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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Minimum Gauge Railways, by Arthur Heywood
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Minimum Gauge Railways
+
+
+Author: Arthur Heywood
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 3, 2013  [eBook #44341]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MINIMUM GAUGE RAILWAYS***
+
+
+Transcribed from the third edition by Peter Barnes.
+
+
+
+
+
+                         MINIMUM GAUGE RAILWAYS:
+
+
+                     THEIR APPLICATION, CONSTRUCTION,
+
+                               AND WORKING.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+  Being an account of the origin and evolution of the 15 in. gauge line
+
+       at Duffield Bank, near Derby; also of the installation of a
+
+         similar line at Eaton Hall, near Chester; together with
+
+             various notes on the uses of such Railways, and
+
+                   on the results of some experimental
+
+                     investigations relating thereto.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+                                    BY
+
+                 Sir ARTHUR PERCIVAL HEYWOOD, Bart., M.A.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+                             _THIRD EDITION_.
+
+                    _PRINTED FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION_.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+Contents.
+
+                                            PAGE
+PREFACE                                     5, 6
+                       I.
+INTRODUCTION                                   7
+                       II
+OBJECTS OF THE 15 IN. GAUGE                    9
+                      III
+CONSTRUCTION OF THE DUFFIELD BANK LINE        11
+                       IV
+DETAILS OF THE EATON HALL LINE                15
+                       V
+LOCOMOTIVES                                   25
+                       VI
+WAGONS AND CARS                               32
+                      VII
+THE DUFFIELD BANK WORKSHOPS                   36
+                      VIII
+SCIENTIFIC CONSIDERATIONS                     38
+                       IX
+REMARKS ON NARROW GAUGE RAILWAYS              42
+                       X
+APPENDIX                                      46
+
+
+
+
+Preface to Second Edition.
+
+
+IN the year 1881, when the Royal Agricultural Society held their show in
+Derby, it was represented to me that, as many of the members were
+interested in the cheap transport offered by narrow gauge railways, it
+would be appreciated if I opened my experimental line at Duffield to
+inspection during the week.
+
+In order to facilitate the comprehension of the objects of this little
+railway, the late Secretary of the Society suggested that I should draw
+up a short descriptive pamphlet to place in the hands of visitors. This
+was done with success and much saving of verbal explanation.
+
+Thirteen years later, having added considerably to the rolling stock and
+improved many of the details, I decided to give a three days exhibition,
+and to issue a general invitation to all interested in the promotion of
+such lines, at the same time taking the opportunity to revise and amplify
+the first edition of this pamphlet.
+
+                                                                  A. P. H.
+
+_August_, _1894_.
+
+
+
+
+Preface to Third Edition.
+
+
+SOME four years have elapsed since the second edition of this pamphlet
+was exhausted. During this period I have constructed and equipped at
+Eaton Hall, Cheshire, a line which has been in regular use since May,
+1896, exactly similar to my own at Duffield. This railway having been
+made wholly for practical purposes and on strictly economic principles, I
+am in a position to present more reliable data, both in regard to cost
+and working, than I could obtain from my own experimental line, which has
+been continually altered and only irregularly worked.
+
+I desire to take this opportunity of expressing my thanks to the Duke of
+Westminster for the free hand accorded me in regard to the arrangement of
+all details of the Eaton Railway; a liberty which has resulted in a
+symmetrical and entirely successful carrying out of the work.
+
+What I am now able to advance will, I trust, amply demonstrate the really
+solid advantages which, under suitable conditions, may be reaped from the
+installation of little railways of the kind described.
+
+                                                                  A. P. H.
+
+_July_, _1898_.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+AT the outset I must offer an apology for making use, throughout this
+pamphlet, of the first person. I do so partly for convenience of
+expression, and partly because almost all that I have to advance is
+derived from my own experience.  In doing so I am far from desiring to
+undervalue the work of others in the same direction. I have, however,
+little hesitation in saying that, with the exception of the late Mr.
+Charles Spooner, the able Engineer of the Festiniog Railway, most of
+those, so far as I know, who are responsible for the design of plant for
+these small lines have been manufacturers whose productions, though often
+of fair workmanship, are clearly indicative of a failure to grasp many of
+the leading principles involved. This shortcoming is the natural result
+of a want of sufficient time for the consideration of details, and a
+consequent tendency to imitate established customs in regard to railway
+work which by no means apply with equal advantage to very narrow gauges,
+where the conditions involved are wholly different. This is especially
+true of small locomotive building, the specimens of which evidence in
+their design not only ignorance on important points, but also a
+deplorable absence of the sense of well-balanced proportion.
+
+I venture to think that, in the twenty-five years during which I have
+devoted much of my time to the subject, I have succeeded in bringing to
+considerable perfection both permanent way and rolling stock suitable for
+these diminutive lines, and more especially the locomotives, which are
+probably, for their weight, the most powerful and flexible ever built to
+work by simple adhesion. Whether this conceit be well founded or no I
+leave to the judgment of those who may be at the pains to acquaint
+themselves with the details and result of my work, which has been
+undertaken wholly as a labour of love with the sole desire to promote
+improvement in what I believe to be an entirely special branch of
+engineering. I have never wasted my money on patents, and, so long as my
+designs are not imitated in a bungling manner, I am glad to see them made
+use of by anyone to whom they may be of service.
+
+It must be understood that I do not here attempt to enter upon the
+comparative merits of narrow gauge railways generally, but merely to give
+particulars of what has come within my own experience. To facilitate a
+comprehension of the conditions under which I have worked, it will be
+well to explain that I make no pretension to be considered a professional
+engineer, and that I speak rather as a self-taught mechanic and surveyor.
+
+My father possessed a beautiful Holtzappfel lathe, with elaborate tools
+for ornamental turning in wood and metal. As a boy of seven or eight I
+can recall watching him as he worked. At ten years old I was promoted to
+stand on a box and turn candlesticks, but, a year or two later, a few
+lessons—the only direct practical instruction I ever had—from an old
+fishing-rod maker in chasing metal screw-threads begot in me an ardent
+desire to construct machinery, particularly anything pertaining to
+railways, for which from my childhood I had an absorbing craze.
+
+By my father’s kindness I, by-and-bye, fitted up a workshop in which the
+tools were driven by a half-horse steam engine; and at eighteen had
+completed my first locomotive, weighing 56 lbs., which, with a dozen or
+so of small wagons, made a fine show on some 40 yards of brass-railed
+permanent way of 4 in. gauge. Locomotive driving was my hobby when I went
+up to Cambridge, and many were the tips that I learned in my illicit
+journeyings on the footplate. The new degree of “Applied Science” had
+just made its appearance, in which, in 1871, I had the doubtful credit of
+appearing alone in the first class. Doubtful, because the papers were
+absurdly simple, and the examiners hardly educated beyond the bare
+theories of the mechanical processes; for it was long anterior to the
+days of Professor Stuart and his engineering laboratory, where,
+by-the-bye, I once remember seeing the “demonstrator” supervising the
+reduction of a 4 in. shaft on a stout 9 or 10 in. lathe by a young turner
+whose nervous and thread-like shavings would have ensured his speedy
+dismissal from any commercial machine-shop.
+
+When I settled at Duffield in 1872, I at once began to put into practice
+the views I had formed in regard to the possibility of advantageously
+superseding horse traction, in cases where a traffic, though heavy, was
+wholly insufficient to justify a more costly railway, by a line of the
+narrowest and consequently the cheapest gauge compatible with safety. It
+is to a setting forth of the results of my experiments during the years
+that have since elapsed, that the following pages are devoted. My claim
+to a hearing is chiefly based upon having always been my own draughtsman,
+and, for my first two larger locomotives, also moulder, machinist, and
+fitter. Owing to the increasing number of experiments, and to other calls
+upon my time, assistance eventually became necessary, and, though I am
+still conceited enough to keep the more delicate manipulations in my own
+hands, so far as I can find time to execute them, it has gradually come
+about that I have seven or eight artisans in the little workshops.
+Practical acquaintance with every detail both in survey, design, and
+construction of narrow-gauge railways has given me something of a pull
+over the professional engineer. Thus it happens that, without the credit
+of any exceptional ability, I have had advantages that fall to few of
+acquiring information which I desire to lay before those who are
+interested in the rapid and economical transport of a moderate annual
+tonnage.
+
+The first three sections of this pamphlet comprise a brief sketch of the
+purposes, origin, and construction of my own line. In Section IV. is
+given a detailed account of the construction, working, and cost of the
+similar line which I made to connect Eaton Hall with the Great Western
+Railway. Sections V., VI., VII., and VIII. are more technical, and may be
+passed over by those not interested in the mechanical details, although
+it is to the care that has been bestowed on these that my success is
+chiefly attributable. Section IX. deals, from such experience as I have
+acquired, with the conditions under which these small railways may be
+profitably installed. In Section X. I have appended a few further items
+of possible interest.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+OBJECTS OF THE 15 IN. GAUGE.
+
+
+WHEN, in 1874, I started on the construction of my experimental railway,
+the more notable narrow-gauge lines in our own country were those of 18
+in. at Crewe, Woolwich, Chatham, and Aldershot—the latter a sad failure
+and the admirable 23½ in. from Portmadoc to the Festiniog Slate Quarries.
+The Festiniog Railway, which owed its success as a locomotive-worked line
+to the persistent energy and ability of the late Mr. Charles Spooner,
+opened the eyes of the transport-interested world to the extraordinary
+capacity of a very narrow gauge. But here the marvel lies in the manner
+in which the work was adapted to the gauge, not in the suitability of the
+gauge to the work. No one but an enthusiast would dare to contend that a
+two-foot gauge was the ideal width for a line employing twenty-ton
+locomotives and hauling about 100,000 passengers and some 150,000 tons of
+minerals and goods per annum. If this development could have been
+foreseen, the selected gauge would doubtless have been wider. Such a
+traffic, however, is quite outside the scope of this pamphlet, the logic
+of which is directed to shewing how a much smaller annual tonnage than
+has been hitherto deemed worthy of a railway may be profitably thus
+conveyed.
+
+An 18 in. line, such as one of those above referred to, would, if of not
+more than three or four miles in length and tolerably level, be capable
+of transporting, with one locomotive, 60,000 tons of minerals annually,
+reckoning the traffic as in one direction only. There are, however, up
+and down the country, a number of cases where a traffic of from 5,000 to
+10,000 tons is annually hauled between two fixed points over the public
+highways by a single employer. Such cases may be classified as large
+mansions, public institutions, mines, quarries, &c. Now it is clear that,
+unless there is a prospect of large increase in the traffic, it would be
+absurd to employ for a maximum of 10,000 tons a railway equal to 60,000
+tons, and so the question arises:—What is the smallest and therefore the
+cheapest railway capable of being practically and advantageously worked?
+This is the question to which I venture to think I can give a reliable
+answer.
+
+In the year 1874, after various preliminary trials, I determined to
+construct a line of 15 in. gauge, as the smallest width possessing the
+necessary stability for practical use, although I once laid down one of 9
+in. gauge for my younger brothers, which proved by no means deficient in
+carrying power.
+
+The stability of this 9 in. line was perfect enough so long as persons
+did not attempt to ride on the ends and edges of the carriages and
+wagons, but man being an article of approximately standard size, it is
+clear there must be a minimum gauge which will be stable enough to be
+independent of such liberties.
+
+Rolling stock properly proportioned to a 15 in. gauge seems the smallest
+that will thoroughly insure safety in this respect, and indeed in France
+the late M. Décauville, who did so much to develop lines of this class,
+arrived at nearly similar conclusions in adopting a minimum width of 16
+in.
+
+It must not, of course, be understood that gauges of such small
+proportions are to be advocated except where the traffic is unlikely to
+increase beyond their capacity, and where the material to be moved can
+conveniently be loaded in moderate sized wagons.
+
+Feeling, however, convinced of the eventual recognition of the utility of
+lines of minimum gauge, I took some pains to become acquainted with what
+had been already achieved in this direction, with the result that,
+excepting only the Festiniog railway, where every detail was most ably
+worked out by the late Mr. Spooner, I found generally both road and
+rolling-stock constructed as mere imitations of those of the standard
+gauge, and showing a want of apprehension of the totally different
+conditions to be satisfied. To endeavour to solve the various problems
+involved in the successful design of engines, carriages, wagons, and
+roadway for a minimum gauge is, therefore, the main object of my little
+railway. The chief ends in view are the application of such lines to
+agricultural or commercial purposes on large estates, or where quarries,
+brick yards, and other industrial establishments need better connection
+with the pier or railway station from which their productions are
+forwarded. An excellent example of such a line is now to be found in the
+one I have constructed at Eaton Hall, particulars of which are given in
+Section IV. There were also problems relating to adhesion and friction,
+particularly from the narrow-gauge point of view, which I was desirous of
+solving, some remarks on which will be found in Section VIII.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+CONSTRUCTION OF THE DUFFIELD BANK LINE.
+
+
+THE construction of my line of 15 in. gauge was commenced in 1874, and
+various additions were made up to 1881, when the length laid amounted to
+a little over a mile, inclusive of sidings. Since the latter date there
+has been no material extension, but the permanent way and its accessories
+have been gradually improved.
+
+The line runs from the farm and workshops, up a gradient varying from 1
+in 10 to 1 in 12 about a quarter-of-a-mile long, to a level 80 ft. above,
+where the experimental course is laid out in the shape of a figure 8, so
+as to admit of continuous runs. This part, somewhat more than half-a-mile
+in length, has a level stretch of a quarter-of-a-mile, the remainder
+consisting of gradients, of which 1 in 20 is the most severe. The minimum
+curve on the main line is 25 ft. radius, but in the sidings some occur as
+sharp as 15 ft. radius.
+
+The permanent way was at first laid with 14 lb. rails, without
+fish-plates, spiked to elm and Spanish chestnut sleepers fallen and sawn
+on the premises, 5 in. wide, 2 in. thick, and 2 ft. 6 in. long, set at 1
+ft. 6 in. centres. The maximum load did not exceed 12 cwt. per axle, but,
+although the work was well done, the road was not equal to the weight,
+and required incessant attention. The line was then re-laid on sleepers
+6½ in. wide, 4 in. thick, and 3 ft. long, with various sections of rails,
+12 lbs., 14 lbs., 18 lbs., and 22 lbs. per yard. These were all fitted
+with fish-plates, the joints being on a sleeper. The spacing of the
+sleepers was varied with the rails, from 1 ft. 6 in. for the 12 lb. to 3
+ft. for the 22 lb. section. Any part of this road carries comfortably 25
+cwt. per axle. The fish-plates and larger area of sleeper more than
+doubled the original carrying power of the rails.
+
+Six years being about the life of these small sleepers, it soon became
+necessary to renew them. Seeing that the rails, owing to the light
+traffic, remained perfectly good, to have to pull the road to pieces for
+the sake of new sleepers only was a serious annoyance. I then determined
+to try a light cast-iron sleeper with the same bearing area. After some
+years of experiment, a thoroughly satisfactory one was perfected, in
+which the rail is held to its place by a curved steel spring key that
+cannot work out. The greater part of the line is now laid on these
+cast-iron sleepers, which weigh 28 lbs. each, inclusive of the chairs,
+which are cast on. This pattern has now had some eighteen years’ test,
+and has proved entirely satisfactory. With a 14 lb. steel rail, the
+sleepers being spaced 2 ft. 3 in., and at the suspended fish-joint 1 ft.
+3 in., the road, under the load of 25 cwt. per axle, requires very little
+repair, some parts having stood for five or six years without being
+touched, though constantly run over.
+
+The length of the sleeper is a very material point. It should project
+beyond the rail a distance of rather more than half the gauge of the line
+thus the rail is equally supported inside and out. When the projection is
+reduced, the centre of the sleepers cannot be packed up solid, because
+the support would then be greatest between the rails, with the result
+that the ballast below would assume a convex form lengthwise of the
+sleepers, and thus produce an unstable road. On lines of the standard
+gauge, if sleepers of this proportion were adopted, and of sufficient
+thickness to distribute the load more widely without bending, a great
+saving in repairs would be effected; but it is not likely that any
+permanent way official will be bold enough to suggest such a radical
+change. On the Festiniog Railway of 23½ in. gauge, a sleeper 4 ft. 6 in.
+long has been adopted with excellent results.
+
+A detail of importance in laying rails is that the joints should be
+opposite one another. For this purpose it is necessary to order a
+proportion of the rails 3 in. to 6 in. shorter than the rest, according
+to the gauge and radius of curves. In this way the joints can be kept
+practically square. A cross-jointed road is not only unpleasant to travel
+on, but is also exceedingly difficult to set up true, particularly on
+sharp curves.
+
+Steel rails are now almost universally employed, but it is worth
+attention that on any part of a line that is either very damp or rarely
+used, iron rails will long outlast steel ones, as every mining engineer
+knows.
+
+In regard to the most suitable length of rail, I have found 15 ft. very
+convenient for weights up to 18 lbs. per yard. A good deal depends upon
+whether the rails come from the makers properly straightened. The longer
+the rail, the more difficult it is to straighten; as a rule even the most
+careful specification will fail to bring them on the ground in a fit
+condition for use. It is a very usual thing to look at rails only in
+regard to their horizontal truth, but in reality the vertical correction
+is of far more importance, and, to detect this, the rail must be turned
+on its side. I cannot too strongly insist on the vital importance of
+laying only straight and level rails. A good running road can never be
+made if any humpy rails are laid, and it is quite impossible to
+subsequently rectify the defect without taking up such rails and treating
+them under the press. Rail-straighteners should be directed to level a
+rail before straightening it, that is, to correct it vertically first,
+then horizontally; the reason being that vertical pressing disturbs the
+horizontal truth, while the horizontal pressing does not affect the
+vertical accuracy.
+
+I have employed a rail-press fitted up on a wagon, specially arranged
+with drilling machine for fish bolt holes, with tool boxes, and a brake.
+The screw works horizontally, and the rail runs on adjustable rollers at
+each end of the wagon. The amount of curve is thus readily appreciated by
+the eye as the process proceeds, while with a vertical screw it is
+scarcely possible to judge correctly. For sharp curves I use a roller
+bender of a type I designed many years ago for the use of the Royal
+Engineers in their field railway experiments. In this machine, which
+consists of the usual three rollers with the centre one adjustable by a
+screw, two men wind the rail through, and, except at the extreme ends,
+effect a perfect curve. This machine, however, is of little use for the
+ordinary straightening, and, though saving some time on a long curve, is
+laborious to work. A curve made under the ordinary screw-press is of
+course really a succession of what are technically termed “dog-legs,”
+but, unless it be of smaller radius than one chain, these are
+imperceptible if the successive pressures are not applied more than about
+14 ins. apart. By pressing at still smaller intervals it is possible to
+produce sharper curves of reasonable truth, but I find the rails on such
+curves work smoother and wear better if bent with the roller machine.
+
+Rails can be laid round moderate curves without requiring to be bent, by
+screwing up the fish plates tight and then springing the rail. The extent
+to which this can be effected depends on the weight of the rail and on
+its length; the longer rail being the more accommodating. It is not
+advisable to attempt to spring a 14 lb. rail round a sharper curve than
+five chains, or an 18 lb. rail beyond ten chains radius.
+
+The result of attempting too much springing is that the rails, under the
+traffic and changes of temperature, work outwards at the joints and make
+“dog legs” more or less serious. Where the ballast is of a loose dry
+nature very little, if anything, can be done with springing. I have
+enlarged upon this subject of rail-laying because it is of prime
+importance to a good road, and a matter that, on narrow-gauge lines, does
+not receive the attention it requires.
