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diff --git a/44341-0.txt b/44341-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aecd3fd --- /dev/null +++ b/44341-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3153 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Minimum Gauge Railways, by Arthur Heywood + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Minimum Gauge Railways + + +Author: Arthur Heywood + + + +Release Date: December 3, 2013 [eBook #44341] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MINIMUM GAUGE RAILWAYS*** + + +Transcribed from the third edition by Peter Barnes. + + + + + + MINIMUM GAUGE RAILWAYS: + + + THEIR APPLICATION, CONSTRUCTION, + + AND WORKING. + + * * * * * + + Being an account of the origin and evolution of the 15 in. gauge line + + at Duffield Bank, near Derby; also of the installation of a + + similar line at Eaton Hall, near Chester; together with + + various notes on the uses of such Railways, and + + on the results of some experimental + + investigations relating thereto. + + * * * * * + + BY + + Sir ARTHUR PERCIVAL HEYWOOD, Bart., M.A. + + * * * * * + + _THIRD EDITION_. + + _PRINTED FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION_. + + * * * * * + + + + +Contents. + + PAGE +PREFACE 5, 6 + I. +INTRODUCTION 7 + II +OBJECTS OF THE 15 IN. GAUGE 9 + III +CONSTRUCTION OF THE DUFFIELD BANK LINE 11 + IV +DETAILS OF THE EATON HALL LINE 15 + V +LOCOMOTIVES 25 + VI +WAGONS AND CARS 32 + VII +THE DUFFIELD BANK WORKSHOPS 36 + VIII +SCIENTIFIC CONSIDERATIONS 38 + IX +REMARKS ON NARROW GAUGE RAILWAYS 42 + X +APPENDIX 46 + + + + +Preface to Second Edition. + + +IN the year 1881, when the Royal Agricultural Society held their show in +Derby, it was represented to me that, as many of the members were +interested in the cheap transport offered by narrow gauge railways, it +would be appreciated if I opened my experimental line at Duffield to +inspection during the week. + +In order to facilitate the comprehension of the objects of this little +railway, the late Secretary of the Society suggested that I should draw +up a short descriptive pamphlet to place in the hands of visitors. This +was done with success and much saving of verbal explanation. + +Thirteen years later, having added considerably to the rolling stock and +improved many of the details, I decided to give a three days exhibition, +and to issue a general invitation to all interested in the promotion of +such lines, at the same time taking the opportunity to revise and amplify +the first edition of this pamphlet. + + A. P. H. + +_August_, _1894_. + + + + +Preface to Third Edition. + + +SOME four years have elapsed since the second edition of this pamphlet +was exhausted. During this period I have constructed and equipped at +Eaton Hall, Cheshire, a line which has been in regular use since May, +1896, exactly similar to my own at Duffield. This railway having been +made wholly for practical purposes and on strictly economic principles, I +am in a position to present more reliable data, both in regard to cost +and working, than I could obtain from my own experimental line, which has +been continually altered and only irregularly worked. + +I desire to take this opportunity of expressing my thanks to the Duke of +Westminster for the free hand accorded me in regard to the arrangement of +all details of the Eaton Railway; a liberty which has resulted in a +symmetrical and entirely successful carrying out of the work. + +What I am now able to advance will, I trust, amply demonstrate the really +solid advantages which, under suitable conditions, may be reaped from the +installation of little railways of the kind described. + + A. P. H. + +_July_, _1898_. + + + + +I. +INTRODUCTION. + + +AT the outset I must offer an apology for making use, throughout this +pamphlet, of the first person. I do so partly for convenience of +expression, and partly because almost all that I have to advance is +derived from my own experience. In doing so I am far from desiring to +undervalue the work of others in the same direction. I have, however, +little hesitation in saying that, with the exception of the late Mr. +Charles Spooner, the able Engineer of the Festiniog Railway, most of +those, so far as I know, who are responsible for the design of plant for +these small lines have been manufacturers whose productions, though often +of fair workmanship, are clearly indicative of a failure to grasp many of +the leading principles involved. This shortcoming is the natural result +of a want of sufficient time for the consideration of details, and a +consequent tendency to imitate established customs in regard to railway +work which by no means apply with equal advantage to very narrow gauges, +where the conditions involved are wholly different. This is especially +true of small locomotive building, the specimens of which evidence in +their design not only ignorance on important points, but also a +deplorable absence of the sense of well-balanced proportion. + +I venture to think that, in the twenty-five years during which I have +devoted much of my time to the subject, I have succeeded in bringing to +considerable perfection both permanent way and rolling stock suitable for +these diminutive lines, and more especially the locomotives, which are +probably, for their weight, the most powerful and flexible ever built to +work by simple adhesion. Whether this conceit be well founded or no I +leave to the judgment of those who may be at the pains to acquaint +themselves with the details and result of my work, which has been +undertaken wholly as a labour of love with the sole desire to promote +improvement in what I believe to be an entirely special branch of +engineering. I have never wasted my money on patents, and, so long as my +designs are not imitated in a bungling manner, I am glad to see them made +use of by anyone to whom they may be of service. + +It must be understood that I do not here attempt to enter upon the +comparative merits of narrow gauge railways generally, but merely to give +particulars of what has come within my own experience. To facilitate a +comprehension of the conditions under which I have worked, it will be +well to explain that I make no pretension to be considered a professional +engineer, and that I speak rather as a self-taught mechanic and surveyor. + +My father possessed a beautiful Holtzappfel lathe, with elaborate tools +for ornamental turning in wood and metal. As a boy of seven or eight I +can recall watching him as he worked. At ten years old I was promoted to +stand on a box and turn candlesticks, but, a year or two later, a few +lessons—the only direct practical instruction I ever had—from an old +fishing-rod maker in chasing metal screw-threads begot in me an ardent +desire to construct machinery, particularly anything pertaining to +railways, for which from my childhood I had an absorbing craze. + +By my father’s kindness I, by-and-bye, fitted up a workshop in which the +tools were driven by a half-horse steam engine; and at eighteen had +completed my first locomotive, weighing 56 lbs., which, with a dozen or +so of small wagons, made a fine show on some 40 yards of brass-railed +permanent way of 4 in. gauge. Locomotive driving was my hobby when I went +up to Cambridge, and many were the tips that I learned in my illicit +journeyings on the footplate. The new degree of “Applied Science” had +just made its appearance, in which, in 1871, I had the doubtful credit of +appearing alone in the first class. Doubtful, because the papers were +absurdly simple, and the examiners hardly educated beyond the bare +theories of the mechanical processes; for it was long anterior to the +days of Professor Stuart and his engineering laboratory, where, +by-the-bye, I once remember seeing the “demonstrator” supervising the +reduction of a 4 in. shaft on a stout 9 or 10 in. lathe by a young turner +whose nervous and thread-like shavings would have ensured his speedy +dismissal from any commercial machine-shop. + +When I settled at Duffield in 1872, I at once began to put into practice +the views I had formed in regard to the possibility of advantageously +superseding horse traction, in cases where a traffic, though heavy, was +wholly insufficient to justify a more costly railway, by a line of the +narrowest and consequently the cheapest gauge compatible with safety. It +is to a setting forth of the results of my experiments during the years +that have since elapsed, that the following pages are devoted. My claim +to a hearing is chiefly based upon having always been my own draughtsman, +and, for my first two larger locomotives, also moulder, machinist, and +fitter. Owing to the increasing number of experiments, and to other calls +upon my time, assistance eventually became necessary, and, though I am +still conceited enough to keep the more delicate manipulations in my own +hands, so far as I can find time to execute them, it has gradually come +about that I have seven or eight artisans in the little workshops. +Practical acquaintance with every detail both in survey, design, and +construction of narrow-gauge railways has given me something of a pull +over the professional engineer. Thus it happens that, without the credit +of any exceptional ability, I have had advantages that fall to few of +acquiring information which I desire to lay before those who are +interested in the rapid and economical transport of a moderate annual +tonnage. + +The first three sections of this pamphlet comprise a brief sketch of the +purposes, origin, and construction of my own line. In Section IV. is +given a detailed account of the construction, working, and cost of the +similar line which I made to connect Eaton Hall with the Great Western +Railway. Sections V., VI., VII., and VIII. are more technical, and may be +passed over by those not interested in the mechanical details, although +it is to the care that has been bestowed on these that my success is +chiefly attributable. Section IX. deals, from such experience as I have +acquired, with the conditions under which these small railways may be +profitably installed. In Section X. I have appended a few further items +of possible interest. + + + + +II. +OBJECTS OF THE 15 IN. GAUGE. + + +WHEN, in 1874, I started on the construction of my experimental railway, +the more notable narrow-gauge lines in our own country were those of 18 +in. at Crewe, Woolwich, Chatham, and Aldershot—the latter a sad failure +and the admirable 23½ in. from Portmadoc to the Festiniog Slate Quarries. +The Festiniog Railway, which owed its success as a locomotive-worked line +to the persistent energy and ability of the late Mr. Charles Spooner, +opened the eyes of the transport-interested world to the extraordinary +capacity of a very narrow gauge. But here the marvel lies in the manner +in which the work was adapted to the gauge, not in the suitability of the +gauge to the work. No one but an enthusiast would dare to contend that a +two-foot gauge was the ideal width for a line employing twenty-ton +locomotives and hauling about 100,000 passengers and some 150,000 tons of +minerals and goods per annum. If this development could have been +foreseen, the selected gauge would doubtless have been wider. Such a +traffic, however, is quite outside the scope of this pamphlet, the logic +of which is directed to shewing how a much smaller annual tonnage than +has been hitherto deemed worthy of a railway may be profitably thus +conveyed. + +An 18 in. line, such as one of those above referred to, would, if of not +more than three or four miles in length and tolerably level, be capable +of transporting, with one locomotive, 60,000 tons of minerals annually, +reckoning the traffic as in one direction only. There are, however, up +and down the country, a number of cases where a traffic of from 5,000 to +10,000 tons is annually hauled between two fixed points over the public +highways by a single employer. Such cases may be classified as large +mansions, public institutions, mines, quarries, &c. Now it is clear that, +unless there is a prospect of large increase in the traffic, it would be +absurd to employ for a maximum of 10,000 tons a railway equal to 60,000 +tons, and so the question arises:—What is the smallest and therefore the +cheapest railway capable of being practically and advantageously worked? +This is the question to which I venture to think I can give a reliable +answer. + +In the year 1874, after various preliminary trials, I determined to +construct a line of 15 in. gauge, as the smallest width possessing the +necessary stability for practical use, although I once laid down one of 9 +in. gauge for my younger brothers, which proved by no means deficient in +carrying power. + +The stability of this 9 in. line was perfect enough so long as persons +did not attempt to ride on the ends and edges of the carriages and +wagons, but man being an article of approximately standard size, it is +clear there must be a minimum gauge which will be stable enough to be +independent of such liberties. + +Rolling stock properly proportioned to a 15 in. gauge seems the smallest +that will thoroughly insure safety in this respect, and indeed in France +the late M. Décauville, who did so much to develop lines of this class, +arrived at nearly similar conclusions in adopting a minimum width of 16 +in. + +It must not, of course, be understood that gauges of such small +proportions are to be advocated except where the traffic is unlikely to +increase beyond their capacity, and where the material to be moved can +conveniently be loaded in moderate sized wagons. + +Feeling, however, convinced of the eventual recognition of the utility of +lines of minimum gauge, I took some pains to become acquainted with what +had been already achieved in this direction, with the result that, +excepting only the Festiniog railway, where every detail was most ably +worked out by the late Mr. Spooner, I found generally both road and +rolling-stock constructed as mere imitations of those of the standard +gauge, and showing a want of apprehension of the totally different +conditions to be satisfied. To endeavour to solve the various problems +involved in the successful design of engines, carriages, wagons, and +roadway for a minimum gauge is, therefore, the main object of my little +railway. The chief ends in view are the application of such lines to +agricultural or commercial purposes on large estates, or where quarries, +brick yards, and other industrial establishments need better connection +with the pier or railway station from which their productions are +forwarded. An excellent example of such a line is now to be found in the +one I have constructed at Eaton Hall, particulars of which are given in +Section IV. There were also problems relating to adhesion and friction, +particularly from the narrow-gauge point of view, which I was desirous of +solving, some remarks on which will be found in Section VIII. + + + + +III. +CONSTRUCTION OF THE DUFFIELD BANK LINE. + + +THE construction of my line of 15 in. gauge was commenced in 1874, and +various additions were made up to 1881, when the length laid amounted to +a little over a mile, inclusive of sidings. Since the latter date there +has been no material extension, but the permanent way and its accessories +have been gradually improved. + +The line runs from the farm and workshops, up a gradient varying from 1 +in 10 to 1 in 12 about a quarter-of-a-mile long, to a level 80 ft. above, +where the experimental course is laid out in the shape of a figure 8, so +as to admit of continuous runs. This part, somewhat more than half-a-mile +in length, has a level stretch of a quarter-of-a-mile, the remainder +consisting of gradients, of which 1 in 20 is the most severe. The minimum +curve on the main line is 25 ft. radius, but in the sidings some occur as +sharp as 15 ft. radius. + +The permanent way was at first laid with 14 lb. rails, without +fish-plates, spiked to elm and Spanish chestnut sleepers fallen and sawn +on the premises, 5 in. wide, 2 in. thick, and 2 ft. 6 in. long, set at 1 +ft. 6 in. centres. The maximum load did not exceed 12 cwt. per axle, but, +although the work was well done, the road was not equal to the weight, +and required incessant attention. The line was then re-laid on sleepers +6½ in. wide, 4 in. thick, and 3 ft. long, with various sections of rails, +12 lbs., 14 lbs., 18 lbs., and 22 lbs. per yard. These were all fitted +with fish-plates, the joints being on a sleeper. The spacing of the +sleepers was varied with the rails, from 1 ft. 6 in. for the 12 lb. to 3 +ft. for the 22 lb. section. Any part of this road carries comfortably 25 +cwt. per axle. The fish-plates and larger area of sleeper more than +doubled the original carrying power of the rails. + +Six years being about the life of these small sleepers, it soon became +necessary to renew them. Seeing that the rails, owing to the light +traffic, remained perfectly good, to have to pull the road to pieces for +the sake of new sleepers only was a serious annoyance. I then determined +to try a light cast-iron sleeper with the same bearing area. After some +years of experiment, a thoroughly satisfactory one was perfected, in +which the rail is held to its place by a curved steel spring key that +cannot work out. The greater part of the line is now laid on these +cast-iron sleepers, which weigh 28 lbs. each, inclusive of the chairs, +which are cast on. This pattern has now had some eighteen years’ test, +and has proved entirely satisfactory. With a 14 lb. steel rail, the +sleepers being spaced 2 ft. 3 in., and at the suspended fish-joint 1 ft. +3 in., the road, under the load of 25 cwt. per axle, requires very little +repair, some parts having stood for five or six years without being +touched, though constantly run over. + +The length of the sleeper is a very material point. It should project +beyond the rail a distance of rather more than half the gauge of the line +thus the rail is equally supported inside and out. When the projection is +reduced, the centre of the sleepers cannot be packed up solid, because +the support would then be greatest between the rails, with the result +that the ballast below would assume a convex form lengthwise of the +sleepers, and thus produce an unstable road. On lines of the standard +gauge, if sleepers of this proportion were adopted, and of sufficient +thickness to distribute the load more widely without bending, a great +saving in repairs would be effected; but it is not likely that any +permanent way official will be bold enough to suggest such a radical +change. On the Festiniog Railway of 23½ in. gauge, a sleeper 4 ft. 6 in. +long has been adopted with excellent results. + +A detail of importance in laying rails is that the joints should be +opposite one another. For this purpose it is necessary to order a +proportion of the rails 3 in. to 6 in. shorter than the rest, according +to the gauge and radius of curves. In this way the joints can be kept +practically square. A cross-jointed road is not only unpleasant to travel +on, but is also exceedingly difficult to set up true, particularly on +sharp curves. + +Steel rails are now almost universally employed, but it is worth +attention that on any part of a line that is either very damp or rarely +used, iron rails will long outlast steel ones, as every mining engineer +knows. + +In regard to the most suitable length of rail, I have found 15 ft. very +convenient for weights up to 18 lbs. per yard. A good deal depends upon +whether the rails come from the makers properly straightened. The longer +the rail, the more difficult it is to straighten; as a rule even the most +careful specification will fail to bring them on the ground in a fit +condition for use. It is a very usual thing to look at rails only in +regard to their horizontal truth, but in reality the vertical correction +is of far more importance, and, to detect this, the rail must be turned +on its side. I cannot too strongly insist on the vital importance of +laying only straight and level rails. A good running road can never be +made if any humpy rails are laid, and it is quite impossible to +subsequently rectify the defect without taking up such rails and treating +them under the press. Rail-straighteners should be directed to level a +rail before straightening it, that is, to correct it vertically first, +then horizontally; the reason being that vertical pressing disturbs the +horizontal truth, while the horizontal pressing does not affect the +vertical accuracy. + +I have employed a rail-press fitted up on a wagon, specially arranged +with drilling machine for fish bolt holes, with tool boxes, and a brake. +The screw works horizontally, and the rail runs on adjustable rollers at +each end of the wagon. The amount of curve is thus readily appreciated by +the eye as the process proceeds, while with a vertical screw it is +scarcely possible to judge correctly. For sharp curves I use a roller +bender of a type I designed many years ago for the use of the Royal +Engineers in their field railway experiments. In this machine, which +consists of the usual three rollers with the centre one adjustable by a +screw, two men wind the rail through, and, except at the extreme ends, +effect a perfect curve. This machine, however, is of little use for the +ordinary straightening, and, though saving some time on a long curve, is +laborious to work. A curve made under the ordinary screw-press is of +course really a succession of what are technically termed “dog-legs,” +but, unless it be of smaller radius than one chain, these are +imperceptible if the successive pressures are not applied more than about +14 ins. apart. By pressing at still smaller intervals it is possible to +produce sharper curves of reasonable truth, but I find the rails on such +curves work smoother and wear better if bent with the roller machine. + +Rails can be laid round moderate curves without requiring to be bent, by +screwing up the fish plates tight and then springing the rail. The extent +to which this can be effected depends on the weight of the rail and on +its length; the longer rail being the more accommodating. It is not +advisable to attempt to spring a 14 lb. rail round a sharper curve than +five chains, or an 18 lb. rail beyond ten chains radius. + +The result of attempting too much springing is that the rails, under the +traffic and changes of temperature, work outwards at the joints and make +“dog legs” more or less serious. Where the ballast is of a loose dry +nature very little, if anything, can be done with springing. I have +enlarged upon this subject of rail-laying because it is of prime +importance to a good road, and a matter that, on narrow-gauge lines, does +not receive the attention it requires. + +To return to a description of my line, there are on it three tunnels, two +bridges, and a viaduct 91 feet long and 20 feet high. The latter was +erected in 1878, as an improvement upon one at Aldershot, put up by a +gentleman who induced the War Office to sanction a short experimental +line for army transport upon a hopelessly inconvenient and ridiculous +plan. + +My structure is of pitch pine, and stood for 16 years without repair. It +is a trestle bridge, the trestles being so designed that each member is a +multiple of the height. The roadway is carried on four timbers; formerly, +for a 8 ton engine, 11 in. deep and 8 in. wide; now, for one of 5 tons, +13 in. deep and 3½ in. wide. These are bolted together in pairs, one pair +under each rail, the two being kept parallel by stretchers and through +bolts at every 5 feet. In each pair the timbers break joint with one +another on alternate trestles, the latter being 15 ft. apart, and each +timber 30 ft. long. The advantages of this arrangement are two-fold, the +timbers can be run forward from trestle to trestle as the work advances +without scaffolding or lifting tackle, and, should one trestle sink out +of line, the continuity of the upper work checks it, and obviates the +dangerous “dog legs” to be almost invariably observed in this class of +bridge. The original cost with the lighter timbers was £30, including +every item of expenditure—equal to £1 per yard. The average height is 15 +ft. The details are arranged to require but little skilled labour, the +connections being made entirely by bolts and cast angle-plates. Two +carpenters, in five days framed the five trestles including cutting the +timber to length; and in three more days, with the assistance of three +labourers, the whole was erected and the rails laid ready for traffic. A +platform and railing were, however, subsequently added for the +convenience of foot passengers, thus materially increasing the cost. When +rebuilt in 1894 with stronger timbers, the original trestles were +retained. + +Where the line crosses field-fences a dyke is dug about 5 to 6 ft. square +and 3 ft. deep, across which the rails are carried on two narrow girders, +thus effectually preventing the passage of cattle, and avoiding both the +delay of gates and the expense of side fencing. + +The line is properly equipped with interlocking signals and points on a +very simple plan. These are for the most part worked from two +signal-boxes in telephonic communication. + +Particulars of the cost of such a line will be found in Sections IV. and +IX. On my experimental course there are six stations, at three of which +are sheds for the accommodation of the rolling stock. When the line is +used on the occasion of a garden party, a regular service of passenger +trains is run, and several times trains of eight long bogie cars, +carrying 120 passengers, have been hauled up the gradient of 1 in 20, and +up the still more trying one of 1 in 47 situate on a three-quarter-circle +curve of 40 ft. radius. + +In the year 1894 I exhibited the line to the engineering public during +three days. On this occasion a variety of experiments in haulage and +shunting were shewn, and for part of each day two trains were run +concurrently. + + + + +IV. +DETAILS OF THE EATON HALL LINE. + + +DURING the exhibition of my railway at Duffield in 1894, one of the +visitors was the Hon. Cecil Parker, agent to the Duke of Westminster, who +was desirous of laying some sort of light railway from Eaton Hall to the +Great Western Railway, three miles distant. It was necessary that the +line should be unobtrusive in appearance, of a thoroughly permanent +character, yet moderate in cost. The traffic was, as it proved, correctly +estimated at from 5,000 to 6,000 tons annually. Here was a perfect +opportunity for a practical experiment with the 15 in. gauge, which was +ample for five times that amount. I was asked to inspect the route, and +subsequently roughly estimated the cost, exclusive of buildings, at about +£6,000. I had some doubt at first whether it was possible for me to find +time to lay out and construct the whole line and rolling stock myself, +but the difficulty of getting special designs effectively carried out by +commercial firms at a reasonable cost decided me to undertake everything. +It was at my desire eventually agreed that I should have a free hand in +regard to all the designs, doing the work at cost price and without +charge for my own time. + +The line will now be generally described, after which some of the more +interesting details will be enlarged upon. + +The Eaton estate railway connects the Hall with the Great Western Railway +at Balderton, 3 miles distant. The total length of line laid is 4½ miles, +which includes, besides the main line, a branch ¾ mile in length to the +estate works near Pulford, together with several shorter branches to the +estate brickyard and other points. The traffic to be dealt with, +consisting chiefly of coal, road metal, and building material, was +computed at about 6,000 tons per annum. As it was desired that the line +should be as inconspicuous as possible, since it had to cross the park +and the three principal drives, and the required capacity being small, it +was decided to adopt the 15 in. gauge. + +The line is laid with steel flat-bottomed rails, weighing 16½ lbs. per +yard, and, to reduce repairs to a minimum, these are carried throughout +on cast-iron sleepers, 3 ft. long, 6½ in. wide, weighing 28 lbs., and +coated with anti-corrosive. Steel spring-keys secure the rails in jaws +cast on the sleepers, which are spaced at 2 feet 3 inches centres, and, +at the joints, at 1 ft. 4 in. Steel girders, on cast-iron foundation +plates, are used for all the bridge-work. Thus no timber whatever is +employed in the permanent way, and the depreciation is practically +limited to wear of rails. + +The rails for the points are rivetted on to flat-topped cast-iron +sleepers, and were built up in my workshops, and forwarded ready for +laying down. A set of points with seven sleepers carrying them, and with +lever, counterweight, base plate, and the necessary rods, weighs about 4 +cwts., and costs £7 15s. 0d. All the switches are planed out of the +solid, and the crossings are of cast steel. Special cast-iron sleepers +are employed on the girder bridges. These are of bar form, having below a +cross-piece which is tightened up to the sleeper by two bolts, and which +grips the inner flange of each girder. It is thus possible to set the +rails to any moderate curve, on straight girders. For crossing roads a +short and very strong sleeper, only 2 feet in length, is employed, with +jaws fitted to take a second rail on each side to act as a guard-rail to +the running one. These sleepers have a concrete foundation, and are +packed to the required level with tarred macadam. The spaces are then +filled in with the same material, and the road finished to a surface +level with the top of the rails with a mixture of tar, pitch, and +screenings. The flange space is of course left free; this is 1½ in. wide +so as to avoid any chance of the shoes of draft horses jamming therein. +The field crossings, to permit of carts crossing the line at convenient +points in the various fields, are arranged with a similar double rail, +but on a specially strong sleeper of the standard length, packed with +ordinary ballast. + +The ballast is red furnace cinder, 5 to 6 in. in depth below the +sleepers. The surface width is 4 ft., and through the park the top of the +ballast is level with the turf, the drainage here being effected by a +central 4 in. pipe. The appearance is thus that of a narrow garden walk. +For the remainder of the route, which is entirely over grass land with a +stiff clay subsoil, the ballast is above ground. + +The railway is unfenced throughout, and passes from field to field on +short open girders with a dyke excavated below, thus preventing the +passage of cattle. Two high roads besides the three drives are crossed on +the level, and several brooks by girder bridges, the longest span being +28 ft. The line is practically a surface one, there being few noticeable +cuttings and embankments. The cost of the earthwork has been £205 per +mile. The maximum gradient against the load is 1 in 70, the highest point +of the line is 63 ft. above the lowest, and the Eaton terminus is 51 ft. +above the junction with the Great Western Railway. The curves on the main +line do not run below 300 ft. in radius, but curves of 60 ft. radius, +and, at difficult points, of still less, occur at some of the termini and +on the branches. At Eaton a large covered coal stove 80 ft. long and 33 +ft. wide has been erected, so arranged that the little wagons run in at a +high level and readily discharge their contents. + +The rolling stock, which is all capable of traversing a minimum curve of +25 ft. radius, is fitted throughout with self-acting coupler-buffers, and +all similar parts are interchangeable. It comprises the following:— + +One four-coupled locomotive weighing 3 tons in working order, and +carrying enough water and fuel for an hour’s running. + +Thirty wagons 6 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, 1 ft. 3 in. deep, weighing each 7½ +cwts., and holding 16 to 17 cwts. of coal, or 20 to 22 cwts. of bricks +and road metal. The sides are of box form and removable, so that the +floors can be used as flat wagons for the conveyance of large stones, +castings, &c. Fittings are attachable to any wagon for carrying long +timber. Also one bogie passenger car 20 ft. long and 3 ft. 6 in. wide, +weighing 23 cwts. and seating 16 persons, and one parcel van, to carry 2 +tons, of approximately similar construction. + +Various other vehicles; among which are a brake van, 6 wagons capable of +carrying 1½ tons each, and 2 for 2 tons each. Full particulars of the +construction of the rolling-stock, now increased, will be found in +Sections V. and VI. + +The gross load which the engine, exclusive of its own weight, will haul +in regular work is 40 tons on the level, and 20 tons up the ruling +gradient of 1 in 70; the speed being about 10 miles per hour. In an +experimental trip, however, a speed of 20 miles per hour was attained +without undue oscillation. This weight of train is by no means the limit +which can be hauled on the line, for, on the Duffield Bank railway, the +eight-wheel-coupled engine draws far more than this load, and on one +occasion took eight bogie passenger cars carrying 124 persons up a +gradient of 1 in 47 on which is a half-circle curve of only 40 ft. +radius. + +The entire cost of construction has been £1,095 per mile, exclusive of +sheds. This figure would have been materially less but for the +considerable expense attending the extra levelling and turfing required +to avoid undue prominence. The cost of rolling stock has been £214 per +mile, thus bringing the total outlay to £1,309 per mile. + +The annual expenses were computed thus:— £ s. d. + Interest at 4 per cent, on gross 285 0 0 + expenditure + Renewal of permanent way, 4 per cent 80 0 0 + on £2,000 (25 years life) + Renewal of rolling stock, 8 per cent, 72 0 0 + on £900 (12½ years life) + Working expenses £ s. d. + Driver 91 0 0 + Brakesman (boy) 26 0 0 + Two Platelayers 99 0 0 + Fuel and oil 39 0 0 + 255 0 0 + Total annual cost 642 0 0 + +The cost of loading being the same for railway wagons as for carts is not +considered. With a minimum traffic of 5,000 tons per annum over an +average distance of 2½ miles—equal to 12,500 ton-miles—the cost of +transport is almost precisely 1s. per ton per mile; which is materially +less than the cost of the cart haulage. The same rolling-stock and staff +could readily deal with 40 tons per working day of eight hours—equal, at +five days per week, to upwards of 10,000 tons a year. If the traffic were +to reach this amount, the cost per ton of transport would be greatly +reduced With a more powerful engine and additional rolling stock, such a +line is capable of conveying an annual traffic of 40,000 tons. + +There are probably many localities in which a diminutive railway like +that at Eaton, ample in its capacity for estate requirements and +extremely flexible in threading