth +Good Points of Husbandrie</cite>," +and, doubtless, waxed warm in his +letters about draining, manure, and +mangel-wurzel. What sacrifice would +we not make to place that correspondence +in the hands of Henry Stephens! +How the author of the <cite>Book of the +Farm</cite> would revel in his exposure of +the crude theories of the Minister of +the Interior! What a formidable +phalanx of facts would he oppose to +Mæcenas' misconceptions of guano! +Through the sensitive delicacy of his +executors, we have lost the record of +Virgil's repeated larks with Horace: +the pleasant little supper-parties celebrated +at the villa of that dissipated +rogue Tibullus, have passed from the +memory of mankind. We know +nothing of the state of his finances, +for they have not thought fit to publish +his banking-account with the +firm of Lollius, Spuræna, and Company. +Their duty, as they fondly +believed, was fulfilled, when they gave +to the world the glorious but unfinished +Æneid.</p> + +<p>Under the modern system, we constantly +ask ourselves whether it is +wise to wish for greatness, and +whether total oblivion is not preferable +to fame, with the penalty of +exposure annexed. We shudder at +the thoughts of putting out a book, +not from fear of anything that the +critics can do, but lest it should take +with the public, and expose us to the +danger of a posthumous biography. +Were we to awake some fine morning, +and find ourselves famous, our +peace of mind would be gone for ever. +Mercy on us! what a quantity of +foolish letters have we not written +during the days of our youth, under the +confident impression that, when read, +they would be immediately committed +to the flames. Madrigals innumerable +recur to our memory; and, if these +were published, there would be no rest +for us in the grave! If any misguided +critic should say of us, "The works +of this author are destined to descend +to posterity," our response would be +a hollow groan. If convinced that +our biography would be attempted, +from that hour the friend of our bosom +would appear in the light of a base +and ignominious spy. How durst we +ever unbosom ourselves to him, when, +for aught we know, the wretch may +be treasuring up our casual remarks +over the fifth tumbler, for immediate +registration at home? Constitutionally +we are not hard-hearted; but, +were we so situated, we own that the +intimation of the decease of each early +acquaintance would be rather a relief +than otherwise. Tom, our intimate +fellow-student at college, dies. We +may be sorry for the family of Thomas, +but we soon wipe away the natural +drops, discovering that there is balm +in Gilead. We used to write him +letters, detailing minutely our inward +emotions at the time we were distractedly +in love with Jemima Higginbotham; +and Tom, who was always +a methodical dog, has no doubt docqueted +them as received. Tom's heirs +will doubtless be too keen upon the +scent of valuables, to care one farthing +for rhapsodising: therefore, unless +they are sent to the snuff-merchant, +or disseminated as autographs, our +epistles run a fair chance of perishing +by the flames, and one evidence of +our weakness is removed. A member +of the club meets us in George Street, +and, with a rueful longitude of countenance, +asks us if we have heard of +the death of poor Harry? To the +eternal disgrace of human nature, be +it recorded, that our heart leaps up +within us like a foot-ball, as we hypocritically +have recourse to our cambric. +Harry knew a great deal too +much about our private history just +before we joined the Yeomanry, and +could have told some stories, little +flattering to our posthumous renown.</p> + +<p>Are we not right, then, in holding +that, under the present system, celebrity +is a thing to be eschewed? +Why is it that we are so chary of +receiving certain Down-Easters, so +different from the real American +gentlemen whom it is our good fortune +to know? Simply because Silas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +Fixings will take down your whole +conversation in black and white, deliberately +alter it to suit his private +purposes, and Transatlantically retail +it as a specimen of your life and +opinions. And is it not a still more +horrible idea that a Silas may be perpetually +watching you in the shape +of a pretended friend? If the man +would at once declare his intention, +you might be comparatively at ease. +Even in that case you never could +love him more, for the confession implies +a disgusting determination of +outliving you, or rather a hint that +your health is not remarkably robust, +which would irritate the meekest of +mankind. But you might be enabled, +through a strong effort, to repress +the outward exhibition of your wrath; +and, if high religious principle should +deter you from mixing strychnia or +prussic acid with the wine of your +volunteering executor, you may at +least contrive to blind him by cautiously +maintaining your guard. +Were we placed in such a trying +position, we should utter, before our +intending Boswell, nothing save sentiments +which might have flowed from +the lips of the Venerable Bede. What +letters, full of morality and high feeling, +would we not indite! Not an invitation +to dinner—not an acceptance of +a tea and turn-out, but should be +flavoured with some wholesome apothegm. +Thus we should strive, +through our later correspondence, to +efface the memory of the earlier, +which it is impossible to recall,—not +without a hope that we might throw +upon it, if posthumously produced, a +tolerable imputation of forgery.</p> + +<p>In these times, we repeat, no man +of the least mark or likelihood is safe. +The waiter with the bandy-legs, who +hands round the negus-tray at a +blue-stocking coterie, is in all probability +a leading contributor to a fifth-rate +periodical; and, in a few days +after you have been rash enough +to accept the insidious beverage, +M'Tavish will be correcting the proof +of an article in which your appearance +and conversation are described. +Distrust the gentleman in the plush +terminations; he, too, is a penny-a-liner, +and keeps a commonplace-book +in the pantry. Better give up writing +at once than live in such a perpetual +state of bondage. What +amount of present fame can recompense +you for being shown up as a +noodle, or worse, to your children's +children? Nay, recollect this, that +you are implicating your personal, +and, perhaps, most innocent friends. +Bob accompanies you home from an +insurance society dinner, where the +champagne has been rather superabundant, +and, next morning, you, as +a bit of fun, write to the President +that the watchman had picked up +Bob in a state of helpless inebriety +from the kennel. The President, after +the manner of the Fogies, duly docquets +your note with name and date, and +puts it up with a parcel of others, +secured by red tape. You die. Your +literary executor writes to the President, +stating his biographical intentions, +and requesting all documents +that may tend to throw light upon +your personal history. Preses, in +deep ecstasy at the idea of seeing his +name in print as the recipient of your +epistolary favours, immediately transmits +the packet; and the consequence +is, that Robert is most unjustly +handed down to posterity in the +character of a habitual drunkard, +although it is a fact that a more +abstinent creature never went home +to his wife at ten. If you are an +author, and your spouse is ailing, +don't give the details to your intimate +friend, if you would not wish to publish +them to the world. Drop all +correspondence, if you are wise, and +have any ambition to stand well in +the eyes of the coming generation. +Let your conversation be as curt as +a Quaker's, and select no one for a +friend, unless you have the meanest +possible opinion of his capacity. +Even in that case you are hardly +secure. Perhaps the best mode of +combining philanthropy, society, and +safety, is to have nobody in the +house, save an old woman who is so +utterly deaf that you must order +your dinner by pantomime.</p> + +<p>One mode of escape suggests itself, +and we do not hesitate to recommend it. +Let every man who underlies the terror +of the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">peine forte et dure</i>, compile his +own autobiography at the ripe age of +forty-five. Few people, in this country, +begin to establish a permanent +reputation before thirty; and we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +allow them fifteen years to complete +it. Now, supposing your existence +should be protracted to seventy, here +are clear five-and-twenty years remaining, +which may be profitably employed +in autobiography, by which +means you secure three vast advantages. +In the first place, you can +deal with your own earlier history +as you please, and provide against +the subsequent production of inconvenient +documents. In the second place, +you defeat the intentions of your excellent +friend and gossip, who will +hardly venture to start his volumes in +competition with your own. In the third +place, you leave an additional copyright +as a legacy to your children, and +are not haunted in your last moments +by the agonising thought that a stranger +in name and blood is preparing to +make money by your decease. It is, +of course, unnecessary to say one word +regarding the general tone of your +memoirs. If you cannot contrive to +block out such a fancy portrait of +your intellectual self as shall throw all +others into the shade, you may walk +on fearlessly through life, for your biography +never will be attempted. +Goethe, the most accomplished literary +fox of our age, perfectly understood +the value of these maxims, and forestalled +his friends, by telling his own +story in time. The consequence is, +that his memory has escaped unharmed. +Little Eckermann, his amanuensis +in extreme old age, did indeed +contrive to deliver himself of a small +Boswellian volume; but this publication, +bearing reference merely to the +dicta of Goethe at a safe period of +life, could not injure the departed poet. +The repetition of the early history, +and the publication of the early documents, +are the points to be especially +guarded.</p> + +<p>We beg that these remarks may be +considered, not as strictures upon any +individual example, but as bearing +upon the general style of modern biography. +This is a gossiping world, +in which great men are the exceptions; +and when one of these ceases +to exist, the public becomes clamorous +to learn the whole minutiæ of his private +life. That is a depraved taste, and +one which ought not to be gratified. +The author is to be judged by the works +which he voluntarily surrenders to the +public, not by the tenor of his private +history, which ought not to be irreverently +exposed. Thus, in compiling +the life of a poet, we maintain that a +literary executor has purely a literary +function to perform. Out of the mass +of materials which he may fortuitously +collect, his duty is to select such portions +as may illustrate the public +doings of the man: he may, without +transgressing the boundaries of propriety, +inform us of the circumstances +which suggested the idea of any particular +work, the difficulties which +were overcome by the author in the +course of its composition, and even +exhibit the correspondence relative +thereto. These are matters of literary +history which we may ask for, +and obtain, without any breach of the +conventional rules of society. Whatever +refers to public life is public, and +may be printed: whatever refers solely +to domestic existence is private, and +ought to be held sacred. A very +little reflection, we think, will demonstrate +the propriety of this distinction. +If we have a dear and valued friend, +to whom, in the hours of adversity or +of joy, we are wont to communicate +the thoughts which lie at the bottom +of our soul, we write to him in the +full conviction that he will regard these +letters as addressed to himself alone. +We do not insult him, nor wrong the +holy attributes of friendship so much, +as to warn him against communicating +our thoughts to any one else in +the world. We never dream that he +will do so, else assuredly those letters +never would have been written. If +we were to discover that we had so +grievously erred as to repose confidence +in a person who, the moment +he received a letter penned in a paroxysm +of emotion and revealing a +secret of our existence, was capable +of exhibiting it to the circle of his +acquaintance, of a surety he should +never more be troubled with any of +our correspondence. Would any man +dare to print such documents during +the life of the writer? We need not +pause for a reply: there can be but +one. And <em>why</em> is this? Because +these communications bear on their +face the stamp of the strictest privacy—because +they were addressed to, +and meant for the eye of but one +human being in the universe—because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +they betray the emotions of a soul +which asks sympathy from a friend, +with only less reverence than it implores +comfort from its God! Does +death, then, free the friend and the +confidant from all restraint? If the +knowledge that his secret had been +divulged, his agonies exposed, his +weaknesses surrendered to the vulgar +gaze, could have pained the living +man—is nothing due to his memory, +now that he is laid beneath the turf, +now that his voice can never more be +raised to upbraid a violated confidence? +Many modern biographers, +we regret to say, do not appear to be +influenced by any such consideration. +They never seem to have asked themselves +the question—Would my friend, +if he had been compiling his own memoirs, +have inserted such a letter for +publication—does it not refer to a +matter eminently private and personal, +and never to be communicated to the +world? Instead of applying this test, +they print everything, and rather +plume themselves on their impartiality +in suppressing nothing. They thus +exhibit the life not only of the author +but of the man. Literary and personal +history are blended together. +The senator is not only exhibited in +the House of Commons, but we are +courteously invited to attend at the +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">accouchement</i> of his wife.</p> + +<p>What title has any of us, in the +abstract, to write the private history +of his next-door neighbour? Be he +poet, lawyer, physician, or divine, his +private sayings and doings are his property, +not that of a gaping and curious +public. No man dares to say to another, +"Come, my good fellow! it is full +time that the world should know a +little about your domestic concerns. +I have been keeping a sort of note-book +of your proceedings ever since +we were at school together, and I intend +to make a few pounds by exhibiting +you in your true colours. +You recollect when you were in love +with old Tomnoddy's daughter? I +have written a capital account of your +interview with her that fine forenoon +in the Botanical Gardens! True, +she jilted you, and went off with +young Heavystern of the Dragoons, +but the public won't relish the scene a +bit the less on that account. Then I +have got some letters of yours from +our mutual friend Fitzjaw. How very +hard-up you must have been at the +time when you supplicated him for +twenty pounds to keep you out of jail! +You were rather severe, the other day +when I met you at dinner, upon your +professional brother Jenkinson; but I +daresay that what you said was all +very true, so I shall publish that likewise. +By the way—how is your +wife? She had a lot of money, had +she not? At all events people say +so, and it is shrewdly surmised that +you did not marry her for her beauty. +I don't mean to say that <em>I</em> think so, +but such is the <em>on dit</em>, and I have set +it down accordingly in my journal. +Do, pray, tell me about that quarrel +between you and your mother-in-law! +Is it true that she threw a +joint-stool at your head? How our +friends will roar when they see +the details in print!" Is the case +less flagrant if the manuscript is +not sent to press, until our neighbour +is deposited in his coffin? We cannot +perceive the difference. If the +feelings of living people are to be +taken as the criterion, only one of the +domestic actors is removed from the +stage of existence. Old Tomnoddy +still lives, and may not be abundantly +gratified at the fact of his daughter's +infidelity and elopement being proclaimed. +The intimation of the +garden scene, hitherto unknown to +Heavystern, may fill his warlike +bosom with jealousy, and ultimately +occasion a separation. Fitzjaw can +hardly complain, but he will be very +furious at finding his refusal to accommodate +a friend appended to the supplicating +letter. Jenkinson is only +sorry that the libeller is dead, otherwise +he would have treated him to an +action in the Jury Court. The widow +believes that she was made a bride +solely for the sake of her Californian +attractions, and reviles the memory +of her spouse. As for the mother-in-law, +now gradually dwindling into +dotage, her feelings are perhaps of no +great consequence to any human +being. Nevertheless, when the obnoxious +paragraph in the Memoirs is +read to her by a shrill female companion, +nature makes a temporary +rally, her withered frame shakes with +agitation, and she finally falls backward +in a fit of hopeless paralysis.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p> + +<p>Such is a feeble picture of the results +that might ensue from private +biography, were we all permitted, +without reservation, to parade the +lives and domestic circumstances of +our neighbours to a greedy and gloating +world. Not but that, if our +neighbour has been a man of sufficient +distinction to deserve commemoration, +we may gracefully and skilfully narrate +all of him that is worth the knowing. +We may point to his public actions, +expatiate on his achievements, +and recount the manner in which he +gained his intellectual renown; but further +we ought not to go. The confidences +of the dead should be as sacred +as those of the living. And here we +may observe, that there are other +parties quite as much to blame as the +biographers in question. We allude +to the friends of the deceased, who +have unscrupulously furnished them +with materials. Is it not the fact +that in very many cases they have +divulged letters which, during the +writer's lifetime, they would have +withheld from the nearest and dearest +of their kindred? In many such +letters there occur observations and +reflections upon living characters, not +written in malice, but still such as +were never intended to meet the eyes +of the parties criticised; and these +are forthwith published, as racy passages, +likely to gratify the appetite of +a coarse, vulgar, and inordinate curiosity. +Even this is not the worst. +Survivors may grieve to learn that +the friend whom they loved was capable +of ridiculing or misrepresenting +them in secret, and his memory may +suffer in their estimation; but, put +the case of detailed private conversations, +which are constantly foisted +into modern biographies, and we shall +immediately discover that the inevitable +tendency is to engender dislikes +among living parties. Let us suppose +that three men, all of them professional +authors, meet at a dinner +party. The conversation is very lively, +takes a literary turn, and the three +gentlemen, with that sportive freedom +which is very common in a society +where no treachery is apprehended, +pass some rather poignant strictures +upon the writings or habits of their +contemporaries. One of them either +keeps a journal, or is in the habit of +writing, for the amusement of a confidential +friend at a distance, any +literary gossip which may be current, +and he commits to paper the heads of +the recent dialogue. He dies, and his +literary executor immediately pounces +upon the document, and, to the confusion +of the two living critics, prints it. +Every literary brother whom they have +noticed is of course their enemy for life.