+
+To return to a description of my line, there are on it three tunnels, two
+bridges, and a viaduct 91 feet long and 20 feet high. The latter was
+erected in 1878, as an improvement upon one at Aldershot, put up by a
+gentleman who induced the War Office to sanction a short experimental
+line for army transport upon a hopelessly inconvenient and ridiculous
+plan.
+
+My structure is of pitch pine, and stood for 16 years without repair. It
+is a trestle bridge, the trestles being so designed that each member is a
+multiple of the height. The roadway is carried on four timbers; formerly,
+for a 8 ton engine, 11 in. deep and 8 in. wide; now, for one of 5 tons,
+13 in. deep and 3½ in. wide. These are bolted together in pairs, one pair
+under each rail, the two being kept parallel by stretchers and through
+bolts at every 5 feet. In each pair the timbers break joint with one
+another on alternate trestles, the latter being 15 ft. apart, and each
+timber 30 ft. long. The advantages of this arrangement are two-fold, the
+timbers can be run forward from trestle to trestle as the work advances
+without scaffolding or lifting tackle, and, should one trestle sink out
+of line, the continuity of the upper work checks it, and obviates the
+dangerous “dog legs” to be almost invariably observed in this class of
+bridge. The original cost with the lighter timbers was £30, including
+every item of expenditure—equal to £1 per yard. The average height is 15
+ft. The details are arranged to require but little skilled labour, the
+connections being made entirely by bolts and cast angle-plates. Two
+carpenters, in five days framed the five trestles including cutting the
+timber to length; and in three more days, with the assistance of three
+labourers, the whole was erected and the rails laid ready for traffic. A
+platform and railing were, however, subsequently added for the
+convenience of foot passengers, thus materially increasing the cost. When
+rebuilt in 1894 with stronger timbers, the original trestles were
+retained.
+
+Where the line crosses field-fences a dyke is dug about 5 to 6 ft. square
+and 3 ft. deep, across which the rails are carried on two narrow girders,
+thus effectually preventing the passage of cattle, and avoiding both the
+delay of gates and the expense of side fencing.
+
+The line is properly equipped with interlocking signals and points on a
+very simple plan. These are for the most part worked from two
+signal-boxes in telephonic communication.
+
+Particulars of the cost of such a line will be found in Sections IV. and
+IX. On my experimental course there are six stations, at three of which
+are sheds for the accommodation of the rolling stock. When the line is
+used on the occasion of a garden party, a regular service of passenger
+trains is run, and several times trains of eight long bogie cars,
+carrying 120 passengers, have been hauled up the gradient of 1 in 20, and
+up the still more trying one of 1 in 47 situate on a three-quarter-circle
+curve of 40 ft. radius.
+
+In the year 1894 I exhibited the line to the engineering public during
+three days. On this occasion a variety of experiments in haulage and
+shunting were shewn, and for part of each day two trains were run
+concurrently.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+DETAILS OF THE EATON HALL LINE.
+
+
+DURING the exhibition of my railway at Duffield in 1894, one of the
+visitors was the Hon. Cecil Parker, agent to the Duke of Westminster, who
+was desirous of laying some sort of light railway from Eaton Hall to the
+Great Western Railway, three miles distant. It was necessary that the
+line should be unobtrusive in appearance, of a thoroughly permanent
+character, yet moderate in cost. The traffic was, as it proved, correctly
+estimated at from 5,000 to 6,000 tons annually. Here was a perfect
+opportunity for a practical experiment with the 15 in. gauge, which was
+ample for five times that amount. I was asked to inspect the route, and
+subsequently roughly estimated the cost, exclusive of buildings, at about
+£6,000. I had some doubt at first whether it was possible for me to find
+time to lay out and construct the whole line and rolling stock myself,
+but the difficulty of getting special designs effectively carried out by
+commercial firms at a reasonable cost decided me to undertake everything.
+It was at my desire eventually agreed that I should have a free hand in
+regard to all the designs, doing the work at cost price and without
+charge for my own time.
+
+The line will now be generally described, after which some of the more
+interesting details will be enlarged upon.
+
+The Eaton estate railway connects the Hall with the Great Western Railway
+at Balderton, 3 miles distant. The total length of line laid is 4½ miles,
+which includes, besides the main line, a branch ¾ mile in length to the
+estate works near Pulford, together with several shorter branches to the
+estate brickyard and other points. The traffic to be dealt with,
+consisting chiefly of coal, road metal, and building material, was
+computed at about 6,000 tons per annum. As it was desired that the line
+should be as inconspicuous as possible, since it had to cross the park
+and the three principal drives, and the required capacity being small, it
+was decided to adopt the 15 in. gauge.
+
+The line is laid with steel flat-bottomed rails, weighing 16½ lbs. per
+yard, and, to reduce repairs to a minimum, these are carried throughout
+on cast-iron sleepers, 3 ft. long, 6½ in. wide, weighing 28 lbs., and
+coated with anti-corrosive. Steel spring-keys secure the rails in jaws
+cast on the sleepers, which are spaced at 2 feet 3 inches centres, and,
+at the joints, at 1 ft. 4 in. Steel girders, on cast-iron foundation
+plates, are used for all the bridge-work. Thus no timber whatever is
+employed in the permanent way, and the depreciation is practically
+limited to wear of rails.
+
+The rails for the points are rivetted on to flat-topped cast-iron
+sleepers, and were built up in my workshops, and forwarded ready for
+laying down. A set of points with seven sleepers carrying them, and with
+lever, counterweight, base plate, and the necessary rods, weighs about 4
+cwts., and costs £7 15s. 0d. All the switches are planed out of the
+solid, and the crossings are of cast steel. Special cast-iron sleepers
+are employed on the girder bridges. These are of bar form, having below a
+cross-piece which is tightened up to the sleeper by two bolts, and which
+grips the inner flange of each girder. It is thus possible to set the
+rails to any moderate curve, on straight girders. For crossing roads a
+short and very strong sleeper, only 2 feet in length, is employed, with
+jaws fitted to take a second rail on each side to act as a guard-rail to
+the running one. These sleepers have a concrete foundation, and are
+packed to the required level with tarred macadam. The spaces are then
+filled in with the same material, and the road finished to a surface
+level with the top of the rails with a mixture of tar, pitch, and
+screenings. The flange space is of course left free; this is 1½ in. wide
+so as to avoid any chance of the shoes of draft horses jamming therein.
+The field crossings, to permit of carts crossing the line at convenient
+points in the various fields, are arranged with a similar double rail,
+but on a specially strong sleeper of the standard length, packed with
+ordinary ballast.
+
+The ballast is red furnace cinder, 5 to 6 in. in depth below the
+sleepers. The surface width is 4 ft., and through the park the top of the
+ballast is level with the turf, the drainage here being effected by a
+central 4 in. pipe. The appearance is thus that of a narrow garden walk.
+For the remainder of the route, which is entirely over grass land with a
+stiff clay subsoil, the ballast is above ground.
+
+The railway is unfenced throughout, and passes from field to field on
+short open girders with a dyke excavated below, thus preventing the
+passage of cattle. Two high roads besides the three drives are crossed on
+the level, and several brooks by girder bridges, the longest span being
+28 ft. The line is practically a surface one, there being few noticeable
+cuttings and embankments. The cost of the earthwork has been £205 per
+mile. The maximum gradient against the load is 1 in 70, the highest point
+of the line is 63 ft. above the lowest, and the Eaton terminus is 51 ft.
+above the junction with the Great Western Railway. The curves on the main
+line do not run below 300 ft. in radius, but curves of 60 ft. radius,
+and, at difficult points, of still less, occur at some of the termini and
+on the branches. At Eaton a large covered coal stove 80 ft. long and 33
+ft. wide has been erected, so arranged that the little wagons run in at a
+high level and readily discharge their contents.
+
+The rolling stock, which is all capable of traversing a minimum curve of
+25 ft. radius, is fitted throughout with self-acting coupler-buffers, and
+all similar parts are interchangeable. It comprises the following:—
+
+One four-coupled locomotive weighing 3 tons in working order, and
+carrying enough water and fuel for an hour’s running.
+
+Thirty wagons 6 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, 1 ft. 3 in. deep, weighing each 7½
+cwts., and holding 16 to 17 cwts. of coal, or 20 to 22 cwts. of bricks
+and road metal. The sides are of box form and removable, so that the
+floors can be used as flat wagons for the conveyance of large stones,
+castings, &c. Fittings are attachable to any wagon for carrying long
+timber. Also one bogie passenger car 20 ft. long and 3 ft. 6 in. wide,
+weighing 23 cwts. and seating 16 persons, and one parcel van, to carry 2
+tons, of approximately similar construction.
+
+Various other vehicles; among which are a brake van, 6 wagons capable of
+carrying 1½ tons each, and 2 for 2 tons each. Full particulars of the
+construction of the rolling-stock, now increased, will be found in
+Sections V. and VI.
+
+The gross load which the engine, exclusive of its own weight, will haul
+in regular work is 40 tons on the level, and 20 tons up the ruling
+gradient of 1 in 70; the speed being about 10 miles per hour. In an
+experimental trip, however, a speed of 20 miles per hour was attained
+without undue oscillation. This weight of train is by no means the limit
+which can be hauled on the line, for, on the Duffield Bank railway, the
+eight-wheel-coupled engine draws far more than this load, and on one
+occasion took eight bogie passenger cars carrying 124 persons up a
+gradient of 1 in 47 on which is a half-circle curve of only 40 ft.
+radius.
+
+The entire cost of construction has been £1,095 per mile, exclusive of
+sheds. This figure would have been materially less but for the
+considerable expense attending the extra levelling and turfing required
+to avoid undue prominence. The cost of rolling stock has been £214 per
+mile, thus bringing the total outlay to £1,309 per mile.
+
+The annual expenses were computed thus:—          £     s.     d.
+     Interest at 4 per cent, on gross           285      0      0
+     expenditure
+     Renewal of permanent way, 4 per cent        80      0      0
+     on £2,000 (25 years life)
+     Renewal of rolling stock, 8 per cent,       72      0      0
+     on £900 (12½ years life)
+     Working expenses       £     s.     d.
+     Driver                91      0      0
+     Brakesman (boy)       26      0      0
+     Two Platelayers       99      0      0
+     Fuel and oil          39      0      0
+                                                255      0      0
+                          Total annual cost     642      0      0
+
+The cost of loading being the same for railway wagons as for carts is not
+considered. With a minimum traffic of 5,000 tons per annum over an
+average distance of 2½ miles—equal to 12,500 ton-miles—the cost of
+transport is almost precisely 1s. per ton per mile; which is materially
+less than the cost of the cart haulage. The same rolling-stock and staff
+could readily deal with 40 tons per working day of eight hours—equal, at
+five days per week, to upwards of 10,000 tons a year. If the traffic were
+to reach this amount, the cost per ton of transport would be greatly
+reduced With a more powerful engine and additional rolling stock, such a
+line is capable of conveying an annual traffic of 40,000 tons.
+
+There are probably many localities in which a diminutive railway like
+that at Eaton, ample in its capacity for estate requirements and
+extremely flexible in threading existing buildings, would well repay
+construction. The unobtrusiveness of so small a line and rolling stock,
+the relief to the roads, and the convenience of constant connection with
+the nearest railway, are points which are deserving of consideration
+where the conditions make such an installation possible.
+
+The laying of the line was begun in August, 1895. The earthwork was
+already well advanced. On account of the large amount of game in the
+neighbourhood of the line, it was considered wiser to employ no
+contractor, nor were any men obtainable with a knowledge of such
+diminutive platelaying. For the first fortnight I worked away myself with
+beater, rammer, and crowbar, till I had taught a proportion of my staff
+of 16 the use of these tools, and how to put the permanent way together.
+My assistant engineer, new to railway work, soon picked up the right
+ideas of what was required, and in a month, when I had to leave,
+everything was going nicely. A bonus was paid on every rail-length beyond
+a quarter-of-a-mile per week completed. This, compared with the fine work
+done by the Royal Engineers in the Soudan, appears a poor performance,
+but it must be remembered that we had to bring not only rails and
+sleepers from our base, but also all the ballast, and that we left our
+work thoroughly packed, the banks soiled and turfed, the road crossings
+laid in concrete and asphalte with double rails and special sleepers, the
+field-crossings for carts made good, the girder bridges and fence bridges
+(cattle stops) erected, and all points and crossings permanently finished
+off. About Christmas we reached Eaton Hall, and in the following May
+(1896) had pretty well finished all the branches.
+
+Of course work done with such care and by the day was costly, and it
+would doubtless be possible to construct a similar line by contract at
+two-thirds of the price. But it is a question whether much would have
+been saved in the long run, for, except the usual platelayers’ work, no
+repairs of any sort have been necessary since completion, nor has any
+part of the mechanism failed or given trouble; a result not usually
+attained in contract work.
+
+It may interest those who have similar work to deal with if I explain
+that in making this line all our material had to be hauled from our base
+on the Great Western Railway at Balderton. The procedure was as
+follows:—At the rail-end four 15 ft. lengths of light timber framing 9
+in. deep were laid on the bare formation. A train then backed up with
+eight wagons of ballast, and on top of them four lengths of rail ready
+keyed to sleepers. The rails were lifted off alongside where they were to
+be laid, the “tops” of the wagons were removed and the ballast shovelled
+off on each side. The train then drew away to refill. The length of
+framing next the rail-end was lifted forward to the end of furthest
+framing, and so consecutively with the other three, thus leaving between
+the rail end and the fresh laid framing a space of 60 ft. with the loose
+ballast lying thereon. Four men with shovels and four with rammers then
+put the ballast in shape and rammed it solid, and also true to a level
+given by the engineer. The rails and sleepers were next lifted into
+place, and the fish plates affixed. The sleepers next the joints were
+temporarily packed, by which time a fresh train had arrived. The process
+was then repeated. In this manner, with a staff of ten men at the
+rail-end, a driver and boy with the train, six men loading ballast, three
+men straightening and bending rails, and three fixing them in sleepers,
+60 ft. were laid in about forty minutes, including delays for field
+crossings and cattle-stop bridges. After a day or two of this work the
+men were set to packing and finishing what had been laid. With a larger
+staff the two processes might, but less conveniently, have proceeded at
+the same time.
+
+The following is a detailed account of the cost of construction:—
+
+                                                       £     s.     d.
+Earthwork to formation level                         923     18      0
+Drain pipes                                           33      2      1
+Rails, sleepers (cast iron), and fastenings        1,814     15      1
+Girders and fittings for four bridges and            143      5      9
+nineteen cattle-stops
+Foreman, trainmen, and platelayers                   563      5      8
+Ballast (red furnace cinder)                         337     10      4
+Road metal, cement, and asphalte                      39      1      7
+Fencing at cattle-stops                               42     10      2
+Sodding in park and finishing banks                  224      5      5
+Locomotive coal, oil, &c.                             17      3     11
+Laying water-supply, Balderton, Belgrave, and         90      8      6
+Eaton
+Weigh bridge, Balderton                               22     18      2
+Tools, huts, carriage of goods, repairs, &c.         248     13      4
+Resident engineer                                    427      5      3
+                    Total cost of construction     4,928      3      3
+The cost of rolling stock was as follows:—
+1 four-wheel locomotive, 4⅝ in. by 7 in.             400      0      0
+cylinders, 15 in. wheels
+1 covered bogie parcel van                            50      0      0
+1 open bogie passenger car (16 seats)                 40      0      0
+1 covered brake van (4 seats)                         25      0      0
+28 wagons (load 1 ton) ... at £12                    336      0      0
+2 special wagons (load 2 tons) ... at £14             29      0      0
+10s.
+1 rail bending wagon with press and drill             32      0      0
+1 platelayers’ trolley and tool chest                  9      2      0
+8 sets timber carriers, and sundries                  43     17      9
+                   Total cost of rolling stock       964     19      8
+                              Add construction     4,928      3      3
+                                         Total     5,893      2     11
+
+The amount per mile to which the above works out has already been given.
+I am unable to give the cost of the coal store at Eaton, and of the
+engine and wagon sheds, although I designed them. They were executed by
+the estate, and being, for the most part, of the excellence and solidity
+of the neighbouring buildings, were doubtless somewhat expensive.
+
+For all practical purposes simple wooden sheds would usually answer every
+requirement, and the extra amount spent at Eaton on levelling and sodding
+in the park much more than outweighed the omission of this item. As to
+the coal store this was altogether a special matter which does not affect
+the estimate of the cost per mile of this class of railway.
+
+It will be of interest to give the actual amount of working expenses as
+compared with their estimated amount.
+
+                                        1896.                       1897.
+                                       £        s.     d.       £        s.     d.
+Wages driver and boy                 115         3      4     115        12      0
+,, platelayers                       145         8      8      94        15      8
+Locomotive coal                       19        15      0      19        17      7
+Oil, stores, and sundries              8         1     10       9         7      1
+                                     288         8     10     239        12      4
+
+                            Tons of          6,067                    5,986
+                            material
+                            hauled
+                            No. days in        225                      207
+                            steam
+                            Tons hauled         27                       29
+                            per day in
+                            steam
+
+The best Welsh smokeless coal is used, costing about £1 per ton.
+
+From the above figures the following deductions may be drawn:—
+
+The locomotive worked an average of 4 days per week, hauling an average
+of 28 tons each day, and burning 1¾ cwts. of coal at a cost of 1s. 9d.
+
+Full particulars of the hauling powers of the locomotive are given at the
+end of this section, where it will be seen that 70 tons a day can readily
+be dealt with, and that, in an emergency, 100 tons would be quite within
+reasonable compass.
+
+It is required, at Eaton, that the engine should meet the wants of
+several independent departments on the estate, and in different
+directions, added to which only a limited number of men are usually
+available for loading. In effect, instead of matters being arranged
+primarily with a view to the economy of the working of the railway, the
+railway is made an instrument for the economical working of the various
+departments supplied by it. There is doubtless much to be said for the
+view that, as the driver’s wages have to be paid, he may as well have his
+engine in steam as often as required. But, notwithstanding this easy mode
+of working the traffic, the cost of haulage is 3d. per ton per mile less
+than the average cost of carting, including interest on capital as well
+as working expenses.
+
+I may say that the line is kept in the most admirable order, clean, well
+packed, and neatly ballasted, and that, under the astute direction of the
+Hon. Cecil Parker, the Duke’s agent, the painstaking Superintendent of
+the line, Mr. Forster, records with the greatest accuracy the weight of
+every truck load of goods hauled, and the exact amount of all expenditure
+on the railway, thus giving a value to this somewhat novel experiment
+which it would not otherwise possess.
+
+It should be mentioned that the amount expended on platelayers’ wages
+during 1896 exceeded the probably normal sum spent in 1897, on account of
+the road not having become till the latter year properly consolidated.
+The cinder ballast, though admirably porous, has proved somewhat
+deficient in solidity, and the sleepers have required a good deal more
+packing than should have been necessary.