existing buildings, would well repay +construction. The unobtrusiveness of so small a line and rolling stock, +the relief to the roads, and the convenience of constant connection with +the nearest railway, are points which are deserving of consideration +where the conditions make such an installation possible. + +The laying of the line was begun in August, 1895. The earthwork was +already well advanced. On account of the large amount of game in the +neighbourhood of the line, it was considered wiser to employ no +contractor, nor were any men obtainable with a knowledge of such +diminutive platelaying. For the first fortnight I worked away myself with +beater, rammer, and crowbar, till I had taught a proportion of my staff +of 16 the use of these tools, and how to put the permanent way together. +My assistant engineer, new to railway work, soon picked up the right +ideas of what was required, and in a month, when I had to leave, +everything was going nicely. A bonus was paid on every rail-length beyond +a quarter-of-a-mile per week completed. This, compared with the fine work +done by the Royal Engineers in the Soudan, appears a poor performance, +but it must be remembered that we had to bring not only rails and +sleepers from our base, but also all the ballast, and that we left our +work thoroughly packed, the banks soiled and turfed, the road crossings +laid in concrete and asphalte with double rails and special sleepers, the +field-crossings for carts made good, the girder bridges and fence bridges +(cattle stops) erected, and all points and crossings permanently finished +off. About Christmas we reached Eaton Hall, and in the following May +(1896) had pretty well finished all the branches. + +Of course work done with such care and by the day was costly, and it +would doubtless be possible to construct a similar line by contract at +two-thirds of the price. But it is a question whether much would have +been saved in the long run, for, except the usual platelayers’ work, no +repairs of any sort have been necessary since completion, nor has any +part of the mechanism failed or given trouble; a result not usually +attained in contract work. + +It may interest those who have similar work to deal with if I explain +that in making this line all our material had to be hauled from our base +on the Great Western Railway at Balderton. The procedure was as +follows:—At the rail-end four 15 ft. lengths of light timber framing 9 +in. deep were laid on the bare formation. A train then backed up with +eight wagons of ballast, and on top of them four lengths of rail ready +keyed to sleepers. The rails were lifted off alongside where they were to +be laid, the “tops” of the wagons were removed and the ballast shovelled +off on each side. The train then drew away to refill. The length of +framing next the rail-end was lifted forward to the end of furthest +framing, and so consecutively with the other three, thus leaving between +the rail end and the fresh laid framing a space of 60 ft. with the loose +ballast lying thereon. Four men with shovels and four with rammers then +put the ballast in shape and rammed it solid, and also true to a level +given by the engineer. The rails and sleepers were next lifted into +place, and the fish plates affixed. The sleepers next the joints were +temporarily packed, by which time a fresh train had arrived. The process +was then repeated. In this manner, with a staff of ten men at the +rail-end, a driver and boy with the train, six men loading ballast, three +men straightening and bending rails, and three fixing them in sleepers, +60 ft. were laid in about forty minutes, including delays for field +crossings and cattle-stop bridges. After a day or two of this work the +men were set to packing and finishing what had been laid. With a larger +staff the two processes might, but less conveniently, have proceeded at +the same time. + +The following is a detailed account of the cost of construction:— + + £ s. d. +Earthwork to formation level 923 18 0 +Drain pipes 33 2 1 +Rails, sleepers (cast iron), and fastenings 1,814 15 1 +Girders and fittings for four bridges and 143 5 9 +nineteen cattle-stops +Foreman, trainmen, and platelayers 563 5 8 +Ballast (red furnace cinder) 337 10 4 +Road metal, cement, and asphalte 39 1 7 +Fencing at cattle-stops 42 10 2 +Sodding in park and finishing banks 224 5 5 +Locomotive coal, oil, &c. 17 3 11 +Laying water-supply, Balderton, Belgrave, and 90 8 6 +Eaton +Weigh bridge, Balderton 22 18 2 +Tools, huts, carriage of goods, repairs, &c. 248 13 4 +Resident engineer 427 5 3 + Total cost of construction 4,928 3 3 +The cost of rolling stock was as follows:— +1 four-wheel locomotive, 4⅝ in. by 7 in. 400 0 0 +cylinders, 15 in. wheels +1 covered bogie parcel van 50 0 0 +1 open bogie passenger car (16 seats) 40 0 0 +1 covered brake van (4 seats) 25 0 0 +28 wagons (load 1 ton) ... at £12 336 0 0 +2 special wagons (load 2 tons) ... at £14 29 0 0 +10s. +1 rail bending wagon with press and drill 32 0 0 +1 platelayers’ trolley and tool chest 9 2 0 +8 sets timber carriers, and sundries 43 17 9 + Total cost of rolling stock 964 19 8 + Add construction 4,928 3 3 + Total 5,893 2 11 + +The amount per mile to which the above works out has already been given. +I am unable to give the cost of the coal store at Eaton, and of the +engine and wagon sheds, although I designed them. They were executed by +the estate, and being, for the most part, of the excellence and solidity +of the neighbouring buildings, were doubtless somewhat expensive. + +For all practical purposes simple wooden sheds would usually answer every +requirement, and the extra amount spent at Eaton on levelling and sodding +in the park much more than outweighed the omission of this item. As to +the coal store this was altogether a special matter which does not affect +the estimate of the cost per mile of this class of railway. + +It will be of interest to give the actual amount of working expenses as +compared with their estimated amount. + + 1896. 1897. + £ s. d. £ s. d. +Wages driver and boy 115 3 4 115 12 0 +,, platelayers 145 8 8 94 15 8 +Locomotive coal 19 15 0 19 17 7 +Oil, stores, and sundries 8 1 10 9 7 1 + 288 8 10 239 12 4 + + Tons of 6,067 5,986 + material + hauled + No. days in 225 207 + steam + Tons hauled 27 29 + per day in + steam + +The best Welsh smokeless coal is used, costing about £1 per ton. + +From the above figures the following deductions may be drawn:— + +The locomotive worked an average of 4 days per week, hauling an average +of 28 tons each day, and burning 1¾ cwts. of coal at a cost of 1s. 9d. + +Full particulars of the hauling powers of the locomotive are given at the +end of this section, where it will be seen that 70 tons a day can readily +be dealt with, and that, in an emergency, 100 tons would be quite within +reasonable compass. + +It is required, at Eaton, that the engine should meet the wants of +several independent departments on the estate, and in different +directions, added to which only a limited number of men are usually +available for loading. In effect, instead of matters being arranged +primarily with a view to the economy of the working of the railway, the +railway is made an instrument for the economical working of the various +departments supplied by it. There is doubtless much to be said for the +view that, as the driver’s wages have to be paid, he may as well have his +engine in steam as often as required. But, notwithstanding this easy mode +of working the traffic, the cost of haulage is 3d. per ton per mile less +than the average cost of carting, including interest on capital as well +as working expenses. + +I may say that the line is kept in the most admirable order, clean, well +packed, and neatly ballasted, and that, under the astute direction of the +Hon. Cecil Parker, the Duke’s agent, the painstaking Superintendent of +the line, Mr. Forster, records with the greatest accuracy the weight of +every truck load of goods hauled, and the exact amount of all expenditure +on the railway, thus giving a value to this somewhat novel experiment +which it would not otherwise possess. + +It should be mentioned that the amount expended on platelayers’ wages +during 1896 exceeded the probably normal sum spent in 1897, on account of +the road not having become till the latter year properly consolidated. +The cinder ballast, though admirably porous, has proved somewhat +deficient in solidity, and the sleepers have required a good deal more +packing than should have been necessary. + +Since the completion of the line in May, 1896, some additions have been +made to the rolling-stock, with a view of obviating the necessity for the +immediate unloading of every wagon. There was a strongly expressed idea +among the employes that tip wagons would be more serviceable than the box +wagons with loose “tops” supplied by me. I have always felt that the +greater dead-weight of the former class of wagons in proportion to the +load carried, and also their increased cost, heavily discounted their +only advantage: celerity in unloading. In order, however, to bring the +question to a definite proof, I constructed six tip wagons entirely of +steel and cast iron which are fully described in Section VI. In practice +these were found to work as well as it is possible for a tip wagon to do, +but, nevertheless, the unloading advantages were wholly incommensurate +with the drawbacks of greater dead-weight and less capacity. There was +the further disability that a wagon of this class could not be used, as +can the others, for the conveyance of timber or other bulky goods. In the +end I removed all but two, which were left as samples, and replaced them +with wagons of the original type. + +I conclude this account of the Eaton railway by giving particulars of the +trial trips of the small four-wheeled locomotive and of its hauling +powers, and also of a test day’s work on time line. + +The trials of No. 4 locomotive at Eaton were carried out in Sept., 1896, +and the particulars were as follows (all weights being accurately taken +on the weighbridge):— + +Weight of engine in working order, with two men on the footplate, 3 tons +5 cwt.; weight of brake-van, with two men and a boy, 14 cwt.; pressure of +steam throughout trials, 155 to 165 lbs. per sq. in.; ruling gradient +between Balderton (G.W.R.) and Eaton, 1 in 70 rise from Balderton to +Eaton, 51 ft.; rise from lowest to highest point, 63 ft. + +Trip 1.—Balderton to Eaton, distance 3 miles exactly. To show that engine +could haul its guaranteed load of 15 tons gross, exclusive of own weight. +Coal train of thirteen wagons and van:— + + Tons. cwt. qrs. +Coal 10 10 3 +Thirteen wagons 4 18 1 +Van 0 14 0 + — +Gross load 16 3 0 +Engine 3 5 0 + — +Total weight of train 19 8 0 + +Time from start to stop, 17 mins.; speed. 10 miles per hour. In all +cases trains have to stop dead on a rising gradient of 1 in 100 before +crossing the high road one mile from Balderton. + +Trip 2.—Eaton to Balderton. To test capacity of engine for fast running. +The same train as above, empty. Time from start to stop, 12 mins.; speed, +15 miles per hour. + +Trip 3.—Balderton to Eaton. To determine maximum speed at which average +weight of train could be run. Gross load, exclusive of engine, 14 tons; +time from start to stop, 15 mins.; speed, 12 miles per hour. + +Trip 4.—Eaton to Balderton. To test power of engine to haul a long train +round the curve of 60 ft. radius on a gradient of 1 in 60, with which the +line starts from Eaton. Gross load, exclusive of engine, 14 tons, +consisting of 33 vehicles. The gradient was surmounted without +difficulty. No time taken. + +Trip 5. Balderton to Eaton. To test maximum capacity of engine. + +Coal train of 20 wagons and van:— Tons. cwt. qrs. +Coal 14 6 2 +Twenty wagons 7 13 0 +Van 0 14 0 + — +Gross load 22 13 2 +Engine 3 5 0 + — +Total weight of train 25 18 2 + +Time from start to stop, 21½ mins.; speed, 8½ miles per hour. The first +mile, fairly level, was run at 6¼ miles per hour only. The long gradient +up to Eaton was run at just under 10 miles per hour, the steam blowing +off freely with injector full on and damper three-quarters closed nearly +all the last mile-and-a-half. + +Trip 6:—From 1¼ to 2¼ mile posts, chiefly up gradient of 1 in 80. To test +maximum running speed with light trains. Load: bogie passenger-car and +van only. The maximum speed was attained on passing the 1½ mile post, but +fell off slightly after passing the 1¾ post. Time by stop watch, from 1½ +to 2 mile post, 1½ mins. exactly. Average speed, 20 miles per hour. + +It is to be noted, since the 15 in. gauge is almost precisely one-quarter +that of the standard railway gauge, and since possible speed is in direct +proportion to gauge, that 10, 15, and 20 miles on the one equal 40, 60, +and 80 on the other. Thus the average speed of 10 to 12 miles per hour +usually maintained, including the road-crossing stop, by the mineral +trains on the Eaton line is considerably in excess of the proportionate +speed of similar trains on the standard railways. + +In August, 1897, arrangements were courteously made at my request by the +Hon. Cecil Parker and by Mr. W. A. Forster, to enable me to test the +weight of minerals that could be transported in a full day’s work, over +the three miles of line from Balderton to Eaton. Care was taken to +obviate any delays in loading and unloading, but every truck had to be +weighed separately on leaving Balderton, a process occupying about ten +minutes with each train. Six trips were run during the day, and 69 tons +of coal and road-metal were transported. There were four loaders at +Balderton, and two unloaders at Eaton. The trains consisted of 12 wagons +and van. The average gross weight, exclusive of engine, was about 17 +tons, and the weight of minerals, or paying load, 12 tons. The speed was +just under 10 miles per hour for the loaded trains, and 11.5 miles per +hour for the empties. The engine left the shed at 8.15 a.m., and returned +at 5.45 p.m., with a delay of 55 minutes for dinner. The weather was as +bad as possible, slight showers all through the day making the rails so +greasy as to necessitate the constant use of sand up the inclines. Time +was also wasted in an extra journey for empty wagons, and in other +unavoidable delays. About 1 hour 10 minutes was the average time taken +over a trip out and back, reckoning to the time of next start. It is thus +apparent that, with a little more arrangement, eight trips could have +been run in the day. In the earlier trips, the gross loads hauled were +only about sixteen tons, increasing later in the day to eighteen and +nineteen tons. These larger loads might just as well have been also +hauled on the earlier trips and it was apparent that, under less adverse +conditions, 100 tons of paying load could have been transported in the +day. Only 3 cwt. of coal was burned, including lighting up. The total +distance run was 41 miles, and the average consumption of coal per mile, +including that burned while standing, was 83 lbs. For Eaton Railway +Regulations see Appendix C. + + + + +V. +LOCOMOTIVES. + + +THE first locomotive put upon my line was completed in 1875. This engine +was constructed, not so much as a model of what a small locomotive should +be, as to provide the requisite motive power for the experiments I +desired to carry out. No great care was, therefore, observed in the +details, and in its construction a good deal of material which happened +to be at hand was utilized to save time and expense; this much in excuse +of the want of proportion in some of the dimensions, which will be found +in detail under the head of No. 1 in the table of locomotive dimensions +on page 31. + +The boiler was of the launch type, a cylindrical shell with a cylindrical +fire-box terminating in tubes. This pattern of boiler, though giving less +heating surface for its size than one of ordinary locomotive design, has +the great merit of having no fire-box projecting below the barrel, thus +enabling the over-hang of the frame beyond the wheel-base to be equalised +at each end, a matter of the first importance in small tank engines. Its +low first cost and the ease with which it can be kept in order are +additional advantages. So well was I satisfied with the working, that in +the four boilers since designed for my locomotives I have adhered to the +original plan, which was copied from some shunting engines made by Mr. +Ramsbottom for the London and North Western Railway. I go so far as to +think that, without getting rid of a depending fire-box, no really +satisfactory tank engine can be constructed for a small gauge railway +unless idle wheels are introduced, a proceeding that cannot too strongly +be deprecated. The gradients, which are almost invariably the +concomitants of these small lines, make it essential that the whole of +the available weight should be utilized for adhesion. + +The difficulty of carrying on four wheels a boiler of sufficient length +for a more powerful engine, and the unsuitableness of an ordinary +six-coupled engine to the sharp curves in which narrow-gauge lines +generally abound, led me, in 1877, to work out a design by which the +wheel-base of an engine of the latter type could be made to accommodate +itself to any required degree of curvature. At this time I was in +communication with officers engaged in promoting a scheme for an army +field railway, where great power conjoined with perfect flexibility was +essential. As the result, I constructed the