</p> + +<p>If, in private society, a snob is discovered +retailing conversations, he is +forthwith cut without compunction. +He reads his detection in the calm, +cold scorn of your eye; and, referring +to the mirror of his own dim and dirty +conscience, beholds the reflection of a +hound. The biographer seems to consider +himself exempt from such social +secresy. He shelters himself under +the plea that the public are so deeply +interested, that they must not be deprived +of any memorandum, anecdote, +or jotting, told, written, or detailed +by the gifted subject of their memoirs. +Therefore it is not a prudent thing to +be familiar with a man of genius. He +may not betray your confidence, but +you can hardly trust to the tender +mercies of his chronicler.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>Such are our deliberate views upon +the subject of biography, and we +state them altogether independent of +the three bulky volumes which are +now lying before us for review.</p> + +<p>We cordially admit that it was right +and proper that a life of Campbell +should be written. Although he did +not occupy the same commanding +position as others of his renowned +contemporaries—although his writings +have not, like those of Scott, +Byron, and Southey, contributed +powerfully to give a tone and idiosyncrasy +to the general literature of +the age—Campbell was nevertheless +a man of rich genius, and a poet of +remarkable accomplishment. It would +not be easy to select, from the works +of any other writer of our time, so +many brilliant and polished gems, +without flaw or imperfection, as are +to be found amongst his minor poems. +Criticism, in dealing with these exquisite +lyrics, is at fault. If sometimes +the suspicion of a certain effeminacy +haunts us, we have but to turn +the page, and we arrive at some magnificent, +bold, and trumpet-toned ditty,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +appealing directly from the heart of +the poet to the imagination of his +audience, and proving, beyond all +contest, that power was his glorious +attribute. True, he was unequal; +and towards the latter part of his career, +exhibited a marked failing in the +qualities which originally secured his +renown. It is almost impossible to +believe that the <cite>Pilgrim of Glencoe</cite>, +or even <cite>Theodric</cite>, was composed by +the author of the <cite>Pleasures of Hope</cite> +or <cite>Gertrude</cite>; and if you place the +<cite>Ritter Bann</cite> beside <cite>Hohenlinden</cite> or the +<cite>Battle of the Baltic</cite>, you cannot fail to +be struck with the singular diminution +of power. Campbell started +from a high point—walked for some +time along level or undulating ground—and +then began rapidly to descend. +This is not, as some idle critics have +maintained, the common course of +genius. Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, +Milton, Dryden, Scott, Byron, +and Wordsworth, are remarkable instances +to the contrary. Whatever +may have been the promise of their +youth, their matured performances, +eclipsing their earlier efforts, show +us that genius is capable of almost +boundless cultivation, and that the +fire of the poet does not cease to +burn less brightly within him, because +the sable of his hair is streaked +with gray, or the furrows deepening +on his brow. Sir Walter Scott was +upwards of thirty before he began to +compose in earnest: after thirty, +Campbell wrote scarcely anything +which has added permanently to his +reputation. Extreme sensitiveness, +an over-strained and fastidious desire +of polishing, and sometimes +the pressure of outward circumstances, +may have combined to damp +his early ardour. He evidently was +deficient in that resolute pertinacity +of labour, through which alone +great results can be achieved. He +allowed the best years of his life to be +frittered away, in pursuits which +could not secure to him either additional +fame, or the more substantial +rewards of fortune: and, though far +from being actually idle, he was only +indolently active. Campbell wanted +an object in life. Thus, though gifted +with powers which, directed towards +one point, were capable of the highest +concentration, we find him scattering +these in the most desultory and careless +manner; and surrendering scheme +after scheme, without making the +vigorous effort which was necessary +to secure their completion. This is a +fault by no means uncommon in literature, +but one which is highly dangerous. +No work requiring great +mental exertion should be undertaken +rashly, for the enthusiasm which has +prompted it rapidly subsides, the +labour becomes distasteful to the writer, +and unless he can bend himself +to his task with the most dogged +perseverance, and a determination to +vanquish all obstacles, the result will +be a fragment or a failure. Of this we +find two notable instances recorded +in the book before us. Twice in his +life had Campbell meditated the construction +of a great poem, and twice +did he relinquish the task. Of the +<cite>Queen of the North</cite> but a few lines +remain: of his favourite projected +epic on the subject of Wallace, +nothing. Elegant trifles, sportive +verses, and playful epigrams were, +for many years, the last fruits of that +genius which had dictated the <cite>Pleasures +of Hope</cite>, and rejoiced the mariners +of England with a ballad worthy +of the theme. And yet, so powerful +is early association—so universal was +the recognition of the transcendant +genius of the boy, that when Campbell +sank into the grave, there was +lamentation as though a great poet +had been stricken down in his prime, +and all men felt that a brilliant light +had gone out among the luminaries +of the age. Therefore it was seemly +that his memory should receive that +homage which has been rendered to +others less deserving of it, and that +his public career, at least, should be +traced and given to the world.</p> + +<p>It was Campbell's own wish that +Dr Beattie should undertake his biography. +Few perhaps knew the motives +which led to this selection; for +the assiduity, care, and filial attachment, +bestowed for years by the +warm-hearted physician upon the +poet, was as unostentatious as it was +honourable and devoted. Not from +the pages of this biography can the +reader form an adequate idea of the +extent and value of such disinterested +friendship: indeed it is not too much +to say, that the rare and exemplary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +kindness of Dr Beattie was the chief +consolation of Campbell during the +later period of his existence. It +was therefore natural that the dying +poet should have confided this trust +to one of whose affection he was +assured by so many rare and signal +proofs; and it is with a kindly feeling +to the author that we now approach +the consideration of the literary merits +of the book.</p> + +<p>The admiration of Dr Beattie for +the genius of Campbell has in some +respects led him astray. It is easy to +see at a glance that his measure of +admiration is not of an ordinary kind, +but so excessive as to lead him beyond +all limit. He seems to have +regarded Campbell not merely as a +great poet, but as the great poet of the +age; and he is unwilling, æsthetically, +to admit any material diminution of +his powers. He still clings with a +certain faith to <em>Theodric</em>; and declines +to perceive any palpable failure even +in the <cite>Pilgrim of Glencoe</cite>. Verses +and fragments which, to the casual +reader, convey anything but the impression +of excellence, are liberally +distributed throughout the pages of the +third volume, and commented on with +evident rapture. He seems to think +that, in the case of his author, it may +be said, "<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nihil tetigit quod non +ornavit</i>;" and accordingly he is slow +to suppress, even where suppression +would have been of positive advantage. +In short, he is too full of his +subject to do it justice. In the hands +of a skilful and less biassed artisan, +the materials which occupy these +three volumes, extending to nearly +fourteen hundred pages of print, might +have been condensed into one highly +interesting and popular volume. We +should not then, it is true, have been +favoured with specimens of Campbell's +college exercises, with the +voluminous chronicles of his family, +with verses written at the age of eleven, +or with correspondence purely +domestic; but we firmly believe +that the reading public would have +been grateful to Dr Beattie, had he +omitted a great deal of matter connected +with the poet's earlier career, +which is of no interest whatever. The +Campbells of Kirnan were, we doubt +not, a highly respectable sept, and performed +their duty as kirk-elders for +many generations blamelessly in the +parish of Glassary. But it was not +necessary on that account to trace +their descent from the Black Knight Of +Lochawe, or to give the particular +history of the family for more than a +century and a half. Gillespic-le-Camile +may have been a fine fellow in +his day; but we utterly deny, in the +teeth of all the Campbells and Kembles +in the world, that he had a drop +of Norman blood in his veins. It is +curious to find the poet, at a subsequent +period, engaged in a correspondence, +as to the common ancestor of +these names, with one of the Kembles, +who, as Mrs Butler somewhere triumphantly +avers, were descended from +the lords of Campo-bello. Where +that favoured region may be, we know +not; but this we know, that in Gaelic +<i lang="gv" xml:lang="gv">Cambeul</i> signifies <em>wry-mouth</em>, and +hence, as is the custom with primitive +nations, the origin of the name. And +let not the sons of Diarmid be offended +at this, or esteem their glories +less, since the gallant Camerons owe +their name to a similar conformation +of the nose, and the Douglases to +their dark complexion. Having put +this little matter of family etymology +right, let us return to Dr Beattie.</p> + +<p>The first volume, we maintain, is +terribly overloaded by trivial details, +and specimens of the kind to which +we have alluded. We need not enter +into these, except in so far as to state +that Thomas Campbell was the youngest +child of most respectable parents: +that his father, having been unfortunate +in business, was so reduced in +circumstances, that, whilst attending +Glasgow College, the young student +was compelled to have recourse to +teaching; that he acquitted himself +admirably, and to the satisfaction of +all his professors in the literary +classes; and that, for one vacation at +least, he resided as private tutor to a +family in the island of Mull. He +was then about eighteen, and had +already exhibited symptoms of a rare +poetical talent, particularly in translations +from the Greek. Dr Beattie's +zeal as a biographer may be gathered +from the following statement:—</p> + +<p>"I applied last year to the Rev. +Dr M'Arthur, of Kilninian in Mull, +requesting him to favour me with such +traditional particulars regarding the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +poet as might still be current among +the old inhabitants; but I regret to +say that nothing of interest has resulted. +'In the course of my inquiries,' +he says, 'I have met with +only two individuals who had seen +Mr Campbell while he was in Mull, +and the amount of their information +is merely that he was <em>a very pretty +young man</em>. Those who must have +been personally acquainted with him +in this country, have, like himself, +descended into the tomb; so that no +authentic anecdotes of him can now +be procured in this quarter.'"</p> + +<p>There is a simplicity in this which +has amused us greatly. Campbell, in +those days, was conspicuous for nothing—at +least, for no accomplishment +which could be appreciated in +that distant island. In all probability +two-thirds of the inhabitants of the +parish were Campbells, who expired +in utter ignorance of the art of writing +their names; so that to ask for literary +anecdotes, at the distance of half a +century, was rather a work of supererogation.</p> + +<p>For two years more, Campbell led +a life of great uncertainty. He was +naturally averse to the drudgery of +teaching—an employment which never +can be congenial to a poetical and +creative nature. He had no decided +predilection for any of the learned professions; +for though he alternately +betook himself to the study of law, +physic, and divinity, it was hardly +with a serious purpose. He visited +Edinburgh in search of literary employment, +was for some time a clerk +in a writer's office, and, through the +kindness of the late Dr Anderson, +editor of a collection of the British +poets,—a man who was ever eager to +acknowledge and encourage genius,—he +received his first introduction to a +bookselling firm. From them he received +some little employment, but +not of a nature suited to his taste; +and we soon afterwards find him in +Glasgow, meditating the establishment +of a magazine—a scheme which +proved utterly abortive.</p> + +<p>In the mean time, however, he had +not been idle. At the age of twenty +the poetical instinct is active, and, +even though no audience can be found, +the muse will force its way. Campbell +had already translated two plays +of Æschylus and Euripides—an exercise +which no doubt developed largely +his powers of versification—and, further, +had begun to compose original +lyric verses. In the foreign edition of +his works, there is inserted a poem +called the Dirge of Wallace, written +about this period, which, with a very +little concentration, might have been +rendered as perfect as any of his later +compositions. In spirit and energy it +is assuredly inferior to none of them. +"But," says Dr Beattie, "the fastidious +author, who thought it too +rhapsodical, never bestowed a careful +revision upon it, and persisted in excluding +it from all the London editions." +We hope to see it restored +to its proper place in the next: in +the mean time we select the following +noble stanzas:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"They lighted the tapers at dead of night,<br /></span> +<span class="i3">And chaunted their holiest hymn:<br /></span> +<span class="i1">But her brow and her bosom were damp with affright,<br /></span> +<span class="i3">Her eye was all sleepless and dim!<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And the Lady of Ellerslie wept for her lord,<br /></span> +<span class="i3">When a death-watch beat in her lonely room,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">When her curtain had shook of its own accord,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And the raven had flapped at her window board,<br /></span> +<span class="i3">To tell of her warrior's doom.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"'Now sing ye the death-song, and loudly pray<br /></span> +<span class="i3">For the soul of my knight so dear!<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And call me a widow this wretched day,<br /></span> +<span class="i3">Since the warning of <span class="smcap">God</span> is here.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">For a nightmare rests on my strangled sleep;<br /></span> +<span class="i3">The lord of my bosom is doomed to die!<br /></span> +<span class="i1">His valorous heart they have wounded deep,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And the blood-red tears shall his country weep<br /></span> +<span class="i3">For Wallace of Ellerslie!'<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Yet knew not his country, that ominous hour—<br /></span> +<span class="i3">Ere the loud matin-bell was rung—<br /></span> +<span class="i1">That the trumpet of death, from an English tower,<br /></span> +<span class="i3">Had the dirge of her champion sung.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">When his dungeon-light looked dim and red<br /></span> +<span class="i3">On the highborn blood of a martyr slain,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">No anthem was sung at his lowly death-bed—<br /></span> +<span class="i1">No weeping was there when <em>his</em> bosom bled,<br /></span> +<span class="i3">And is heart was rent in twain.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Oh! it was not thus when his ashen spear<br /></span> +<span class="i3">Was true to that knight forlorn,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And hosts of a thousand wore scattered like deer<br /></span> +<span class="i3">At the blast of a hunter's horn;<br /></span> +<span class="i1"><em>When he strode o'er the wreck of each well-fought field,</em><br /></span> +<span class="i3"><em>With the yellow-haired chiefs of his native land;</em><br /></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +<span class="i1"><em>For his lance was not shivered on helmet or shield,</em><br /></span> +<span class="i1"><em>And the sword that was fit for archangel to wield</em><br /></span> +<span class="i3"><em>Was light in his terrible hand!</em><br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Yet, bleeding and bound, though the Wallace wight<br /></span> +<span class="i3">For his long-loved country die,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The bugle ne'er sung to a braver knight<br /></span> +<span class="i3">Than William of Ellerslie!<br /></span> +<span class="i1">But the day of his triumphs shall never depart;<br /></span> +<span class="i3">His head, unentombed, shall with glory be palmed—<br /></span> +<span class="i1">From its blood-streaming altar his spirit shall start;<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Though the raven has fed on his mouldering heart,<br /></span> +<span class="i3">A nobler was never embalmed!"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Nothing can be finer than the lines +we have quoted in Italics, nor perhaps +did Campbell himself ever match +them. Local reputations are dearly +cherished in the west of Scotland, and +even at this early period our poet was +denominated "the Pope of Glasgow."</p> + +<p>Again Campbell migrated to Edinburgh, +but still with no fixed determination +as to the choice of a profession: +his intention was to attend the +public lectures at the University, and +also to push his connexion with the +booksellers, so as to obtain the means +of livelihood. Failing this last resource, +he contemplated removing to America, +in which country his eldest brother +was permanently settled. Fortunately +for himself, he now made the +acquaintance of several young men +who were destined afterwards to +attract the public observation, and to +win great names in different branches +of literature. Among these were +Scott, Brougham, Leyden, Jeffrey, +Dr Thomas Brown, and Grahame, the +author of <cite>The Sabbath</cite>. Mr John +Richardson, who had the good fortune +to remain through life the intimate +friend both of Scott and Campbell, +was also, at this early period, the +chosen companion of the latter, and +contributed much, by his judicious +counsels and criticisms, to nerve the +poet for that successful effort which, +shortly afterwards, took the world of +letters by storm. Dr Anderson also +continued his literary superintendence, +and anxiously watched over the progress +of the new poem upon which +Campbell was now engaged. At +length, in 1799, the <cite>Pleasures of +Hope</cite> appeared.