+
+Since the completion of the line in May, 1896, some additions have been
+made to the rolling-stock, with a view of obviating the necessity for the
+immediate unloading of every wagon. There was a strongly expressed idea
+among the employes that tip wagons would be more serviceable than the box
+wagons with loose “tops” supplied by me. I have always felt that the
+greater dead-weight of the former class of wagons in proportion to the
+load carried, and also their increased cost, heavily discounted their
+only advantage: celerity in unloading. In order, however, to bring the
+question to a definite proof, I constructed six tip wagons entirely of
+steel and cast iron which are fully described in Section VI. In practice
+these were found to work as well as it is possible for a tip wagon to do,
+but, nevertheless, the unloading advantages were wholly incommensurate
+with the drawbacks of greater dead-weight and less capacity. There was
+the further disability that a wagon of this class could not be used, as
+can the others, for the conveyance of timber or other bulky goods. In the
+end I removed all but two, which were left as samples, and replaced them
+with wagons of the original type.
+
+I conclude this account of the Eaton railway by giving particulars of the
+trial trips of the small four-wheeled locomotive and of its hauling
+powers, and also of a test day’s work on time line.
+
+The trials of No. 4 locomotive at Eaton were carried out in Sept., 1896,
+and the particulars were as follows (all weights being accurately taken
+on the weighbridge):—
+
+Weight of engine in working order, with two men on the footplate, 3 tons
+5 cwt.; weight of brake-van, with two men and a boy, 14 cwt.; pressure of
+steam throughout trials, 155 to 165 lbs. per sq. in.; ruling gradient
+between Balderton (G.W.R.) and Eaton, 1 in 70 rise from Balderton to
+Eaton, 51 ft.; rise from lowest to highest point, 63 ft.
+
+Trip 1.—Balderton to Eaton, distance 3 miles exactly. To show that engine
+could haul its guaranteed load of 15 tons gross, exclusive of own weight.
+Coal train of thirteen wagons and van:—
+
+                           Tons.     cwt.     qrs.
+Coal                          10       10        3
+Thirteen wagons                4       18        1
+Van                            0       14        0
+                        —
+Gross load                    16        3        0
+Engine                         3        5        0
+                        —
+Total weight of train         19        8        0
+
+Time from start to stop, 17 mins.; speed. 10 miles per hour.  In all
+cases trains have to stop dead on a rising gradient of 1 in 100 before
+crossing the high road one mile from Balderton.
+
+Trip 2.—Eaton to Balderton. To test capacity of engine for fast running.
+The same train as above, empty. Time from start to stop, 12 mins.; speed,
+15 miles per hour.
+
+Trip 3.—Balderton to Eaton. To determine maximum speed at which average
+weight of train could be run. Gross load, exclusive of engine, 14 tons;
+time from start to stop, 15 mins.; speed, 12 miles per hour.
+
+Trip 4.—Eaton to Balderton. To test power of engine to haul a long train
+round the curve of 60 ft. radius on a gradient of 1 in 60, with which the
+line starts from Eaton. Gross load, exclusive of engine, 14 tons,
+consisting of 33 vehicles. The gradient was surmounted without
+difficulty. No time taken.
+
+Trip 5. Balderton to Eaton. To test maximum capacity of engine.
+
+Coal train of 20 wagons and van:—   Tons.     cwt.     qrs.
+Coal                                      14        6        2
+Twenty wagons                              7       13        0
+Van                                        0       14        0
+                              —
+Gross load                                22       13        2
+Engine                                     3        5        0
+                              —
+Total weight of train                     25       18        2
+
+Time from start to stop, 21½ mins.; speed, 8½ miles per hour. The first
+mile, fairly level, was run at 6¼ miles per hour only. The long gradient
+up to Eaton was run at just under 10 miles per hour, the steam blowing
+off freely with injector full on and damper three-quarters closed nearly
+all the last mile-and-a-half.
+
+Trip 6:—From 1¼ to 2¼ mile posts, chiefly up gradient of 1 in 80. To test
+maximum running speed with light trains. Load: bogie passenger-car and
+van only. The maximum speed was attained on passing the 1½ mile post, but
+fell off slightly after passing the 1¾ post. Time by stop watch, from 1½
+to 2 mile post, 1½ mins. exactly. Average speed, 20 miles per hour.
+
+It is to be noted, since the 15 in. gauge is almost precisely one-quarter
+that of the standard railway gauge, and since possible speed is in direct
+proportion to gauge, that 10, 15, and 20 miles on the one equal 40, 60,
+and 80 on the other. Thus the average speed of 10 to 12 miles per hour
+usually maintained, including the road-crossing stop, by the mineral
+trains on the Eaton line is considerably in excess of the proportionate
+speed of similar trains on the standard railways.
+
+In August, 1897, arrangements were courteously made at my request by the
+Hon. Cecil Parker and by Mr. W. A. Forster, to enable me to test the
+weight of minerals that could be transported in a full day’s work, over
+the three miles of line from Balderton to Eaton. Care was taken to
+obviate any delays in loading and unloading, but every truck had to be
+weighed separately on leaving Balderton, a process occupying about ten
+minutes with each train. Six trips were run during the day, and 69 tons
+of coal and road-metal were transported. There were four loaders at
+Balderton, and two unloaders at Eaton. The trains consisted of 12 wagons
+and van. The average gross weight, exclusive of engine, was about 17
+tons, and the weight of minerals, or paying load, 12 tons. The speed was
+just under 10 miles per hour for the loaded trains, and 11.5 miles per
+hour for the empties. The engine left the shed at 8.15 a.m., and returned
+at 5.45 p.m., with a delay of 55 minutes for dinner. The weather was as
+bad as possible, slight showers all through the day making the rails so
+greasy as to necessitate the constant use of sand up the inclines. Time
+was also wasted in an extra journey for empty wagons, and in other
+unavoidable delays. About 1 hour 10 minutes was the average time taken
+over a trip out and back, reckoning to the time of next start. It is thus
+apparent that, with a little more arrangement, eight trips could have
+been run in the day. In the earlier trips, the gross loads hauled were
+only about sixteen tons, increasing later in the day to eighteen and
+nineteen tons. These larger loads might just as well have been also
+hauled on the earlier trips and it was apparent that, under less adverse
+conditions, 100 tons of paying load could have been transported in the
+day. Only 3 cwt. of coal was burned, including lighting up. The total
+distance run was 41 miles, and the average consumption of coal per mile,
+including that burned while standing, was 83 lbs. For Eaton Railway
+Regulations see Appendix C.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+LOCOMOTIVES.
+
+
+THE first locomotive put upon my line was completed in 1875. This engine
+was constructed, not so much as a model of what a small locomotive should
+be, as to provide the requisite motive power for the experiments I
+desired to carry out. No great care was, therefore, observed in the
+details, and in its construction a good deal of material which happened
+to be at hand was utilized to save time and expense; this much in excuse
+of the want of proportion in some of the dimensions, which will be found
+in detail under the head of No. 1 in the table of locomotive dimensions
+on page 31.
+
+The boiler was of the launch type, a cylindrical shell with a cylindrical
+fire-box terminating in tubes. This pattern of boiler, though giving less
+heating surface for its size than one of ordinary locomotive design, has
+the great merit of having no fire-box projecting below the barrel, thus
+enabling the over-hang of the frame beyond the wheel-base to be equalised
+at each end, a matter of the first importance in small tank engines. Its
+low first cost and the ease with which it can be kept in order are
+additional advantages. So well was I satisfied with the working, that in
+the four boilers since designed for my locomotives I have adhered to the
+original plan, which was copied from some shunting engines made by Mr.
+Ramsbottom for the London and North Western Railway. I go so far as to
+think that, without getting rid of a depending fire-box, no really
+satisfactory tank engine can be constructed for a small gauge railway
+unless idle wheels are introduced, a proceeding that cannot too strongly
+be deprecated. The gradients, which are almost invariably the
+concomitants of these small lines, make it essential that the whole of
+the available weight should be utilized for adhesion.
+
+The difficulty of carrying on four wheels a boiler of sufficient length
+for a more powerful engine, and the unsuitableness of an ordinary
+six-coupled engine to the sharp curves in which narrow-gauge lines
+generally abound, led me, in 1877, to work out a design by which the
+wheel-base of an engine of the latter type could be made to accommodate
+itself to any required degree of curvature. At this time I was in
+communication with officers engaged in promoting a scheme for an army
+field railway, where great power conjoined with perfect flexibility was
+essential. As the result, I constructed the engine of which the
+dimensions are given under No. 2 in the table, this being put to work in
+1881. While avoiding the complication of the double-bogie system, this
+engine possesses most, if not all, of its advantages. It is six-coupled
+in the ordinary way, the axles having outside bearings and cranks. The
+wheels, of cast steel, are not fixed upon the axles, but each pair is
+keyed upon a cast iron sleeve, through which the axle passes. The sleeve
+upon the middle axle is capable of sliding 1 in. in each direction
+laterally, but cannot revolve upon its axle thus, when the engine reaches
+a curve, the arc of the rail draws the middle wheels on their sleeve to
+an amount equal to the versed sine of the arc, without interfering with
+the rigid position of the axle. The leading and trailing pairs are
+likewise mounted on sleeves, but here the connection of the sleeve with
+the axle is by means of a ball joint at the centre, so constructed as to
+leave the sleeve free to radiate in any direction, but obliging it to
+revolve with the axle. The middle sleeve is so connected by external
+hoops and links with the leading and trailing sleeves that, when the
+former makes a lateral diversion, the two latter are radiated precisely
+to the required curve, providing it is within the limit of the travel of
+the middle sleeve, which, in this case, is arranged for a radius of 25
+ft. This engine excited considerable interest among visitors to my
+railway at the time of the Royal Agricultural Show in Derby in 1881, but
+the opinion was expressed that the arrangement would not stand hard work.
+A few years later, however, when some officers of the Royal Engineers
+were trying the engine with a view to adopting the plan on the military
+railway at Chatham, they subjected it to very severe tests, loading it up
+steep inclines to its utmost capacity; stopping it with the steam brake
+almost dead when travelling at various speeds and over the most awkward
+places; and, finally, giving it a fifty mile run with all the load that
+could be got together, at an average speed of seven and a half miles an
+hour, stops being made for water, &c., for twelve minutes in each hour.
+This was followed, shortly after, by a continuous run with a similar load
+for an hour and thirty-five minutes, the extreme limit to which the water
+in the tanks would hold out.
+
+There was no heating of any part during the trials, nor failure of any
+kind. After eight years’ work, chiefly on gradients of 1 in 10 to 1 in
+12, where sand has to be used freely, the engine came into the shops to
+be overhauled. During this time there had been no mishap or breakage
+whatever, nor had a wheel ever left the rails, except on one occasion in
+descending the steep incline, when, owing to the slippery state of the
+rails, and sand failing, the engine slid away and left the road; less
+than an hour, however, sufficing to get it running again.
+
+On removing and examining, shortly after this, the working parts of the
+radiating gear, they were found in perfect order, the tool marks being
+still visible in the ball joints; and in August, 1895, the engine, which
+was then sent over to do the ballast work on the Eaton Railway, where it
+worked for thirteen months, showed still a clean bill of health. The
+engine is now rebuilding, and it is proof of the excellence of the
+radiating gear that this part is being put together again without
+re-adjustment of any kind. There is thus no doubt of the success of this
+radiating principle.
+
+This engine is fitted, as already noticed, with a steam brake, which can
+also be applied by hand but the latter alone is far too slow in action
+for the abrupt stops necessary on a line like mine.
+
+The space between the frames being occupied by the radiating
+arrangements, the valve gear is necessarily outside, and, to avoid
+overhung eccentrics, I designed a modification of one of Mr. Charles
+Brown’s Swiss valve gears, which are also the parents of what is known in
+this country as Joy’s gear. I venture to think that my plan, in which
+nothing projects below the connecting-rod, is better suited to small
+engines where the motion is almost always near the ground than any yet
+produced. The gear is extremely simple, and has worked without any
+trouble, the only setting required being the adjustment to length of the
+valve spindles, and the setting of one fixed centre on each side of the
+engine.
+
+The springs consist of rubber pads placed between the axle-box and the
+horn-block. They are simple to fit, take up no room, never get out of
+order, and last many years. I have no steel-carrying spring on any of my
+stock.
+
+The safety-valve spring is entirely within the boiler, so that it cannot
+be tampered with or injured by accident.
+
+The connecting-rod brasses are peculiar. In order to avoid the twist to
+the slide bar when the driving axle, owing to inequalities in the road,
+fails to preserve its horizontal parallelism with the frame, the brasses
+are shaped circular, so as to turn slightly in their straps, the latter
+being bored out in the direction of their length instead of slotted. This
+plan not only relieves both crank-pin and slide-bar of torsion, but also
+forms a much more rigid union between the strap and the rod end.
+
+The steam jet is worked by the regulator handle, the valve being so
+arranged that when the handle is moved beyond the point at which steam is
+shut off, the jet is opened. A spring stop prevents the jet being opened
+inadvertently. Thus when steam is put on, the jet is by the same action
+closed, steam is saved, and two motions are performed in one.
+
+An important point in this, as in all the locomotives I have built, is
+that the over-hang at the two ends is equal, and the weight also on both
+leading and trailing axles practically the same, when the driver is on
+the foot plate. A further arrangement of value is that in all my engines
+the cranks are counter-balanced. It is impossible to effect the
+counter-balancing on the wheels, nor, even if feasible, will the result
+be so good, as counter-balance weights on the wheel are not at the same
+distance from the axle centre as the disturbing weights, and therefore
+not equable in their effect at different speeds.
+
+This engine was built for tractive power, not speed, and eighteen miles
+an hour is the highest rate registered over the short straight course
+available. The previous engine, with 15½ in. wheels, reached a speed
+equal to 23 miles an hour, the time being in both cases taken over a
+measured distance with a stop watch. About 11 miles an hour is the usual
+average speed with passenger cars, which, owing to the severe curves, it
+is not deemed wise to exceed.
+
+The net cost of the engine under consideration was £309, exclusive of
+drawings and patterns. At the time it was built a joiner and occasionally
+a labourer were my only assistants; the work consequently proceeded but
+slowly, occupying altogether two years and a half.  Reducing the time to
+hours, the whole of my own labour was almost precisely equal to that
+worked in one year by an artisan, and that of my assistants together to
+about half the amount. This includes the time occupied in moulding, for
+all the castings were made on the premises, with the exception of the
+steel wheels.
+
+The boiler, frame-plates, and some of the brass fittings, were purchased,
+but the whole of the machine work and fitting was executed on the spot.
+The cost of all material, the hours of labour and engine power, interest
+on tools, &c., were all carefully booked, and it will probably not be far
+from a fair trade price for the engine if 10 per cent, for drawings and
+patterns, and 20 per cent, for profit, are added to the cost given above,
+thus bringing the amount to about £400.
+
+The working of the radiating gear of engine No. 2 proving so
+satisfactory, I elaborated the principle so as to apply it to an
+eight-wheeled locomotive. (No. 3 in the table.) In this case both of the
+middle pairs of wheels have the traversing motion already described, but,
+instead of the leading and trailing wheels being radiated from one
+central pair, the second pair of wheels radiates the leading pair, and
+the third pair of wheels the trailing pair, thus forming a mechanism
+practically equal to a double bogie. By this arrangement an eight-coupled
+engine is obtained capable of passing round curves as severe as may be
+necessary. In the present instance, the travel is constructed for a
+minimum radius of 25 ft. The details of the engine are similar to those
+of No. 2, but numerous improvements have been effected, into all of which
+it would be tedious to enter. It may, however, be mentioned that the ends
+of all the crank pins are boxed in by the connecting and coupling rod
+brasses, to exclude dirt. A steam water-lifter has also been added, by
+which the tanks can be filled without delay during frost.
+
+The blast-nozzle is made adjustable by raising or lowering an internal
+cone. Owing to the steep gradient before alluded to, it was impossible to
+get a fixed size of nozzle that would keep up steam with a light load on
+the level, without being so contracted as to lift the fire off the bars
+on the incline.
+
+The boiler fittings have been made as symmetrical as possible, and
+circular nuts have been substituted for hexagon, as more easy to clean.
+The water-gauge glasses are put in through the top cock and fastened by a
+single cap nut, thus doing away with the usual external glands. The steam
+brake has a 5 in. cylinder, and the rigging is arranged to swing with the
+traversing wheels.
+
+The locomotive for the Eaton Railway (No. 4 in the table) was built as an
+example of a four-wheeled engine for use where the traffic was small and
+the gradient reasonable. With the exception of radial axles, it is fitted
+up precisely as No. 8. It has not, however, been altogether a success.
+From the data of its hauling powers, it will readily be seen that there
+is no deficiency in this respect; indeed, the maximum load handled
+exceeded all my expectations. In its working, for now nearly two years,
+nothing has gone amiss, nor has there been any trouble. On the contrary,
+the engine has on all these points given full satisfaction. But it is
+with regard to its effect on the road that I have my doubts. The running
+is steady enough, and 20 miles an hour has been attained without undue
+oscillation, yet nevertheless the road suffers as it never suffers under
+the six and eight-wheeled engines. The long and short of my experience is
+that I should not again recommend a four-wheeler except for very short
+distances and low speeds. Nothing but the experience I have had with this
+engine could have impressed so forcibly on me the very distinct
+advantages of such a radial action as I have adopted in my other
+locomotives, which enables them to go round a considerably sharper curve
+than the four-wheeler with an ease and absence of grinding quite
+remarkable, to say nothing of the saving to the road by the distribution
+of weight over more points. The relief seems to be by no means so much in
+the lessening of the weight per axle, which is not very great, as in the
+increased number of points of support. I am well aware this is not a new
+discovery, but it has come home to me with a practical force that leads
+me to insist somewhat strongly upon its importance.
+
+The whole of the foregoing locomotives have been entirely made in my
+workshops, with the exception of the boilers and steel castings. The
+former have been chiefly supplied to me of excellent workmanship by
+Messrs. Abbott and Co., of Newark, and the latter by the Hadfield Steel
+Foundry Co., of Sheffield.
+
+The last locomotive in the table (No. 5) is now being commenced, and will
+combine all the advantages of the previous ones in a less costly engine
+than No. 8 which was built specially with a view to see how powerful and
+fast travelling an engine could be put on the 15 in. gauge. No. 5, with
+its smaller wheel, is not very inferior in hauling power to No. 8, and
+the expense of the extra axle is saved. This is the engine that, if I had
+to build another for the Eaton Railway, I should certainly recommend in
+preference to the four-wheeled No. 4.
+
+The wheels of such little locomotives, since speed is no object, should
+be kept as small as possible, and the stroke should be of the greatest
+length. The nearer the stroke can be extended to half the diameter of the
+wheel, the more successful will the engine prove on steep inclines. Good
+sand-boxes, front and back, of ample capacity are essential, but it is
+not advisable to fit any steam sanding apparatus, for, owing to the low
+position of the motion, a good deal of the sand will rebound into the
+joints and bearings, as I found by experiment.
+
+Cabs on such small engines are to be avoided as unbearably hot in summer,
+dangerous in case of emergency, and inconvenient at all times on account
+of the contracted dimensions. A stout mackintosh is cheaper and far
+better for the driver.
+
+A steam water-lifter is a convenience in frosty weather when the water
+supply above ground may be frozen up, but in summer the engine tanks get
+so hot from their proximity to the boiler that the water, which becomes
+lukewarm in the process of being raised by the lifter, is then very soon
+at a temperature which makes the action of the injectors precarious.