engine of which the +dimensions are given under No. 2 in the table, this being put to work in +1881. While avoiding the complication of the double-bogie system, this +engine possesses most, if not all, of its advantages. It is six-coupled +in the ordinary way, the axles having outside bearings and cranks. The +wheels, of cast steel, are not fixed upon the axles, but each pair is +keyed upon a cast iron sleeve, through which the axle passes. The sleeve +upon the middle axle is capable of sliding 1 in. in each direction +laterally, but cannot revolve upon its axle thus, when the engine reaches +a curve, the arc of the rail draws the middle wheels on their sleeve to +an amount equal to the versed sine of the arc, without interfering with +the rigid position of the axle. The leading and trailing pairs are +likewise mounted on sleeves, but here the connection of the sleeve with +the axle is by means of a ball joint at the centre, so constructed as to +leave the sleeve free to radiate in any direction, but obliging it to +revolve with the axle. The middle sleeve is so connected by external +hoops and links with the leading and trailing sleeves that, when the +former makes a lateral diversion, the two latter are radiated precisely +to the required curve, providing it is within the limit of the travel of +the middle sleeve, which, in this case, is arranged for a radius of 25 +ft. This engine excited considerable interest among visitors to my +railway at the time of the Royal Agricultural Show in Derby in 1881, but +the opinion was expressed that the arrangement would not stand hard work. +A few years later, however, when some officers of the Royal Engineers +were trying the engine with a view to adopting the plan on the military +railway at Chatham, they subjected it to very severe tests, loading it up +steep inclines to its utmost capacity; stopping it with the steam brake +almost dead when travelling at various speeds and over the most awkward +places; and, finally, giving it a fifty mile run with all the load that +could be got together, at an average speed of seven and a half miles an +hour, stops being made for water, &c., for twelve minutes in each hour. +This was followed, shortly after, by a continuous run with a similar load +for an hour and thirty-five minutes, the extreme limit to which the water +in the tanks would hold out. + +There was no heating of any part during the trials, nor failure of any +kind. After eight years’ work, chiefly on gradients of 1 in 10 to 1 in +12, where sand has to be used freely, the engine came into the shops to +be overhauled. During this time there had been no mishap or breakage +whatever, nor had a wheel ever left the rails, except on one occasion in +descending the steep incline, when, owing to the slippery state of the +rails, and sand failing, the engine slid away and left the road; less +than an hour, however, sufficing to get it running again. + +On removing and examining, shortly after this, the working parts of the +radiating gear, they were found in perfect order, the tool marks being +still visible in the ball joints; and in August, 1895, the engine, which +was then sent over to do the ballast work on the Eaton Railway, where it +worked for thirteen months, showed still a clean bill of health. The +engine is now rebuilding, and it is proof of the excellence of the +radiating gear that this part is being put together again without +re-adjustment of any kind. There is thus no doubt of the success of this +radiating principle. + +This engine is fitted, as already noticed, with a steam brake, which can +also be applied by hand but the latter alone is far too slow in action +for the abrupt stops necessary on a line like mine. + +The space between the frames being occupied by the radiating +arrangements, the valve gear is necessarily outside, and, to avoid +overhung eccentrics, I designed a modification of one of Mr. Charles +Brown’s Swiss valve gears, which are also the parents of what is known in +this country as Joy’s gear. I venture to think that my plan, in which +nothing projects below the connecting-rod, is better suited to small +engines where the motion is almost always near the ground than any yet +produced. The gear is extremely simple, and has worked without any +trouble, the only setting required being the adjustment to length of the +valve spindles, and the setting of one fixed centre on each side of the +engine. + +The springs consist of rubber pads placed between the axle-box and the +horn-block. They are simple to fit, take up no room, never get out of +order, and last many years. I have no steel-carrying spring on any of my +stock. + +The safety-valve spring is entirely within the boiler, so that it cannot +be tampered with or injured by accident. + +The connecting-rod brasses are peculiar. In order to avoid the twist to +the slide bar when the driving axle, owing to inequalities in the road, +fails to preserve its horizontal parallelism with the frame, the brasses +are shaped circular, so as to turn slightly in their straps, the latter +being bored out in the direction of their length instead of slotted. This +plan not only relieves both crank-pin and slide-bar of torsion, but also +forms a much more rigid union between the strap and the rod end. + +The steam jet is worked by the regulator handle, the valve being so +arranged that when the handle is moved beyond the point at which steam is +shut off, the jet is opened. A spring stop prevents the jet being opened +inadvertently. Thus when steam is put on, the jet is by the same action +closed, steam is saved, and two motions are performed in one. + +An important point in this, as in all the locomotives I have built, is +that the over-hang at the two ends is equal, and the weight also on both +leading and trailing axles practically the same, when the driver is on +the foot plate. A further arrangement of value is that in all my engines +the cranks are counter-balanced. It is impossible to effect the +counter-balancing on the wheels, nor, even if feasible, will the result +be so good, as counter-balance weights on the wheel are not at the same +distance from the axle centre as the disturbing weights, and therefore +not equable in their effect at different speeds. + +This engine was built for tractive power, not speed, and eighteen miles +an hour is the highest rate registered over the short straight course +available. The previous engine, with 15½ in. wheels, reached a speed +equal to 23 miles an hour, the time being in both cases taken over a +measured distance with a stop watch. About 11 miles an hour is the usual +average speed with passenger cars, which, owing to the severe curves, it +is not deemed wise to exceed. + +The net cost of the engine under consideration was £309, exclusive of +drawings and patterns. At the time it was built a joiner and occasionally +a labourer were my only assistants; the work consequently proceeded but +slowly, occupying altogether two years and a half. Reducing the time to +hours, the whole of my own labour was almost precisely equal to that +worked in one year by an artisan, and that of my assistants together to +about half the amount. This includes the time occupied in moulding, for +all the castings were made on the premises, with the exception of the +steel wheels. + +The boiler, frame-plates, and some of the brass fittings, were purchased, +but the whole of the machine work and fitting was executed on the spot. +The cost of all material, the hours of labour and engine power, interest +on tools, &c., were all carefully booked, and it will probably not be far +from a fair trade price for the engine if 10 per cent, for drawings and +patterns, and 20 per cent, for profit, are added to the cost given above, +thus bringing the amount to about £400. + +The working of the radiating gear of engine No. 2 proving so +satisfactory, I elaborated the principle so as to apply it to an +eight-wheeled locomotive. (No. 3 in the table.) In this case both of the +middle pairs of wheels have the traversing motion already described, but, +instead of the leading and trailing wheels being radiated from one +central pair, the second pair of wheels radiates the leading pair, and +the third pair of wheels the trailing pair, thus forming a mechanism +practically equal to a double bogie. By this arrangement an eight-coupled +engine is obtained capable of passing round curves as severe as may be +necessary. In the present instance, the travel is constructed for a +minimum radius of 25 ft. The details of the engine are similar to those +of No. 2, but numerous improvements have been effected, into all of which +it would be tedious to enter. It may, however, be mentioned that the ends +of all the crank pins are boxed in by the connecting and coupling rod +brasses, to exclude dirt. A steam water-lifter has also been added, by +which the tanks can be filled without delay during frost. + +The blast-nozzle is made adjustable by raising or lowering an internal +cone. Owing to the steep gradient before alluded to, it was impossible to +get a fixed size of nozzle that would keep up steam with a light load on +the level, without being so contracted as to lift the fire off the bars +on the incline. + +The boiler fittings have been made as symmetrical as possible, and +circular nuts have been substituted for hexagon, as more easy to clean. +The water-gauge glasses are put in through the top cock and fastened by a +single cap nut, thus doing away with the usual external glands. The steam +brake has a 5 in. cylinder, and the rigging is arranged to swing with the +traversing wheels. + +The locomotive for the Eaton Railway (No. 4 in the table) was built as an +example of a four-wheeled engine for use where the traffic was small and +the gradient reasonable. With the exception of radial axles, it is fitted +up precisely as No. 8. It has not, however, been altogether a success. +From the data of its hauling powers, it will readily be seen that there +is no deficiency in this respect; indeed, the maximum load handled +exceeded all my expectations. In its working, for now nearly two years, +nothing has gone amiss, nor has there been any trouble. On the contrary, +the engine has on all these points given full satisfaction. But it is +with regard to its effect on the road that I have my doubts. The running +is steady enough, and 20 miles an hour has been attained without undue +oscillation, yet nevertheless the road suffers as it never suffers under +the six and eight-wheeled engines. The long and short of my experience is +that I should not again recommend a four-wheeler except for very short +distances and low speeds. Nothing but the experience I have had with this +engine could have impressed so forcibly on me the very distinct +advantages of such a radial action as I have adopted in my other +locomotives, which enables them to go round a considerably sharper curve +than the four-wheeler with an ease and absence of grinding quite +remarkable, to say nothing of the saving to the road by the distribution +of weight over more points. The relief seems to be by no means so much in +the lessening of the weight per axle, which is not very great, as in the +increased number of points of support. I am well aware this is not a new +discovery, but it has come home to me with a practical force that leads +me to insist somewhat strongly upon its importance. + +The whole of the foregoing locomotives have been entirely made in my +workshops, with the exception of the boilers and steel castings. The +former have been chiefly supplied to me of excellent workmanship by +Messrs. Abbott and Co., of Newark, and the latter by the Hadfield Steel +Foundry Co., of Sheffield. + +The last locomotive in the table (No. 5) is now being commenced, and will +combine all the advantages of the previous ones in a less costly engine +than No. 8 which was built specially with a view to see how powerful and +fast travelling an engine could be put on the 15 in. gauge. No. 5, with +its smaller wheel, is not very inferior in hauling power to No. 8, and +the expense of the extra axle is saved. This is the engine that, if I had +to build another for the Eaton Railway, I should certainly recommend in +preference to the four-wheeled No. 4. + +The wheels of such little locomotives, since speed is no object, should +be kept as small as possible, and the stroke should be of the greatest +length. The nearer the stroke can be extended to half the diameter of the +wheel, the more successful will the engine prove on steep inclines. Good +sand-boxes, front and back, of ample capacity are essential, but it is +not advisable to fit any steam sanding apparatus, for, owing to the low +position of the motion, a good deal of the sand will rebound into the +joints and bearings, as I found by experiment. + +Cabs on such small engines are to be avoided as unbearably hot in summer, +dangerous in case of emergency, and inconvenient at all times on account +of the contracted dimensions. A stout mackintosh is cheaper and far +better for the driver. + +A steam water-lifter is a convenience in frosty weather when the water +supply above ground may be frozen up, but in summer the engine tanks get +so hot from their proximity to the boiler that the water, which becomes +lukewarm in the process of being raised by the lifter, is then very soon +at a temperature which makes the action of the injectors precarious. + +I may say that in all my locomotives I use Holden and Brooke’s restarting +injector, which, after experiment with many types, I find takes the +hottest water and is in all ways most reliable. I place brass wire +strainers in both steam and water-supply pipes close to the injector, +which is invaribly fixed below the tanks, so that when the injector is +overheated the water will run through by gravity and cool it; a most +important advantage. + +NUMBER, DATE OF COMPLETION, No. 1. 1875. No. 2. 1881. No. 3. 1894. No. 4. 1896. No. 5. +AND NAME OF ENGINE. “EFFIE.” “ELLA.” “MURIEL.” “KATIE.” +Diameter of cylinders 4 in. 4⅞ in. 6¼ in. 4⅝ in. 5½ in. +Length of stroke 6 in. 7 in. 8 in. 7 in. 8 in. +Diameter of wheels 1 ft 3½ in 1 ft 1½ in 1 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. 3 in. 1 ft. 4 in. +Length of wheel-base 2 ft. 6 in. 4 ft. 6 in. 6 ft. 3 ft. 5 ft. +Number of wheels (all 4 6 8 4 6 +coupled) +Length over framing 7 ft. 8 ft. 8 in. 10 ft. 9 in. 8 ft. 10 ft. +Overhang at each end 2 ft. 3 in. 2 ft. 1 in. 2 ft. 4½ in. 2 ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 6 in. +Width over framing 2 ft. 3 in. 3 ft. 10 in. 3 ft. 10 in. 3 ft. 10 in. 3 ft. 10 in. +Length of boiler 4 ft. 6 in. 6 ft. 6 in. 8 ft. 3 in. 5 ft. 8 in. 7 ft. 8 in. +Diameter of boiler 1 ft. 10 in. 2 ft. 1 in. 2 ft. 1 in. 2 ft. 1 in. 2 ft. 1 in. +Length of firebox (flue) 1 ft. 9 in. 2 ft. 3 in. 3 ft. 2 ft. 3 in. 3 ft. +Diameter of firebox 11 in. 1 ft. 3¼ in. 1 ft. 3¼ in. 1 ft. 3¼ in. 1 ft. 3¼ in. +Number of tubes (brass, 1⅜ 23 57 57 57 57 +in.) +Heating surface 23 sq. ft. 70 sq. ft. 91 sq. ft. 53 sq. ft. 80 sq. ft. +Grate area 1.25 sq. ft. 2.12 sq. ft. 3 sq. ft. 2.12 sq. ft. 3 sq. ft. +Capacity of tanks 18 gals. 50 gals. 84 gals. 49 gals. 77 gals. +Working steam pressure per 125 lb. 160 lb. 160 lb. 160 lb. 160 lb. +sq. in +Weight in working order 1 ton 3 cwt. 3 tons 15 5 tons 3 tons 5 4 tons 5 + cwt. cwt. cwt. (?) +Co-efficient of adhesion at 3.6 4.7 4.5 4.9 lb 4.3 (?) +145 lb. mean pressure +Tractive power per lb. 6.2 lb. 12.3 lb. 17.3 lb. 9.9 lb. 15.1 lb. +pressure in cylinders +If diameter cylinder2 = 1, 207 425 336 356 381 +ratio heating surface = +If diameter cylinder2= 1, 11.2 12.8 11.0 14.2 14.3 +ratio grate area = +Load (exclusive of engine) 15 tons. 35 tons. 49 tons. 28 tons. 44 tons. +on level. +(These are up 1 in 100 9 tons. 21 tons. 30 tons. 17 tons. 27 tons. +average +working +loads which +can be +considerably +exceeded on +the easier +gradients.) + up 1 in 50 6.4 tons. 14.6 tons. 21 tons. 11 tons. 18 tons. + up 1 in 25 3.8 tons. 8.3 tons. 12 tons. 6.5 tons. 11 tons. + up 1 in 12 1.8 tons. 3.4 tons. 4.9 tons. 2.5 tons. 4.4 tons. + + + + +VI. +WAGONS AND CARS + + +THE wagons first put upon my line measured only 4 ft. by 2 ft. inside. It +soon became apparent, however, that a gauge of 15 in. could carry with +safety a much larger vehicle. In fact it may be taken as a reasonable +rule that the floor area of narrow gauge wagons should not be less than +four times the gauge in length and twice the gauge in width. I have found +such a wagon very handy for light work, but on the Eaton Railway I +adopted an over measurement of 6 ft. by 3 ft. with 1 ft. 3 in. depth of +side. The wheel base is, in all cases, half the length of the wagon. The +larger wagon above described carries 16 cwts. of coal, and from 20 to 22 +cwts. of sand, road metal, bricks, etc., and weighs about 7½ cwts., or +one-fourth of its total gross loaded weight, _i.e._, it carries three +times its own weight. The axles in this case are 2 in. diameter. For +heavier loads I have made the wagons with 2¼ in. axles to carry 30 cwts. +which is the standard I have finally adopted; and also with 2½ in. axles +to carry two tons. Two of these last were built for the Eaton line, on +which logs of timber up to 30 in. square and 60 ft. long have to be +conveyed from the G. W. Railway to the Estate works. Each end of the log +rests on a “timber fork,” which can be fitted on to any wagon, and in +this way, not only timber, but any kind of lengthy goods can be carried +with the greatest ease. My resident engineer