</p> + +<p>Rarely has any volume of poetry +met with such rapid success. Campbell +had few living rivals of established +reputation to contend with; and the +freshness of his thought, the extreme +sweetness of his numbers, and the +fine taste which pervaded the whole +composition, fell like magic on the ear +of the public, and won their immediate +approbation. It is true that, as a +speculation, this volume did not prove +remarkably lucrative to the author: +he had disposed of the copyright +before publication for a sum of sixty +pounds, but, through the liberality of +the publishers, he received for some +years a further sum on the issue of +each edition. The book was certainly +worth a great deal more; but many +an author would be glad to surrender +all claim for profit on his first adventure, +could he be assured of such +valuable popularity as Campbell now +acquired. He presently became a +lion in Edinburgh society; and, what +was far better, he secured the countenance +and friendship of such men as +Dugald Stewart, Henry Mackenzie, +Dr Gregory, the Rev. Archibald Alison, +and Telford, the celebrated engineer. +It is pleasant to know that +the friendships so formed were interrupted +only by death.</p> + +<p>Campbell had now, to use a common +but familiar phrase, the ball at +his foot, but never did there live a +man less capable of appreciating opportunity. +At an age when most +young men are students, he had won +fame—fame, too, in such measure and +of such a kind as secured him +against reaction, or the possibility of +a speedy neglect following upon so +rapid a success. Had he deliberately +followed up his advantage with anything +like ordinary diligence, fortune +as well as fame would have been his +immediate reward. Like Aladdin, he +was in possession of a talisman which +could open to him the cavern in which +a still greater treasure was contained; +but he shrunk from the labour which +was indispensable for the effort. He +either could not or would not summon +up sufficient resolution to betake himself +to a new task; but, under the +pretext of improving his mind by +travel, gave way to his erratic propensities, +and departed for the Continent +with a slender purse, and, as +usual, no fixity of purpose.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p> + +<p>We confess that the portion of his +correspondence which relates to this +expedition does not appear to us remarkably +interesting. He resided +chiefly at Ratisbon, where his time +appears to have been tolerably equally +divided between writing lyrics for the +<cite>Morning Chronicle</cite>, then under the +superintendence of Mr Perry, and +squabbling with the monks of the +Scottish Convent of Saint James. +Some of his best minor poems were +composed at this period; but it will +be easily comprehended that, from the +style of their publication in a fugitive +form, they could add but little at the +time to his reputation, and certainly +they did not materially improve his +finances. With a contemplated poem +of some magnitude—the <cite>Queen of the +North</cite>—he made little progress; and, +upon the whole, this year was spent +uncomfortably. After his return to +Britain, he resided for some time in +Edinburgh and London, mixing in the +best and most cultivated society, but +sorely straitened in circumstances, +which, nevertheless, he had not the +courage or the patience to improve.</p> + +<p>A quarto edition of the <cite>Pleasures</cite>, +printed by subscription for his own +benefit, at length put him in funds, +and probably tempted him to marry. +Then came the real cares of life,—an +increased establishment, an increasing +family: new mouths to provide for, +and no settled mode of livelihood. +Of all literary men, Campbell was +least calculated, both by habit and +inclination, to pursue a profession +which, with many temptations, was +then, and is still, precarious. He was +not, like Scott, a man of business habits +and unflagging industry. His impulses +to write were short, and his +fastidiousness interfered with his impulse. +Booksellers were slow in offering +him employment, for they could +not depend on his punctuality. Those +who have frequent dealings with the +trade know how much depends upon +the observance of this excellent virtue; +but Campbell never could be brought +to appreciate its full value. The +printing-press had difficulty in keeping +pace with the pen of Scott: to +wait for that of Campbell was equivalent +to a cessation of labour. Therefore +it is not surprising that, about +this period, most of his negotiations +failed. Proposals for an edition of +the British Poets, a large and expensive +work, to be executed jointly by +Scott and Campbell, fell to the ground: +and the bard of Hope gave vent to his +feelings by execrating the phalanx of +the Row.</p> + +<p>At the very moment when his prospects +appeared to be shrouded in the +deepest gloom, Campbell received intimation +that he had been placed on +the pension-list as an annuitant of +£200. Never was the royal bounty +more seasonably extended; and this +high recognition of his genius seems +for a time to have inspired him with +new energy. He commenced the compilation +of the <cite>Specimens of British +Poets</cite>; but his indolent habits +overcame him, and the work was not +given to the public until <em>thirteen years</em> +after it was undertaken. No wonder +that the booksellers were chary of +staking their capital on the faith of +his promised performances!</p> + +<p>Ten years after the publication of +the <cite>Pleasures of Hope</cite>, <cite>Gertrude of +Wyoming</cite> appeared. That exquisite +little poem demonstrated, in the most +conclusive manner, that the author's +poetical powers were not exhausted by +his earlier effort, and the same volume +contained the noblest of his immortal +lyrics. Campbell was now at the +highest point of his renown. Critics +may compare together the longer +poems, and, according as their taste +leans towards the didactic or the +descriptive form of composition, may +differ in awarding the palm of excellence, +but there can be but one opinion +as to the lyrical poetry. In this respect +Campbell stands alone among +his contemporaries, and since then he +has never been surpassed. <cite>Lochiel's +Warning</cite> and the <em>Battle of the Baltic</em> +were among the pieces then published; +and it would be difficult, out of the +whole mass of British poetry, to select +two specimens, by the same author, +which may fairly rank with these.</p> + +<p>A new literary field was shortly +after this opened to Campbell. He was +engaged to deliver a course of lectures +on poetry at the Royal Institution of +London, and the scheme proved not +only successful but lucrative. In after +years he lectured repeatedly on the +belles lettres at Liverpool, Birmingham, +and other places, and the celebrity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +his name always commanded a crowd of +listeners. We learn from Dr Beattie, +that at two periods of his life it was proposed +to bring him forward as a candidate, +either for the chair of Rhetoric +or that of History in the University of +Edinburgh; but he seems to have +recoiled from the idea of the labour +necessary for the preparation of a +thorough academical course, a task +which his extreme natural fastidiousness +would doubtless have rendered +doubly irksome. Several more years, +a portion of which time was spent on +the Continent, passed over without any +remarkable result, until, at the age of +forty-three, Campbell entered upon +the duties of the editorship of the <em>New +Monthly Magazine</em>.</p> + +<p>He held this situation for ten years, +and resigned it, according to his own +account, "because it was utterly impossible +to continue the editor without +interminable scrapes, together with a +law-suit now and then." In the interim, +however, certain important +events had taken place. In the first +place, he had published <em>Theodric</em>—a +poem which, in spite of a most laudatory +critique in the <em>Edinburgh Review</em>, +left a painful impression on the public +mind, and was generally considered +as a symptom either that the rich +mine of poesy was worked out, or +that the genius of the author had +been employed in a wrong direction. +In the second place, he took an active +share in the foundation of the London +University. He appears, indeed, to +have been the originator of the scheme, +and to have managed the preliminary +details with more than common skill +and prudence. It was mainly through +his exertions that it did not assume +the aspect of a mere sectarian institution, +bigoted in its principles and +circumscribed in its sphere of utility. +Shortly after this academical experiment, +he was elected Lord Rector of +the Glasgow University. Whatever +abstract value may be attached to +such an honour—and we are aware +that very conflicting opinions have +been expressed upon the point—this +distinction was one of the most gratifying +of all the tributes which were +ever rendered to Campbell. He found +himself preferred, by the students of +that university where his first aspirations +after fame had been roused, to +one of the first orators and statesmen +of the age; and his warm heart overflowed +with delight at the kindly compliment. +He resolved not to accept +the office as a mere sinecure, but +strictly to perform those duties which +were prescribed by ancient statute, but +which had fallen into abeyance by the +carelessness of nominal Rectors. He +entered as warmly into the feelings, +and as cordially supported the interests +of the students, as if the academical +red gown of Glasgow had been still +fresh upon his shoulders; and such +being the case, it is not surprising +that he was almost adored by his +youthful constituents. This portion +of the memoirs is very interesting: it +displays the character of Campbell in +a most amiable light; and the coldest +reader cannot fail to peruse with pleasure +the records of an ovation so +truly gratifying to the sensibilities of +the kind and affectionate poet. For +three years, during which unusual +period he held the office, his correspondence +with the students never +flagged; and it may be doubted whether +the university ever possessed a better +Rector.</p> + +<p>In 1831 he took up the Polish cause, +and founded an association in London, +which for many years was the main +support of the unfortunate exiles who +sought refuge in Britain. The public +sympathy was at that time largely excited +in their favour, not only by the gallant +struggle which they had made for +regaining their ancient independence, +but from the subsequent severities perpetrated +by the Russian government. +Campbell, from his earliest years, had +denounced the unprincipled partition +of Poland; he watched the progress +of the revolution with an anxiety +almost amounting to fanaticism; and +when the outbreak was at last put +down by the strong hand of power, +his passion exceeded all bounds. Day +and night his thoughts were of Poland +only: in his correspondence he hardly +touched upon any other theme; and, +carried away by his zeal to serve the +exiles, he neglected his usual avocations. +The mind of Campbell was +naturally of an impulsive cast: but +the fits were rather violent than enduring. +This psychological tendency +was, perhaps, his most serious misfortune, +since it invariably prevented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +him from maturing the most important +projects he conceived. Unless +the scheme was such as could be executed +with rapidity, he was apt to halt +in the progress.</p> + +<p>He next became engaged in a new +magazine speculation—<em>The Metropolitan</em>—which, +instead of turning +out, as he anticipated, a mine of +wealth, very nearly involved him in +serious pecuniary responsibility. After +this, his public career gradually became +less marked. The last poem +which he published, <em>The Pilgrim of +Glencoe</em>, exhibited few symptoms of +the fire and energy conspicuous in his +early efforts. "This work," says Dr +Beattie, "in one or two instances was +very favourably reviewed—in others, +the tone of criticism was cold and +austere; but neither praise nor censure +could induce the public to judge +for themselves; and silence, more fatal +in such cases than censure, took the +poem for a time under her wing. The +poet himself expressed little surprise +at the apathy with which his new +volume had been received; but whatever +indifference he felt for the influence +it might have upon his reputation, +he could not feel indifferent to +the more immediate effect which a +tardy or greatly diminished sale must +have upon his prospects as a householder. +'A new poem from the pen +of Campbell,' he was told, 'was as good +as a bill at sight;' but, from some +error in the drawing, as it turned out, +it was not negotiable; and the expenses +into which he had been led, by +trusting too much to popular favour, +were now to be defrayed from other +sources." It ought, however, to be +remarked, that he had now arrived at +his great climacteric. He was sixty-four +years of age, and his constitution, +never very robust, began to exhibit +symptoms of decay. Dr Beattie, who +had long watched him with affectionate +solicitude, in the double character +of physician and friend, thus notes his +observation of the change. "At the +breakfast or dinner table—particularly +when surrounded by old friends—he +was generally animated, full of anecdote, +and always projecting new +schemes of benevolence. But still +there was a visible change in his conversation: +it seemed to flow less freely; +it required an effort to support it; and +on topics in which he once felt a keen +interest, he now said but little, or remained +silent and thoughtful. The +change in his outward appearance was +still more observable; he walked with +a feeble step, complained of constant +chilliness; while his countenance, unless +when he entered into conversation, +was strongly marked with an expression +of languor and anxiety. The +sparkling intelligence that once animated +his features was greatly obscured; +he quoted his favourite authors +with hesitation—because, he told me, +he often could not recollect their +names."</p> + +<p>The remainder of his life was spent +in comparative seclusion. Long before +this period he was left a solitary +man. His wife, whom he loved with +deep and enduring affection, was taken +away—one of his sons died in childhood, +and the other was stricken with +a malady which proved incurable. +But the kind offices of a nephew and +niece, and the attentions of many +friends, amongst whom Dr Beattie +will always be remembered as the +chief, soothed the last days of the +poet, and supplied those duties which +could not be rendered by dearer hands. +He expired at Boulogne, on 15th +June 1844, his age being sixty-seven, +and his body was worthily interred in +Westminster Abbey, with the honours +of a public funeral.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"Never," says Beattie, "since the +death of Addison, it was remarked, had +the obsequies of any literary man been attended +by circumstances more honourable +to the national feeling, and more expressive +of cordial respect and homage, than +those of Thomas Campbell.</p> + +<p>"Soon after noon, the procession began +to move from the Jerusalem Chamber to +Poet's Corner, and in a few minutes +passed slowly down the long lofty aisle—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'Through breathing statues, then unheeded things;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Through rows of warriors, and through walks of kings.'<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noind">On each side the pillared avenues were +lined with spectators, all watching the +solemn pageant in reverential silence, and +mostly in deep mourning. The Rev. +Henry Milman, himself an eminent poet, +headed the procession; while the service +for the dead, answered by the deep-toned +organ, in sounds like distant thunder, +produced an effect of indescribable solemnity. +One only feeling seemed to pervade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +the assembled spectators, and was +visible on every face—a desire to express +their sympathy in a manner suitable to +the occasion. He who had celebrated +the glory and enjoyed the favour of his +country for more than forty years, had +come at last to take his appointed chamber +in the Hall of Death—to mingle ashes +with those illustrious predecessors, who, +by steep and difficult paths, had attained +a lofty eminence in her literature, and +made a lasting impression on the national +heart."</p></blockquote> + +<p>We observe that Dr Beattie has, +very properly, passed over with little +notice certain statements, emanating +from persons who styled themselves +the friends of Campbell, regarding his +habits of life during the latter portion +of his years. It is a misfortune incidental +to almost all men of genius, +that they are surrounded by a fry of +small literary adulators, who, in order +to magnify themselves, make a practice +of reporting every circumstance, +however trivial, which falls under +their observation, and who are not +always very scrupulous in adhering to +the truth. Campbell, who had the +full poetical share of vanity in his +composition, was peculiarly liable to +the attacks of such insidious worshippers, +and was not sufficiently careful +in the selection of his associates. +Hence imputations, not involving any +question of honour or morality, but +implying frailty to a considerable degree, +have been openly hazarded by +some who, in their own persons, are +no patterns of the cardinal virtues. +Such statements do no honour either +to the heart or the judgment of those +who devised them: nor would we have +even touched upon the subject, save +to reprobate, in the strongest manner, +these breaches of domestic privacy, +and of ill-judged and unmerited confidence.</p> + +<p>A good deal of the correspondence +printed in these volumes is of a trifling +nature, and interferes materially with +the conciseness of the biography. We +do not mean to say that anything +objectionable has been included, but +there are too many notes and epistles +upon familiar topics, which neither +illustrate the peculiar tone of Campbell's +mind, nor throw any light whatever +upon his poetical history. But +the correspondence with his own family +is highly interesting. Nowhere +does Campbell appear in a higher and +more estimable point of view, than in +the character of son and brother. +Even in the hours of his darkest adversity, +we find him sharing his small +and precarious gains with his mother +and sisters; and they were in an equal +degree the participators of his better +fortunes. His fondness and consideration +for his wife and children are +most conspicuous; and many of his +letters regarding his boy, when "the +dark shadow" had passed across his +mind, are extremely affecting. Those +who have a taste for the modern style +of maundering about children, and the +perverted pictures of infancy so common +in our social literature, may not, +perhaps, see much to admire in the +following extract from a letter by +Campbell, announcing the birth of his +eldest child: to us it appears a pure +and exquisite picture:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"This little gentleman all this while +looked to be so proud of his new station in +society, that he held up his blue eyes and +placid little face with perfect indifference +to what people about him felt or thought. +Our first interview was when he lay in +his little crib, in the midst of white muslin +and dainty lace, prepared by Matilda's +hands, long before the stranger's arrival. +I verily believe, in spite of my partiality, +that lovelier babe was never smiled upon +by the light of heaven. He was breathing +sweetly in his first sleep. I durst +not waken him, but ventured to give him +one kiss. He gave a faint murmur, and +opened his little azure lights. Since that +time he has continued to grow in grace +and stature. I can take him in my arms; +but still his good nature and his beauty +are but provocatives to the affection +which one must not indulge: he cannot +bear to be hugged, he cannot yet stand a +worrying. Oh! that I were sure he +would live to the days when I could take +him on my knee, and feel the strong +plumpness of childhood waxing into vigorous +youth. My poor boy! shall I have +the ecstasy to teach him thoughts and +knowledge, and reciprocity of love to me? +It is bold to venture into futurity so far! +at present his lovely little face is a comfort +to me; his lips breathe that fragrance +which it is one of the loveliest kindnesses +of Nature that she has given to infants—a +sweetness of smell more delightful than +all the treasures of Arabia. What adorable +beauties of God and Nature's bounty +we live in without knowing! How few +have ever seemed to think an infant beautiful! +But to me there seems to be a beauty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +in the earliest dawn of infancy which is +not inferior to the attractions of childhood, +especially when they sleep. Their +looks excite a more tender train of emotions. +It is like the tremulous anxiety +which we feel for a candle new lighted, +which we dread going out."