+
+I may say that in all my locomotives I use Holden and Brooke’s restarting
+injector, which, after experiment with many types, I find takes the
+hottest water and is in all ways most reliable. I place brass wire
+strainers in both steam and water-supply pipes close to the injector,
+which is invaribly fixed below the tanks, so that when the injector is
+overheated the water will run through by gravity and cool it; a most
+important advantage.
+
+NUMBER, DATE OF COMPLETION,   No. 1. 1875.   No. 2. 1881.   No. 3. 1894.   No. 4. 1896.      No. 5.
+AND NAME OF ENGINE.             “EFFIE.”        “ELLA.”       “MURIEL.”      “KATIE.”
+Diameter of cylinders             4 in.         4⅞ in.         6¼ in.         4⅝ in.         5½ in.
+Length of stroke                  6 in.          7 in.          8 in.          7 in.          8 in.
+Diameter of wheels             1 ft 3½ in     1 ft 1½ in     1 ft. 6 in.    1 ft. 3 in.    1 ft. 4 in.
+Length of wheel-base           2 ft. 6 in.    4 ft. 6 in.       6 ft.          3 ft.          5 ft.
+Number of wheels (all               4              6              8              4              6
+coupled)
+Length over framing               7 ft.       8 ft. 8 in.   10 ft. 9 in.       8 ft.         10 ft.
+Overhang at each end           2 ft. 3 in.    2 ft. 1 in.   2 ft. 4½ in.    2 ft. 6 in.    2 ft. 6 in.
+Width over framing             2 ft. 3 in.   3 ft. 10 in.   3 ft. 10 in.   3 ft. 10 in.   3 ft. 10 in.
+Length of boiler               4 ft. 6 in.    6 ft. 6 in.    8 ft. 3 in.    5 ft. 8 in.    7 ft. 8 in.
+Diameter of boiler            1 ft. 10 in.    2 ft. 1 in.    2 ft. 1 in.    2 ft. 1 in.    2 ft. 1 in.
+Length of firebox (flue)       1 ft. 9 in.    2 ft. 3 in.       3 ft.       2 ft. 3 in.       3 ft.
+Diameter of firebox              11 in.      1 ft. 3¼ in.   1 ft. 3¼ in.   1 ft. 3¼ in.   1 ft. 3¼ in.
+Number of tubes (brass, 1⅜         23             57             57             57             57
+in.)
+Heating surface                23 sq. ft.     70 sq. ft.     91 sq. ft.     53 sq. ft.     80 sq. ft.
+Grate area                    1.25 sq. ft.   2.12 sq. ft.     3 sq. ft.    2.12 sq. ft.     3 sq. ft.
+Capacity of tanks               18 gals.       50 gals.       84 gals.       49 gals.       77 gals.
+Working steam pressure per       125 lb.        160 lb.        160 lb.        160 lb.        160 lb.
+sq. in
+Weight in working order       1 ton 3 cwt.     3 tons 15       5 tons        3 tons 5       4 tons 5
+                                                 cwt.                          cwt.         cwt. (?)
+Co-efficient of adhesion at        3.6            4.7            4.5          4.9 lb         4.3 (?)
+145 lb. mean pressure
+Tractive power per lb.           6.2 lb.       12.3 lb.       17.3 lb.        9.9 lb.       15.1 lb.
+pressure in cylinders
+If diameter cylinder2 = 1,         207            425            336            356            381
+ratio heating surface =
+If diameter cylinder2= 1,         11.2           12.8           11.0           14.2           14.3
+ratio grate area =
+Load (exclusive of engine)      15 tons.       35 tons.       49 tons.       28 tons.       44 tons.
+on level.
+(These are     up 1 in 100       9 tons.       21 tons.       30 tons.       17 tons.       27 tons.
+average
+working
+loads which
+can be
+considerably
+exceeded on
+the easier
+gradients.)
+               up 1 in 50       6.4 tons.     14.6 tons.      21 tons.       11 tons.       18 tons.
+               up 1 in 25       3.8 tons.      8.3 tons.      12 tons.       6.5 tons.      11 tons.
+               up 1 in 12       1.8 tons.      3.4 tons.      4.9 tons.      2.5 tons.      4.4 tons.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+WAGONS AND CARS
+
+
+THE wagons first put upon my line measured only 4 ft. by 2 ft. inside. It
+soon became apparent, however, that a gauge of 15 in. could carry with
+safety a much larger vehicle. In fact it may be taken as a reasonable
+rule that the floor area of narrow gauge wagons should not be less than
+four times the gauge in length and twice the gauge in width. I have found
+such a wagon very handy for light work, but on the Eaton Railway I
+adopted an over measurement of 6 ft. by 3 ft. with 1 ft. 3 in. depth of
+side. The wheel base is, in all cases, half the length of the wagon. The
+larger wagon above described carries 16 cwts. of coal, and from 20 to 22
+cwts. of sand, road metal, bricks, etc., and weighs about 7½ cwts., or
+one-fourth of its total gross loaded weight, _i.e._, it carries three
+times its own weight. The axles in this case are 2 in. diameter. For
+heavier loads I have made the wagons with 2¼ in. axles to carry 30 cwts.
+which is the standard I have finally adopted; and also with 2½ in. axles
+to carry two tons. Two of these last were built for the Eaton line, on
+which logs of timber up to 30 in. square and 60 ft. long have to be
+conveyed from the G. W. Railway to the Estate works. Each end of the log
+rests on a “timber fork,” which can be fitted on to any wagon, and in
+this way, not only timber, but any kind of lengthy goods can be carried
+with the greatest ease. My resident engineer at Eaton gave me an amusing
+account of the arrival from Messrs. Handyside & Co. of the ironwork for
+the coal store at Eaton. This included a number of long and awkward
+shaped pieces, and the foreman sent by this firm to erect the shed was in
+despair at seeing the toy wagons provided for the transport of pieces
+that with some difficulty had been loaded in the main line wagons. To his
+surprise the 15 in. gauge handled them with far greater facility than the
+4 ft. 8½ in., owing to length being no drawback.
+
+My standard wagons are constructed of pitch pine with angle-iron rims,
+and the box sides are framed together independently of the wagon itself,
+thus a flat wagon is converted into a box wagon by merely placing this
+frame upon it. These sides, or “tops” as they have come to be called, are
+about 15 in. deep, and the wagons being constructed to a standard size,
+are interchangeable. An iron rim on each enables two or three of the tops
+to be placed one above another upon any wagon, to give an extra depth. To
+empty the wagon, two men readily lift off the top, and, if necessary,
+turn it over sideways, sufficiently to shoot off the contents; or the
+load may be upset without removing the top. This mode is almost as rapid
+as emptying a tip wagon, which, though convenient to unload, is a fraud
+as to capacity, and cannot be designed to carry more than one-and-a-half
+times its own weight; and even then there is the objection that the
+centre of gravity is far higher than in the box wagon.
+
+For carrying timber or other lengthy loads swivelling carriers can be
+placed on any two wagons; and if a greater length is required, these two
+wagons can be set a distance apart, with or without other wagons placed
+between them. By adopting the flat wagon as a standard, it is possible to
+adapt each one to any class of work, without the necessity of keeping a
+large variety for various purposes. A narrow gauge is said not to lend
+itself advantageously to the carrying of bulky material, but by loading a
+train of wagons without break from end to end, I clear hay off land, to
+which it happens that carts cannot have access, with great despatch.
+There is, therefore, no valid objection on this score. The cost of these
+wagons is from 80s. to 85s. per cwt. In the two years the Eaton line has
+been at work they have proved convenient in every way and show no signs
+as yet of wear.
+
+In addition to a number of wagons, some of which are fitted with brakes,
+there are on my line seven bogie passenger cars and a bogie van; also a
+variety of miscellaneous stock, such as workmen’s car, screw and roller
+rail-benders, dynamometer car, and various small trolleys. The
+dynamometer car is constructed to indicate the tractive effort of the
+engine, the speed, and the distance travelled. The roller rail bender is
+worked by three men, two of whom work the winch which draws the rail
+through the rollers, while the third adjusts the pressure to produce the
+required curvature. The screw bender has two thrust blocks, opposite
+which works a horizontal screw, which straightens or bends rails with
+great accuracy, but in long or sharp curves the roller bender is more
+rapid and efficient, as elsewhere noted.
+
+The passenger stock, which, like everything else, was built on the
+premises, requires a somewhat more detailed notice. There are four open
+cars, holding sixteen persons each, two abreast. These are 19 ft. 6 in.
+long and 8 ft. 6 in. wide, and are carried on two bogies of 1 ft. 6 in.
+wheel base, the total wheel base being 16 ft. 6 in. A foot brake is
+fitted to one bogie on each car. The weight of these cars is 20 cwt.;
+they therefore only weigh 1¼ cwt. per passenger seat, and reckoning
+sixteen persons to the ton, the proportion of live to dead weight is as 1
+to 1. On the main lines it is more than 1 to 5. The cost of these cars,
+stained, varnished, and lined with linoleum, was £37 each.
+
+In order to demonstrate the capabilities of even so small a gauge, a
+closed car of the same dimensions as those already described was
+constructed, which has doors and windows of the usual kind. Lest it
+should be supposed that the space is unduly cramped, I may mention that a
+visitor 6 ft. 3½ in. in height, when seated, found ample clearance for
+his tall hat. The cost of this car was £67, and the weight is 24 cwt.
+Here the proportion of live to dead weight is as 5 to 6.
+
+As a further test of the capacity of a 15 in. gauge, I have built a
+dining car and a sleeping car of the same dimensions as the cars already
+described. The former seats eight persons and carries a suitable cooking
+stove in a compartment to itself. The latter contains four berths 6 ft. 6
+in. long and 1 ft. 10 in. wide, with a lavatory and other fittings. This,
+though hardly an essential accompaniment to a line under one mile in
+length, can be utilised as an overflow bedroom for my boys when the house
+is full of guests. I am unable to state the exact cost of these two
+vehicles, but exclusive of fittings, it is little, if at all in excess of
+that of the closed car already quoted. The weights are somewhat greater,
+owing to the bogie truck frames being of cast iron instead of elm.
+
+A closed luggage van, 15 ft. in length, but otherwise of the same pattern
+as the cars, concludes the list, and is used to convey luncheons, teas,
+etc., for large parties, to the station where refreshments are served.
+The extreme height of the closed cars is 6 ft.
+
+All the wagons and cars are carried on chilled iron wheels, 13½ in.
+diameter, cast in my foundry. The axles, as has been stated, vary from 2
+in. to 2½ in. in diameter, and on to these the wheel on one side is
+forced by a hydraulic pressure of about 15 tons, while the opposite wheel
+runs loose to reduce the curve friction. The journals run in cast-iron
+boxes, which are lubricated by sponges placed in oil receptacles below.
+The horn-blocks and axle-boxes, with a rubber block between them to form
+the spring, and a cover to the oil reservoir, are secured together by a
+single bolt, after the insertion of which no part can come loose. The
+castings are put together as they come from the foundry, without
+machining or fitting of any kind, the axle bedding well into the
+cast-iron box after a few days’ wear. For the Eaton railway, however, I
+bored out the boxes, but have not found any advantage to result. These
+bearings require oiling only at intervals of several weeks, and although
+some of them have been in use more than eighteen years, there has been no
+case of heating or other failure. The cost of each complete bearing,
+including horn-block box, cover, spring, and bolt, is only 5s., 1s. of
+which goes for the rubber.
+
+The buffers and couplings are central. A single east-iron buffer, which
+in the case of the cars is mounted on a spring draw-bar, has a coupler of
+the same metal hinged to it by a bolt. The latter is self-coupling or not
+as desired; but, when turned back so as not to couple, the driver can, by
+bringing the buffers smartly together, cause it to fall and couple up.
+These couplers allow the wagons and cars to be shunted out of the train,
+when the engine is either pushing or drawing, by a quick manipulation of
+the points, the hook sliding laterally from its hold as the vehicles
+diverge on different lines. I designed some cast-steel coupler-buffers of
+this type lately for the Royal Engineers’ 30 in. gauge experimental field
+railway, near Chatham, which, though for reasons unconnected with their
+construction not adopted, are reported as the only ones of several types
+experimented with ‘which fulfilled the necessary requirements. In the
+bogie stock the coupler-buffers are fitted to the bogie, and not to the
+car frame, on account of the severe curves. In the construction of the
+wagons and cars almost every part is made to gauge, and put together
+without fitting.
+
+The aim throughout has been to make the details of all the rolling-stock
+as simple, cheap, and efficient as possible, which has been principally
+achieved by adopting designs and modes of construction largely at
+variance with commonly accepted notions. The totally different conditions
+under which minimum-gauge lines work, as compared with ordinary railways,
+renders this possible without any sacrifice of safety or durability.
+
+In Section IV. mention was made of tip-wagons supplied as an experiment
+to the Eaton line. These consist of steel tubs, U shaped in section, hung
+at each end on two trunnions riding in cast-iron pedestals, the latter
+being bolted to an under-frame of channel steel fitted with cast iron
+ends rivetted in, and so formed as to carry a drawbar with rubber
+cushions, to the end of which the coupler-buffer is attached. These
+wagons cost £20 as against £12 for the standard box wagon. They weigh 11½
+cwts., and carry about this weight of coal, or a little more. Loaded with
+coal, they average a trifle under 24 cwt., exactly the same as the box
+wagon, which weighs 7½ cwt., and carries 16 to 17 cwt. of coal. Thus the
+paying loads of the two are as 3 to 4 for the same hauled weight. For
+short distances, where the emptying bears a greater proportional relation
+to the running time, or where the load must be got rid of in a
+particularly short space of time, tip-wagons may answer. For such
+purposes as my experience has had to deal with, they are a drawback,
+which, as I have previously pointed out, is increased by their
+inadaptability to the carriage of bulky goods. One of my strong
+contentions is that, on a small line, to avoid expense in rolling stock,
+every vehicle should be available for every purpose.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+THE DUFFIELD BANK WORKSHOPS.
+
+
+A BRIEF account of my little works will be of some interest to engineers.
+I have already, in Section I., given an outline of my progress as a
+mechanic.
+
+I will now describe the machinery by which the locomotives, carriage and
+wagon stock, and permanent way fittings have been constructed.
+
+The machine-shop contains an 11 in. lathe for wheel turning, cylinder
+boring, and the heavier work; an 8 in. lathe for surfacing, sliding, and
+general work; a 7 in. lathe for screw-cutting and fine work; a 4 in.
+Pittler universal lathe, with a variety of automatic and other fittings,
+chiefly used for the smaller brass work, such as cocks, glands,
+lubricators, &c.; a 3 in. sliding and screw-cutting lathe, for very light
+work; a planing machine to take work 4 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft 6 in.;
+an 8 in. stroke double-table shaping machine, fitted for hollow and
+circular shaping, specially used for machining coupling rods, &c.; a 4½
+in. shaping machine with circular motion, for light work; a milling
+machine; a 9 in. stroke slotting-machine with compound table, for heavy
+work; a 2½ in. spindle drilling and boring machine; a 1¾ in. drilling
+machine, for general work; a screwing and tapping machine, to 1½ in. for
+bolts and to 2 in. for pipes; a cold-sawing machine, to cut iron up to 2¼
+in. square; a slot drilling machine; a twist-drill grinding machine; two
+grindstones, three bench vices, and complete sets of screwing tackle and
+fitters’ tools.
+
+The smith’s shop contains two fires, of which one is blown by a fan, and
+is suited for the heavier work; anvils for ordinary purposes and also for
+the treatment of angle iron, &c.; a 2½ cwt. gas hammer; a punching and
+shearing machine; a bench vice, and complete set of smiths’ tools.
+
+The erecting shop contains an overhead travelling crane; an engine pit; a
+30-ton hydraulic press for putting axles into wheels, crank pins into
+cranks, testing samples, &c.; a hand screwing and tapping machine to ¾
+in. for bolts and to 1 in. for pipes; standards for fitting up
+frame-plates; a rivet heating forge; two bench vices, and tools for tube
+extracting and other special processes connected with the construction
+and repair of locomotives.
+
+The iron-foundry contains a 16 in. cupola worked through a double tuyère
+by a “Root’s” blower; an overhead travelling crane; a core stove;
+charge-weighing scales; a large supply of boxes for general purposes, and
+special ones for cylinders, chilled-wheels, sleepers, gutters, &c., with
+all ladles and other appliances suitable for producing castings up to
+half-a-ton weight. Especial pains have been taken to turn out chilled
+wheels (13½ in. diameter), for the rolling stock, of perfect smoothness
+and of even depth of chill.
+
+The brass foundry contains a furnace, a metal moulding bench, and the
+usual fittings.
+
+The carriage shop has two lines of 15 in. gauge formed of cast plates
+bolted together and bedded in concrete, and contains a wood-morticing and
+boring machine; fitters and joiners’ vices, with every convenience for
+erecting, finishing, and painting two of the long 20 ft. bogie cars
+simultaneously, or eight of the standard wagons, according to
+requirements; all bulky joiners’ and carpenters’ work is also done in
+this shop.
+
+The pattern and joiners’ shop contains a 5 in. Holtzappfel lathe; and a
+small circular saw; 2 instantaneous-grip vices; saw tooth-setting
+machine; and a variety of other special appliances, in addition to a full
+set of joiners’ tools.
+
+The saw-shed contains a 30 in. circular saw bench; a band saw; a small
+general joiner; an 11 in. planing machine, and a small emery grinder.
+
+The engine house contains an 8 horse-power Otto gas-engine, of which the
+water circulation is effected by a small centrifugal pump.
+
+The drawing office is fitted up with the usual appliances, and is in
+telephonic communication with my house and two of the stations on the
+railway.
+
+The general stores comprise timber; foundry sand of various qualities;
+five kinds of pig iron; copper, spelter, tin, &c.; bar, rod, and angle
+iron; wrought-iron tubing up to 2 in.; bolts, rivets, nuts, and pins;
+steam fittings of all kinds; every sort of requisite needed in the
+construction of small railways and rolling stock, and also for meeting
+house and farm requirements.
+
+The pattern store contains patterns for all the locomotive, carriage,
+wagon, signal, permanent way, and general experimental work; and for
+drain grates, gutters, &c. which are supplied from Duffield for my other
+estates.
+
+The shops are lit by gas, and the 15 in. gauge line runs throughout. The
+construction, both in wood and iron, is done as far as possible to
+template, and every endeavour is made to turn out the very best work,
+which is perhaps the more easily attained in that there are no profits to
+be considered. At the same time it should be explained that the shops and
+machinery are, throughout, though good and sufficient for their purpose,
+in no way models of excellence. Their object is only to turn out the
+chiefly experimental work required, and the gradual additions that have
+been made during the twenty-five years of their existence have been done
+as cheaply as was consistent with efficiency.
+
+Outside the shops are a weigh-bridge for weighing rolling-stock and
+loads, and a six-ton crane to tranship heavy goods from drays to the 15
+in. railway.
+
+Adjoining the workshops is the locomotive shed, with rails raised 30 in.
+above the floor, so as to get more easily at the lower parts of these
+small engines. It is arranged for two locomotives, and is fitted with an
+air jet for raising steam, and with a water supply.
+
+The carriage and wagon stock is, for the most part, housed in three sheds
+at various stations on the main part of the railway, 80 ft. above the
+workshops.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+SCIENTIFIC CONSIDERATIONS.
+
+
+THE present section contains the result of experiments and experience on
+points which, for the most part, are of interest only to those who study
+the scientific side of railway work. I here take the opportunity of
+placing on record various considerations, more or less connected with the
+subject of narrow-gauge railways, of too technical a nature to be mixed
+up with the descriptive pages. This explanation will account for the
+somewhat disjointed nature of the statements which follow.