at Eaton gave me an amusing +account of the arrival from Messrs. Handyside & Co. of the ironwork for +the coal store at Eaton. This included a number of long and awkward +shaped pieces, and the foreman sent by this firm to erect the shed was in +despair at seeing the toy wagons provided for the transport of pieces +that with some difficulty had been loaded in the main line wagons. To his +surprise the 15 in. gauge handled them with far greater facility than the +4 ft. 8½ in., owing to length being no drawback. + +My standard wagons are constructed of pitch pine with angle-iron rims, +and the box sides are framed together independently of the wagon itself, +thus a flat wagon is converted into a box wagon by merely placing this +frame upon it. These sides, or “tops” as they have come to be called, are +about 15 in. deep, and the wagons being constructed to a standard size, +are interchangeable. An iron rim on each enables two or three of the tops +to be placed one above another upon any wagon, to give an extra depth. To +empty the wagon, two men readily lift off the top, and, if necessary, +turn it over sideways, sufficiently to shoot off the contents; or the +load may be upset without removing the top. This mode is almost as rapid +as emptying a tip wagon, which, though convenient to unload, is a fraud +as to capacity, and cannot be designed to carry more than one-and-a-half +times its own weight; and even then there is the objection that the +centre of gravity is far higher than in the box wagon. + +For carrying timber or other lengthy loads swivelling carriers can be +placed on any two wagons; and if a greater length is required, these two +wagons can be set a distance apart, with or without other wagons placed +between them. By adopting the flat wagon as a standard, it is possible to +adapt each one to any class of work, without the necessity of keeping a +large variety for various purposes. A narrow gauge is said not to lend +itself advantageously to the carrying of bulky material, but by loading a +train of wagons without break from end to end, I clear hay off land, to +which it happens that carts cannot have access, with great despatch. +There is, therefore, no valid objection on this score. The cost of these +wagons is from 80s. to 85s. per cwt. In the two years the Eaton line has +been at work they have proved convenient in every way and show no signs +as yet of wear. + +In addition to a number of wagons, some of which are fitted with brakes, +there are on my line seven bogie passenger cars and a bogie van; also a +variety of miscellaneous stock, such as workmen’s car, screw and roller +rail-benders, dynamometer car, and various small trolleys. The +dynamometer car is constructed to indicate the tractive effort of the +engine, the speed, and the distance travelled. The roller rail bender is +worked by three men, two of whom work the winch which draws the rail +through the rollers, while the third adjusts the pressure to produce the +required curvature. The screw bender has two thrust blocks, opposite +which works a horizontal screw, which straightens or bends rails with +great accuracy, but in long or sharp curves the roller bender is more +rapid and efficient, as elsewhere noted. + +The passenger stock, which, like everything else, was built on the +premises, requires a somewhat more detailed notice. There are four open +cars, holding sixteen persons each, two abreast. These are 19 ft. 6 in. +long and 8 ft. 6 in. wide, and are carried on two bogies of 1 ft. 6 in. +wheel base, the total wheel base being 16 ft. 6 in. A foot brake is +fitted to one bogie on each car. The weight of these cars is 20 cwt.; +they therefore only weigh 1¼ cwt. per passenger seat, and reckoning +sixteen persons to the ton, the proportion of live to dead weight is as 1 +to 1. On the main lines it is more than 1 to 5. The cost of these cars, +stained, varnished, and lined with linoleum, was £37 each. + +In order to demonstrate the capabilities of even so small a gauge, a +closed car of the same dimensions as those already described was +constructed, which has doors and windows of the usual kind. Lest it +should be supposed that the space is unduly cramped, I may mention that a +visitor 6 ft. 3½ in. in height, when seated, found ample clearance for +his tall hat. The cost of this car was £67, and the weight is 24 cwt. +Here the proportion of live to dead weight is as 5 to 6. + +As a further test of the capacity of a 15 in. gauge, I have built a +dining car and a sleeping car of the same dimensions as the cars already +described. The former seats eight persons and carries a suitable cooking +stove in a compartment to itself. The latter contains four berths 6 ft. 6 +in. long and 1 ft. 10 in. wide, with a lavatory and other fittings. This, +though hardly an essential accompaniment to a line under one mile in +length, can be utilised as an overflow bedroom for my boys when the house +is full of guests. I am unable to state the exact cost of these two +vehicles, but exclusive of fittings, it is little, if at all in excess of +that of the closed car already quoted. The weights are somewhat greater, +owing to the bogie truck frames being of cast iron instead of elm. + +A closed luggage van, 15 ft. in length, but otherwise of the same pattern +as the cars, concludes the list, and is used to convey luncheons, teas, +etc., for large parties, to the station where refreshments are served. +The extreme height of the closed cars is 6 ft. + +All the wagons and cars are carried on chilled iron wheels, 13½ in. +diameter, cast in my foundry. The axles, as has been stated, vary from 2 +in. to 2½ in. in diameter, and on to these the wheel on one side is +forced by a hydraulic pressure of about 15 tons, while the opposite wheel +runs loose to reduce the curve friction. The journals run in cast-iron +boxes, which are lubricated by sponges placed in oil receptacles below. +The horn-blocks and axle-boxes, with a rubber block between them to form +the spring, and a cover to the oil reservoir, are secured together by a +single bolt, after the insertion of which no part can come loose. The +castings are put together as they come from the foundry, without +machining or fitting of any kind, the axle bedding well into the +cast-iron box after a few days’ wear. For the Eaton railway, however, I +bored out the boxes, but have not found any advantage to result. These +bearings require oiling only at intervals of several weeks, and although +some of them have been in use more than eighteen years, there has been no +case of heating or other failure. The cost of each complete bearing, +including horn-block box, cover, spring, and bolt, is only 5s., 1s. of +which goes for the rubber. + +The buffers and couplings are central. A single east-iron buffer, which +in the case of the cars is mounted on a spring draw-bar, has a coupler of +the same metal hinged to it by a bolt. The latter is self-coupling or not +as desired; but, when turned back so as not to couple, the driver can, by +bringing the buffers smartly together, cause it to fall and couple up. +These couplers allow the wagons and cars to be shunted out of the train, +when the engine is either pushing or drawing, by a quick manipulation of +the points, the hook sliding laterally from its hold as the vehicles +diverge on different lines. I designed some cast-steel coupler-buffers of +this type lately for the Royal Engineers’ 30 in. gauge experimental field +railway, near Chatham, which, though for reasons unconnected with their +construction not adopted, are reported as the only ones of several types +experimented with ‘which fulfilled the necessary requirements. In the +bogie stock the coupler-buffers are fitted to the bogie, and not to the +car frame, on account of the severe curves. In the construction of the +wagons and cars almost every part is made to gauge, and put together +without fitting. + +The aim throughout has been to make the details of all the rolling-stock +as simple, cheap, and efficient as possible, which has been principally +achieved by adopting designs and modes of construction largely at +variance with commonly accepted notions. The totally different conditions +under which minimum-gauge lines work, as compared with ordinary railways, +renders this possible without any sacrifice of safety or durability. + +In Section IV. mention was made of tip-wagons supplied as an experiment +to the Eaton line. These consist of steel tubs, U shaped in section, hung +at each end on two trunnions riding in cast-iron pedestals, the latter +being bolted to an under-frame of channel steel fitted with cast iron +ends rivetted in, and so formed as to carry a drawbar with rubber +cushions, to the end of which the coupler-buffer is attached. These +wagons cost £20 as against £12 for the standard box wagon. They weigh 11½ +cwts., and carry about this weight of coal, or a little more. Loaded with +coal, they average a trifle under 24 cwt., exactly the same as the box +wagon, which weighs 7½ cwt., and carries 16 to 17 cwt. of coal. Thus the +paying loads of the two are as 3 to 4 for the same hauled weight. For +short distances, where the emptying bears a greater proportional relation +to the running time, or where the load must be got rid of in a +particularly short space of time, tip-wagons may answer. For such +purposes as my experience has had to deal with, they are a drawback, +which, as I have previously pointed out, is increased by their +inadaptability to the carriage of bulky goods. One of my strong +contentions is that, on a small line, to avoid expense in rolling stock, +every vehicle should be available for every purpose. + + + + +VII. +THE DUFFIELD BANK WORKSHOPS. + + +A BRIEF account of my little works will be of some interest to engineers. +I have already, in Section I., given an outline of my progress as a +mechanic. + +I will now describe the machinery by which the locomotives, carriage and +wagon stock, and permanent way fittings have been constructed. + +The machine-shop contains an 11 in. lathe for wheel turning, cylinder +boring, and the heavier work; an 8 in. lathe for surfacing, sliding, and +general work; a 7 in. lathe for screw-cutting and fine work; a 4 in. +Pittler universal lathe, with a variety of automatic and other fittings, +chiefly used for the smaller brass work, such as cocks, glands, +lubricators, &c.; a 3 in. sliding and screw-cutting lathe, for very light +work; a planing machine to take work 4 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft 6 in.; +an 8 in. stroke double-table shaping machine, fitted for hollow and +circular shaping, specially used for machining coupling rods, &c.; a 4½ +in. shaping machine with circular motion, for light work; a milling +machine; a 9 in. stroke slotting-machine with compound table, for heavy +work; a 2½ in. spindle drilling and boring machine; a 1¾ in. drilling +machine, for general work; a screwing and tapping machine, to 1½ in. for +bolts and to 2 in. for pipes; a cold-sawing machine, to cut iron up to 2¼ +in. square; a slot drilling machine; a twist-drill grinding machine; two +grindstones, three bench vices, and complete sets of screwing tackle and +fitters’ tools. + +The smith’s shop contains two fires, of which one is blown by a fan, and +is suited for the heavier work; anvils for ordinary purposes and also for +the treatment of angle iron, &c.; a 2½ cwt. gas hammer; a punching and +shearing machine; a bench vice, and complete set of smiths’ tools. + +The erecting shop contains an overhead travelling crane; an engine pit; a +30-ton hydraulic press for putting axles into wheels, crank pins into +cranks, testing samples, &c.; a hand screwing and tapping machine to ¾ +in. for bolts and to 1 in. for pipes; standards for fitting up +frame-plates; a rivet heating forge; two bench vices, and tools for tube +extracting and other special processes connected with the construction +and repair of locomotives. + +The iron-foundry contains a 16 in. cupola worked through a double tuyère +by a “Root’s” blower; an overhead travelling crane; a core stove; +charge-weighing scales; a large supply of boxes for general purposes, and +special ones for cylinders, chilled-wheels, sleepers, gutters, &c., with +all ladles and other appliances suitable for producing castings up to +half-a-ton weight. Especial pains have been taken to turn out chilled +wheels (13½ in. diameter), for the rolling stock, of perfect smoothness +and of even depth of chill. + +The brass foundry contains a furnace, a metal moulding bench, and the +usual fittings. + +The carriage shop has two lines of 15 in. gauge formed of cast plates +bolted together and bedded in concrete, and contains a wood-morticing and +boring machine; fitters and joiners’ vices, with every convenience for +erecting, finishing, and painting two of the long 20 ft. bogie cars +simultaneously, or eight of the standard wagons, according to +requirements; all bulky joiners’ and carpenters’ work is also done in +this shop. + +The pattern and joiners’ shop contains a 5 in. Holtzappfel lathe; and a +small circular saw; 2 instantaneous-grip vices; saw tooth-setting +machine; and a variety of other special appliances, in addition to a full +set of joiners’ tools. + +The saw-shed contains a 30 in. circular saw bench; a band saw; a small +general joiner; an 11 in. planing machine, and a small emery grinder. + +The engine house contains an 8 horse-power Otto gas-engine, of which the +water circulation is effected by a small centrifugal pump. + +The drawing office is fitted up with the usual appliances, and is in +telephonic communication with my house and two of the stations on the +railway. + +The general stores comprise timber; foundry sand of various qualities; +five kinds of pig iron; copper, spelter, tin, &c.; bar, rod, and angle +iron; wrought-iron tubing up to 2 in.; bolts, rivets, nuts, and pins; +steam fittings of all kinds; every sort of requisite needed in the +construction of small railways and rolling stock, and also for meeting +house and farm requirements. + +The pattern store contains patterns for all the locomotive, carriage, +wagon, signal, permanent way, and general experimental work; and for +drain grates, gutters, &c. which are supplied from Duffield for my other +estates. + +The shops are lit by gas, and the 15 in. gauge line runs throughout. The +construction, both in wood and iron, is done as far as possible to +template, and every endeavour is made to turn out the very best work, +which is perhaps the more easily attained in that there are no profits to +be considered. At the same time it should be explained that the shops and +machinery are, throughout, though good and sufficient for their purpose, +in no way models of excellence. Their object is only to turn out the +chiefly experimental work required, and the gradual additions that have +been made during the twenty-five years of their existence have been done +as cheaply as was consistent with efficiency. + +Outside the shops are a weigh-bridge for weighing rolling-stock and +loads, and a six-ton crane to tranship heavy goods from drays to the 15 +in. railway. + +Adjoining the workshops is the locomotive shed, with rails raised 30 in. +above the floor, so as to get more easily at the lower parts of these +small engines. It is arranged for two locomotives, and is fitted with an +air jet for raising steam, and with a water supply. + +The carriage and wagon stock is, for the most part, housed in three sheds +at various stations on the main part of the railway, 80 ft. above the +workshops. + + + + +VIII. +SCIENTIFIC CONSIDERATIONS. + + +THE present section contains the result of experiments and experience on +points which, for the most part, are of interest only to those who study +the scientific side of railway work. I here take the opportunity of +placing on record various considerations, more or less connected with the +subject of narrow-gauge railways, of too technical a nature to be mixed +up with the descriptive pages. This explanation will account for the +somewhat disjointed nature of the statements which follow. + +The fact that narrow gauge locomotives are usually required to surmount +much steeper gradients than are generally to be found on standard +railways, makes adhesion a question of the first importance. It is very +generally supposed that the co-efficient of adhesion between a wheel and +a rail is a constant fraction of the insistent weight, varying slightly +with the molecular structure of the metals in contact. There is, however, +reason to believe that it decreases considerably with an increase of +weight. In locomotives of the standard gauge, with from 12 to 18 tons per +driven axle, it is generally held that a co-efficient of adhesion of +one-sixth is all that can be counted on with certainty. From a number of +experiments on the Festiniog Railway, with the results of which the late +Mr. Spooner, who himself supported the theory, was good enough to supply +me, I found that the load there per driven axle was five tons, the +co-efficient averaging about one-fifth. Again, with my small engines that +have a load on each axle of from 1.2 to 1.6 tons, the calculated +co-efficient is two-ninths, in support of which I give the following +experiment, conducted in the presence of two gentlemen belonging to a +firm of locomotive builders, when it was under consideration to build for +military purposes some engines on the plan of the No. 2 described in +Section V. + +I guaranteed that the locomotive referred to