</p></blockquote> + +<p>The sensibility, too, which he uniformly +exhibited towards those who +had shown him kindness, especially +his older and earlier friends, is exceedingly +pleasing. In writing to or +speaking of the Rev. Archibald Alison +and Dugald Stewart, his tone is one +of heartfelt, and almost filial, affection +and reverence; and amongst all the +benevolent actions performed by those +great and good men, there were few +to which they could revert with more +pleasure than to their seasonable patronage +of the young and sanguine +poet. With his literary contemporaries, +also, he lived upon good terms,—a +circumstance rather remarkable, for +Campbell, notwithstanding his good-nature, +was sufficiently touchy, and +keenly alive to satire or hostile criticism. +Excepting an early quarrel +with John Leyden, on the score of +some reported misrepresentation, a +temporary feud with Moore, which +was speedily reconciled, and a short +and unacrimonious disruption from +Bowles, we are not aware that he +ever differed with any of his gifted +brethren. He was upon the best +terms with Scott; and Dr Beattie has +given us several valuable specimens +of their mutual correspondence. With +Rogers he was intimate to the last: +and even the sarcastic and dangerous +Byron always mentioned him with +expressions of regard. Let us add, +moreover, that, whenever he had the +power, he was ready, even in instances +where his own interest might have +counselled otherwise, to lend a helping +hand to others who were struggling +for literary reputation. This generous +impulse was sometimes carried so far +as to injure him in his editorial capacity; +for, although fastidious to a degree +as to the quality of his own +writings, it was always with a sore +heart that he shut the door in the +face of a needy contributor.</p> + +<p>The querulousness with which Campbell +complains throughout, of the cruel +treatment which he met with at the +hands of the publishers, would be +amusing if it were not at the same +time most unjust. He acknowledges, +in a letter written to Mr Richardson, +so late as 1812, that the sale of his +poems, for a series of years before, had +yielded him, on an average, £500 per +annum: not a bad annuity, we think, +as the proceeds of a couple of volumes! +We happen to know, moreover, that +by the first publication of <em>Gertrude</em> +Campbell made upwards of a thousand +pounds; and, unless we are grievously +misinformed, he received from Mr Murray, +for the copyright of the <em>Specimens</em>, +a similar sum, being double +the amount contracted for. We have +already mentioned the publication of +a subscription edition of the <em>Pleasures +of Hope</em>, "which," says Dr Beattie, +"with great liberality on the part of the +publishers, was to be brought out for +his own exclusive benefit." We should +not have alluded to these matters, +which, however, we believe, are no +secrets, but for the publication by Dr +Beattie of some very absurd expressions +used and reiterated by Campbell. +Such phrases as the following constantly +occur: "They are the greatest +ravens on earth with whom we have to +deal—liberal enough as booksellers go—but +still, you know, ravens, croakers, +suckers of innocent blood, and living +men's brains." Nor, in the opinion +of Campbell, were these outrages confined +merely to the living subjects, for +he says, in reference to the older +tenants of Parnassus, "Poor Bards! +you are all ill used, even after death, +by those who have lived upon your +brains. And now, having scooped +out those brains, they drink out of +them, like Vandals out of the skulls +of the severed and slain, served up by +a Gothic Ganymede!" Further, in +speaking of Napoleon, he says, " Perhaps +in my feelings towards the Gallic +usurper there may be some personal +bias; for I must confess that, ever +since he shot the bookseller in Germany, +I have had a warm side to him. +It was sacrificing an offering, by the +hand of genius, to the manes of the +victims immolated by the trade; and +I only wish we had Nap here for a +short time, to cut out a few of our own +cormorants." The fact is, that so far +from Campbell being ill-used by the +trade, they behaved towards him with +uncommon liberality. It is true that,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +in several instances, they hesitated in +making high terms for work not yet +commenced, with a man who was notoriously +deficient in punctuality and +perseverance; nor are they to be +blamed, when we consider the number +of his schemes, and the very few instances +in which these were brought +to maturity.</p> + +<p>On the whole, then, though we +cannot bestow unqualified praise upon +Dr Beattie, for the manner in which +he has compiled these volumes, we +shall state that we have passed no +unprofitable hours in their perusal. +We rise from them with full appreciation +of the many excellent points +in the poet's character, with an augmented +regard for his memory on +account of the virtues so eminently +displayed, and with no lessened reverence +for the man in consequence of +the admitted foibles from which none +of the human family are exempt. +The book may be practically useful to +those who aspire to literary eminence, +and who are apt to rely too confidently +and implicitly on the powers +with which they are naturally gifted. +So long as Campbell was under restraint—so +long as he was subjected +to the wholesome discipline of the +University, and forced into the race of +emulation, we find that his genius +was largely and rapidly developed. +He was not a mere philological scholar, +though his attainments in Greek might +have put many a pedant to the blush; +but he improved his sense of beauty +and his taste by the contemplation of +the Attic flowers; and, without injuring +his style by any affectation +of antiquity unsuited to the tone of +his age, he adorned it by many of the +graces which are presented by the +ancient models. At Glasgow he +worked hard and won merited honours. +But afterwards, by abandoning +himself to a desultory course of study +and of composition, by never acting +upon the wise and sure plan of keeping +one object only steadily in view, +and persevering in spite of all difficulties +until that point was attained,—he +failed in realising the high expectations +which were justified by his +early promise. As it is, Campbell's +name is ranked high in the roll +of the British poets; but assuredly +he would have occupied a still more +exalted place, and also have avoided +much of that anxiety which at times +clouded his existence, if he had used +his fine natural gifts with but a +portion of the energy and determination +of his great compatriot, Scott.</p> + +<p>In conclusion let us remark, that +however Dr Beattie may have erred +on the side of prolixity, by including +in the compass of the memoirs some +trifling and irrelevant matter, he is +more than concise whenever it is +necessary to allude to his own relationship +with Campbell. He has +made no parade whatever of his intimacy +with the poet; and no stranger, +in perusing these volumes, could discover +that to Beattie Campbell was +substantially indebted for many disinterested +acts of friendship, which +contributed largely to the comfort of +his declining years. This modesty is +a rare feature in modern biography; +and, when it does occur so remarkably +as here, we are bound to mention +it with special honour.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>THE ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES AND THEIR REFORMS.</h2> + + +<p>All over Europe, of late, we have +been hearing a great deal of universities +and students. The trencher-cap +has claimed a right to take its part in +the movements which make or mar +the destinies of nations, by the side +of plumed casque and priestly tiara. +Whether it was the beer of the +German burschen that "decocted +their cold blood to such valiant heat," +or whether their practice in make-believe +duels had imparted a savage +appetite for foeman's blood in some +more genuine combat, or whether +Fichte's metaphysics had fairly muddled +their brains into delirium, certain +it is that they have, wheresoever +they could find an opportunity, been +foremost in the cause of demolition +and disorder, vied with and encouraged +the lowest of the rabble in +lawless aggressions, exulted in the +glow of blazing houses, and cried +havoc to rapine and murder.</p> + +<p>It is curious that, while all this has +been going on in Europe, the attention +of the public should have been so +much occupied by the condition of our +English universities. Still more curious +is it, perhaps, that so large a +portion of the attention thus directed +should have assumed an objurgatory +tone, as if Oxford and Cambridge +were not duly performing their functions, +as if they were of a character +suited only to bygone ages, as if, in +short, they were doing nothing. True +enough, in one sense, they were +"doing nothing." There was no +academical legion formed—none, at +least, that we heard of—in Christchurch +Meadows or Trinity Walks; +no body of sympathising students +marched to London, with the view of +taking part in the democratic exhibitions +of the 10th of April. If Cuffey +is to be President of the British Republic, +he must search for the body-guard +of democracy elsewhere than on +the banks of the Cam and the Isis. +No doubt this excellent result is attributable, +in a great measure, to the +loyalty of the professional and middle +classes, from which our university +students principally spring. Their +feelings will naturally be akin to those +of their relations and friends. But +when, in so many other instances, we +see the academic population taking +the lead in the work of revolution, +beyond any spirit which exists among +their kindred, and urged on by a +democratic madness of purely academic +growth, we cannot help holding +that some credit on behalf of the loyalty +of English students is due to the +institutions by the influence of which +they are surrounded.</p> + +<p>We are inclined to think that the +public have not been sufficiently alive +to this not unimportant difference +between Oxford and Heidelberg—Cambridge +and Vienna. Certes, but +little account was taken of the peaceful +bearing of our academic population. +On the contrary, much supercilious +wordiness has been lavished, +more or less to the discredit of cap +and gown, by portions of the London +press in the lead, and, as a necessary +consequence, by provincial journalists +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad libitum</i>. This talk, current now +for some years, was all concentrated +and endued with new vigour by a +movement of the University of Cambridge +itself. The people who stop +your way by talking of "progress," +and deal out dark rhodomontade on +the subject of "enlightenment," were +all set agog by what they thought +a symptom of capitulation in the +strongholds of the Ancient. All our +old imbecile friends, the cant phrases +of twenty and thirty years ago, started +up as fresh as paint, ready to go +through all the handling they had before +endured. We heard of, "keeping +alive ancient prejudices," "cleaving +pertinaciously to obsolete forms," +"following a monastic rule," "forgetting +the world outside their college +walls," and multifarious twaddle of this +sort, till the Pope fled from Rome, +or some other little revolution occurred +to withdraw the attention of the public +from this set of phrases to another, +no doubt not less forcible and original. +Others, again, took a friendly tone and +spoke apologetically: it was a great +thing to get any move at all from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +university: those who took the lead +in her management were not men who +mixed with the world at large, and +allowance must be made if they did +not altogether march with the times. +"The world at large" is an expression +of very doubtful import: "all +think their little set mankind:" but +when the resident fellows of colleges +are charged with not duly mixing with +the world at large, we cannot help +thinking that those who use the phrase +are ignoring the existence of the Didcot +Junction and Eastern Counties +Railway, and borrowing their ideas of +academic life from the time when +Hobson travelled "betwixt Cambridge +and the Bull." As far as our +observation goes, we should say that +there is no class of persons who have +better opportunities of taking an extended +view of different phases of +social being, or who are more disposed +to take advantage of those opportunities. +A fellow of a college is not +engaged much more than half the year +in university business; for four months, +at the very least, he generally has it +in his power to expatiate where he +will, from May Fair to Mesopotamia; +he has no household ties to detain him, +and if he does not rub off the lexicographic +rust, and the mathematical +mouldiness, which he may have contracted +during his labours of the term, +he must be possessed of a local attachment +almost vegetable: some few +instances of which secluded existence +still linger in quiet nooks of our halls +and colleges, but which are no more +the types of their class than Parson +Trulliber is a representative of the +country clergy, or the stage Diggory +of the English yeoman. But the self-complacency +of Cockneyism is the +most unshaken thing in this revolutionary +age. It is perfectly ready to +lecture the parson on the teaching of +Greek, or the Yorkshire farmer on the +fattening of bullocks. All the distributive +machinery in the world does +not diminish, it would seem, the absorption +of intelligence by the Ward of +Cheap.</p> + +<p>We are not, however, surprised that +the conclusions, on which we have remarked, +should be those arrived at by +the large class of small observers +whose phraseology we have quoted. +The bustling man of business, who +takes his day-ticket to Oxford or +Cambridge, is of course struck by seeing +a number of usages, for the original +of which, if he inquire, he is +referred back to hoar mediæval times—times +which his Cockney guides dispose +of by some such phrase as crass +ignorance, or feudal barbarism. He +is naturally surprised at such things; +he never saw anything like it before; +they don't do so in Mincing Lane, or +even in Gower Street. He can hardly +be expected to view these matters in +their relation to the system of which +they form a part; he can hardly be +expected to realise in them the symbols +through which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genius loci</i> +finds an utterance and exerts an +agency; and so he goes smiling home +in his railway carriage, and perhaps +buys a number of <cite>Punch</cite> by the way, +and thinks that there is more practical +wisdom in that periodical than is embodied +in the great monuments of +William of Wykeham or Lady Margaret.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, while we rebut these +vague general charges of a blind impassibility +to the influences of the +time, we are far from denying that a +tendency to cling to ancient ideas and +observances is a characteristic of the +universities. This tendency is a property +of all corporate institutions, +and is commonly the reason of their +foundation. They are to perpetuate +to a future time a feeling or design of +the present; to form a nucleus, round +which the thoughts and principles of +one age congregate, and are thus +handed down to another in a preserved +and crystallised form. Changes of +ideas pass upon them of necessity, +through the individual liability of +their constituent members to be +affected by the current of the passing +time; but these changes take place +rather by a gradual fusion of the old +into the new, than by those sudden +transitions to which the popular and +prevailing opinions are so often subjected. +And it may fairly be supposed +that, by means of this property, +corporations are more likely to adopt +and amalgamate into their framework +that which is most permanent and +genuine, out of all that the ever-changing +tide of time casts upon the +shore.</p> + +<p>Perhaps, too, this tenacity of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +bygone will more naturally be found +to be a characteristic of the universities, +than of other corporations. The +spots which they occupy are holy +ground, fraught with historic memories +of the great and wise of former +days. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genius loci</i> is a mighty +advocate in behalf of antiquity:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"As the ghost of Homer clings<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Round Scamander's wasting springs;<br /></span> +<span class="i1">As divinest Shakspeare's might<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Fills Avon and the world with light;"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noind">—so we may not well pass unaffected +by the congregation of priest, and +poet, and sage, whose recollections +consecrate the banks of our academic +rivers. As we go beneath "Bacon's +mansion," or about Milton's mulberry +tree; as we kneel where Newton +knelt, or dine in halls where the portraits +of Erasmus, and Fisher, and +Taylor, look down upon us,—these are +not times and places for the dogmatism +and arrogance of "the nineteenth +century"—for bragging of our advance +and illumination, or sneering at "the +good old times." This is in accordance +with the law of our nature; but +these recollections, and the lessons +which they teach, are not, if rightly +laid hold of, such as to induce a mere +blind attachment to the skeletons of +dead notions and practices. And +although it may, perhaps must, happen +that, at any given time, there may +be found relics adhering to the system, +whose vitality and meaning have been +withdrawn by time, and left them +dry and sapless, yet we will venture +to assert that, if a dogged adherence +to antiquated forms could fairly be +charged on the universities, they could +never have maintained their ground +amidst the mighty historical transmutations +that have passed over their heads. +Civil wars and popular tumults have +raged around them; the throne has +yielded to violence and to intrigue; +the Church has admitted modifications, +both of her doctrine and her discipline; +and, more than all, the still +more important, though silent and +gradual changes—changes to which +the striking and salient events of +history are but the indexes and visible +signs—changes of thought and rule of +action—have risen and sunk, and +ebbed and flowed, and still these stable +monuments of the piety and munificence +of men whose names are almost +unknown, remain unshorn of their +ancient vigour, and intimately entwined +with our social system.