+
+The fact that narrow gauge locomotives are usually required to surmount
+much steeper gradients than are generally to be found on standard
+railways, makes adhesion a question of the first importance. It is very
+generally supposed that the co-efficient of adhesion between a wheel and
+a rail is a constant fraction of the insistent weight, varying slightly
+with the molecular structure of the metals in contact. There is, however,
+reason to believe that it decreases considerably with an increase of
+weight. In locomotives of the standard gauge, with from 12 to 18 tons per
+driven axle, it is generally held that a co-efficient of adhesion of
+one-sixth is all that can be counted on with certainty. From a number of
+experiments on the Festiniog Railway, with the results of which the late
+Mr. Spooner, who himself supported the theory, was good enough to supply
+me, I found that the load there per driven axle was five tons, the
+co-efficient averaging about one-fifth. Again, with my small engines that
+have a load on each axle of from 1.2 to 1.6 tons, the calculated
+co-efficient is two-ninths, in support of which I give the following
+experiment, conducted in the presence of two gentlemen belonging to a
+firm of locomotive builders, when it was under consideration to build for
+military purposes some engines on the plan of the No. 2 described in
+Section V.
+
+I guaranteed that the locomotive referred to should take a load equal to
+its own weight up a gradient of 1 in 10 a quarter of a mile long, which
+then was, in parts, as steep as 1 in 9, with a short curve of
+half-a-chain radius at the severest part. This was satisfactorily
+accomplished. The day being dry, I was requested to ascertain what was
+the maximum load that could be hauled. On reaching four tons, when the
+start had to be made on a less gradient, the engine barely struggled up,
+and this was evidently all it could do. When full up with coal and water
+it weighed at that time 3 tons 6 cwt. During the experiment, however,
+there were but 3 tons 2 cwt. on the three axles, all of which were
+coupled. The boiler pressure was 145 lbs. exactly, and, the gross weight
+of engine and train being 7 tons 2 cwt., the gravity resistance on the
+gradient of 1 in 10 was equal to 14.2 cwt. The weight of 3 tons 2 cwt.
+available for adhesion, reduced by a tenth part, which the gradient
+converts into gravity resistance, was equal to 56 cwt. Thus, without
+reckoning the curve friction of the whole train and the journal friction
+of the wagons, both uncertain quantities, the proportion of developed
+tractive power to load was as 1 to 3.9. This result confirms the
+probability of the truth of the above assertion. Assuming its
+correctness, which appears beyond doubt, what is the explanation of
+increased proportionate adhesion with a decreased weight on the driven
+axles?  The reduced diameter of wheel in the smaller engines might seem
+to offer a solution of the problem. Experience, however, goes to prove
+that, if there is any difference, a larger wheel has, with equal
+insistent weights, a better grip of the rail than a small one. I am of
+opinion that the weight is directly responsible for the difference. A
+wheel rests upon a rail on one point, or possibly on a transverse line of
+which the length is equal to the width of the rail. With a small
+insistent weight the molecules of the wheel and rail interlock without
+injury, and adhesion, on the principle of an infinitesimal rack and
+pinion, is the result. As the weight is increased on the fine bearing
+area, the molecules become disturbed, and fail to offer so firm a
+fulcrum. Ultimately they become displaced, and move as rollers between
+the two surfaces, materially reducing the adhesion. If this theory be the
+correct one, as is not improbable, the graduated reduction in the
+adhesion would be accounted for.
+
+That the rolling wheel and rail do actually interlock was demonstrated by
+Sir Douglas Galton in his experiments on the retarding power of brakes,
+when he pointed out that, on a wheel becoming skidded, the rack and
+pinion motion was converted into a series of jumps of the wheel across
+the microscopic teeth of the rack, with a consequent reduction in
+adhesion proportionate to the sliding speed. In confirmation of this
+statement I detailed, during the meeting of the British Association at
+Sheffield, an experiment I made by reversing a locomotive so as to skid
+the wheels, and ultimately to cause them to revolve in a contrary
+direction, while descending an incline. With skidded wheels the descent
+was at a certain speed with backward revolution of the wheels the speed
+increased rapidly, the effect of the reversal being to cause the wheel to
+slip over the rail at a speed greater than that at which the engine was
+moving, thus showing that Sir Douglas Galton’s theory of the adhesion
+diminishing in proportion to the extent of departure from the
+interlocking or rolling motion of the wheel on the rail remained
+consistent even beyond sliding contact, and disposing of the old theory
+that the loss of adhesion with a skidded wheel was due to the creation of
+a polished point of contact on the wheel.
+
+Another somewhat curious point in connection with adhesion is the slip of
+the driving wheels, which is naturally in the direction of causing a
+greater number of revolutions of the wheels than would be due to the
+length of rail travelled over. Occasionally, however, I have, in
+experimenting, noticed that fewer revolutions are made than would suffice
+to travel the distance as measured on a centre line between the rails.
+That is, the wheels slipped forward instead of back. This freak is
+probably due to the outer wheel on a curve slipping forward when, owing
+to considerable superelevation and a low speed, the inner wheel is the
+more heavily weighted, the distance then travelled being the reduced
+length of the inner rail.
+
+I now proceed to explain the basis of calculation of the net loads hauled
+on various gradients, as appended to particulars of each locomotive
+described in Section V. The resistance on the level consists of journal
+friction, tire friction, and locomotive internal friction. Tire friction
+is practically nil, except on curves and in strong side winds. Journal
+friction I find, in the case of my small rolling stock, to be covered by
+an allowance of 10 lbs. per ton. Owing to the numerous curves another 10
+lbs. per ton must be added to cover tire friction. A tractive power of 20
+lbs. per ton proves quite sufficient to keep the train in motion on the
+level. It is not, however, enough to start the train on a curve, nor to
+overcome the inertia due to journal friction when, as on an incline,
+there is no slack between the wagons, and the whole train must be started
+at once. After considerable experience I find it necessary to add a
+further 20 lbs. per ton to the required tractive power. A total of 40
+lbs. per ton is thus allowed as a good working equivalent of the
+frictional resistance of the train.
+
+The friction of the locomotive is a much more complicated question. There
+seems very little information available on this point. It has been said,
+in the case of full sized engines, to absorb thirty per cent. of the
+tractive power, but this is a vague estimate, out of all reason
+excessive, unless it be intended to include gravity resistance on a steep
+incline. It is desirable to consider the nature of the various causes of
+resistance to motion separately. Viewed as a carriage only, the journal
+and tire friction of the locomotive may be taken at the same amount per
+ton of its weight as in the case of the trains, namely, 40 lbs. The
+additional resistance due to friction of the moving parts of the
+mechanism cannot be calculated as a constant. If the engine is developing
+but a small portion of its power, the amount will be small; when loaded
+to its full capacity there will be a large increase of internal
+resistance, varying, however, in proportion to the accuracy with which it
+is put together, and the stiffness of the framing.
+
+Such experiments as I have made show clearly that, when exerting
+approximately its full power, the total frictional resistance of the
+engine does not exceed 100 lbs. per ton, and when running light is much
+less, but in what proportion less I have as yet failed to ascertain
+satisfactorily. Of this 100 lbs. per ton, from 20 to 40 lbs. is due to
+journal and tire friction, leaving from 60 lbs. to 80 lbs. per ton as the
+deduction for internal friction.
+
+I thus conclude that an allowance of 40 lbs. per ton for train
+resistance, and 100 lbs. per ton for engine resistance, is a basis for
+calculating the tractive power required on the level that is sufficient
+under all possible narrow-gauge conditions. In the case of gradients
+there must, of course, be added the gravity resistance of the engine and
+train, which is, on a gradient of 1 in 100, one-100th of the gross
+weight; on a gradient of 1 in 50, one-50th, and so on.
+
+In calculating the tractive power of the engine, the effective pressure
+in the cylinders may be reckoned at fully nine-tenths of the boiler
+pressure, on account of the low piston speed.
+
+The above particulars are not to be taken as representative of what can
+be got out of a narrow-gauge engine in a few isolated experiments only,
+but of what is well within the compass of daily work.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+REMARKS ON NARROW GAUGE RAILWAYS.
+
+
+UP to this point I have merely detailed the particulars of the
+construction of my experimental railway and of the line at Eaton, giving
+at the same time the reasons that have led me to adopt certain methods
+and designs. I now propose, in conclusion, to offer a few remarks upon
+the application, in this country and abroad, of small railways of 2 ft.
+gauge and under to do work at present done by means of horses and carts.
+
+The cases in which such lines can be profitably applied may be classed
+under two heads; the one, where, in a country possessing ports or a
+system of railways, large establishments, private, public, or industrial,
+might be connected therewith by a narrow gauge line so as to reduce the
+cost of transport below that which has to be paid for haulage by animal
+power on roads; the other, when no roads worthy of the name are
+available, and the choice is a light railway or nothing. The chief
+condition of success in both cases is a sufficient traffic between two or
+more definite points. Military railways, however, must be regarded from a
+somewhat different standpoint, as the object here is to supply a movable
+centre as expeditiously as possible with the vast commissariat
+requirements of an army rather than to study economy. It is not my
+intention to enter into the pros and cons of small railways for war
+purposes. Suffice it to say that some countries are ahead of us in the
+matter, which is one that has, in England, been allowed to drop rather
+into the background.
+
+Returning to the consideration of cases where a fairly large traffic has
+to be delivered to a port or railway system, the first question that
+arises is that of transhipment. Material of any kind can be as
+effectively delivered on ship-board by narrow gauge railway wagons as by
+horses and carts, if not better. In reckoning up the cost of transhipment
+from small wagons on to a railway system—no great matter with proper
+appliances—it must not be lost sight of that, even if a branch of
+standard gauge were constructed to many establishments, the large wagons
+cannot, as a rule, be got up to the point where the material lies, and a
+preliminary transference in barrows or carts is necessary. With the
+little wagons it is usually possible to get right up to the place and to
+load direct, in which case there is clearly no additional expense
+incurred. It is, further, often forgotten that there is on the standard
+railways endless transhipment for the sake of economical transport, in no
+way connected with a break of gauge.
+
+Again, a small line can be carried round curves, up gradients, and
+through confined premises, where a wider line would be inadmissible. In
+many places the unsightliness of the standard gauge would be objected to,
+nor can such a line be made very light if it has to carry, as it must,
+the 7 or 8 tons per axle of a full sized coal wagon (see Appendix A).
+
+The narrow gauge has also the advantage in first cost, and by bringing
+the small wagons on to a level with the floors of the large ones, or, in
+the case of minerals, by erecting a simple shoot, the transhipment
+difficulty may be reduced to a minimum.
+
+It is not well to have gradients steeper than 1 in 40 where avoidable, as
+difficulty will be experienced in slippery weather; but it is quite
+possible with suitable engines to work inclines of moderate length, as
+steep as 1 in 12. The diminution of the power of the locomotive on
+gradients is also a matter for consideration, the importance of which
+will be clear when it is stated that if an engine will haul, as it
+should, in addition to itself, ten times its own weight on the level, it
+will haul, speaking roughly, only four times its weight up 1 in 50, twice
+its weight up 1 in 25, and once its weight up 1 in 12. More work can be
+done if adhesion does not fail, but the above is an approximate working
+average.
+
+The speed on small lines is not generally a matter of much moment, owing
+to their usually moderate length. A locomotive that is sufficiently
+powerful to start a given load, will without difficulty get it along at
+from 8 to 10 miles an hour. It has occurred to me that a very fair
+approximation to the reasonable running speed of which any gauge is
+capable is to be found in estimating that the speed of passenger trains
+is equal to as many miles per hour as the gauge is inches wide, and, for
+goods trains, to half that amount.
+
+The permanent way should be made a thoroughly sound job, as it will then
+cost but little for repairs. Particulars of what is recommended will be
+found in Sections III. and IV. I am no advocate of portable railways,
+which may be well enough for hand trains, or even for horse traction, but
+a locomotive requires a solid and clean road if it is to work to
+advantage.
+
+It is often possible to carry a narrow gauge railway by the roadside or,
+as at Eaton, over pasture lands without the necessity of fencing the line
+in. Fences can be crossed as described in Sections III. and IV., so long
+as arable land is avoided. Where the route is not wholly the property of
+the projector of the railway, the requisite way-leave may frequently be
+leased by paying an annual acknowledgment of from 3d. to 6d. per yard
+run.
+
+It now remains to show what traffic is required in order that a line of
+this description may repay the outlay upon it. This may best be effected
+by drawing a comparison between the cost of locomotive traction on rails
+and horse traction on roads. The cost of loading and unloading will not
+be included, as these are the same in both cases. (See also Section IV.)
+
+Taking the minimum distance apart of two points, between which haulage
+may be supposed to be required, as one mile, the smallest and cheapest
+gauge as 15 in., and allowing 2,000 yds. to the mile so as to include the
+necessary sidings, the cost of the line will be as follows:—
+
+2,000 yds. of 16 lbs. steel rails, cast-iron sleepers,            £650
+ballast, and laying
+Fence bridges, field crossings, fencing, and other                £200
+structural works; but exclusive of river bridges, tunnels,
+or other costly requirements
+Earthwork, if an approximately surface line ... say               £250
+One 4½ in. cylinder four-wheeled locomotive                       £400
+12 wagons to hold 1 cube yd., at £12 each                         £144
+Extras ... say                                                    £156
+                  Cost of 1 mile of line, equipped complete     £1,800
+
+If laid with pitch pine sleepers a reduction of about £100 per mile would
+be effected, the cost of renewal being correspondingly increased.
+
+The engine would be capable of hauling a gross load, exclusive of its own
+weight, of 12 tons up a gradient of 1 in 50, which may be taken as a fair
+ruling gradient for a surface line. This would be equal to an average
+paying load of about 8 tons; so that, supposing the engine to make one
+trip per hour, about 60 tons would be moved per day; although, with a
+double set of wagons and men, 100 tons would easily be handled.
+
+If the engine worked two days a week, or say 100 days per annum, it would
+have hauled 6,000 tons one mile in the year. A less load hauled on the
+return journeys need not be taken into account, as this would make no
+difference in the comparison, such work being practically done without
+extra cost in both cases.
+
+The cost of the line per annum would be as follows:—
+
+Interest on £1,800 at 4 per cent.                                  £72
+Driver and boy, who would keep the rolling stock and line in      £100
+order
+Fuel, oil, stores, and sundries, at 5s. per day                    £25
+Renewal of permanent way and rolling stock at 15 years life        £80
+on £1,200
+Cost of moving 6,000 tons one mile                                £277
+
+This is equal to about 11d. per ton. Now the same haulage by horses and
+carts in Great Britain would usually cost about 1s. 3d. per ton, and in
+this case there is the advantage of being able to haul, if necessary, in
+other directions if required, which would somewhat reduce the financial
+advantage of the railway, but still leave it a distinct superiority.
+
+It is probable that a traffic of 5,000 tons annually over a mile of line
+is the smallest amount that would repay the construction of a narrow
+gauge railway, for the estimate has been based upon the narrowest line
+which can profitably be employed. If the line were longer, the balance in
+its favour would be greater. This would also be the case if the traffic
+were greater, and with the maximum amount which the line, using only one,
+but a larger engine, could accommodate, say 40,000 tons, the concern
+would be very profitable, for the extra charge for renewals would not be
+heavy, and the cost per ton carried would be reduced to about 5d. or 6d.
+
+No allowance has been made for way leaves or purchase of land. Should
+there be outlay under these heads, the cost of transport would be
+increased accordingly.
+
+In concluding these comparisons, in which it may be thought that the
+railway is shown in a less attractive light than might have been expected
+from an enthusiast, I may explain that I am no advocate of ill considered
+schemes, planned without proper knowledge, cheaply constructed, and
+carelessly worked. My figures represent thoroughly sound and serviceable
+plant, kept in good repair. If it is not worth while to go to such
+expense, then it is not worth while to construct a railway at all. I have
+been fortunate enough to work my line for twenty years without the
+slightest injury to a single person of the many thousands that have been
+carried as invited guests for pleasure, as visitors interested in my
+experiments, or as workmen on the premises. None of the rolling stock has
+sustained more than the most trivial damage; and derailments, beyond an
+occasional mishap in shunting, are unknown. The working of the Eaton line
+has been equally satisfactory. This immunity from accident I attribute
+entirely to proper care having been taken to construct every part, not
+only of the best materials and workmanship, but also with a careful eye
+to the fitness of each detail for the purpose it has to serve.
+
+That there are many openings for lines of 2 ft. gauge and under, is
+beyond dispute. But while, already, this mode of transport is largely
+made use of abroad and in our colonies, a deeply rooted prejudice has
+hitherto prevented it from gaining a footing in England and Scotland.
+
+Admirable articles pointing out the advantages of light railways have
+appeared from time to time in the daily press with little or no effect.
+It is one of the strangest anomalies in the progress of civilisation in
+this country that Great Britain almost wholly refused till lately to
+countenance such lines. The reasons for this obstinacy are not readily
+discoverable. Probably the innate conservatism of every Englishman—for
+there exists here no such thing as liberalism out of the region of
+politics—has been the principal factor in determining this course of
+inaction.
+
+Even now that the Light Railway Act has passed, there is little or no
+movement in the direction of making small lines such as I refer to, and
+not much in respect of larger ones. Whether, in the future, private
+individuals will, in their own interest and in that of their neighbours
+and dependents, lay out money in this way, it is impossible to foresee.
+But undoubtedly there are many openings for such installations,
+particularly on large estates, where the possession of the land gives the
+owner a free hand.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+APPENDIX
+
+
+A
+
+
+THE following letter, which appeared in _The Times_ two years ago, is
+here reprinted as bearing on various points connected with narrow-gauge
+railways. Special attention is directed to what is advanced under the
+third head.
+
+                             LIGHT RAILWAYS.
+                    _TO THE EDITOR OF_ “_THE TIMES_.”
+
+Sir,—The movement in favour of secondary railways has evoked from your
+numerous correspondents widely divergent views. This want of accord is
+more apparent than real, and it would facilitate the proceedings of the
+approaching conference {46} if conflicting opinions could be partially
+reconciled beforehand.
+
+The causes to which these differences are due may be summarized under
+three heads:—
+
+1. The absence of a defined terminology of the distinctive kinds of
+railways.
+
+2. The failure to appreciate that a scheme which is good for one locality
+is not of necessity the best for all.
+
+3. The apparently meagre acquaintance on the part of those who state
+their views with the practical working of any but the standard railways
+of the country.
+
+Under the first head, some confusion has arisen in consequence of the
+application of the term “light railway” now to lines of the standard
+gauge only, and again to narrow-gauge lines also. Similarly with other
+expressions. It may be pointed out that the term “light railway” is
+properly applicable and should be confined to a line of standard gauge,
+of which the entire construction is lighter, cheaper, and simpler than is
+obligatory where weighty engines, heavy traffic, and high speeds are
+dealt with. Any line of less than the standard, gauge is correctly
+described as a “narrow-gauge railway,” and such lines, when not of a
+permanent character, come under the title, simply, of “portable
+railways,” for these are invaribly of less than the normal width. The
+term “tramway” should be restricted to its modern meaning of a line laid
+in the metalled or paved surface of a road or street. Finally, the not
+unfamiliar appellation of “secondary railways” might be fitly adopted as
+generally descriptive of all lines not amenable to the standard railway
+regulations of the Board of Trade. It would be well that the conference
+should pronounce on these points.