should take a load equal to +its own weight up a gradient of 1 in 10 a quarter of a mile long, which +then was, in parts, as steep as 1 in 9, with a short curve of +half-a-chain radius at the severest part. This was satisfactorily +accomplished. The day being dry, I was requested to ascertain what was +the maximum load that could be hauled. On reaching four tons, when the +start had to be made on a less gradient, the engine barely struggled up, +and this was evidently all it could do. When full up with coal and water +it weighed at that time 3 tons 6 cwt. During the experiment, however, +there were but 3 tons 2 cwt. on the three axles, all of which were +coupled. The boiler pressure was 145 lbs. exactly, and, the gross weight +of engine and train being 7 tons 2 cwt., the gravity resistance on the +gradient of 1 in 10 was equal to 14.2 cwt. The weight of 3 tons 2 cwt. +available for adhesion, reduced by a tenth part, which the gradient +converts into gravity resistance, was equal to 56 cwt. Thus, without +reckoning the curve friction of the whole train and the journal friction +of the wagons, both uncertain quantities, the proportion of developed +tractive power to load was as 1 to 3.9. This result confirms the +probability of the truth of the above assertion. Assuming its +correctness, which appears beyond doubt, what is the explanation of +increased proportionate adhesion with a decreased weight on the driven +axles? The reduced diameter of wheel in the smaller engines might seem +to offer a solution of the problem. Experience, however, goes to prove +that, if there is any difference, a larger wheel has, with equal +insistent weights, a better grip of the rail than a small one. I am of +opinion that the weight is directly responsible for the difference. A +wheel rests upon a rail on one point, or possibly on a transverse line of +which the length is equal to the width of the rail. With a small +insistent weight the molecules of the wheel and rail interlock without +injury, and adhesion, on the principle of an infinitesimal rack and +pinion, is the result. As the weight is increased on the fine bearing +area, the molecules become disturbed, and fail to offer so firm a +fulcrum. Ultimately they become displaced, and move as rollers between +the two surfaces, materially reducing the adhesion. If this theory be the +correct one, as is not improbable, the graduated reduction in the +adhesion would be accounted for. + +That the rolling wheel and rail do actually interlock was demonstrated by +Sir Douglas Galton in his experiments on the retarding power of brakes, +when he pointed out that, on a wheel becoming skidded, the rack and +pinion motion was converted into a series of jumps of the wheel across +the microscopic teeth of the rack, with a consequent reduction in +adhesion proportionate to the sliding speed. In confirmation of this +statement I detailed, during the meeting of the British Association at +Sheffield, an experiment I made by reversing a locomotive so as to skid +the wheels, and ultimately to cause them to revolve in a contrary +direction, while descending an incline. With skidded wheels the descent +was at a certain speed with backward revolution of the wheels the speed +increased rapidly, the effect of the reversal being to cause the wheel to +slip over the rail at a speed greater than that at which the engine was +moving, thus showing that Sir Douglas Galton’s theory of the adhesion +diminishing in proportion to the extent of departure from the +interlocking or rolling motion of the wheel on the rail remained +consistent even beyond sliding contact, and disposing of the old theory +that the loss of adhesion with a skidded wheel was due to the creation of +a polished point of contact on the wheel. + +Another somewhat curious point in connection with adhesion is the slip of +the driving wheels, which is naturally in the direction of causing a +greater number of revolutions of the wheels than would be due to the +length of rail travelled over. Occasionally, however, I have, in +experimenting, noticed that fewer revolutions are made than would suffice +to travel the distance as measured on a centre line between the rails. +That is, the wheels slipped forward instead of back. This freak is +probably due to the outer wheel on a curve slipping forward when, owing +to considerable superelevation and a low speed, the inner wheel is the +more heavily weighted, the distance then travelled being the reduced +length of the inner rail. + +I now proceed to explain the basis of calculation of the net loads hauled +on various gradients, as appended to particulars of each locomotive +described in Section V. The resistance on the level consists of journal +friction, tire friction, and locomotive internal friction. Tire friction +is practically nil, except on curves and in strong side winds. Journal +friction I find, in the case of my small rolling stock, to be covered by +an allowance of 10 lbs. per ton. Owing to the numerous curves another 10 +lbs. per ton must be added to cover tire friction. A tractive power of 20 +lbs. per ton proves quite sufficient to keep the train in motion on the +level. It is not, however, enough to start the train on a curve, nor to +overcome the inertia due to journal friction when, as on an incline, +there is no slack between the wagons, and the whole train must be started +at once. After considerable experience I find it necessary to add a +further 20 lbs. per ton to the required tractive power. A total of 40 +lbs. per ton is thus allowed as a good working equivalent of the +frictional resistance of the train. + +The friction of the locomotive is a much more complicated question. There +seems very little information available on this point. It has been said, +in the case of full sized engines, to absorb thirty per cent. of the +tractive power, but this is a vague estimate, out of all reason +excessive, unless it be intended to include gravity resistance on a steep +incline. It is desirable to consider the nature of the various causes of +resistance to motion separately. Viewed as a carriage only, the journal +and tire friction of the locomotive may be taken at the same amount per +ton of its weight as in the case of the trains, namely, 40 lbs. The +additional resistance due to friction of the moving parts of the +mechanism cannot be calculated as a constant. If the engine is developing +but a small portion of its power, the amount will be small; when loaded +to its full capacity there will be a large increase of internal +resistance, varying, however, in proportion to the accuracy with which it +is put together, and the stiffness of the framing. + +Such experiments as I have made show clearly that, when exerting +approximately its full power, the total frictional resistance of the +engine does not exceed 100 lbs. per ton, and when running light is much +less, but in what proportion less I have as yet failed to ascertain +satisfactorily. Of this 100 lbs. per ton, from 20 to 40 lbs. is due to +journal and tire friction, leaving from 60 lbs. to 80 lbs. per ton as the +deduction for internal friction. + +I thus conclude that an allowance of 40 lbs. per ton for train +resistance, and 100 lbs. per ton for engine resistance, is a basis for +calculating the tractive power required on the level that is sufficient +under all possible narrow-gauge conditions. In the case of gradients +there must, of course, be added the gravity resistance of the engine and +train, which is, on a gradient of 1 in 100, one-100th of the gross +weight; on a gradient of 1 in 50, one-50th, and so on. + +In calculating the tractive power of the engine, the effective pressure +in the cylinders may be reckoned at fully nine-tenths of the boiler +pressure, on account of the low piston speed. + +The above particulars are not to be taken as representative of what can +be got out of a narrow-gauge engine in a few isolated experiments only, +but of what is well within the compass of daily work. + + + + +IX. +REMARKS ON NARROW GAUGE RAILWAYS. + + +UP to this point I have merely detailed the particulars of the +construction of my experimental railway and of the line at Eaton, giving +at the same time the reasons that have led me to adopt certain methods +and designs. I now propose, in conclusion, to offer a few remarks upon +the application, in this country and abroad, of small railways of 2 ft. +gauge and under to do work at present done by means of horses and carts. + +The cases in which such lines can be profitably applied may be classed +under two heads; the one, where, in a country possessing ports or a +system of railways, large establishments, private, public, or industrial, +might be connected therewith by a narrow gauge line so as to reduce the +cost of transport below that which has to be paid for haulage by animal +power on roads; the other, when no roads worthy of the name are +available, and the choice is a light railway or nothing. The chief +condition of success in both cases is a sufficient traffic between two or +more definite points. Military railways, however, must be regarded from a +somewhat different standpoint, as the object here is to supply a movable +centre as expeditiously as possible with the vast commissariat +requirements of an army rather than to study economy. It is not my +intention to enter into the pros and cons of small railways for war +purposes. Suffice it to say that some countries are ahead of us in the +matter, which is one that has, in England, been allowed to drop rather +into the background. + +Returning to the consideration of cases where a fairly large traffic has +to be delivered to a port or railway system, the first question that +arises is that of transhipment. Material of any kind can be as +effectively delivered on ship-board by narrow gauge railway wagons as by +horses and carts, if not better. In reckoning up the cost of transhipment +from small wagons on to a railway system—no great matter with proper +appliances—it must not be lost sight of that, even if a branch of +standard gauge were constructed to many establishments, the large wagons +cannot, as a rule, be got up to the point where the material lies, and a +preliminary transference in barrows or carts is necessary. With the +little wagons it is usually possible to get right up to the place and to +load direct, in which case there is clearly no additional expense +incurred. It is, further, often forgotten that there is on the standard +railways endless transhipment for the sake of economical transport, in no +way connected with a break of gauge. + +Again, a small line can be carried round curves, up gradients, and +through confined premises, where a wider line would be inadmissible. In +many places the unsightliness of the standard gauge would be objected to, +nor can such a line be made very light if it has to carry, as it must, +the 7 or 8 tons per axle of a full sized coal wagon (see Appendix A). + +The narrow gauge has also the advantage in first cost, and by bringing +the small wagons on to a level with the floors of the large ones, or, in +the case of minerals, by erecting a simple shoot, the transhipment +difficulty may be reduced to a minimum. + +It is not well to have gradients steeper than 1 in 40 where avoidable, as +difficulty will be experienced in slippery weather; but it is quite +possible with suitable engines to work inclines of moderate length, as +steep as 1 in 12. The diminution of the power of the locomotive on +gradients is also a matter for consideration, the importance of which +will be clear when it is stated that if an engine will haul, as it +should, in addition to itself, ten times its own weight on the level, it +will haul, speaking roughly, only four times its weight up 1 in 50, twice +its weight up 1 in 25, and once its weight up 1 in 12. More work can be +done if adhesion does not fail, but the above is an approximate working +average. + +The speed on small lines is not generally a matter of much moment, owing +to their usually moderate length. A locomotive that is sufficiently +powerful to start a given load, will without difficulty get it along at +from 8 to 10 miles an hour. It has occurred to me that a very fair +approximation to the reasonable running speed of which any gauge is +capable is to be found in estimating that the speed of passenger trains +is equal to as many miles per hour as the gauge is inches wide, and, for +goods trains, to half that amount. + +The permanent way should be made a thoroughly sound job, as it will then +cost but little for repairs. Particulars of what is recommended will be +found in Sections III. and IV. I am no advocate of portable railways, +which may be well enough for hand trains, or even for horse traction, but +a locomotive requires a solid and clean road if it is to work to +advantage. + +It is often possible to carry a narrow gauge railway by the roadside or, +as at Eaton, over pasture lands without the necessity of fencing the line +in. Fences can be crossed as described in Sections III. and IV., so long +as arable land is avoided. Where the route is not wholly the property of +the projector of the railway, the requisite way-leave may frequently be +leased by paying an annual acknowledgment of from 3d. to 6d. per yard +run. + +It now remains to show what traffic is required in order that a line of +this description may repay the outlay upon it. This may best be effected +by drawing a comparison between the cost of locomotive traction on rails +and horse traction on roads. The cost of loading and unloading will not +be included, as these are the same in both cases. (See also Section IV.) + +Taking the minimum distance apart of two points, between which haulage +may be supposed to be required, as one mile, the smallest and cheapest +gauge as 15 in., and allowing 2,000 yds. to the mile so as to include the +necessary sidings, the cost of the line will be as follows:— + +2,000 yds. of 16 lbs. steel rails, cast-iron sleepers, £650 +ballast, and laying +Fence bridges, field crossings, fencing, and other £200 +structural works; but exclusive of river bridges, tunnels, +or other costly requirements +Earthwork, if an approximately surface line ... say £250 +One 4½ in. cylinder four-wheeled locomotive £400 +12 wagons to hold 1 cube yd., at £12 each £144 +Extras ... say £156 + Cost of 1 mile of line, equipped complete £1,800 + +If laid with pitch pine sleepers a reduction of about £100 per mile would +be effected, the cost of renewal being correspondingly increased. + +The engine would be capable of hauling a gross load, exclusive of its own +weight, of 12 tons up a gradient of 1 in 50, which may be taken as a fair +ruling gradient for a surface line. This would be equal to an average +paying load of about 8 tons; so that, supposing the engine to make one +trip per hour, about 60 tons would be moved per day; although, with a +double set of wagons and men, 100 tons would easily be handled. + +If the engine worked two days a week, or say 100 days per annum, it would +have hauled 6,000 tons one mile in the year. A less load hauled on the +return journeys need not be taken into account, as this would make no +difference in the comparison, such work being practically done without +extra cost in both cases. + +The cost of the line per annum would be as follows:— + +Interest on £1,800 at 4 per cent. £72 +Driver and boy, who would keep the rolling stock and line in £100 +order +Fuel, oil, stores, and sundries, at 5s. per day £25 +Renewal of permanent way and rolling stock at 15 years life £80 +on £1,200 +Cost of moving 6,000 tons one mile £277 + +This is equal to about 11d. per ton. Now the same haulage by horses and +carts in Great Britain would usually cost about 1s. 3d. per ton, and in +this case there is the advantage of being able to haul, if necessary, in +other directions if required, which would somewhat reduce the financial +advantage of the railway, but still leave it a distinct superiority. + +It is probable that a traffic of 5,000 tons annually over a mile of line +is the smallest amount that would repay the construction of a narrow +gauge railway, for the estimate has been based upon the narrowest line +which can profitably be employed. If the line were longer, the balance in +its favour would be greater. This would also be the case if the traffic +were greater, and with the maximum amount which the line, using only one, +but a larger engine, could accommodate, say 40,000 tons, the concern +would be very profitable, for the extra charge for renewals would not be +heavy, and the cost per ton carried would be reduced to about 5d. or 6d. + +No allowance has been made for way leaves or purchase of land. Should +there be outlay under these heads, the cost of transport would be +increased accordingly. + +In concluding these comparisons, in which it may be thought that the +railway is shown in a less attractive light than might have been expected +from an enthusiast, I may explain that I am no advocate of ill considered +schemes, planned without proper knowledge, cheaply constructed, and +carelessly worked. My figures represent thoroughly sound and serviceable +plant, kept in good repair. If it is not worth while to go to such +expense, then it is not worth while to construct a railway at all. I have +been fortunate enough to work my line for twenty years without the +slightest injury to a single person of the many thousands that have been +carried as invited guests for pleasure, as visitors interested in my +experiments, or