</p> + +<p>But it is time that we should come +to particulars, and make known to +our readers, as briefly as we can, the +nature of the alterations recently introduced +at Cambridge, which have +called forth so much objurgatory commendation +from quarters, which were +commonly considered to entertain +tolerably destructive views in regard +to the universities. We say objurgatory +commendation, because the faint +praise of a "move in the right direction" +was generally more or less coupled +with vigorous denunciation of the antiquated +obstinacy which had so long +kept in the wrong. And here we +must premise the statement of certain +qualities of the age in which we live, +which will have fallen under the +notice of all observers. Perhaps +the most distinguishing feature of our +time is the principle which forms +the life and soul of retail trade—the +principle which sets men to +busy themselves about small and +immediate returns for outlay; which +looks more to the gains across the +counter, than to the advantage which +is general, or distant, or future. In a +word, <em>practicality</em> is the ruling passion +of our day. As might have been expected, +education, among other things, +has been subjected to this huckstering +test. People have asked, what is the +market value of this or that branch +of learning? Will it get a boy on in +the world? Will it enable him to +provide for himself soon? Will the +returns for the expenditure I am +going to make be quick and certain? +Cowper represents the father of a son +intended for the church as speculating +on his young hopeful's prospects after +the following fashion:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Let reverend churls his ignorance rebuke,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Who starve upon a dog's-eared Pentateuch,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The parson knows enough who knows a duke."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noind">In these days the acquaintance of a +duke is not of the same relative value +as it was when Cowper wrote; but +this sort of worldly-wise calculation +is more prevalent than ever, and the +cry of the largest class of the public +is—give us such knowledge as will <em>pay</em>. +Those who took this commercial view +of education derived no small encouragement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +from the circumstance that +Prince Albert, the learned field-marshal, +and warlike chancellor of Cambridge +University, had interfered +to promote the culture of modern +languages in these venerable precincts +of Eton, where for many a +year Henry's holy shade had watched +the growth of an education of less obvious +utility. How was young Thomas +or William "the better off" for +being able to con "the tale of Troy divine?" +But teach him to mince a little +French, simper a little Italian, snarl a +little German, and there he is at once +accomplished for an <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">attaché</i>, a correspondent, +or a bagman—profitable +walks of life all of them. And the same +notions mounted still higher in the ascendant, +when the senate of the University +of Cambridge apparently evinced +a desire to examine the requirements +of that body by the same standard.</p> + +<p>The first step of this kind was taken +about three years ago. Most of our +readers are aware that, at Cambridge, +those candidates for a degree who do +not aspire to honours are said to go +out in the <em>poll</em>; this being the abbreviated +term to denote those who were +classically designated ὁι πολλοι. Now +the qualifications required for attaining +this poll degree consisted of an +acquaintance with a part of Homer, +a part of Virgil, a part of the Greek +Testament, and Paley's <cite>Evidences of +Christianity</cite>, over and above the mathematics, +of which we shall speak +presently. By what curious infelicity +the recondite, and, in many particulars, +inexplicable language of Homer +has been so commonly selected for +beginners in Greek at school, and, +as in this case, for those who were not +expected to appear as accomplished +scholars—we need not here stop to +inquire. Suffice it to say that the +university, in this initial reform, +ousted Homer and Virgil from the +course, and supplied their places with +a Latin and Greek author, to be varied +in each successive year. This was +decidedly an improvement, at least as +regards Homer, for the reason we have +alluded to above. Perhaps a better +innovation would have been to have +followed the Oxford system, and allowed +to the student a choice of his +author. But it is a great misfortune +that the university, in recasting this +course, did not substitute a work of +some one of the logical or philosophical +authors current in the English +language, for the shallow and plausible +book of Paley's above mentioned—with +regard to which it would be +difficult to say whether it is worse +chosen as a model of reasoning, or as +a proof of Christian facts.</p> + +<p>The mathematical portion of this +course consisted of Euclid, algebra, +and trigonometry, the student being +thus trained in the model processes of +pure mathematical reasoning left us +by the first, and also brought acquainted +with the elementary operations +of analysis. As a matter of +mental training, the most valuable +portion of this curriculum was the +knowledge acquired of the geometrical +processes employed by Euclid, as +familiarising the mind of the student +with the severest forms of reasoning, +and the steps whereby indubitable +verity is attained. This portion, however, +was most especially selected for +curtailment by the reforms to which +we are alluding. In the stead of the +requirements thus displaced, a motley +amount of elementary propositions +in statics, dynamics, and hydrostatics, +were substituted—useful information +enough as instances of the simpler +applications of the analytical machinery +of mathematics, but comparatively +worthless as an exercise of the +mind. Country clergymen, whose +forgotten mathematics loomed grandly +on their minds through the mist of +years, were confounded with disappointment +at beholding their sons, in +whom they expected to find philosophers, +return to them with an examination +paper, apparently rather calculated +to unfold the mysteries of engineering, +well-sinking, and carpentering.</p> + +<p>This object—the practicability and +immediate utility of the studies pursued, +in preference to the superiority +of mental training derivable from +them—seems to be simply that which +has dictated the recent innovations of +1848. The principle which entered +into both measures may easily be +traced in the prevalent phases of +literature and science throughout the +public at large. A few years ago, +every one fancied himself a philosopher. +Little volumes, cabinet cyclopædias +and the like, swarmed on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +booksellers' shelves, containing a +string of disjointed and bald scientific +facts, involving no truth and expressive +of no law, but more or less +adroitly arranged under several heads, +with a <em>savant</em> air. The man of business—the +apprentice—the boarding-school +miss—took it into their heads +that a royal road was thus opened to +all branches of useful and entertaining +knowledge,—that the acquirements of +Bacon were "in this wonderful age" +brought within the reach of every one +who had an occasional hour or two in +the day to spare from more mechanical +employments; and that the progress +from ignorance to philosophy was as +much facilitated by these little-book +contrivances, as the journey from London +to Birmingham, by the rushing +railway-train, was an advance upon +the week's toil of our forefathers in +accomplishing the same space. Much +of this mania for desultory knowledge +has evaporated, but its influences are +still distinctly to be traced among us. +It is not surprising that those influences +should in some measure have +affected the universities. In accordance +with the popular notions afloat, +the Cambridge legislators followed up +the alteration which we have been +describing by the adoption of their +recent measures, by which they +effected an extension of their field of +"honours" similar to that which they +had already accomplished in the qualifications +for the ordinary degree. +To the old "triposes," or classes of +honours in mathematics and classics, +they have now added two more—namely, +one in moral sciences and +one in natural sciences.</p> + +<p>Before, however, we offer any conjectures +as to the probable effect of +these yet untried changes, we must +remind our readers of a certain characteristic +of the Cambridge system, +which is important in estimating the +internal relations of the late reforms. +The academic life of Cambridge circulates +through two concurrent systems, +which we may term the university +and the collegiate system. +The university is one corporation, and +each individual college is altogether +another. The union between the two +systems might be dissolved without +difficulty. If the university were to +abandon her ancient seat, and take +up some new abode, as she did for a +time at Northampton some centuries +ago, the colleges might still remain +as places of education, with but little +modification of their present character. +The older system—the university—has +had its functions gradually +absorbed in a great measure by the +collegiate. The earliest form in which +Cambridge appears, dimly seen in +hoar antiquity, is that of a congregation +of students, commonly living +together for mutual convenience in +hostels, governed by a code of statutes, +and endowed with the privilege of +granting degrees. Then came the +founders of colleges, with their noble +endowments, and reared edifices, in +which societies of these students +should live together under a common +rule, and form distinct corporations +by themselves, for purposes connected +with, and auxiliary to, those of the +university. The latter body has from +time immemorial matriculated only +those who were already members of +some one or other of the colleges; but +there probably was a time at which a +student in the university was not +necessarily a member of any college, +until by degrees these foundations +absorbed into their composition the +whole of the academic population. +By-and-by, the principal part of the +functions of teaching also lapsed into +the hands of the colleges. In the old +times, the university discharged this +duty by means of the public readings +or lectures by the newly admitted +masters of arts, (termed <em>regents</em>,) and +by the keeping of acts and opponencies—being +certain <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">vivâ voce</i> disputations—by +the students. To this system, +comprehending the main studies of +the place, was superadded, by individual +endowment or royal beneficence, +the collateral information on +special subjects given by the professors. +The colleges were altogether +subsidiary to this mode of instruction—the +practice being that every student +who enrolled himself in the ranks of +a particular college, must do so under +the charge of some one of the fellows +of the college, who became a kind of +private tutor to him. Hence arose +college tutors; and as their lectures, +given in each separate college, were +found to be the most efficient aids in +prosecuting the university studies, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +readings of the masters of arts gradually +fell altogether into disuse, and +the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">vivâ voce</i> exercises of the students +have nearly done so.</p> + +<p>Possibly, along with the transfer of +the functions of lecturing from the +university regents to the college tutors, +the professorial chairs may also have +declined in importance as an element +of the academic education. But, as we +have before seen, these were never the +main vehicle for the dispensation of +knowledge on the part of the university. +Nevertheless, we suspect that +one object of the recently erected triposes +is to revive the importance of +the professors' lectures in the university +course. For it is now required +that every one who presents himself +as a candidate for the ordinary or <em>poll</em> +degree, shall have attended the lectures +of some one of the professors at +his individual choice; and these lectures +will, moreover, be necessary +guides in the studies required of those +who aim at the honours of the new +triposes. It seems clear, therefore, +that the devisers of the scheme had it +in contemplation, through the medium +of their changes, to fill the class-rooms +of the professors, and so far to assimilate +the modern system to the ancient, +by bringing the university instruction +into more active play. We are disposed +to question the wisdom of these +proceedings. Until now, the university +and the colleges had apportioned +their several functions, by assigning +to the latter the duty of imparting proficiency +in the studies cultivated; to +the former, that of testing proficiency +attained. The two systems had +thus harmonised, as we believe, in +conformity with the requirements of +the age by lapse of time; and if it +was deemed desirable to disturb this +arrangement, and restore the faculty +of teaching to the university, this +should rather have been done, we +think, by reviving the system of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">vivâ +voce</i> disputations, now altogether disused +except in the progress to a degree +in law, physic, or divinity; but which +would form, under proper regulations, +an important adjunct to the ordinary +course, by cultivating a decision, a +readiness, and an ingenuity in reasoning, +which are comparatively left dormant +by a written examination. Again, +it is, as we consider, altogether a mistake +to suppose that the primary end +of a professorial existence is to deliver +lectures. The endowment of a professorship +is rather, as we take it, to +enable the holder of it to give up his +time to the particular science to which +he is devoted; and it is by no means +necessary, especially in these days, +when words are so easily winged by +the printer's devil, that the results of +his labours should be given forth by +oral lectures. At the same time, when +his subject, and his manner of treating +it, were such as to command interest, +he was at no loss for an audience. The +professorships, however, being mostly +established for the purpose of aiding +the pursuit of the inductive sciences, +side by side with the severer studies of +the university, fell under the patronage +of the spirit of the age. Whether +the sciences, for the promotion of +which they were founded, will be +materially advanced by this sort of +"protection," remains to be seen.</p> + +<p>It is likely enough, we think, that +some confusion may arise from this +revival of the lecturing powers of the +university. This, however, will be +easily obviated in practice, as the two +systems have never, so far as we are +aware, manifested anything like a +mutual antagonism or jealousy of each +other. A greater practical difficulty is +one which appears to be left untouched +by the new regime. We allude to +the growing plan of instruction by +private tutors—a calling which has +sprang up, in the strictest principles of +demand and supply, to meet the eagerness +for external aid which has been +induced by the great competition for +university honours. The existence +and increasing importance of the class +of private tutors has been decried as an +evil; and it, no doubt, enhances considerably +the expenses attendant on a +college education. But, after all, this +is only part and parcel of the lot which +has fallen to us in these latter days +of merry England. There are so +many of us, and we keep so constantly +adding to our numbers, that +we must not be surprised at more +pushing and contrivance being required +to realise a livelihood than heretofore; +and as the end to be attained increases +in its relative importance, the outlay +attendant on its attainment will, in the +ordinary course of things, be augmented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +also. It is not our intention, +however, to discuss at this time the +merits or demerits of the private-tutor +system; it suffices for our purpose to +notice it as the reappearance, in another +form, of the old functions of instruction, +as lodged in the hands of the +university regents. As the collegiate +system gradually supplanted that +pristine form, so the office of the +private tutors is, to a certain extent, +supplanting the collegiate system. +These instructors are likely, as we before +said, to occupy, under the new +rules, much the same place as they +held under the old; and indeed it +appears that, whether desirable or not, +it would be extremely difficult to get +rid of them; at all events the colleges, +being now trenched upon by the +university professors on the one +hand, and by the private tutors on +the other, must exert themselves to +ascertain their proper functions, and +to fulfil them with zeal and energy.</p> + +<p>As for the new triposes themselves, +it may be doubted whether the name +given to them is not the most unfortunate +part of them. The common +name of Tripos looks like a confusion +of ideas on the part of the university +itself, and a want of discrimination +between its old studies and its new. +At first, probably, the recent triposes +will be comparatively neglected, and +on that ground alone it is both misjudging +and unfair to include in the +same category of "honours" and +"tripos," classes which are respectively +the subject of ardent competition +and of none at all. But supposing +that the new classes attracted +their fair share of competitors, it +would still be a grievous fault in the +university to hold out to the world +so false an estimate of the vehicle of +mental training, as it would appear +to do by placing on a par the new +studies and the old—by assuming, or +seeming to assume, that ratiocinative +thought may be as well employed +about the fallacies of Mr Ricardo, as +the exact reasoning and indubitable +verities of Euclid and Newton; or +that the faculties of discrimination +and speculation may be unfolded by +the "getting up" of botanical or +chemical nomenclature, not less than +by the new world of thought opened +through the authors of Greece and +Rome. We must, however, confess +that we are now taking the most +unfavourable view of the matter. +With respect, indeed, to the natural +sciences' tripos, we cannot help being +fully of opinion, that it should have +been distinctly recognised as subsidiary +to the main vehicles of education +adopted at Cambridge. But the +moral sciences' tripos furnishes, if +properly constructed, an excellent +means for training thought. It is a +great misfortune that the study of +Aristotle has been suffered at Cambridge +to fall almost into desuetude: +we speak of the philosophical study +of his works in contradistinction to +the philological. The former is +maintained at Oxford with great +success; thus combining, with Oxford +scholarship, a training of the reasoning +powers which is almost an equivalent +for the mathematical studies +of her sister university. Moreover, +the literature of Great Britain boasts +of a band of moral philosophers far +greater than any other modern nation +can produce. The works of Butler, +Cudworth, Berkeley, Hume, Reid, +and Stewart, with many others, form +a group of authorities worthy of the +groves of Academus. The metaphysics +of Locke—we should rather +say, the wall which Locke has built +up between the English mind and the +science of metaphysics—has too long +prevented the moral reasoners of this +country from duly availing themselves +of the treasures at their command. +Under the guidance of such lights as +those we have enumerated, we may +hope to see a school of metaphysical +thinkers arise in England, whose exertions +may dissipate the mist of +half-thought in which Teutonic speculation +has involved the science of its +choice. If, however, the tap-root of +our metaphysical thought is to be cut +through by the study of the plausibilities +of Locke and Paley, (no very +unlikely issue, we should fear, at least +under present circumstances,) then +this moral sciences' tripos also is one +of those things which had better never +have been.