+
+In regard to the second head, needless controversy is engendered by
+attempting to assume that, because a light railway is right here,
+therefore a narrow-gauge railway is wrong there, or vice versa. In
+estimating the transport requirements of any particular locality, if
+connection is to be made with the railway system, the applicability of a
+light railway, as above defined, should first be considered. By its
+adoption the use of existing rolling-stock is secured, transhipment is
+avoided, and the line can be subsequently and without difficulty
+transformed, if necessary, into a railway of standard
+construction—advantages for which much may be sacrificed. But as it would
+be almost invariably essential to build a light railway of sufficient
+strength to carry the 15 tons gross weight of a standard coal wagon, the
+permanent way would be of a somewhat costly character, and, in the case
+of severe gradients, considerable difficulty would arise in providing
+suitable locomotive power.
+
+Where the impediments in the way of a light railway branch are
+insuperable, or where the proposed line has no connexion with the railway
+system, the advantages of a narrow-gauge railway may properly be
+weighed—such as the smaller width occupied, the sharper curves
+admissible, the lighter, cheaper, and more easily-handled permanent way
+and rolling-stock, the absence of much of the unsightliness of a line of
+standard gauge, the ease with which, in the ease of gauges under 2 ft.,
+the rails can be laid among and into existing buildings, and, lastly, the
+convenience of being able to load and unload small wagons at the exact
+point required without the intervention of carts or barrows.
+
+In regard to the third head, it may be noticed as a curious fact, that
+the strong and commendable predilections of English engineers for the
+standard gauge, whenever obtainable, appear to lead them, where
+circumstances compel the adoption of a narrower one, to advocate as
+little reduction as possible. Now, the general result of foreign
+experience goes strongly to show that narrow gauges exceeding 30 in.
+approximate so closely to a full-size line as to forfeit, to a
+considerable extent, the advantages of either system. This attitude is
+probably due to ignorance of what can be done on the narrowest gauges,
+for, in spite of the fact that many hundreds of miles of lines of less
+than 2 ft. gauge are at work abroad, our professional advisers persist in
+regarding such railways as mere toys. Yet a line of 15 in. gauge has been
+at work in this country for twenty years, on which thousands of
+passengers have been carried without a single accident, as many as 120 in
+one train, over gradients as steep as 1 in 20, the goods traffic being
+worked in all weathers up a long gradient of 1 in 11 without difficulty.
+{48}
+
+It would be well that our railway engineers should inform themselves more
+fully on the subject, as otherwise their valuable assistance, which would
+insure that narrow-gauge railways were constructed in a solid and
+reliable manner, will be thrust on one side by the requirements of the
+times, and the work will be wholly in the hands of the many manufacturers
+of narrow-gauge plant, whose designs, being chiefly of what is known as
+the portable class, are, for the most part, ill adapted for permanent
+locomotive traffic. If so, it is likely that, in the push that may very
+possibly be presently made for secondary railways, the results will not
+be so satisfactory as would be the case if the work were carried out
+under the direction of professional advisers.
+
+Under the same head, attention may be directed to the fact that it is
+entirely unnecessary to urge the adoption of a standard narrow gauge. The
+circumstances of each case will decide the most suitable gauge, and it is
+only where there is a possibility, as in the North Wales district, of a
+wide ramification of connected narrow-gauge lines that the adoption of a
+particular standard is of any importance.
+
+                    I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
+
+                                                  ARTHUR PERCIVAL HEYWOOD.
+
+
+
+B.
+
+
+The annexed letter, published in The Times about two years ago, deals
+with possible difficulties to be met with by those who make a private
+line of railway. I brought to bear all the influence I could to obtain
+the insertion of a clause in the Act which would meet the “public road
+crossing” difficulty, but without success. The course which I took in the
+case of the Eaton Railway here detailed may be of service.
+
+                         PRIVATE LIGHT RAILWAYS.
+                    _TO THE EDITOR OF_ “_THE TIMES_.”
+
+Sir,—May I, through your columns, draw attention to a class of light
+railway which does not apparently come within the purview of the Bill now
+before Parliament—that of lines constructed by private individuals or
+firms for their own purposes? These will usually confer advantage upon
+the district in which they may be situate by relieving the roads of a
+more or less heavy traffic, and in some cases by offering facilities of
+transport to a section of the neighbourhood.
+
+In a proposed route two difficulties may arise. In the first place, land
+not in possession of the projector may have to be invaded, and way-leaves
+obtained by a judicious tact in selecting the ground and in approaching
+the owners, since private interest is properly debarred from invoking
+compulsory powers. This problem, then, may frequently be satisfactorily
+solved. The second and more common impediment is the crossing or skirting
+of highways, and it is to this point that my letter is specially
+directed. The county and district councils are usually ready in their own
+interest to permit a private line to cross a road on the level—an over or
+under bridge is almost invariably impossible by reason of the expense—or
+to make use for a short distance of waste space by the road side. But—and
+here is the crux—no permanent agreement is obtainable, because councils
+have apparently no power to bind their successors in office, and without
+such guarantee the projector is naturally unwilling to risk his capital
+when the possible rescinding of the concession would render his entire
+outlay abortive.
+
+The Light Railway Bill contains, apparently, no provision under which
+this disability can be remedied, for it is improbable that the
+Commissioners would take action in respect of a private concern. The
+above difficulty was lately met with in the construction of a private
+narrow-gauge line for the Duke of Westminster, which crosses a main road.
+The matter was ultimately compromised by the insertion of a clause in the
+agreement to the effect that, should the county council give notice to
+discontinue the crossing, the Duke should be entitled to appeal to the
+Board of Trade for arbitration. There is, however, no assurance that the
+Board would consent to appoint an arbitrator if called upon, but it is
+very certain that if a provision legalizing such an appeal could be
+incorporated in the Bill a serious hardship would be thereby removed, and
+some encouragement given to private persons to embark capital in
+enterprises of the kind.
+
+As a case in point, and doubtless there are plenty of others, a quarry
+owner of my acquaintance is at the present time conveying some 80,000
+tons of stone annually by means of traction-engines from his works to the
+railway along 2½ miles of highway. The road authorities, levying £400 a
+year for extraordinary traffic, are utterly incapable of coping with the
+destructive action of the heavy loads, and the roads are in a state of
+disintegration that baffles description. The proprietor of the quarry
+would at once set about making a narrow-gauge line at his own expense,
+with the cordial good-will of the county and district councils and his
+neighbours generally, could he only obtain some guarantee that the
+permission to cross and, in some parts, run alongside the road, which
+to-day would be gratefully accorded, would not be suddenly revoked at a
+future date.
+
+Perhaps those in charge of the Bill will see their way to give this point
+their consideration.
+
+                    I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
+
+                                                  ARTHUR PERCIVAL HEYWOOD.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+                         FROM A MANCHESTER PAPER.
+
+According to a correspondent in yesterday’s _Times_ projectors of private
+light railways have hitherto been very chary of risking their capital
+owing to the precarious nature of their running powers. In nine cases out
+of ten the light railway proposes to cross or skirt the highways at
+certain points, and the permission which may be given by one district
+council in such cases is revocable by the next. This must be so
+inevitably, for circumstances might well arise under which a level
+crossing, for instance, would become a public danger. The difficulty
+might well be met by an appeal to arbitration in all cases of proposed
+revocation of the running powers; and if the Board of Trade were to
+undertake to nominate the arbitrator, the projector ought to have no
+reasonable ground for timidity. The present Bill can only be regarded as
+proposing to set an example and provide occasional assistance to the
+construction of light railways. Seeing, therefore, that its chief result,
+if successful, will be to encourage a more extensive construction of
+railways, it is important that all obstacles in the way of private
+enterprise in this direction should be at once removed. The _Times_
+correspondent suggests that the insertion of a clause providing for
+arbitration in all cases of dispute with the highway authorities would
+meet the difficulty.
+
+
+
+C.
+
+
+The regulations given below, which I drew up for use on the Eaton line,
+and which have worked very well for two years, may, to some, be of
+interest.
+
+                              EATON RAILWAY.
+
+
+GENERAL REGULATIONS.
+
+
+1. All persons connected with the Railway shall be held responsible for
+making themselves acquainted with such of the regulations as apply to
+them, and for acting in accordance therewith.
+
+2. All workmen on the Estate shall be liable to such fines for infraction
+of the Railway Regulations as are herein set forth, and as the Estate
+Office may see fit further to order.
+
+3. All men employed on the Railway Staff shall promptly report any
+infraction of the Regulations which may come under their notice, or they
+shall be themselves liable to any penalty which may attach to such
+offence.
+
+4. All workmen on the Estate are particularly requested to remove any
+impediment, such as sticks or stones, which they may see on the line; and
+in case of any serious block, such as a tree fallen across the rails, to
+give prompt notice to one of the Railway Staff.
+
+5. No wagon or car shall (under a penalty of 1s.) be moved by hand on to
+or along the main line, except by special arrangement with the
+engine-driver; and the term “main line” shall be understood to include
+every part of the railway not being a siding or within a terminal yard.
+
+6. Hand shunting of vehicles on sidings shall be done carefully, so as to
+avoid injury to the rolling stock; but no vehicle shall be moved at all
+except by an authorised person.
+
+7. No vehicle shall (under a penalty of 1s.) be left in such a position
+on a siding as to interfere with the free passage of other vehicles along
+adjoining rails.
+
+8. If it is necessary to throw over time weight of any point-lever, this
+shall be done gently, and the weight shall always be returned as soon as
+possible to the position in which the white bar thereon is uppermost.
+Point levers of which the weights are pinned in one direction, shall not
+(under a penalty of 1s.) have the locking pins tampered with.
+
+9. No material of any kind whatever shall (under a penalty of 1s.) be
+deposited within a distance of two feet from the rail on any part of the
+main line or sidings.
+
+10. No heavy weight shall be dropped upon the rails or sleepers, and no
+carts shall cross any part of the line except where a proper crossing of
+double rails is provided. But in the terminal yards light loads may cross
+the rails where the ballast is for that purpose made level with the top
+of the metals. Any unintentional damage to rolling stock or the line
+shall be at once reported to the engine-driver or foreman platelayer.
+
+11. No unauthorised person shall ride on any part of the train, and those
+having permission shall, whenever possible, travel in vehicles provided
+with seats.
+
+12. It is desired that all workmen on the Estate should understand that
+there exists the same liability to accident on a narrow-gauge line as on
+one of full size, and that it is only by a similar careful observance of
+proper regulations that serious mishaps will be avoided.
+
+
+REGULATIONS FOR YARDMEN.
+
+
+13. Yardmen shall carefully observe the General Regulations for the safe
+conduct of traffic comprised in Rules 1 to 12 inclusive.
+
+14. The yardman at each terminus shall clean and oil all points in or
+near his yard at least once a week, and keep them perfectly free from
+grit, leaves, etc.
+
+15. In frost or snow the points shall receive daily attention, and great
+care shall be taken in releasing frozen switches not to strain them. Salt
+for this purpose, shall, on account of its injurious effect on the rails,
+be used only as a last resource.
+
+16. Yardmen shall take care that the loads on wagons are securely placed,
+evenly balanced, and not in excess of the specified weight.
+
+17. Lengthy articles shall be loaded on a sufficient number of wagons to
+ensure that the ends thereof do not catch against other wagons.
+
+18. All vehicles shall be loaded to the satisfaction of the
+engine-driver.
+
+19. Yardmen shall give the earliest possible intimation to the
+engine-driver of the nature and quantity of the material requiring
+transport from their respective yards, that he may provide the necessary
+wagons at the proper time.
+
+20. Yardmen shall take care that the wagons and cars are not roughly
+handled, and shall see that heavy lumps of coal or other material are not
+thrown carelessly on to the wagon bottoms.
+
+21. The yardman at Balderton shall be responsible for the washing of all
+wagons when necessary, and the yardman at Eaton shall similarly see to
+all the bogie cars. Care shall be taken in washing that no water is
+allowed to run into the axle boxes.
+
+22. Yardmen shall use their best endeavours to get the rolling stock in
+their respective yards promptly unloaded, and also put under cover at
+night and in wet weather.
+
+
+REGULATIONS FOR PLATELAYERS.
+
+
+23. Platelayers shall carefully observe the General Regulations for the
+safe conduct of traffic comprised in Rules 1 to 12 inclusive.
+
+24. The foreman platelayer shall be responsible for keeping the whole of
+the permanent way, bridges, cattle stops, banks, road crossings, etc., in
+proper repair.
+
+25. He shall see that every set of points on the line is kept in good
+working order, but he shall only be responsible for the oiling and
+cleaning (as under Rules 14 and 15) of such points as are not under
+charge of a yardman. He shall report to the engine-driver any set of
+points not under his personal charge which he finds neglected, as also
+any defect which he is himself unable to repair.
+
+26. He shall keep clear all road and field crossing grooves, and shall at
+once acquaint the engine-driver when repair to the surface of any road
+crossing is necessary.
+
+27. At least once a week he shall walk over the whole length of the main
+line and sidings, observing carefully that the keys, bridge bolts, fish
+bolts, and sleepers are in order.
+
+28. He shall, at the same time note, and as soon as possible rectify, all
+loose sleepers, crooked rails, and defective superelevation.
+
+29. He shall pay particular attention to the prompt repair of all parts
+of the line marked by the engine-driver as defective, but, independently
+of such notice, he shall be responsible for detecting defective places.
+
+30. In regard to any special repairs, or other emergencies of the
+traffic, he shall be under the direction and obey the instructions of the
+engine-driver.
+
+31. When any part of the line is under repair, care shall be taken that
+the surface of the rails is kept clear of ballast grit, and that the free
+passage of trains is in no way obstructed.
+
+32. When it is necessary to remove a sleeper, a red flag shall be set up
+between the rails in such a position that the engine-driver can discern
+it from a distance of at least 150 yards in each direction. Such flag
+shall remain until the line is made good. On no account shall the engine
+or a loaded wagon pass over any rail from which a sleeper is removed.
+
+33. If from any cause it is necessary to remove a rail, or otherwise
+block the line, the foreman platelayer shall previously notify the
+engine-driver, and arrange with him a convenient time for the work to be
+done; and without such notification the line shall under no circumstances
+whatever be so blocked. A red flag (as directed under Rule 32) shall
+remain exhibited until the line is clear.
+
+34. No platelayer other than the foreman shall be authorised to undertake
+any work interfering with the free passage of trains.
+
+35. If, for ballasting or other purposes, wagons are left by the
+engine-driver at any point on the main line, such wagons shall on no
+account be subsequently moved by hand to any other point on the main
+line, except by special arrangement with the engine-driver.
+
+36. The platelayer’s trolley shall under no circumstances be left
+standing on the main line and when not in use, or unattended, the trolley
+shall always be put at a safe distance from the line, with the wheels
+padlocked.
+
+37. The foreman platelayer shall report to the engine-driver any case of
+material found deposited within two feet of the rail, and likewise any
+other infraction of Regulations which may come to his notice.
+
+
+REGULATIONS FOR ENGINE-DRIVER.
+
+
+38. The engine-driver shall be responsible for the efficient working of
+the line, and shall use the utmost promptitude in dealing with the
+traffic as notified to him by the yardmen.
+
+39. He shall be responsible also for the care of the locomotive, rolling
+stock, and fittings appertaining thereto, any defect in which that is
+beyond his own power to rectify he shall at once notify to the
+Superintendent, with whom any further responsibility in regard to such
+defect shall then rest. But the washing of the wagons and cars shall be
+done by the yardmen as set forth under Rule 21.
+
+40. He shall, further, be responsible for the proper oiling of the axle
+boxes, spring slides, swivelling forks, and bake gear of the whole of the
+rolling stock; and shall on no account run on the train a loaded wagon
+having a hot axle box or a bent axle.
+
+41. He shall see that all rolling stock is kept, as far as possible,
+under cover at night and in wet weather.
+
+42. He shall watch carefully that the whole of the line and its
+accessories are kept in thorough working order, and shall direct the
+foreman platelayer in regard to any part requiring attention.
+
+43. He shall put down white mark pegs, of which he shall at all times
+carry a sufficient supply in the brake van, at all points of the line
+which he may notice to be in special need of repair.
+
+44. He shall arrange with the foreman platelayer, as set forth under Rule
+33, in regard to the time of execution of any work requiring the blocking
+of the line.
+
+45. He shall promptly enquire into, and report to the Superintendent, any
+case of material left within two feet of the rails, as also any other
+infraction of the Regulations which may be brought to his notice. He
+shall take care that Rule 11, in regard to passengers by the train, is
+strictly observed, and shall allow no person to ride on the engine
+without permission of the Duke or from the Estate Office.
+
+46. He shall carefully observe the following County Council Regulations
+in regard to crossing the public roads, and shall be personally liable to
+the County and District Councils respectively for the consequences of any
+infraction thereof:—
+
+  (_a_) Every train about to cross the road shall be brought to a stand
+  at a point not less than 10 yds. therefrom, and the brakesman shall
+  proceed to the centre of the road with a red flag, and shall, as soon
+  as any approaching vehicles have crossed the railway, wave the said
+  flag as a warning to distant vehicles and as a sign to the
+  engine-driver to proceed and shall continue to wave until the whole of
+  the train shall have passed over the road. After dusk a red lamp shall
+  be used in place of a flag (but a green light shall be momentarily
+  shewn to the driver when the road is clear).
+
+  (_b_) No train shall cross the road at a greater speed than five miles
+  an hour, nor shall any train impede the traffic along the road further
+  than is necessary for the crossing thereof, which shall in no case
+  exceed three minutes.
+
+  (_c_) Every train crossing the road shall be in charge of a competent
+  engine-driver and brakesman, and shall consist of not more than
+  twenty-five vehicles, exclusive of the engine.
+
+47. He shall take care to run no train without a brake-van at the rear
+end, and a brakesman in attendance.
+
+48. He shall at all times whistle before putting his engine in motion,
+and also on approaching all road crossings, termini, and other points
+where a warning may be desirable. He shall, during fog, proceed with the
+utmost caution, particularly in crossing roads, and shall be ready to
+stop promptly where cattle may be upon the line.
+
+49. He shall approach all facing points with caution, especially after
+dark, and shall see that his train is well under control in descending
+inclines, particularly the gradient by the Eaton cricket ground.
+
+50. He shall cross the Great Western Siding at Balderton only when the
+yard gates are closed, and at dead slow speed, and shall be personally
+responsible for any mishap resulting from neglect of this rule.
+
+51. He shall perform no fly-shunting with the engine pushing, and in
+draw-shunting he shall proceed with the utmost caution.
+
+52. He shall take care to avoid injury to the rolling stock from shocks,
+careless usage, or foul shunting.
+
+53. He shall, between September and February inclusive, carry on the
+train all necessary lamps ready trimmed.
+
+54. He shall take care that the breakdown tackle is always kept ready on
+the brake van in case of emergency.
+
+55. He shall under no circumstances leave his engine with the steam up
+without the hand-brake hard down, the lever out of gear, and the cylinder
+cocks open.
+
+56. He shall take care that the spark arrester is kept effective; the
+sand boxes full, and that, in conveying passengers, condensed water is
+cleared from the cylinders before starting.
+
+57. He shall keep his engine in good working order, clean, and smart;
+executing all necessary repairs at the earliest opportunity.