as workmen on the premises. None of the rolling stock has +sustained more than the most trivial damage; and derailments, beyond an +occasional mishap in shunting, are unknown. The working of the Eaton line +has been equally satisfactory. This immunity from accident I attribute +entirely to proper care having been taken to construct every part, not +only of the best materials and workmanship, but also with a careful eye +to the fitness of each detail for the purpose it has to serve. + +That there are many openings for lines of 2 ft. gauge and under, is +beyond dispute. But while, already, this mode of transport is largely +made use of abroad and in our colonies, a deeply rooted prejudice has +hitherto prevented it from gaining a footing in England and Scotland. + +Admirable articles pointing out the advantages of light railways have +appeared from time to time in the daily press with little or no effect. +It is one of the strangest anomalies in the progress of civilisation in +this country that Great Britain almost wholly refused till lately to +countenance such lines. The reasons for this obstinacy are not readily +discoverable. Probably the innate conservatism of every Englishman—for +there exists here no such thing as liberalism out of the region of +politics—has been the principal factor in determining this course of +inaction. + +Even now that the Light Railway Act has passed, there is little or no +movement in the direction of making small lines such as I refer to, and +not much in respect of larger ones. Whether, in the future, private +individuals will, in their own interest and in that of their neighbours +and dependents, lay out money in this way, it is impossible to foresee. +But undoubtedly there are many openings for such installations, +particularly on large estates, where the possession of the land gives the +owner a free hand. + + + + +X. +APPENDIX + + +A + + +THE following letter, which appeared in _The Times_ two years ago, is +here reprinted as bearing on various points connected with narrow-gauge +railways. Special attention is directed to what is advanced under the +third head. + + LIGHT RAILWAYS. + _TO THE EDITOR OF_ “_THE TIMES_.” + +Sir,—The movement in favour of secondary railways has evoked from your +numerous correspondents widely divergent views. This want of accord is +more apparent than real, and it would facilitate the proceedings of the +approaching conference {46} if conflicting opinions could be partially +reconciled beforehand. + +The causes to which these differences are due may be summarized under +three heads:— + +1. The absence of a defined terminology of the distinctive kinds of +railways. + +2. The failure to appreciate that a scheme which is good for one locality +is not of necessity the best for all. + +3. The apparently meagre acquaintance on the part of those who state +their views with the practical working of any but the standard railways +of the country. + +Under the first head, some confusion has arisen in consequence of the +application of the term “light railway” now to lines of the standard +gauge only, and again to narrow-gauge lines also. Similarly with other +expressions. It may be pointed out that the term “light railway” is +properly applicable and should be confined to a line of standard gauge, +of which the entire construction is lighter, cheaper, and simpler than is +obligatory where weighty engines, heavy traffic, and high speeds are +dealt with. Any line of less than the standard, gauge is correctly +described as a “narrow-gauge railway,” and such lines, when not of a +permanent character, come under the title, simply, of “portable +railways,” for these are invaribly of less than the normal width. The +term “tramway” should be restricted to its modern meaning of a line laid +in the metalled or paved surface of a road or street. Finally, the not +unfamiliar appellation of “secondary railways” might be fitly adopted as +generally descriptive of all lines not amenable to the standard railway +regulations of the Board of Trade. It would be well that the conference +should pronounce on these points. + +In regard to the second head, needless controversy is engendered by +attempting to assume that, because a light railway is right here, +therefore a narrow-gauge railway is wrong there, or vice versa. In +estimating the transport requirements of any particular locality, if +connection is to be made with the railway system, the applicability of a +light railway, as above defined, should first be considered. By its +adoption the use of existing rolling-stock is secured, transhipment is +avoided, and the line can be subsequently and without difficulty +transformed, if necessary, into a railway of standard +construction—advantages for which much may be sacrificed. But as it would +be almost invariably essential to build a light railway of sufficient +strength to carry the 15 tons gross weight of a standard coal wagon, the +permanent way would be of a somewhat costly character, and, in the case +of severe gradients, considerable difficulty would arise in providing +suitable locomotive power. + +Where the impediments in the way of a light railway branch are +insuperable, or where the proposed line has no connexion with the railway +system, the advantages of a narrow-gauge railway may properly be +weighed—such as the smaller width occupied, the sharper curves +admissible, the lighter, cheaper, and more easily-handled permanent way +and rolling-stock, the absence of much of the unsightliness of a line of +standard gauge, the ease with which, in the ease of gauges under 2 ft., +the rails can be laid among and into existing buildings, and, lastly, the +convenience of being able to load and unload small wagons at the exact +point required without the intervention of carts or barrows. + +In regard to the third head, it may be noticed as a curious fact, that +the strong and commendable predilections of English engineers for the +standard gauge, whenever obtainable, appear to lead them, where +circumstances compel the adoption of a narrower one, to advocate as +little reduction as possible. Now, the general result of foreign +experience goes strongly to show that narrow gauges exceeding 30 in. +approximate so closely to a full-size line as to forfeit, to a +considerable extent, the advantages of either system. This attitude is +probably due to ignorance of what can be done on the narrowest gauges, +for, in spite of the fact that many hundreds of miles of lines of less +than 2 ft. gauge are at work abroad, our professional advisers persist in +regarding such railways as mere toys. Yet a line of 15 in. gauge has been +at work in this country for twenty years, on which thousands of +passengers have been carried without a single accident, as many as 120 in +one train, over gradients as steep as 1 in 20, the goods traffic being +worked in all weathers up a long gradient of 1 in 11 without difficulty. +{48} + +It would be well that our railway engineers should inform themselves more +fully on the subject, as otherwise their valuable assistance, which would +insure that narrow-gauge railways were constructed in a solid and +reliable manner, will be thrust on one side by the requirements of the +times, and the work will be wholly in the hands of the many manufacturers +of narrow-gauge plant, whose designs, being chiefly of what is known as +the portable class, are, for the most part, ill adapted for permanent +locomotive traffic. If so, it is likely that, in the push that may very +possibly be presently made for secondary railways, the results will not +be so satisfactory as would be the case if the work were carried out +under the direction of professional advisers. + +Under the same head, attention may be directed to the fact that it is +entirely unnecessary to urge the adoption of a standard narrow gauge. The +circumstances of each case will decide the most suitable gauge, and it is +only where there is a possibility, as in the North Wales district, of a +wide ramification of connected narrow-gauge lines that the adoption of a +particular standard is of any importance. + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + + ARTHUR PERCIVAL HEYWOOD. + + + +B. + + +The annexed letter, published in The Times about two years ago, deals +with possible difficulties to be met with by those who make a private +line of railway. I brought to bear all the influence I could to obtain +the insertion of a clause in the Act which would meet the “public road +crossing” difficulty, but without success. The course which I took in the +case of the Eaton Railway here detailed may be of service. + + PRIVATE LIGHT RAILWAYS. + _TO THE EDITOR OF_ “_THE TIMES_.” + +Sir,—May I, through your columns, draw attention to a class of light +railway which does not apparently come within the purview of the Bill now +before Parliament—that of lines constructed by private individuals or +firms for their own purposes? These will usually confer advantage upon +the district in which they may be situate by relieving the roads of a +more or less heavy traffic, and in some cases by offering facilities of +transport to a section of the neighbourhood. + +In a proposed route two difficulties may arise. In the first place, land +not in possession of the projector may have to be invaded, and way-leaves +obtained by a judicious tact in selecting the ground and in approaching +the owners, since private interest is properly debarred from invoking +compulsory powers. This problem, then, may frequently be satisfactorily +solved. The second and more common impediment is the crossing or skirting +of highways, and it is to this point that my letter is specially +directed. The county and district councils are usually ready in their own +interest to permit a private line to cross a road on the level—an over or +under bridge is almost invariably impossible by reason of the expense—or +to make use for a short distance of waste space by the road side. But—and +here is the crux—no permanent agreement is obtainable, because councils +have apparently no power to bind their successors in office, and without +such guarantee the projector is naturally unwilling to risk his capital +when the possible rescinding of the concession would render his entire +outlay abortive. + +The Light Railway Bill contains, apparently, no provision under which +this disability can be remedied, for it is improbable that the +Commissioners would take action in respect of a private concern. The +above difficulty was lately met with in the construction of a private +narrow-gauge line for the Duke of Westminster, which crosses a main road. +The matter was ultimately compromised by the insertion of a clause in the +agreement to the effect that, should the county council give notice to +discontinue the crossing, the Duke should be entitled to appeal to the +Board of Trade for arbitration. There is, however, no assurance that the +Board would consent to appoint an arbitrator if called upon, but it is +very certain that if a provision legalizing such an appeal could be +incorporated in the Bill a serious hardship would be thereby removed, and +some encouragement given to private persons to embark capital in +enterprises of the kind. + +As a case in point, and doubtless there are plenty of others, a quarry +owner of my acquaintance is at the present time conveying some 80,000 +tons of stone annually by means of traction-engines from his works to the +railway along 2½ miles of highway. The road authorities, levying £400 a +year for extraordinary traffic, are utterly incapable of coping with the +destructive action of the heavy loads, and the roads are in a state of +disintegration that baffles description. The proprietor of the quarry +would at once set about making a narrow-gauge line at his own expense, +with the cordial good-will of the county and district councils and his +neighbours generally, could he only obtain some guarantee that the +permission to cross and, in some parts, run alongside the road, which +to-day would be gratefully accorded, would not be suddenly revoked at a +future date. + +Perhaps those in charge of the Bill will see their way to give this point +their consideration. + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + + ARTHUR PERCIVAL HEYWOOD. + + * * * * * + + FROM A MANCHESTER PAPER. + +According to a correspondent in yesterday’s _Times_ projectors of private +light railways have hitherto been very chary of risking their capital +owing to the precarious nature of their running powers. In nine cases out +of ten the light railway proposes to cross or skirt the highways at +certain points, and the permission which may be given by one district +council in such cases is revocable by the next. This must be so +inevitably, for circumstances might well arise under which a level +crossing, for instance, would become a public danger. The difficulty +might well be met by an appeal to arbitration in all cases of proposed +revocation of the running powers; and if the Board of Trade were to +undertake to nominate the arbitrator, the projector ought to have no +reasonable ground for timidity. The present Bill can only be regarded as +proposing to set an example and provide occasional assistance to the +construction of light railways. Seeing, therefore, that its chief result, +if successful, will be to encourage a more extensive construction of +railways, it is important that all obstacles in the way of private +enterprise in this direction should be at once removed. The _Times_ +correspondent suggests that the insertion of a clause providing for +arbitration in all cases of dispute with the highway authorities would +meet the difficulty. + + + +C. + + +The regulations given below, which I drew up for use on the Eaton line, +and which have worked very well for two years, may, to some, be of +interest. + + EATON RAILWAY. + + +GENERAL REGULATIONS. + + +1. All persons connected with the Railway shall be held responsible for +making themselves acquainted with such of the regulations as apply to +them, and for acting in accordance therewith. + +2. All workmen on the Estate shall be liable to such fines for infraction +of the Railway Regulations as are herein set forth, and as the Estate +Office may see fit further to order. + +3. All men employed on the Railway Staff shall promptly report any +infraction of the Regulations which may come under their notice, or they +shall be themselves liable to any penalty which may attach to such +offence. + +4. All workmen on the Estate are particularly requested to remove any +impediment, such as sticks or stones, which they may see on the line; and +in case of any serious block, such as a tree fallen across the rails, to +give prompt notice to one of the Railway Staff. + +5. No wagon or car shall (under a penalty of 1s.) be moved by hand on to +or along the main line, except by special arrangement with the +engine-driver; and the term “main line” shall be understood to include +every part of the railway not being a siding or within a terminal yard. + +6. Hand shunting of vehicles on sidings shall be done carefully, so as to +avoid injury to the rolling stock; but no vehicle shall be moved at all +except by an authorised person. + +7. No vehicle shall (under a penalty of 1s.) be left in such a position +on a siding as to interfere with the free passage of other vehicles along +adjoining rails. + +8. If it is necessary to throw over time weight of any point-lever, this +shall be done gently, and the weight shall always be returned as soon as +possible to the position in which the white bar thereon is uppermost. +Point levers of which the weights are pinned in one direction, shall not +(under a penalty of 1s.) have the locking pins tampered with. + +9. No material of any kind whatever shall (under a penalty of 1s.) be +deposited within a distance of two feet from the rail on any part of the +main line or sidings. + +10. No heavy weight shall be dropped upon the rails or sleepers, and no +carts shall cross any part of the line except where a proper crossing of +double rails is provided. But in the terminal yards light loads may cross +the rails where the ballast is for that purpose made level with the top +of the metals. Any unintentional damage to rolling stock or the line +shall be at once reported to the engine-driver or foreman platelayer. + +11. No unauthorised person shall ride on any part of the train, and those +having permission shall, whenever possible, travel in vehicles provided +with seats. + +12. It is desired that all workmen on the Estate should understand that +there exists the same liability to accident on a narrow-gauge line as on +one of full size, and that it is only by a similar careful observance of +proper regulations that serious mishaps will be avoided. + + +REGULATIONS FOR YARDMEN. + + +13. Yardmen shall carefully observe the General Regulations for the safe +conduct of traffic comprised in Rules 1 to 12 inclusive. + +14. The yardman at each terminus shall clean and oil all points in or +near his yard at least once a week, and keep them perfectly free from +grit, leaves, etc. + +15. In frost or snow the points shall receive daily attention, and great +care shall be taken in releasing frozen switches not to strain them. Salt +for this purpose, shall, on account of its injurious effect on the rails, +be used only as a last resource. + +16. Yardmen shall take care that the loads on wagons are securely placed, +evenly balanced, and not in excess of the specified