</p> + +<p>We repeat that Cambridge has incurred +great blame, if she has allowed +herself to mislead, or to seem to mislead, +the popular mind on these matters. +The more talkative portion of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +the public, and the newspapers which +commonly represent that more talkative +portion, have evidently been inclined +to interpret this movement of +Cambridge as an indication of a most +utilitarian system of education coming +to supplant the old rules. They +anticipate all sorts of civil engineering, +butterfly-dissecting, light geology, +and a whole Babel of modern languages, +to be victoriously let loose on +the home where for many a century +Wisdom has sat with the scroll of Plato +on her knee, and Science has unravelled +the wizard lore of fluxion and equation. +The senate of Cambridge is +egregiously mistaken if it supposes +that it will win over to its body the +students of these popular branches of +knowledge, by following the dictation +of the popular taste. Those who want +to be civil engineers will not come to +a university to learn their art. They +will follow Brunel and Stephenson, +and see how the work is actually done +in practice; and those who do so will +soon prove themselves far superior, +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quoad</i> civil engineering, to the Cambridge-bred +theorist. In like manner, +a month's flirtation in Paris, +or a few games at <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">écarté</i> with a +German baron, will teach the student +of modern languages more French +or German than all the philologists +of Oxford, Cambridge, or Eton can +impart in a year.</p> + +<p class="center"> +"Quam quisque nôrit artem, in hâc se exerceat."<br /> +</p> + +<p class="noind">If the public have mistaken the functions +of the university, it is the more +incumbent on her to assert them correctly. +Nor is the outcry less groundless, +that the universities have failed +to furnish the best men in law +and medicine. With regard to the +law, certain gentlemen were even cited +by name, in leading articles of newspapers, +as types of the class of men +who were now taking the lead at the +bar, and representing an altogether +different school from that trained at +the universities. The fact of the university +men being supplanted, or being +likely to be supplanted, at the bar, +may admit of considerable question. +But it is not, after all, the question +by which the universities are to be +judged. They do not undertake to +make men great lawyers or skilful +physicians; this, where it does belong +to their functions, is a collateral duty, +and not the main object of their training. +That object is distinctly avowed +in their own formularies. That noble +clause in the "bidding prayer" will attach +itself to the memories of most of +those who have heard it:</p> + +<p>"<em>And that there never may be wanting +a supply of persons duly qualified +to serve God, both in Church and State</em>, +let us pray for a blessing on all seminaries +of sound learning and religious +education, particularly the universities +of this realm."</p> + +<p>A higher end to be attained, perhaps, +than that of merely qualifying +the student to "get on in the world." +His university education is not so +much to enable him to attain those +eminent stations which are the prizes +of ability and industry, as to fit him to +adorn and fill worthily those stations +when he has attained them. In truth, +we think it is not desirable, any more +than necessary, that a degree should +be an essential opening to the bar, the +profession of medicine, or even the +Church. The university is injured by +being too much regarded as a step to +be got over with the view of reaching +some ulterior end.</p> + +<p>We dwell on this point with the +more interest, because we are satisfied +that a still greater responsibility +rests with the universities, to guard +the fountains of knowledge pure and +unsullied, in those days of professed +knowledge, than in the so-called dark +ages. Our day is rich in the knowledge +of <em>facts</em>; there were many <em>truths</em> +influencing those men of the times +we please to call dark, which we have +ignored or forgotten. The general +demand for information—for this +knowledge of facts—has made it a +marketable commodity, a subject of +commercial speculation; consequently, +a vast deal that is shallow and desultory, +a vast deal, too, that is counterfeit +and fraudulent, is abroad, made +up for the market, and circulates +among multitudes who are incapable +of separating the grain from the chaff. +It is therefore, we repeat, even more +important that the sources of learning +should be guarded from contamination, +now that the antagonistic principles +are the knowledge of truth and the +subserviency to falsehood, than when, +at the revival of literature, the struggle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +was between knowledge and ignorance.</p> + +<p>We would have the universities remember +that it is their best policy as +corporations, as well as a duty they +owe to those great medieval spirits +who planted them where they stand, +to own a better principle than that +which would lead them to succumb to +what is called popular opinion—in other +words, the floating fallacy of the day—and +aim at producing the shallow +party leaders and favourite writers of +the passing moment. They cannot +control the frothy surface and the +deep under-current at the same time. +It would be a sacrifice to expediency +which, after all, would not serve their +turn. There are institutions which +will do that work, and which will beat +them in the race. Let all such take +their own course.</p> + +<p>"Let Gryll be Gryll, and have his +hoggish kinde:" let Stinkomalee train +the statesmen for the League and the +jokers for <cite>Punch</cite>,—but Oxford and +Cambridge have other rôles.</p> + +<p>It is true, we are told there is a new +aristocracy rising in England, and that +the English universities are gaining no +hold upon the coming generation of +"chiefs of industry." It would be far +better for our social condition that +these same chiefs of industry should +be educated men, and should pass +through a training which might tend +to neutralise the power of the mercantile +iron in entering into their soul. +But at present the race to be rich is +so strong and hardly contested, that +this class is hardly likely, in general, +to devote their scions to academical +studies of any description; and the +merchant or manufacturer who came +from the banks of Isis or Cam, at the +age of twenty-one, to the Exchange +or the Cloth-hall, would find himself +starting under a most heavy disadvantage +as compared with his neighbour +of the same age, who had spent +the last three or four years in a counting-house. +The reason that this class +is not commonly trained in the national +seminaries, is to be sought in the +habit and requirements of the class, +and not in the nature of the education +afforded them.</p> + +<p>We have spoken chiefly of Cambridge, +because Cambridge has put +herself forward as the representative +of a system of so-called university reform—of +a certain movement in the +direction of that principle which would +accommodate the education of our +higher classes to the caprice of a popular +cry or cant phrase. We care not +so much whether that movement in +itself be advantageous or the reverse: +it is against the principles supposed +to be involved in it that we protest. +The report goes, that changes of some +kind or other are contemplated at +Oxford also. If these changes be +made, we trust that they will not be +devised in deference to the noisier +portion of the public, or to that fondness +for short-cuts to knowledge, +which fritters away the energies of the +rising man in the collection of desultory +facts, and the dependence upon +shallow plausibilities. The Scottish +universities, too, are likely to be put +to the test in the same manner as their +sisters of the Southern kingdom; and +the questions raised cannot be uninteresting +to them.</p> + +<p>Nor, indeed, can the whole nation +be otherwise than deeply concerned +in this matter; and we are not surprised, +at the interest which has been excited +by the recent alterations at Cambridge, +though not measures in themselves +of any great importance. While +we have contended for a higher ground +on the part of the universities than +that of merely finding such knowledge +as is required by the popular taste, +and happens to be most current in +the market, and have called upon +them to lead the public mind in these +matters, we need hardly say that we +must not be understood as failing to +see the necessity of those institutions +closely observing the shifting relations +of our social equilibrium, and adapting +their policy by judicious change, if +need be, to the circumstances in which +they find themselves. We might +perhaps adduce the altered position of +the Church with respect to the nation +at large, as an instance of these +changes. We have before hinted +that the universities have, as we +think, in some degree aimed at being +too exclusively the training-schools +of the clergy; and this circumstance, +in our judgment, so far as England is +concerned, has both narrowed the +operations of the Church and the +influence of the universities. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +Church and European civilisation—the +latter having grown up under the +tutelage of the former—stand no +longer in the relation of nurse and +bantling, though Heaven forbid that +they should ever be other than firm +friends and allies! But the Church +is no longer the exclusive teacher of +the world: mankind are in a great +measure taught by books. Viewing +the clergy not in respect of their +sacerdotal functions, but as the instructors +of mankind, we find their +office shared by a motley crowd of +authors, pamphleteers, newspaper +editors, magazine contributors, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quales +nos vel Cluvienus</i>. It is incumbent, +then, on the universities to consider +how they may bring within the sphere +of that control which they exercised +in old times over the clergy, this +mixed multitude of public instructors; +how they may become not +merely the schools of the clerical +order, but also the nurseries of a future +caste of literary men, who are to bear +their part with that order in the coming +development of human thought.</p> + + + +<hr class="chap" /> +<h2>THE COVENANTERS' NIGHT-HYMN.</h2> + +<h3>BY DELTA.</h3> + + +<p>[Making all allowances for the many over-coloured pictures, nay, often +onesided statements of such apologetic chroniclers as Knox, Melville, +Calderwood, and Row, it is yet difficult to divest the mind of a strong +leaning towards the old Presbyterians and champions of the Covenant—probably +because we believe them to have been sincere, and know +them to have been persecuted and oppressed. Nevertheless, the liking +is as often allied to sympathy as to approbation; for a sifting of motives +exhibits, in but too many instances, a sad commixture of the chaff of +selfishness with the grain of principle—an exhibition of the over and over +again played game, by which the gullible many are made the tools of the +crafty and designing few. Be it allowed that, both in their preachings from +the pulpit and their teachings by example, the Covenanters frequently proceeded +more in the spirit of fanaticism than of sober religious feeling; and +that, in their antagonistic ardour, they did not hesitate to carry the persecutions +of which they themselves so justly complained into the camp of the +adversary—sacrificing in their mistaken zeal even the ennobling arts of architecture, +sculpture, and painting, as adjuncts of idol-worship—still it is to be +remembered, that the aggression emanated not from them; and that the rights +they contended for were the most sacred and invaluable that man can possess—the +freedom of worshipping God according to the dictates of conscience. +They sincerely believed that the principles which they maintained were right: +and their adherence to these with unalterable constancy, through good report +and through bad report; in the hour of privation and suffering, of danger and +death; in the silence of the prison-cell, not less than in the excitement of the +battle-field; by the blood-stained hearth, on the scaffold, and at the stake,—forms +a noble chapter in the history of the human mind—of man as an +accountable creature.</p> + +<p>Be it remembered, also, that these religious persecutions were not mere +things of a day, but were continued through at least three entire generations. +They extended from the accession of James VI. to the English throne, (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testibus</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +the rhymes of Sir David Lyndsay, and the classic prose of Buchanan,) +down to the Revolution of 1688—almost a century, during which many thousands +tyrannically perished, without in the least degree loosening that tenacity +of purpose, or subduing that <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perfervidum ingenium</i>, which, according to +Thuanus, have been national characteristics.</p> + +<p>As in almost all similar cases, the cause of the Covenanters, so strenuously +and unflinchingly maintained, ultimately resulted in the victory of Protestantism—that +victory, the fruits of which we have seemed of late years so readily +inclined to throw away; and, in its rural districts more especially, of nothing +are the people more justly proud than</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i20">——"the tales<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of persecution and the Covenant,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Whose echo rings through Scotland to this hour."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noind">So says Wordsworth. These traditions have been emblazoned by the pens +of Scott, M'Crie, Galt, Hogg, Wilson, Grahame, and Pollok, and by the +pencils of Wilkie, Harvey, and Duncan,—each regarding them with the eye +of his peculiar genius.</p> + +<p>In reference to the following stanzas, it should be remembered that, during +the holding of their conventicles,—which frequently, in the more troublous +times, took place amid mountain solitudes, and during the night,—a sentinel +was stationed on some commanding height in the neighbourhood, to give warning +of the approach of danger.]</p> + + +<p class="p2">I.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Ho! plaided watcher of the hill,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">What of the night?—what of the night?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The winds are lown, the woods are still,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The countless stars are sparkling bright;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">From out this heathery moorland glen,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">By the shy wild-fowl only trod,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">We raise our hymn, unheard of men,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To Thee—an omnipresent God!<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p class="p2">II.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Jehovah! though no sign appear,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Through earth our aimless path to lead,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">We know, we feel Thee ever near,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">A present help in time of need—<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Near, as when, pointing out the way,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">For ever in thy people's sight,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A pillared wreath of smoke by day,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Which turned to fiery flame at night!<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p class="p2">III.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Whence came the summons forth to go?—<br /></span> +<span class="i2">From Thee awoke the warning sound!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"Out to your tents, O Israel! Lo!<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The heathen's warfare girds thee round.<br /></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"> </a></span> +<span class="i0">Sons of the faithful! up—away!<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The lamb must of the wolf beware;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The falcon seeks the dove for prey;<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The fowler spreads his cunning snare!"<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p class="p2">IV.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Day set in gold; 'twas peace around—<br /></span> +<span class="i2">'Twas seeming peace by field and flood:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">We woke, and on our lintels found<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The cross of wrath—the mark of blood.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Lord! in thy cause we mocked at fears,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">We scorned the ungodly's threatening words—<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Beat out our pruning-hooks to spears,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And turned our ploughshares into swords!<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p class="p2">V.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Degenerate Scotland! days have been<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Thy soil when only freemen trod—<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When mountain-crag and valley green<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Poured forth the loud acclaim to God!—<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The fire which liberty imparts,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Refulgent in each patriot eye,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And, graven on a nation's hearts,<br /></span> +<span class="i2"><em>The Word</em>—for which we stand or die!<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p class="p2">VI.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Unholy change! The scorner's chair<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Is now the seat of those who rule;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Tortures, and bonds, and death, the share<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Of all except the tyrant's tool.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That faith in which our fathers breathed,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And had their life, for which they died—<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That priceless heirloom they bequeathed<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Their sons—our impious foes deride!