+
+58. He shall keep a careful watch that point-lever weights are left in
+the right positions, and that the white bars thereon are kept clearly
+painted.
+
+59. He shall notify to the Superintendent at the earliest possible time
+any requirement for the rolling stock or line, such as coal, stores,
+material for repairs, oil, waste, etc., etc., and shall keep such booked
+records of the working as are required.
+
+60. He shall impress upon the brakesman the following orders
+
+  (_a_) To travel always in the brake-van; to keep a sharp look-out and
+  promptly put down his brake should occasion require, or on receiving a
+  signal from the engine.
+
+  (_b_) To carefully watch the loaded wagons, and in the event of any
+  part of the load appearing unsafe, to signal at once to the
+  engine-driver to stop the train.
+
+  (_c_) To carry always on the van a red flag, and, between September and
+  February inclusive, a hand lamp ready trimmed, which latter, in
+  travelling after dusk, shall shew a red light at the back of the train.
+
+  (_d_) To perform shunting operations with caution, taking care that all
+  point-lever weights are left in their proper position.
+
+  (_e_) To keep his van clean and smart, washing it when required.
+
+  (_f_) To carefully observe such of the Railway Regulations as apply to
+  the brakesman’s work.
+
+
+SIGNALLING REGULATIONS.
+
+
+61. The engine-driver shall give three short whistles when he requires
+the brake-van brakes to be put down, and one short whistle when they are
+to be released. When he requires facing points to be set for the main
+line he shall give two, and for a branch or siding three medium whistles.
+A whistle continued for several minutes is a call for assistance, and
+workmen within hearing should at once proceed to the spot.
+
+62. A red light is a signal to stop; a green light, to proceed
+cautiously; and a white light, to go a-head. In shunting, a green light,
+if waved up and down, is a signal to move a-head; if from side to side,
+to back.
+
+63. It is important that all persons having to do with shunting
+operations should understand that if an engine is either in contact with
+no vehicles, or has vehicles both in front and behind, it is said to go
+a-head when it moves chimney first, and to back when it moves fire-box
+first. If in contact with vehicles at one end only, it is said to go
+a-head when it draws and to back when it pushes such vehicles, without
+regard to its own direction.
+
+
+
+D.
+
+
+The following rather neat parody, which appeared in a London evening
+paper at the time of the passing of the Light Railways Act, expresses a
+very reasonable doubt, in which I fully share, as to the specially
+beneficial effect of the measure on agriculture. Fortunately, the Act has
+been taken very quietly, and such schemes as have been promoted will, for
+the most part, be of considerable general advantage. Certainly there are
+some cases in which farmers would be the gainers by a light railway, but
+these are an infinitesimal proportion of their whole number.
+
+                     THAT TIGHT LITTLE, LIGHT LITTLE
+
+
+
+    “Non si male nunc et olim
+    Sic erit.”
+
+   YOU farmers, who lately
+   Have suffered so greatly
+      From agricultural depression,
+   Shake off gloom and sorrow,
+   A brighter to-morrow
+      Will dawn in the course of the Session.
+
+   By no relaxation
+   Of rates or taxation,
+      By a certain sure-never-to-fail way,
+   Through Government’s pleasure
+   To bring in a measure
+      For giving some districts a railway:
+         A tight little, light little railway,
+            A nice little, light little railway,
+         O think of the joy
+         Of that exquisite toy,
+            A tight little, light little railway.
+
+   Your wheat may grow cheaper,
+   The pay of your reaper
+      May rise to a figure outrageous;
+   The weather may lay all
+   Your crops, and your hay all
+      Be ruined by tempests rampageous;
+   Your stock mayn’t grow fatter,
+   But that does not matter,
+      Except in a bargain and sale way:
+   What are these to the blessing
+   Of really possessing
+      A tight little, light little railway?
+
+                                 (_Chorus_.)
+
+   You may not have a fraction
+   Of produce for traction,
+      Not a stone’s weight to put in a wagon,
+   Not a horse in your stable,
+   No bread on your table,
+      Not a shoe to your foot, not a rag on:
+   All this would be frightful
+   Were it not so delightful
+      To see in as-slow-as-a-snail way
+   The trucks all go gliding
+   From track into siding,
+      From siding to track on your railway.
+
+                                 (_Chorus_.)
+
+   Then, oh _fortunati_
+   _Agricolœ_, wait, aye
+      Wait, for the clouds to roll by you:
+   Your troubles are over;
+   To-morrow, in clover,
+      You’ll laugh at the ills that now try you.
+   “_Ex machinâ Deus_
+   Is coming to free us,
+      Not in an old-fashioned or stale way.”
+   Let this be your chorus—
+   “A future’s before us;
+      Three cheers for the light little railway!”
+
+                                 (_Chorus_.)
+
+
+
+
+PLATES.
+
+
+Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway.
+
+
+         [Picture: Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway]
+
+
+
+Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway.
+
+
+         [Picture: Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway]
+
+
+
+Viaduct, Duffield Bank Railway.
+
+
+                [Picture: Viaduct, Duffield Bank Railway]
+
+
+
+Curve, 25 feet radius, Duffield Bank Railway.
+
+
+         [Picture: Curve, 25 feet radius, Duffield Bank Railway]
+
+
+
+Engine No 2 and Goods Train, Duffield Bank Railway.
+
+
+      [Picture: Engine No 2 and Goods Train, Duffield Bank Railway]
+
+
+
+Engine No 1 and Passenger Train, Duffield Bank Railway.
+
+
+    [Picture: Engine No 1 and Passenger Train, Duffield Bank Railway]
+
+
+
+Balderton Junction—Engine and Waggon Sheds, Eaton Railway.
+
+
+   [Picture: Balderton Junction—Engine and Waggon Sheds, Eaton Railway]
+
+
+
+Engine No 4 and Train, Eaton Railway.
+
+
+             [Picture: Engine No 4 and Train, Eaton Railway]
+
+
+
+Eaton Terminus—Coal Store and Carriage Shed, Eaton Railway.
+
+
+  [Picture: Eaton Terminus—Coal Store and Carriage Shed, Eaton Railway]
+
+
+
+Estate Works Sidings, Eaton Railway.
+
+
+              [Picture: Estate Works Sidings, Eaton Railway]
+
+
+
+Belgrave Engine Shed, Eaton Railway.
+
+
+              [Picture: Belgrave Engine Shed, Eaton Railway]
+
+
+
+Engine No 1, Duffield Bank Railway, 1874.
+
+
+           [Picture: Engine No 1, Duffield Bank Railway, 1874]
+
+
+
+Engine No 2, Duffield Bank Railway, 1881.
+
+
+           [Picture: Engine No 2, Duffield Bank Railway, 1881]
+
+
+
+Engine No 3, Duffield Bank Railway, 1894.
+
+
+           [Picture: Engine No 3, Duffield Bank Railway, 1894]
+
+
+
+Engine No 4, Eaton Railway, 1896.
+
+
+               [Picture: Engine No 4, Eaton Railway, 1896]
+
+
+
+Dining Car (to seat eight), Duffield Bank Railway.
+
+
+       [Picture: Dining Car (to seat eight), Duffield Bank Railway]
+
+
+
+Parcel Van, Duffield Bank Railway.
+
+
+               [Picture: Parcel Van, Duffield Bank Railway]
+
+
+
+Arrangement drawing of Dining Carriage to seat eight.
+
+
+     [Picture: Arrangement drawing of Dining Carriage to seat eight]
+
+
+
+Arrangement drawing of Sleeping Carriage with four berths.
+
+
+   [Picture: Arrangement drawing of Sleeping Carriage with four berths]
+
+
+
+Side elevation of Passenger Carriage to seat sixteen.
+
+
+     [Picture: Side elevation of Passenger Carriage to seat sixteen]
+
+
+
+Arrangement of Radiating Wheels on six-coupled engine No. 2.
+
+
+  [Picture: Arrangement of Radiating Wheels on six-coupled engine No. 2]
+
+
+
+Plan and Section of Eaton Railway
+
+
+               [Picture: Plan and Section of Eaton Railway]
+
+
+
+Cross Sections of Eaton Railway
+
+
+                [Picture: Cross Sections of Eaton Railway]
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+{46}  The then approaching Board of Trade Light Railway Conference.
+
+{48}  The Duffield Bank Railway is here referred to.
+
+
+
+
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+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII" />
+<title>Minimum Gauge Railways, by Arthur Heywood</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Minimum Gauge Railways, by Arthur Heywood
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Minimum Gauge Railways
+
+
+Author: Arthur Heywood
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 3, 2013  [eBook #44341]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MINIMUM GAUGE RAILWAYS***
+</pre>
+<p>Transcribed from the third edition by Peter Barnes.</p>
+<h1><span class="smcap">Minimum Gauge Railways</span>:</h1>
+<p style="text-align: center">THEIR APPLICATION,
+CONSTRUCTION,</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">AND WORKING.</p>
+
+<div class="gapspace">&nbsp;</div>
+<p style="text-align: center">Being an account of the origin and
+evolution of the 15 in. gauge line</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">at Duffield Bank, near Derby; also
+of the installation of a</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">similar line at Eaton Hall, near
+Chester; together with</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">various notes on the uses of such
+Railways, and</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">on the results of some
+experimental</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">investigations relating
+thereto.</p>
+
+<div class="gapspace">&nbsp;</div>
+<p style="text-align: center"><span
+class="GutSmall"><b>BY</b></span></p>
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>Sir ARTHUR PERCIVAL HEYWOOD,
+Bart., M.A.</b></p>
+
+<div class="gapshortline">&nbsp;</div>
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>THIRD EDITION</i>.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>PRINTED FOR PRIVATE
+CIRCULATION</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="gapshortline">&nbsp;</div>
+<h2>Contents.</h2>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">PAGE</span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Preface</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page5">5</a></span>, <span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page6">6</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p style="text-align: center">I.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page7">7</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p style="text-align: center">II</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Objects of the</span> 15 <span
+class="smcap">in. Gauge</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page9">9</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p style="text-align: center">III</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Construction of the Duffield Bank
+Line</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page11">11</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p style="text-align: center">IV</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Details of the Eaton Hall
+Line</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page15">15</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p style="text-align: center">V</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Locomotives</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page25">25</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p style="text-align: center">VI</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Wagons and Cars</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page32">32</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p style="text-align: center">VII</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Duffield Bank Workshops</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page36">36</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p style="text-align: center">VIII</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Scientific Considerations</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page38">38</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p style="text-align: center">IX</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Remarks on Narrow Gauge
+Railways</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page42">42</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p style="text-align: center">X</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Appendix</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page46">46</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h2><a name="page5"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 5</span>Preface
+to Second Edition.</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the year 1881, when the Royal
+Agricultural Society held their show in Derby, it was represented
+to me that, as many of the members were interested in the cheap
+transport offered by narrow gauge railways, it would be
+appreciated if I opened my experimental line at Duffield to
+inspection during the week.</p>
+<p>In order to facilitate the comprehension of the objects of
+this little railway, the late Secretary of the Society suggested
+that I should draw up a short descriptive pamphlet to place in
+the hands of visitors. This was done with success and much saving
+of verbal explanation.</p>
+<p>Thirteen years later, having added considerably to the rolling
+stock and improved many of the details, I decided to give a three
+days exhibition, and to issue a general invitation to all
+interested in the promotion of such lines, at the same time
+taking the opportunity to revise and amplify the first edition of
+this pamphlet.</p>
+<p style="text-align: right">A. P. H.</p>
+<p><i>August</i>, <i>1894</i>.</p>
+<h2><a name="page6"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 6</span>Preface
+to Third Edition.</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">Some</span> four years have elapsed since
+the second edition of this pamphlet was exhausted. During this
+period I have constructed and equipped at Eaton Hall, Cheshire, a
+line which has been in regular use since May, 1896, exactly
+similar to my own at Duffield. This railway having been made
+wholly for practical purposes and on strictly economic
+principles, I am in a position to present more reliable data,
+both in regard to cost and working, than I could obtain from my
+own experimental line, which has been continually altered and
+only irregularly worked.</p>
+<p>I desire to take this opportunity of expressing my thanks to
+the Duke of Westminster for the free hand accorded me in regard
+to the arrangement of all details of the Eaton Railway; a liberty
+which has resulted in a symmetrical and entirely successful
+carrying out of the work.</p>
+<p>What I am now able to advance will, I trust, amply demonstrate
+the really solid advantages which, under suitable conditions, may
+be reaped from the installation of little railways of the kind
+described.</p>
+<p style="text-align: right">A. P. H.</p>
+<p><i>July</i>, <i>1898</i>.</p>
+<h2><a name="page7"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 7</span><span
+class="GutSmall">I.</span><br />
+INTRODUCTION.</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">At</span> the outset I must offer an
+apology for making use, throughout this pamphlet, of the first
+person. I do so partly for convenience of expression, and partly
+because almost all that I have to advance is derived from my own
+experience.&nbsp; In doing so I am far from desiring to
+undervalue the work of others in the same direction. I have,
+however, little hesitation in saying that, with the exception of
+the late Mr. Charles Spooner, the able Engineer of the Festiniog
+Railway, most of those, so far as I know, who are responsible for
+the design of plant for these small lines have been manufacturers
+whose productions, though often of fair workmanship, are clearly
+indicative of a failure to grasp many of the leading principles
+involved. This shortcoming is the natural result of a want of
+sufficient time for the consideration of details, and a
+consequent tendency to imitate established customs in regard to
+railway work which by no means apply with equal advantage to very
+narrow gauges, where the conditions involved are wholly
+different. This is especially true of small locomotive building,
+the specimens of which evidence in their design not only
+ignorance on important points, but also a deplorable absence of
+the sense of well-balanced proportion.</p>
+<p>I venture to think that, in the twenty-five years during which
+I have devoted much of my time to the subject, I have succeeded
+in bringing to considerable perfection both permanent way and
+rolling stock suitable for these diminutive lines, and more
+especially the locomotives, which are probably, for their weight,
+the most powerful and flexible ever built to work by simple
+adhesion. Whether this conceit be well founded or no I leave to
+the judgment of those who may be at the pains to acquaint
+themselves with the details and result of my work, which has been
+undertaken wholly as a labour of love with the sole desire to
+promote improvement in what I believe to be an entirely special
+branch of engineering. I have never <a name="page8"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 8</span>wasted my money on patents, and, so
+long as my designs are not imitated in a bungling manner, I am
+glad to see them made use of by anyone to whom they may be of
+service.</p>
+<p>It must be understood that I do not here attempt to enter upon
+the comparative merits of narrow gauge railways generally, but
+merely to give particulars of what has come within my own
+experience. To facilitate a comprehension of the conditions under
+which I have worked, it will be well to explain that I make no
+pretension to be considered a professional engineer, and that I
+speak rather as a self-taught mechanic and surveyor.</p>
+<p>My father possessed a beautiful Holtzappfel lathe, with
+elaborate tools for ornamental turning in wood and metal. As a
+boy of seven or eight I can recall watching him as he worked. At
+ten years old I was promoted to stand on a box and turn
+candlesticks, but, a year or two later, a few lessons&mdash;the
+only direct practical instruction I ever had&mdash;from an old
+fishing-rod maker in chasing metal screw-threads begot in me an
+ardent desire to construct machinery, particularly anything
+pertaining to railways, for which from my childhood I had an
+absorbing craze.</p>
+<p>By my father&rsquo;s kindness I, by-and-bye, fitted up a
+workshop in which the tools were driven by a half-horse steam
+engine; and at eighteen had completed my first locomotive,
+weighing 56 lbs., which, with a dozen or so of small wagons, made
+a fine show on some 40 yards of brass-railed permanent way of 4
+in. gauge. Locomotive driving was my hobby when I went up to
+Cambridge, and many were the tips that I learned in my illicit
+journeyings on the footplate. The new degree of &ldquo;Applied
+Science&rdquo; had just made its appearance, in which, in 1871, I
+had the doubtful credit of appearing alone in the first class.
+Doubtful, because the papers were absurdly simple, and the
+examiners hardly educated beyond the bare theories of the
+mechanical processes; for it was long anterior to the days of
+Professor Stuart and his engineering laboratory, where,
+by-the-bye, I once remember seeing the &ldquo;demonstrator&rdquo;
+supervising the reduction of a 4 in. shaft on a stout 9 or 10 in.
+lathe by a young turner whose nervous and thread-like shavings
+would have ensured his speedy dismissal from any commercial
+machine-shop.</p>
+<p>When I settled at Duffield in 1872, I at once began to put
+into practice the views I had formed in regard to the possibility
+of advantageously superseding horse traction, in cases where a
+traffic, though heavy, was wholly insufficient to justify a more
+costly railway, by a line of the narrowest and consequently the
+cheapest gauge compatible with safety. It is to a setting forth
+of the results of my experiments during the years that have since
+elapsed, that the following pages are devoted. My claim to a
+hearing is chiefly based upon having always been <a
+name="page9"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 9</span>my own
+draughtsman, and, for my first two larger locomotives, also
+moulder, machinist, and fitter. Owing to the increasing number of
+experiments, and to other calls upon my time, assistance
+eventually became necessary, and, though I am still conceited
+enough to keep the more delicate manipulations in my own hands,
+so far as I can find time to execute them, it has gradually come
+about that I have seven or eight artisans in the little
+workshops. Practical acquaintance with every detail both in
+survey, design, and construction of narrow-gauge railways has
+given me something of a pull over the professional engineer. Thus
+it happens that, without the credit of any exceptional ability, I
+have had advantages that fall to few of acquiring information
+which I desire to lay before those who are interested in the
+rapid and economical transport of a moderate annual tonnage.</p>
+<p>The first three sections of this pamphlet comprise a brief
+sketch of the purposes, origin, and construction of my own line.
+In Section IV. is given a detailed account of the construction,
+working, and cost of the similar line which I made to connect
+Eaton Hall with the Great Western Railway. Sections V., VI.,
+VII., and VIII. are more technical, and may be passed over by
+those not interested in the mechanical details, although it is to
+the care that has been bestowed on these that my success is
+chiefly attributable. Section IX. deals, from such experience as
+I have acquired, with the conditions under which these small
+railways may be profitably installed. In Section X. I have
+appended a few further items of possible interest.</p>
+<h2><span class="GutSmall">II.</span><br />
+OBJECTS OF THE 15 IN. GAUGE.</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">When</span>, in 1874, I started on the
+construction of my experimental railway, the more notable
+narrow-gauge lines in our own country were those of 18 in. at
+Crewe, Woolwich, Chatham, and Aldershot&mdash;the latter a sad
+failure and the admirable 23&frac12; in. from Portmadoc to the
+Festiniog Slate Quarries. The Festiniog Railway, which owed its
+success as a locomotive-worked line to the persistent energy and
+ability of the late Mr. Charles Spooner, opened the eyes <a
+name="page10"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 10</span>of the
+transport-interested world to the extraordinary capacity of a
+very narrow gauge. But here the marvel lies in the manner in
+which the work was adapted to the gauge, not in the suitability
+of the gauge to the work. No one but an enthusiast would dare to
+contend that a two-foot gauge was the ideal width for a line
+employing twenty-ton locomotives and hauling about 100,000
+passengers and some 150,000 tons of minerals and goods per annum.