weight. + +17. Lengthy articles shall be loaded on a sufficient number of wagons to +ensure that the ends thereof do not catch against other wagons. + +18. All vehicles shall be loaded to the satisfaction of the +engine-driver. + +19. Yardmen shall give the earliest possible intimation to the +engine-driver of the nature and quantity of the material requiring +transport from their respective yards, that he may provide the necessary +wagons at the proper time. + +20. Yardmen shall take care that the wagons and cars are not roughly +handled, and shall see that heavy lumps of coal or other material are not +thrown carelessly on to the wagon bottoms. + +21. The yardman at Balderton shall be responsible for the washing of all +wagons when necessary, and the yardman at Eaton shall similarly see to +all the bogie cars. Care shall be taken in washing that no water is +allowed to run into the axle boxes. + +22. Yardmen shall use their best endeavours to get the rolling stock in +their respective yards promptly unloaded, and also put under cover at +night and in wet weather. + + +REGULATIONS FOR PLATELAYERS. + + +23. Platelayers shall carefully observe the General Regulations for the +safe conduct of traffic comprised in Rules 1 to 12 inclusive. + +24. The foreman platelayer shall be responsible for keeping the whole of +the permanent way, bridges, cattle stops, banks, road crossings, etc., in +proper repair. + +25. He shall see that every set of points on the line is kept in good +working order, but he shall only be responsible for the oiling and +cleaning (as under Rules 14 and 15) of such points as are not under +charge of a yardman. He shall report to the engine-driver any set of +points not under his personal charge which he finds neglected, as also +any defect which he is himself unable to repair. + +26. He shall keep clear all road and field crossing grooves, and shall at +once acquaint the engine-driver when repair to the surface of any road +crossing is necessary. + +27. At least once a week he shall walk over the whole length of the main +line and sidings, observing carefully that the keys, bridge bolts, fish +bolts, and sleepers are in order. + +28. He shall, at the same time note, and as soon as possible rectify, all +loose sleepers, crooked rails, and defective superelevation. + +29. He shall pay particular attention to the prompt repair of all parts +of the line marked by the engine-driver as defective, but, independently +of such notice, he shall be responsible for detecting defective places. + +30. In regard to any special repairs, or other emergencies of the +traffic, he shall be under the direction and obey the instructions of the +engine-driver. + +31. When any part of the line is under repair, care shall be taken that +the surface of the rails is kept clear of ballast grit, and that the free +passage of trains is in no way obstructed. + +32. When it is necessary to remove a sleeper, a red flag shall be set up +between the rails in such a position that the engine-driver can discern +it from a distance of at least 150 yards in each direction. Such flag +shall remain until the line is made good. On no account shall the engine +or a loaded wagon pass over any rail from which a sleeper is removed. + +33. If from any cause it is necessary to remove a rail, or otherwise +block the line, the foreman platelayer shall previously notify the +engine-driver, and arrange with him a convenient time for the work to be +done; and without such notification the line shall under no circumstances +whatever be so blocked. A red flag (as directed under Rule 32) shall +remain exhibited until the line is clear. + +34. No platelayer other than the foreman shall be authorised to undertake +any work interfering with the free passage of trains. + +35. If, for ballasting or other purposes, wagons are left by the +engine-driver at any point on the main line, such wagons shall on no +account be subsequently moved by hand to any other point on the main +line, except by special arrangement with the engine-driver. + +36. The platelayer’s trolley shall under no circumstances be left +standing on the main line and when not in use, or unattended, the trolley +shall always be put at a safe distance from the line, with the wheels +padlocked. + +37. The foreman platelayer shall report to the engine-driver any case of +material found deposited within two feet of the rail, and likewise any +other infraction of Regulations which may come to his notice. + + +REGULATIONS FOR ENGINE-DRIVER. + + +38. The engine-driver shall be responsible for the efficient working of +the line, and shall use the utmost promptitude in dealing with the +traffic as notified to him by the yardmen. + +39. He shall be responsible also for the care of the locomotive, rolling +stock, and fittings appertaining thereto, any defect in which that is +beyond his own power to rectify he shall at once notify to the +Superintendent, with whom any further responsibility in regard to such +defect shall then rest. But the washing of the wagons and cars shall be +done by the yardmen as set forth under Rule 21. + +40. He shall, further, be responsible for the proper oiling of the axle +boxes, spring slides, swivelling forks, and bake gear of the whole of the +rolling stock; and shall on no account run on the train a loaded wagon +having a hot axle box or a bent axle. + +41. He shall see that all rolling stock is kept, as far as possible, +under cover at night and in wet weather. + +42. He shall watch carefully that the whole of the line and its +accessories are kept in thorough working order, and shall direct the +foreman platelayer in regard to any part requiring attention. + +43. He shall put down white mark pegs, of which he shall at all times +carry a sufficient supply in the brake van, at all points of the line +which he may notice to be in special need of repair. + +44. He shall arrange with the foreman platelayer, as set forth under Rule +33, in regard to the time of execution of any work requiring the blocking +of the line. + +45. He shall promptly enquire into, and report to the Superintendent, any +case of material left within two feet of the rails, as also any other +infraction of the Regulations which may be brought to his notice. He +shall take care that Rule 11, in regard to passengers by the train, is +strictly observed, and shall allow no person to ride on the engine +without permission of the Duke or from the Estate Office. + +46. He shall carefully observe the following County Council Regulations +in regard to crossing the public roads, and shall be personally liable to +the County and District Councils respectively for the consequences of any +infraction thereof:— + + (_a_) Every train about to cross the road shall be brought to a stand + at a point not less than 10 yds. therefrom, and the brakesman shall + proceed to the centre of the road with a red flag, and shall, as soon + as any approaching vehicles have crossed the railway, wave the said + flag as a warning to distant vehicles and as a sign to the + engine-driver to proceed and shall continue to wave until the whole of + the train shall have passed over the road. After dusk a red lamp shall + be used in place of a flag (but a green light shall be momentarily + shewn to the driver when the road is clear). + + (_b_) No train shall cross the road at a greater speed than five miles + an hour, nor shall any train impede the traffic along the road further + than is necessary for the crossing thereof, which shall in no case + exceed three minutes. + + (_c_) Every train crossing the road shall be in charge of a competent + engine-driver and brakesman, and shall consist of not more than + twenty-five vehicles, exclusive of the engine. + +47. He shall take care to run no train without a brake-van at the rear +end, and a brakesman in attendance. + +48. He shall at all times whistle before putting his engine in motion, +and also on approaching all road crossings, termini, and other points +where a warning may be desirable. He shall, during fog, proceed with the +utmost caution, particularly in crossing roads, and shall be ready to +stop promptly where cattle may be upon the line. + +49. He shall approach all facing points with caution, especially after +dark, and shall see that his train is well under control in descending +inclines, particularly the gradient by the Eaton cricket ground. + +50. He shall cross the Great Western Siding at Balderton only when the +yard gates are closed, and at dead slow speed, and shall be personally +responsible for any mishap resulting from neglect of this rule. + +51. He shall perform no fly-shunting with the engine pushing, and in +draw-shunting he shall proceed with the utmost caution. + +52. He shall take care to avoid injury to the rolling stock from shocks, +careless usage, or foul shunting. + +53. He shall, between September and February inclusive, carry on the +train all necessary lamps ready trimmed. + +54. He shall take care that the breakdown tackle is always kept ready on +the brake van in case of emergency. + +55. He shall under no circumstances leave his engine with the steam up +without the hand-brake hard down, the lever out of gear, and the cylinder +cocks open. + +56. He shall take care that the spark arrester is kept effective; the +sand boxes full, and that, in conveying passengers, condensed water is +cleared from the cylinders before starting. + +57. He shall keep his engine in good working order, clean, and smart; +executing all necessary repairs at the earliest opportunity. + +58. He shall keep a careful watch that point-lever weights are left in +the right positions, and that the white bars thereon are kept clearly +painted. + +59. He shall notify to the Superintendent at the earliest possible time +any requirement for the rolling stock or line, such as coal, stores, +material for repairs, oil, waste, etc., etc., and shall keep such booked +records of the working as are required. + +60. He shall impress upon the brakesman the following orders + + (_a_) To travel always in the brake-van; to keep a sharp look-out and + promptly put down his brake should occasion require, or on receiving a + signal from the engine. + + (_b_) To carefully watch the loaded wagons, and in the event of any + part of the load appearing unsafe, to signal at once to the + engine-driver to stop the train. + + (_c_) To carry always on the van a red flag, and, between September and + February inclusive, a hand lamp ready trimmed, which latter, in + travelling after dusk, shall shew a red light at the back of the train. + + (_d_) To perform shunting operations with caution, taking care that all + point-lever weights are left in their proper position. + + (_e_) To keep his van clean and smart, washing it when required. + + (_f_) To carefully observe such of the Railway Regulations as apply to + the brakesman’s work. + + +SIGNALLING REGULATIONS. + + +61. The engine-driver shall give three short whistles when he requires +the brake-van brakes to be put down, and one short whistle when they are +to be released. When he requires facing points to be set for the main +line he shall give two, and for a branch or siding three medium whistles. +A whistle continued for several minutes is a call for assistance, and +workmen within hearing should at once proceed to the spot. + +62. A red light is a signal to stop; a green light, to proceed +cautiously; and a white light, to go a-head. In shunting, a green light, +if waved up and down, is a signal to move a-head; if from side to side, +to back. + +63. It is important that all persons having to do with shunting +operations should understand that if an engine is either in contact with +no vehicles, or has vehicles both in front and behind, it is said to go +a-head when it moves chimney first, and to back when it moves fire-box +first. If in contact with vehicles at one end only, it is said to go +a-head when it draws and to back when it pushes such vehicles, without +regard to its own direction. + + + +D. + + +The following rather neat parody, which appeared in a London evening +paper at the time of the passing of the Light Railways Act, expresses a +very reasonable doubt, in which I fully share, as to the specially +beneficial effect of the measure on agriculture. Fortunately, the Act has +been taken very quietly, and such schemes as have been promoted will, for +the most part, be of considerable general advantage. Certainly there are +some cases in which farmers would be the gainers by a light railway, but +these are an infinitesimal proportion of their whole number. + + THAT TIGHT LITTLE, LIGHT LITTLE + + + + “Non si male nunc et olim + Sic erit.” + + YOU farmers, who lately + Have suffered so greatly + From agricultural depression, + Shake off gloom and sorrow, + A brighter to-morrow + Will dawn in the course of the Session. + + By no relaxation + Of rates or taxation, + By a certain sure-never-to-fail way, + Through Government’s pleasure + To bring in a measure + For giving some districts a railway: + A tight little, light little railway, + A nice little, light little railway, + O think of the joy + Of that exquisite toy, + A tight little, light little railway. + + Your wheat may grow cheaper, + The pay of your reaper + May rise to a figure outrageous; + The weather may lay all + Your crops, and your hay all + Be ruined by tempests rampageous; + Your stock mayn’t grow fatter, + But that does not matter, + Except in a bargain and sale way: + What are these to the blessing + Of really possessing + A tight little, light little railway? + + (_Chorus_.) + + You may not have a fraction + Of produce for traction, + Not a stone’s weight to put in a wagon, + Not a horse in your stable, + No bread on your table, + Not a shoe to your foot, not a rag on: + All this would be frightful + Were it not so delightful + To see in as-slow-as-a-snail way + The trucks all go gliding + From track into siding, + From siding to track on your railway. + + (_Chorus_.) + + Then, oh _fortunati_ + _Agricolœ_, wait, aye + Wait, for the clouds to roll by you: + Your troubles are over; + To-morrow, in clover, + You’ll laugh at the ills that now try you. + “_Ex machinâ Deus_ + Is coming to free us, + Not in an old-fashioned or stale way.” + Let this be your chorus— + “A future’s before us; + Three cheers for the light little railway!” + + (_Chorus_.) + + + + +PLATES. + + +Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway. + + + [Picture: Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway] + + + +Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway. + + + [Picture: Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway] + + + +Viaduct, Duffield Bank Railway. + + + [Picture: Viaduct, Duffield Bank Railway] + + + +Curve, 25 feet radius, Duffield Bank Railway. + + + [Picture: Curve, 25 feet radius, Duffield Bank Railway] + + + +Engine No 2 and Goods Train, Duffield Bank Railway. + + + [Picture: Engine No 2 and Goods Train, Duffield Bank Railway] + + + +Engine No 1 and Passenger Train, Duffield Bank Railway. + + + [Picture: Engine No 1 and Passenger Train, Duffield Bank Railway] + + + +Balderton Junction—Engine and Waggon Sheds, Eaton Railway. + + + [Picture: Balderton Junction—Engine and Waggon Sheds, Eaton Railway] + + + +Engine No 4 and Train, Eaton Railway. + + + [Picture: Engine No 4 and Train, Eaton Railway] + + + +Eaton Terminus—Coal Store and Carriage Shed, Eaton Railway. + + + [Picture: Eaton Terminus—Coal Store and Carriage Shed, Eaton Railway] + + + +Estate Works Sidings, Eaton Railway. + + + [Picture: Estate Works Sidings, Eaton Railway] + + + +Belgrave Engine Shed, Eaton Railway. + + + [Picture: Belgrave Engine Shed, Eaton Railway] + + + +Engine No 1, Duffield Bank Railway, 1874. + + + [Picture: Engine No 1, Duffield Bank Railway, 1874] + + + +Engine No 2, Duffield Bank Railway, 1881. + + + [Picture: Engine No 2, Duffield Bank Railway, 1881] + + + +Engine No 3, Duffield Bank Railway, 1894. + + + [Picture: Engine No 3, Duffield Bank Railway, 1894] + + + +Engine No 4, Eaton Railway, 1896. + + + [Picture: Engine No 4, Eaton Railway, 1896] + + + +Dining Car (to seat eight), Duffield Bank Railway. + + + [Picture: Dining Car (to seat eight), Duffield Bank Railway] + + + +Parcel Van, Duffield Bank Railway. + + + [Picture: Parcel Van, Duffield Bank Railway] + + + +Arrangement drawing of Dining Carriage to seat eight. + + + [Picture: Arrangement drawing of Dining Carriage to seat eight] + + + +Arrangement drawing of Sleeping Carriage with four berths. + + + [Picture: Arrangement drawing of Sleeping Carriage with four berths] + + + +Side elevation of Passenger Carriage to seat sixteen. + + + [Picture: Side elevation of Passenger Carriage to seat sixteen] + + + +Arrangement of Radiating Wheels on six-coupled engine No. 2. + + + [Picture: Arrangement of Radiating Wheels on six-coupled engine No. 2] + + + +Plan and Section of Eaton Railway + + + [Picture: Plan and Section of Eaton Railway] + + + +Cross Sections of Eaton Railway + + + [Picture: Cross Sections of Eaton Railway] + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +{46} The then approaching Board of Trade Light Railway Conference. + +{48} The Duffield Bank Railway is here referred to. + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MINIMUM GAUGE RAILWAYS*** + + +******* This file should be named 44341-0.txt or 44341-0.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/4/3/4/44341 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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