<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p class="p2">VII.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">So We have left our homes behind,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And We have belted on the sword,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And We in solemn league have joined,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Yea! covenanted with the Lord,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Never to seek those homes again,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Never to give the sword its sheath,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Until our rights of faith remain<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Unfettered as the air we breathe!<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p class="p2">VIII.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">O Thou, who rulest above the sky,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Begirt about with starry thrones,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Cast from the Heaven of Heavens thine eye<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Down on our wives and little ones—<br /></span> +<span class="i0">From Hallelujahs surging round,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Oh! for a moment turn thine ear,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The widow prostrate on the ground,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The famished orphan's cries to hear!<br /></span> +</div></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"> </a></span></p> + +<p class="p2">IX.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">And Thou wilt hear! it cannot be,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">That Thou wilt list the raven's brood,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When from their nest they scream to Thee,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And in due season send them food;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">It cannot be that Thou wilt weave<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The lily such superb array,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And yet unfed, unsheltered, leave<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Thy children—as if less than they!<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p class="p2">X.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">We have no hearths—the ashes lie<br /></span> +<span class="i2">In blackness where they brightly shone;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">We have no homes—the desert sky<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Our covering, earth our couch alone:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">We have no heritage—depriven<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Of these, we ask not such on earth;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Our hearts are sealed; we seek in heaven,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">For heritage, and home, and hearth!<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p class="p2">XI.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">O Salem, city of the saint,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And holy men made perfect! We<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Pant for thy gates, our spirits faint<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Thy glorious golden streets to see;—<br /></span> +<span class="i0">To mark the rapture that inspires<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The ransomed, and redeemed by grace;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">To listen to the seraphs' lyres,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And meet the angels face to face!<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p class="p2">XII.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Father in Heaven! we turn not back,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Though briers and thorns choke up the path;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Rather the tortures of the rack,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Than tread the winepress of Thy wrath.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Let thunders crash, let torrents shower,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Let whirlwinds churn the howling sea,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">What is the turmoil of an hour,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To an eternal calm with Thee?<br /></span> +</div></div> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2>THE CARLISTS IN CATALONIA.</h2> + + +<p>The debates in the Cortes, and the +increasing development of the civil war +in Catalonia, have again called attention +to the affairs of Spain. Three +months ago we glanced at the state +of that country, briefly and broadly +sketching its political history since the +royal marriages. The quarter of a +year that has since elapsed has been a +busy one in Spain. Two things have +been clearly proved: first, that the +Carlist insurrection is a very different +affair from the paltry gathering of banditti, +as which the Moderados and their +newspapers so long persisted in depicting +it; and, secondly, that the +Madrid government are heartily +repentant of their unceremonious +dismissal of a British ambassador. +Christina and her Camarilla scarcely +know which most deeply to deplore—the +intrusion of Cabrera or the expulsion +of Bulwer.</p> + +<p>In Catalonia, we have a striking +example of what may be accomplished, +under most unfavourable +circumstances, by one man's energy +and talent. Nine months ago there +was not a single company of Carlist +soldiers in the field. A few irregular +bands, insignificant in numbers, without +uniform and imperfectly armed, +roamed in the mountains, fearing to +enter the plain, hunted down like +wolves, and punished as malefactors +when captured. To persons ignorant +how great was the difference made by +the fall of Louis Philippe in the +chances of the Spanish Carlists, the +cause of these never appeared more +hopeless than in the spring of 1848. +Suddenly a man, who for seven years +had basked in the orange groves of +Hyères, and listlessly lingered in the +mountain solitudes of Auvergne,—reposing +his body, scarred and weary +from many a desperate combat, and +recruiting his health, impaired by +exertion and hardship—crossed the +Pyrenees, and appeared upon the +scene of his former exploits. The +news of his arrival spread fast, but for +a time found few believers. Cabrera, +said the incredulous, who evacuated +Spain at the head of ten thousand +hardy and well-armed soldiers, because +he would not condescend to a +guerilla warfare, after having held +towns and fortresses, and won pitched +battles in the field—Cabrera would +never re-enter the country to take +command of a few hundred scattered +adventurers. Others denied his presence, +because he had not immediately +signalised it by some dashing +feat, worthy the conqueror of Morella +and Maella. Various reports were +circulated by those interested to discredit +the arrival of the redoubted +chief. He was ill, they said; he had +never entered Spain or dreamed of so +doing; he had come to Catalonia, +others admitted, but was so disgusted +at the scanty resources of his party, +at the few men in the field, at the +lack of arms, money, organisation,—of +everything, in short, necessary for the +prosecution of a war,—that he cursed +the lying representations which had +lured him from retirement, and was +again upon the wing for France. The +truth was in none of these statements. +If Cabrera sounded a retreat in 1840, +when ten thousand warlike and devoted +followers were still at his orders, +it was because the Carlist <em>prestige</em> was +gone for a time, the country was +exhausted by war, anarchy reigned in +the camp, and he himself was prostrated +by sickness. In seven years, circumstances +had entirely changed; the +country, galled by misgovernment and +oppression, was ripe for insurrection; +the intermeddling of foreign powers +was no longer to be apprehended; and +Cabrera emerged from his retirement, +not expecting to find an army, or +money, or organisation, but prepared +to create all three. In various ingenious +and impenetrable disguises +he moved rapidly about eastern Spain; +fearlessly entering the towns, visiting +his old partisans, and reviving their +dormant zeal by ardent and confident +speech; giving fresh spirit to the +timid, shaming the apathetic, and +enlisting recruits. His unremitting +efforts were crowned with success. +Numbers of his former followers rallied +round him; secret adherents of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +cause contributed funds; arms and +equipments, purchased in France and +England, safely arrived; officers of +rank and talent, distinguished in former +wars, raised their banners and +mustered companies and even battalions; +and soon Cabrera was strong +enough to traverse Catalonia in all +directions, and to collect from the inhabitants +regular contributions, in +almost every instance willingly paid, +and gathered often within cannon-shot +of the enemy's forts. He seemed +ubiquitous. He was heard of everywhere, +but more rarely seen, at least +in his own character. In various assumed +ones, not unfrequently in the +garb of a priest, he accompanied small +detachments sent to collect imposts; +doing subaltern's rather than general's +duty, ascertaining by personal observation +the temper and disposition of +the peasantry, and making himself +known when a point was to be gained +by the influence of his name and presence. +His prodigious activity and +perseverance wrought miracles in a +country where those qualities by no +means abound. Doubtless he has +been well seconded, but his has been +the master-spirit. The result of his +exertions is best shown by a statement +of the present Carlist strength +in Catalonia. We have already +mentioned what it was eight or nine +months ago—a few hundred men, +half-armed and ill disciplined, wandering +amongst ravines and precipices. +At the close of 1848, the Moderado +papers, without means of obtaining +correct information, estimated +the Carlist army in Catalonia at 8000 +men. The Carlists themselves, whose +present policy is rather to under-state +their strength, admitted 10,000. +Their real numbers—and the accuracy +of these statistics may be relied upon—are +12,000 bayonets and sabres, +exclusive of small guerilla parties, +known as <i>volantes</i>, and other irregulars. +A large proportion of the 12,000 are +old soldiers, who served in the last +war; and all are well armed, equipped, +and disciplined, and superior to their +opponents in power of endurance, and +of effecting those tremendous marches +for which Spanish troops are celebrated. +Regularly rationed and supplied +with tobacco, they wait cheerfully till +the military chest is in condition to +disburse arrears. The curious in costume +may like to hear something of +their appearance. The brigade under +the immediate orders of Cabrera wears +a green uniform with black facings: +Ramonet's men have dark blue jackets; +there is a corps clothed <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">à l'Anglaise</i>, in +scarlet coats and blue continuations, +which is known as Count Montemolin's +own regiment. The old <em>boina</em> or +flat cap, and a sort of light, low-crowned +shako, such as is worn by the +French in Africa, compose the convenient +and appropriate head-dress. +With the important arms of artillery +and cavalry, in which armies raised as +this one has been are apt to be deficient, +Cabrera is well provided. A +number of guns were buried and otherwise +concealed in Spain ever since the +last war, and others have been procured +from France. As to cavalry, +the want of which was so frequently +and severely felt by the Carlists during +the former struggle, the Christinos will +be surprised, one of these days, to find +how formidable a body of dragoons +their opponents can bring into the +field, although at the present moment +they have but few squadrons under +arms. Nearly four thousand horses +are distributed in various country districts, +comfortably housed in farm and +convent stables, and divided amongst +the inhabitants by twos and threes. +They are well cared for, and kept in +good condition, ready to muster and +march whenever required.</p> + +<p>What the Catalonian Carlists are +now most in want of, is a centre of +operations, a strong fortress—a Morella +or a Berga—whither to retreat and +recruit when necessary. That Cabrera +feels this want is evident from the +various attempts he has made to surprise +fortified towns, with a view to +hold them against the Christinos. +Hitherto these attempts have been +unsuccessful, but we may be prepared +to hear any day of his having made +one with a different result.</p> + +<p>When the general tranquillity of +Europe brought Spanish dissensions +into relief, a vast deal of romance was +written in France, Spain, and England, +in the guise of memoirs of +Cabrera, and of other distinguished +leaders of the civil war, and not a +little was swallowed by the simple as +historical fact. We remember to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +have seen the Convention of Bergara +accounted for in print by a game at +cards between Espartero and Maroto, +who, both being represented as desperate +gamblers, met at night at a +lone farm-house between their respective +lines, and played for the crown +of Spain. Espartero won; and Maroto, +more loyal as a gamester than to his +king, brought over his army to the +queen. This marvellous tale, although +not exactly vouched for in the +original English, was gravely translated +in French periodicals; and the +chances are that a portion of the +French nation believe to the present +hour that Isabella owes her crown to +a lucky hit at <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">monté</i>. Fables equally +preposterous have been circulated +about Cabrera. Of his personal appearance, +especially, the most absurd +accounts have been published; and +type and graver have furnished so many +fantastical and imaginary portraits of +him, that one from the life may have +its interest. Ramon Cabrera is +about five feet eight inches in height, +square built, muscular, and active. +He is rather round-shouldered; his +hair is abundant and very black; his +grayish-brown eyes must be admitted, +even by his admirers, to have a cruel +expression. His complexion is tawny, +his nose aquiline; he has nothing remarkable +or striking in his appearance, +and is neither ugly nor handsome, +but of the two may be accounted +rather good-looking than otherwise. +He has neither an assassin-scowl nor +an expression like a bilious hyena, +nor any other of the little physiognomical +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">agrémens</i> with which imaginative +painters have so frequently embellished +his countenance. His character, +as well as his face, has suffered from +misrepresentation. He has been depicted +as a Nero on a small scale, +dividing his time between fiddling +and massacre. There is some exaggeration +in the statement. Unquestionably +he is neither mild nor merciful; +he has shed much blood, and has +been guilty of divers acts of cruelty, +but more of these have been attributed +to him than he ever committed. His +mother's death by Christino bullets +inspired him with a burning desire of +revenge. The system of reprisals, so +largely adopted by both sides, during +the late civil war in Spain, will account +for many of his atrocities, although +it may hardly be held to +justify them. But in the present contest +he has hitherto gone upon a +totally different plan. Mercy and +humanity seem to be his device, as +they are undoubtedly his best policy. +His aim is to win followers, by clemency +and conciliation, instead of +compelling them by intimidation and +cruelty. There is as yet no authenticated +account of an execution occurring +by his order. One man was +shot at Vich by the troops blockading +the place; but he was known as a spy, +and was twice warned not to enter the +town. He pretended to retire, made +a circuit, tried another entrance, and +met his death. As to Cabrera's having +shot four or five officers for a plot +against his life, as was recently reported +in Spanish papers, and repeated +by English ones, the tale is unconfirmed, +and has every appearance of +a fabrication. There is no doubt he +finds it necessary to keep a tight hand +over his subordinates, especially in +presence of the recent defection of +some of their number, whose treachery, +however, is not likely to be very +advantageous to the Christinos. +The troops whom Pozas, Pons, +Monserrat, and the other renegade +chiefs induced to accompany +them, have for the most part returned +to their banners, and the queen +has gained nothing but a few very +untrustworthy officers. These, by +one of the conditions of their desertion, +her generals are compelled to employ, +thus creating much discontent among +those officers of the Christino army +over whose heads the traitors are placed. +The principal traitor, General Miguel +Pons, better known as Bep-al-Oli, has +been known as a Carlist ever since the +rising in Catalonia in 1827, when he was +captured by the famous Count d'Espagne, +and was condemned to the galleys, +as was his brother Antonio Pons, +one of those whom Cabrera was lately +falsely reported to have shot. After +the death of Ferdinand, both brothers +served under their former persecutor, +who thought to extinguish their resentment +by good treatment and promotion, +in spite of which precaution +a share in his assassination is pretty +generally attributed to Antonio Pons. +Bep-al-Oli is Catalan for Joseph-in-oil,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +or Oily Joe, a slippery cognomen, +which his recent change of sides +seems to justify. Still he is a model +of consistency compared to many +Spanish officers, who have changed +sides half-a-dozen times in the last +fifteen years. And, indeed, after +one-and-twenty years' stanch and +active Carlism, the sincerity of Bep's +conversion may perhaps be considered +dubious. It would be no way surprising +if he were to return to his +first love, carrying with him, of +course, the large sum for which he +was bought. Another chief, Monserrat, +passed over to the Christinos +with two or three companions, and +the very next week he had the misfortune +to fall asleep, whereupon the +better half of his band took advantage +of his slumbers to go back to their +colours, much comforted by the +gratuities they had received for changing +sides. When Monserrat awoke, +he was furious at this defection, and +instantly pursued his stray sheep. +Not having been heard of since, it is +not unlikely he may ultimately have +followed their example. Of course, +money is the means employed to +seduce these fickle partisans. They +are all bought at their own price, +which rate is generally so high as to +preclude profit. The cash-keepers at +Madrid will soon get tired of such +purchases. The regular expenses of +the war are enormous, without squandering +thousands for a few days' use +of men who cannot be depended upon. +It is notorious that immense offers +were made to Cabrera to induce him +to abandon the cause of Charles VI., +of which he is the life and soul. Gold, +titles, rank, governorships, have been +in turn and together paraded before +him, but in vain. <em>He</em> would indeed +be worth buying, at almost any +price; for he could not be replaced, +and his loss would be a death-blow +to the Carlist cause. Knowing +this, and finding him incorruptible, +it were not surprising if certain unscrupulous +persons at Madrid sought +other means of removing him from +the scene. Cabrera, aware of the +great importance of his life, very +prudently takes his precautions. He +has done so, to some extent, at +various periods of his career. During +the early portion of his exile in +France, when that country, especially +its southern provinces, swarmed with +Spanish emigrants, many of whom +had deep motives for hating him—whilst +others, needy and starving, +and inured to crime and bloodshed, +might have been tempted to knife him +for the contents of his pockets—the +refugee chief wore a shirt of mail beneath +his sheepskin jacket. He had +also a celebrated pair of leathern +trousers, which were generally believed +to have a metallic lining. +And, at the present time, report says +that his head is the only vulnerable +part of his person.</p> + +<p>In presence of their Catalonian +anxieties, of Cabrera's rapidly increasing +strength, and of the impotence +of Christino generals, who +start for the insurgent districts with +premature vaunts of their triumphs, +and return to Madrid, baffled and +crestfallen, to wrangle in the senate +and divulge state secrets—the Narvaez +government is secretly most +anxious to make up its differences +with England. This anxiety has been +made sufficiently manifest by the +recent discussions in the Cortes. +Notwithstanding his assumed indifference +and vain-glorious self-gratulation, +the Duke of Valencia would +gladly give a year's salary, perquisites, +and plunder, to recall the impolitic act +by which a British envoy was expelled +the Spanish capital. Señor +Cortina, the Progresista deputy, after +denying that there were sufficient +grounds for Sir Henry Bulwer's dismissal, +and lamenting the rupture +that has been its consequence, politely +advised Narvaez to resign office, as +almost the only means of repairing +the dangerous breach. The recommendation, +of course, was purely +ironical. General Narvaez is the +last man to play the Curtius, and +plunge, for his country's sake, into the +gulf of political extinction. In his +scale of patriotism, the good of Spain +is secondary to the advantage of +Ramon Narvaez. We can imagine +the broad grins of the Opposition, and +the suppressed titter of his own +friends, upon his having the face to +declare, that, when the French Revolution +broke out, he was actually +planning a transfer of the reins of +government into the hands of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +Progresistas. The bad example of +democratic France frustrated his disinterested +designs, changed his benevolent +intentions, and compelled him +to transport and imprison, by wholesale, +the very men towards whom, a +few weeks previously, he was so magnanimously +disposed. Returns of +more than fifteen hundred persons, +thus arbitrarily torn from their homes +and families, were moved for early in +the session; but only the names were +granted, the charges against them +being kept secret, in order not to give +the lie to the ministerial assertion +that but a small minority were condemned +for political offences. As to +the dispute with England, although +Narvaez' pride will not suffer him to +admit his blunder and his regrets, +many of his party make no secret of +their desire for a reconciliation at any +price; fondly believing, perhaps, that +it would be followed, upon the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amantium +iræ</i> principle, by warmer love +and closer union than before. The +slumbers of these <i>ojalatero</i> politicians +are haunted by sweet visions of a +British steam-flotilla cruising off the +Catalonian coast, of Carlist supplies +intercepted, of British batteries mounted +on the shores of Spain, and manned +by British marines—the sight of +whose red jackets might serve, at a +pinch, to bolster up the wavering +courage of a Christino division—and +of English commodores and artillery-colonels +supplying such deficient +gentlemen as Messrs Cordova and +Concha with the military skill which, +in Spain, is by no means an indispensable +qualification for a lieutenant-general's +commission. Doubtless, if the +alliance between Lord Palmerston and +Queen Christina had continued, we +should have had something of this +sort, some more petty intermeddling +and minute military operations, consumptive +of English stores, and discreditable +to English reputation. As +it is, there seems a chance of the +quarrel being fairly fought out; of +the Spaniards being permitted to +settle amongst themselves a question +which concerns themselves alone. If +the Carlists get the better of the +struggle, (and it were unsafe to give +long odds against them,) it is undeniable +that they began with small resources, +and that their triumph will +have been achieved by their own +unaided pluck and perseverance.</p> + +<p>Puzzled how to make his peace +with England, without too great mortification +to his vanity and too great +sacrifice of what he calls his dignity, +Narvaez falls back upon France, and +does his best to curry favour there by +a fulsome acknowledgment of the +evils averted from Spain by the +friendly offices of Messrs Lamartine +and Bastide, and of "the illustrious +General Cavaignac." The fact is, +that during the first six months of the +republic, nobody in France had leisure +to give a thought to Spain, and Carlists +and Progresistas were allowed +to concert plans and make purchases +in France without the slightest molestation. +At last, General Cavaignac, +worried by Sotomayor—and partly, +perhaps, through sympathy with his +brother-dictator, Narvaez—sent to +the frontier one Lebrière, a sort of +thieftaker or political Vidocq, who +already had been similarly employed +by Louis Philippe. This man was to +stir up the authorities and thwart the +Carlists, and at first he did hamper +the latter a little; but whether it was +that he was worse paid than on his +former mission—Cavaignac's interest +in the affair being less personal than +that of the King of the French—or +that some other reason relaxed his +activity, he did not long prove efficient. +Then came the elections, and +the success of Louis Napoleon was +unwelcome intelligence to the Madrid +government—it being feared that old +friendship might dispose him to favour +Count Montemolin as far as lay in his +power: whereupon—the influence of +woman being a lever not unnaturally +resorted to by a party which owes its +rise mainly to bedchamber intrigue +and to the patronage of Madame +Muñoz—the notable discovery was +made that the Duchess of Valencia (a +Frenchwoman by birth) is a connexion +of the Buonaparte family, and +her Grace was forthwith despatched +to Paris to exercise her coquetries and +fascinations upon her far-off cousin, +and to intrigue, in concert with the +Duke of Sotomayor, for the benefit +of her husband's government. The +result of her mission is not yet apparent. +Putting all direct intervention +completely out of the question, France<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +has still a vast deal in her power in +all cases of insurrection in the northern +and eastern provinces of Spain. +A sharp look-out on the frontier, +seizure of arms destined for the insurgents, +and the removal of Spanish +refugees to remote parts of France, +are measures that would greatly harass +and impede Carlist operations; much +less so now, however, than three or +four months ago. Most of the emigrants +have now entered Spain; and +horses and arms—the latter in large +numbers—have crossed the frontier.</p> + +<p>Up to the middle of January, the +Montemolinist insurrection was confined +to Catalonia, where alone the +insurgents were numerous and organised. +This apparent inactivity in +other districts, where a rising might +be expected, was to be attributed to +the season. The quantity of snow +that had fallen in the northern provinces +was a clog upon military operations. +About the middle of the +month, a thousand men, including three +hundred cavalry, made their appearance +in Navarre, headed by Colonel +Montero, an old and experienced officer +of the peninsular war, who served on the +staff so far back as the battle of Baylen. +This force is to serve as a nucleus. +The conscription for 1849 has been +anticipated; that is to say, the young +soldiers who should have joined their +colours at the end of the year, are +called for at its commencement; and +it is expected that many of these conscripts, +discontented at the premature +summons, will prefer joining the Carlists. +When the weather clears, it is +confidently anticipated that two or +three thousand hardy recruits will +make the valleys of Biscay and Navarre +ring once more with their Basque +war-cries, headed by men whose +names will astonish those who still +discredit the virtual union of Carlists +and Progresistas.</p> + +<p>The masses of troops sent into +Catalonia have as yet effected literally +nothing, not having been able to prevent +the enemy even from recruiting +and organising. General Cordova +made a military promenade, lost a few +hundred men—slain or taken prisoners +with their brigadier at their head—and +resigned the command. He has +been succeeded by Concha, a somewhat +better soldier than Cordova, who +was never anything but a parade +butterfly of the very shallowest capacity. +Concha has as yet done little more +than his predecessor, (his reported +victory over Cabrera between Vich +and St Hippolito was a barefaced invention, +without a shadow of foundation,) +although his force is larger than Cordova's +was, and his promises of what +he <em>would</em> do have been all along most +magnificent. Already there has been +talk of his resignation, which doubtless +will soon occur, and Villalonga is +spoken of to succeed him. This general, +lately created Marquis of the Maestrazgo +for his cruelty and oppression +of the peasantry in that district, will +hardly win his dukedom in Catalonia, +although dukedoms in Spain are now to +be had almost for the asking. Indeed, +they have become so common that, +the other day, General Narvaez, +Duke of Valencia, anxious for distinction +from the vulgar herd, was about +to create himself prince; but having +unfortunately selected Concord for his +intended title, and the accounts from +Catalonia being just then anything +but peaceable, he was fain to postpone +his promotion till it should be more +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">de circonstance</i>. The Prince of Concord +would be a worthy successor to +the Prince of the Peace. Spain was +once proud of her nobility and choice +of her titles. Alas! how changed are +the times! What a pretty list of +grandees and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">titulos de Castilla</i> the +Spanish peerage now exhibits! Mr +Sotomayor, the other day a bookseller's +clerk, then sub-secretary in a +ministry, then understrapper to Gonzales +Bravo, now duke and ambassador +at Paris! What a successor +to the princely and magnificent envoys +of a Philip and a Charles! +And Mr Sartorius, lately a petty +jobber on the Madrid Bolsa, is now +Count of St Louis, secretary of state, +&c.! When the Legion of Honour +was prostituted in France by lavish +and indiscriminate distribution, and +by conversion into an electioneering +bribe and a means of corruption, many +old soldiers, who had won their cross +upon the battle-fields of the Empire, +had the date of its bestowal affixed +in silver figures to their red ribbon. +The old nobility of Spain must soon +resort to a similar plan, and sign their +date of creation after their names, if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +they would be distinguished from the +horde of disreputable adventurers on +whom titles have of late years been +infamously squandered.</p> + +<p>When the Madrid government has +performed its promise, so often repeated +during the last six months, of +extinguishing the Carlists and restoring +peace to Spain, we hope those ill-treated +gentlemen in the city of London, +who, from time to time, draw up +a respectful representation to General +Narvaez on the subject of Spanish +debts—a representation which that +officer blandly receives, and takes an +early opportunity of forgetting—will +pluck up courage and sternly urge the +Duke of Valencia and the finance +minister of the day to apply to the +liquidation of Spanish bondholders' +claims a part, at least, of the resources +now expended on military operations. +Forty-five millions of reals, about +half-a-million of pounds sterling, are +now, we are credibly informed, the +monthly expenditure of the war department +of Spain. That this is +squeezed out of the country, by some +means or other, is manifest, since nobody +now lends money to Spain. A +very large part of this very considerable +sum being expended in Catalonia, +goes into the pockets of the inhabitants +of that province, who pay it +over to the Carlists in the shape of +contributions, and still make a profit +by the transaction—so that they are +in no hurry to finish the war; and +Catalonia presents at this moment +the singular spectacle of two contending +armies paid out of the same military +chest. But Spain is the country +of anomalies; and nothing in the conduct +of Spaniards will ever surprise us, +until we find them, by some extraordinary +chance, conducting their affairs +according to the rules of common +sense and the dictates of ordinary +prudence.</p> + + +<p class="center space-above"><em>Printed by William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh.</em></p> +<hr class="chap" /> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> "Amongst the Caucasian tribes, the interest of Europe has attached itself +especially to the Circassians, because they are regarded (in Urquhart's words) 'as +the only people, from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, ever ready to revenge an +injury and retort a menace proceeding from the Czar of the Muscovites.' Urquhart's +opinion, which is shared by the great majority of the European public, is not +quite correct, the Circassians not being the only combatants against Russia. Indeed +it so happens that, for the last four years, they have kept tolerably quiet in their +mountains, contenting themselves with small forays into the Cossack country on the +Kuban; whilst the warlike Tshetshens in the eastern Caucasus, their chief, Chamyl, +at their head, have given the Russian army much more to do. But, in the absence of +official intelligence, and of regular newspaper information concerning the events of +the war, people in Europe have got accustomed to admire and praise the Circassians +as the only defenders of Caucasian freedom against Russian aggression; and +even in St Petersburg the intelligent public hold the famous Chamyl to be chief +of the Circassians, with whom he has nothing whatever to do."—<cite>Der Kaukasus</cite>, +&c., vol. ii. p. 22-3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> "It must be admitted that Russian officers are second to those of no other nation, +in thirst for distinction, and in honourable ambition, to awaken and stimulate which, +innumerable means are employed. In no other army are the rewards for those officers +who distinguish themselves in the field of so many kinds, and so lavishly dealt +out. There are all manner of medals and marks for good service—crosses and stars of +Saints George, Stanislaus, Vladimir, Andrew, Anna, and other holy personages; some +with crowns, some with diamonds, peculiar distinctions on the epaulets and uniforms, +&c. &c. I was once in a distinguished society, composed almost entirely of officers +of the army of the Caucasus. Not finding very much amusement, I had the patience to +count all the orders and decorations in the room, and found that upon the breasts of +the thirty-five military guests, there glittered more than two hundred stars, crosses, +and medals; on some of the generals' coats were more orders than buttons. As it +usually happens, the desire for these distinctions increases with their possession. +The Russian who has obtained a medal leaves no stone unturned to get a knight's +cross, and when the cross is at his button-hole, he is ravenous for the glittering star, +and ready to make any sacrifice to obtain it."—<cite>Der Kaukasus</cite>, &c., vol. ii. p. 98.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The reference in this instance is more particularly to the land of the Ubiches +and Tchigetes, two tribes that abide south of Circassia Proper, and whose language +differs from those of the Circassians and Abchasians, their neighbours to the +north and south. The general medium of conversation amongst the various Caucasian +tribes is the Turkish-Tartar dialect, current amongst most of the dwellers on the +shores of the Black and Caspian Seas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Longworth's <cite>Circassia</cite>, vol. i. p. 1589.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> This certainly cannot be said of Cumberland generally, one of the most beautiful +counties in Great Britain. But the immediate district to which Mr Caxton's exclamation +refers; if not ugly, is at least savage, bare, and rude.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <cite>The New statistical Account of Scotland.</cite> In 15 vols. Edinburgh, 1845.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Schlozer.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> "It is said that a woman in Benbecula went at night to the Sandbanks, to dig +for some roe used for dyeing a red colour, against her husband's will; that, when +she left her house, she said with an oath she would bring some of it home, though +she knew there was a regulation by the factor and magistrates, prohibiting people +to use it or dig for it, by reason that the sandbanks, upon being excavated, would be +blown away with the wind. The woman never returned home, nor was her body +ever found. It was shortly thereafter that the meteor was first seen; and it is said +that it is the ghost of the unfortunate and profane woman that appears in this shape."—<cite>New +Statistical Account</cite>, "Inverness," p. 184.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Hogel</span>, <cite>Entwurf zur Theorie der Statistik</cite>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <cite>The Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland.</cite> Illustrated by <span class="smcap">R. W. +Billings</span>, and <span class="smcap">William Burn</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Prospectus <cite>Parochiale Scoticanum</cite>, now editing by <span class="smcap">Cosmo Innes</span>, Esq., Advocate.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Burke.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <cite>Memoires sur le Duc de Berry.</cite></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Alison.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Chateaubriand.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See <cite>Blackwood's Magazine</cite>, for January 1845, and for October 1846</p></div></div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="tn"><h3>Transcriber's note:</h3> +<p>Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed.</p> + +<p>Mismatched quotes are not fixed if it's not sufficiently clear where the missing quote should be placed.</p> + +<p>The cover for the eBook version of this book was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> + +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44344 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/44344-h/images/coverpage.jpg b/44344-h/images/coverpage.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..346a2fe --- /dev/null +++ b/44344-h/images/coverpage.jpg |