+If this development could have been foreseen, the selected gauge
+would doubtless have been wider. Such a traffic, however, is
+quite outside the scope of this pamphlet, the logic of which is
+directed to shewing how a much smaller annual tonnage than has
+been hitherto deemed worthy of a railway may be profitably thus
+conveyed.</p>
+<p>An 18 in. line, such as one of those above referred to, would,
+if of not more than three or four miles in length and tolerably
+level, be capable of transporting, with one locomotive, 60,000
+tons of minerals annually, reckoning the traffic as in one
+direction only. There are, however, up and down the country, a
+number of cases where a traffic of from 5,000 to 10,000 tons is
+annually hauled between two fixed points over the public highways
+by a single employer. Such cases may be classified as large
+mansions, public institutions, mines, quarries, &amp;c. Now it is
+clear that, unless there is a prospect of large increase in the
+traffic, it would be absurd to employ for a maximum of 10,000
+tons a railway equal to 60,000 tons, and so the question
+arises:&mdash;What is the smallest and therefore the cheapest
+railway capable of being practically and advantageously worked?
+This is the question to which I venture to think I can give a
+reliable answer.</p>
+<p>In the year 1874, after various preliminary trials, I
+determined to construct a line of 15 in. gauge, as the smallest
+width possessing the necessary stability for practical use,
+although I once laid down one of 9 in. gauge for my younger
+brothers, which proved by no means deficient in carrying
+power.</p>
+<p>The stability of this 9 in. line was perfect enough so long as
+persons did not attempt to ride on the ends and edges of the
+carriages and wagons, but man being an article of approximately
+standard size, it is clear there must be a minimum gauge which
+will be stable enough to be independent of such liberties.</p>
+<p>Rolling stock properly proportioned to a 15 in. gauge seems
+the smallest that will thoroughly insure safety in this respect,
+and indeed in France the late M. D&eacute;cauville, who did so
+much to develop lines of this class, arrived at nearly similar
+conclusions in adopting a minimum width of 16 in.</p>
+<p>It must not, of course, be understood that gauges of such
+small proportions are to be advocated except where the traffic is
+unlikely to increase beyond their capacity, and where the
+material to be moved can conveniently be loaded in moderate sized
+wagons.</p>
+<p><a name="page11"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+11</span>Feeling, however, convinced of the eventual recognition
+of the utility of lines of minimum gauge, I took some pains to
+become acquainted with what had been already achieved in this
+direction, with the result that, excepting only the Festiniog
+railway, where every detail was most ably worked out by the late
+Mr. Spooner, I found generally both road and rolling-stock
+constructed as mere imitations of those of the standard gauge,
+and showing a want of apprehension of the totally different
+conditions to be satisfied. To endeavour to solve the various
+problems involved in the successful design of engines, carriages,
+wagons, and roadway for a minimum gauge is, therefore, the main
+object of my little railway. The chief ends in view are the
+application of such lines to agricultural or commercial purposes
+on large estates, or where quarries, brick yards, and other
+industrial establishments need better connection with the pier or
+railway station from which their productions are forwarded. An
+excellent example of such a line is now to be found in the one I
+have constructed at Eaton Hall, particulars of which are given in
+Section IV. There were also problems relating to adhesion and
+friction, particularly from the narrow-gauge point of view, which
+I was desirous of solving, some remarks on which will be found in
+Section VIII.</p>
+<h2><span class="GutSmall">III.</span><br />
+CONSTRUCTION OF THE DUFFIELD BANK LINE.</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> construction of my line of 15
+in. gauge was commenced in 1874, and various additions were made
+up to 1881, when the length laid amounted to a little over a
+mile, inclusive of sidings. Since the latter date there has been
+no material extension, but the permanent way and its accessories
+have been gradually improved.</p>
+<p>The line runs from the farm and workshops, up a gradient
+varying from 1 in 10 to 1 in 12 about a quarter-of-a-mile long,
+to a level 80 ft. above, where the experimental course is laid
+out in the shape of a figure 8, so as to admit of continuous
+runs. This part, somewhat more than half-a-mile in length, has a
+level stretch of a quarter-of-a-mile, the remainder consisting of
+gradients, of which 1 in 20 is the most severe. The minimum curve
+on the main line is 25 ft. radius, but in the sidings some occur
+as sharp as 15 ft. radius.</p>
+<p><a name="page12"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 12</span>The
+permanent way was at first laid with 14 lb. rails, without
+fish-plates, spiked to elm and Spanish chestnut sleepers fallen
+and sawn on the premises, 5 in. wide, 2 in. thick, and 2 ft. 6
+in. long, set at 1 ft. 6 in. centres. The maximum load did not
+exceed 12 cwt. per axle, but, although the work was well done,
+the road was not equal to the weight, and required incessant
+attention. The line was then re-laid on sleepers 6&frac12; in.
+wide, 4 in. thick, and 3 ft. long, with various sections of
+rails, 12 lbs., 14 lbs., 18 lbs., and 22 lbs. per yard. These
+were all fitted with fish-plates, the joints being on a sleeper.
+The spacing of the sleepers was varied with the rails, from 1 ft.
+6 in. for the 12 lb. to 3 ft. for the 22 lb. section. Any part of
+this road carries comfortably 25 cwt. per axle. The fish-plates
+and larger area of sleeper more than doubled the original
+carrying power of the rails.</p>
+<p>Six years being about the life of these small sleepers, it
+soon became necessary to renew them. Seeing that the rails, owing
+to the light traffic, remained perfectly good, to have to pull
+the road to pieces for the sake of new sleepers only was a
+serious annoyance. I then determined to try a light cast-iron
+sleeper with the same bearing area. After some years of
+experiment, a thoroughly satisfactory one was perfected, in which
+the rail is held to its place by a curved steel spring key that
+cannot work out. The greater part of the line is now laid on
+these cast-iron sleepers, which weigh 28 lbs. each, inclusive of
+the chairs, which are cast on. This pattern has now had some
+eighteen years&rsquo; test, and has proved entirely satisfactory.
+With a 14 lb. steel rail, the sleepers being spaced 2 ft. 3 in.,
+and at the suspended fish-joint 1 ft. 3 in., the road, under the
+load of 25 cwt. per axle, requires very little repair, some parts
+having stood for five or six years without being touched, though
+constantly run over.</p>
+<p>The length of the sleeper is a very material point. It should
+project beyond the rail a distance of rather more than half the
+gauge of the line thus the rail is equally supported inside and
+out. When the projection is reduced, the centre of the sleepers
+cannot be packed up solid, because the support would then be
+greatest between the rails, with the result that the ballast
+below would assume a convex form lengthwise of the sleepers, and
+thus produce an unstable road. On lines of the standard gauge, if
+sleepers of this proportion were adopted, and of sufficient
+thickness to distribute the load more widely without bending, a
+great saving in repairs would be effected; but it is not likely
+that any permanent way official will be bold enough to suggest
+such a radical change. On the Festiniog Railway of 23&frac12; in.
+gauge, a sleeper 4 ft. 6 in. long has been adopted with excellent
+results.</p>
+<p>A detail of importance in laying rails is that the joints
+should be opposite one another. For this purpose it is necessary
+to order a proportion of the rails 3 in. to 6 in. shorter than
+the rest, according to the gauge and radius of curves. In this
+way the joints can be kept practically square. A cross-jointed
+road is not only unpleasant <a name="page13"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 13</span>to travel on, but is also exceedingly
+difficult to set up true, particularly on sharp curves.</p>
+<p>Steel rails are now almost universally employed, but it is
+worth attention that on any part of a line that is either very
+damp or rarely used, iron rails will long outlast steel ones, as
+every mining engineer knows.</p>
+<p>In regard to the most suitable length of rail, I have found 15
+ft. very convenient for weights up to 18 lbs. per yard. A good
+deal depends upon whether the rails come from the makers properly
+straightened. The longer the rail, the more difficult it is to
+straighten; as a rule even the most careful specification will
+fail to bring them on the ground in a fit condition for use. It
+is a very usual thing to look at rails only in regard to their
+horizontal truth, but in reality the vertical correction is of
+far more importance, and, to detect this, the rail must be turned
+on its side. I cannot too strongly insist on the vital importance
+of laying only straight and level rails. A good running road can
+never be made if any humpy rails are laid, and it is quite
+impossible to subsequently rectify the defect without taking up
+such rails and treating them under the press. Rail-straighteners
+should be directed to level a rail before straightening it, that
+is, to correct it vertically first, then horizontally; the reason
+being that vertical pressing disturbs the horizontal truth, while
+the horizontal pressing does not affect the vertical
+accuracy.</p>
+<p>I have employed a rail-press fitted up on a wagon, specially
+arranged with drilling machine for fish bolt holes, with tool
+boxes, and a brake. The screw works horizontally, and the rail
+runs on adjustable rollers at each end of the wagon. The amount
+of curve is thus readily appreciated by the eye as the process
+proceeds, while with a vertical screw it is scarcely possible to
+judge correctly. For sharp curves I use a roller bender of a type
+I designed many years ago for the use of the Royal Engineers in
+their field railway experiments. In this machine, which consists
+of the usual three rollers with the centre one adjustable by a
+screw, two men wind the rail through, and, except at the extreme
+ends, effect a perfect curve. This machine, however, is of little
+use for the ordinary straightening, and, though saving some time
+on a long curve, is laborious to work. A curve made under the
+ordinary screw-press is of course really a succession of what are
+technically termed &ldquo;dog-legs,&rdquo; but, unless it be of
+smaller radius than one chain, these are imperceptible if the
+successive pressures are not applied more than about 14 ins.
+apart. By pressing at still smaller intervals it is possible to
+produce sharper curves of reasonable truth, but I find the rails
+on such curves work smoother and wear better if bent with the
+roller machine.</p>
+<p>Rails can be laid round moderate curves without requiring to
+be bent, by screwing up the fish plates tight and then springing
+the rail. The extent to which <a name="page14"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 14</span>this can be effected depends on the
+weight of the rail and on its length; the longer rail being the
+more accommodating. It is not advisable to attempt to spring a 14
+lb. rail round a sharper curve than five chains, or an 18 lb.
+rail beyond ten chains radius.</p>
+<p>The result of attempting too much springing is that the rails,
+under the traffic and changes of temperature, work outwards at
+the joints and make &ldquo;dog legs&rdquo; more or less serious.
+Where the ballast is of a loose dry nature very little, if
+anything, can be done with springing. I have enlarged upon this
+subject of rail-laying because it is of prime importance to a
+good road, and a matter that, on narrow-gauge lines, does not
+receive the attention it requires.</p>
+<p>To return to a description of my line, there are on it three
+tunnels, two bridges, and a viaduct 91 feet long and 20 feet
+high. The latter was erected in 1878, as an improvement upon one
+at Aldershot, put up by a gentleman who induced the War Office to
+sanction a short experimental line for army transport upon a
+hopelessly inconvenient and ridiculous plan.</p>
+<p>My structure is of pitch pine, and stood for 16 years without
+repair. It is a trestle bridge, the trestles being so designed
+that each member is a multiple of the height. The roadway is
+carried on four timbers; formerly, for a 8 ton engine, 11 in.
+deep and 8 in. wide; now, for one of 5 tons, 13 in. deep and
+3&frac12; in. wide. These are bolted together in pairs, one pair
+under each rail, the two being kept parallel by stretchers and
+through bolts at every 5 feet. In each pair the timbers break
+joint with one another on alternate trestles, the latter being 15
+ft. apart, and each timber 30 ft. long. The advantages of this
+arrangement are two-fold, the timbers can be run forward from
+trestle to trestle as the work advances without scaffolding or
+lifting tackle, and, should one trestle sink out of line, the
+continuity of the upper work checks it, and obviates the
+dangerous &ldquo;dog legs&rdquo; to be almost invariably observed
+in this class of bridge. The original cost with the lighter
+timbers was &pound;30, including every item of
+expenditure&mdash;equal to &pound;1 per yard. The average height
+is 15 ft. The details are arranged to require but little skilled
+labour, the connections being made entirely by bolts and cast
+angle-plates. Two carpenters, in five days framed the five
+trestles including cutting the timber to length; and in three
+more days, with the assistance of three labourers, the whole was
+erected and the rails laid ready for traffic. A platform and
+railing were, however, subsequently added for the convenience of
+foot passengers, thus materially increasing the cost. When
+rebuilt in 1894 with stronger timbers, the original trestles were
+retained.</p>
+<p>Where the line crosses field-fences a dyke is dug about 5 to 6
+ft. square and 3 ft. deep, across which the rails are carried on
+two narrow girders, thus effectually <a name="page15"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 15</span>preventing the passage of cattle, and
+avoiding both the delay of gates and the expense of side
+fencing.</p>
+<p>The line is properly equipped with interlocking signals and
+points on a very simple plan. These are for the most part worked
+from two signal-boxes in telephonic communication.</p>
+<p>Particulars of the cost of such a line will be found in
+Sections IV. and IX. On my experimental course there are six
+stations, at three of which are sheds for the accommodation of
+the rolling stock. When the line is used on the occasion of a
+garden party, a regular service of passenger trains is run, and
+several times trains of eight long bogie cars, carrying 120
+passengers, have been hauled up the gradient of 1 in 20, and up
+the still more trying one of 1 in 47 situate on a
+three-quarter-circle curve of 40 ft. radius.</p>
+<p>In the year 1894 I exhibited the line to the engineering
+public during three days. On this occasion a variety of
+experiments in haulage and shunting were shewn, and for part of
+each day two trains were run concurrently.</p>
+<h2><span class="GutSmall">IV.</span><br />
+DETAILS OF THE EATON HALL LINE.</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">During</span> the exhibition of my railway
+at Duffield in 1894, one of the visitors was the Hon. Cecil
+Parker, agent to the Duke of Westminster, who was desirous of
+laying some sort of light railway from Eaton Hall to the Great
+Western Railway, three miles distant. It was necessary that the
+line should be unobtrusive in appearance, of a thoroughly
+permanent character, yet moderate in cost. The traffic was, as it
+proved, correctly estimated at from 5,000 to 6,000 tons annually.
+Here was a perfect opportunity for a practical experiment with
+the 15 in. gauge, which was ample for five times that amount. I
+was asked to inspect the route, and subsequently roughly
+estimated the cost, exclusive of buildings, at about
+&pound;6,000. I had some doubt at first whether it was possible
+for me to find time to lay out and construct the whole line and
+rolling stock myself, but the difficulty of getting special
+designs effectively carried out by commercial firms at a
+reasonable cost decided me to undertake everything. It was at my
+desire eventually agreed that I should have <a
+name="page16"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 16</span>a free hand
+in regard to all the designs, doing the work at cost price and
+without charge for my own time.</p>
+<p>The line will now be generally described, after which some of
+the more interesting details will be enlarged upon.</p>
+<p>The Eaton estate railway connects the Hall with the Great
+Western Railway at Balderton, 3 miles distant. The total length
+of line laid is 4&frac12; miles, which includes, besides the main
+line, a branch <sup>&frac34;</sup> mile in length to the estate
+works near Pulford, together with several shorter branches to the
+estate brickyard and other points. The traffic to be dealt with,
+consisting chiefly of coal, road metal, and building material,
+was computed at about 6,000 tons per annum. As it was desired
+that the line should be as inconspicuous as possible, since it
+had to cross the park and the three principal drives, and the
+required capacity being small, it was decided to adopt the 15 in.
+gauge.</p>
+<p>The line is laid with steel flat-bottomed rails, weighing
+16&frac12; lbs. per yard, and, to reduce repairs to a minimum,
+these are carried throughout on cast-iron sleepers, 3 ft. long,
+6&frac12; in. wide, weighing 28 lbs., and coated with
+anti-corrosive. Steel spring-keys secure the rails in jaws cast
+on the sleepers, which are spaced at 2 feet 3 inches centres,
+and, at the joints, at 1 ft. 4 in. Steel girders, on cast-iron
+foundation plates, are used for all the bridge-work. Thus no
+timber whatever is employed in the permanent way, and the
+depreciation is practically limited to wear of rails.</p>
+<p>The rails for the points are rivetted on to flat-topped
+cast-iron sleepers, and were built up in my workshops, and
+forwarded ready for laying down. A set of points with seven
+sleepers carrying them, and with lever, counterweight, base
+plate, and the necessary rods, weighs about 4 cwts., and costs
+&pound;7 15s. 0d. All the switches are planed out of the solid,
+and the crossings are of cast steel. Special cast-iron sleepers
+are employed on the girder bridges. These are of bar form, having
+below a cross-piece which is tightened up to the sleeper by two
+bolts, and which grips the inner flange of each girder. It is
+thus possible to set the rails to any moderate curve, on straight
+girders. For crossing roads a short and very strong sleeper, only
+2 feet in length, is employed, with jaws fitted to take a second
+rail on each side to act as a guard-rail to the running one.
+These sleepers have a concrete foundation, and are packed to the
+required level with tarred macadam. The spaces are then filled in
+with the same material, and the road finished to a surface level
+with the top of the rails with a mixture of tar, pitch, and
+screenings. The flange space is of course left free; this is
+1&frac12; in. wide so as to avoid any chance of the shoes of
+draft horses jamming therein. The field crossings, to permit of
+carts crossing the line at convenient points in the various
+fields, are arranged with a similar <a name="page17"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 17</span>double rail, but on a specially
+strong sleeper of the standard length, packed with ordinary
+ballast.</p>
+<p>The ballast is red furnace cinder, 5 to 6 in. in depth below
+the sleepers. The surface width is 4 ft., and through the park
+the top of the ballast is level with the turf, the drainage here
+being effected by a central 4 in. pipe. The appearance is thus
+that of a narrow garden walk. For the remainder of the route,
+which is entirely over grass land with a stiff clay subsoil, the
+ballast is above ground.</p>
+<p>The railway is unfenced throughout, and passes from field to
+field on short open girders with a dyke excavated below, thus
+preventing the passage of cattle. Two high roads besides the
+three drives are crossed on the level, and several brooks by
+girder bridges, the longest span being 28 ft. The line is
+practically a surface one, there being few noticeable cuttings
+and embankments. The cost of the earthwork has been &pound;205
+per mile. The maximum gradient against the load is 1 in 70, the
+highest point of the line is 63 ft. above the lowest, and the
+Eaton terminus is 51 ft. above the junction with the Great
+Western Railway. The curves on the main line do not run below 300
+ft. in radius, but curves of 60 ft. radius, and, at difficult
+points, of still less, occur at some of the termini and on the
+branches. At Eaton a large covered coal stove 80 ft. long and 33
+ft. wide has been erected, so arranged that the little wagons run
+in at a high level and readily discharge their contents.</p>
+<p>The rolling stock, which is all capable of traversing a
+minimum curve of 25 ft. radius, is fitted throughout with
+self-acting coupler-buffers, and all similar parts are
+interchangeable. It comprises the following:&mdash;</p>
+<p>One four-coupled locomotive weighing 3 tons in working order,
+and carrying enough water and fuel for an hour&rsquo;s
+running.</p>
+<p>Thirty wagons 6 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, 1 ft. 3 in. deep,
+weighing each 7&frac12; cwts., and holding 16 to 17 cwts. of
+coal, or 20 to 22 cwts. of bricks and road metal. The sides are
+of box form and removable, so that the floors can be used as flat
+wagons for the conveyance of large stones, castings, &amp;c.
+Fittings are attachable to any wagon for carrying long timber.
+Also one bogie passenger car 20 ft. long and 3 ft. 6 in. wide,
+weighing 23 cwts. and seating 16 persons, and one parcel van, to
+carry 2 tons, of approximately similar construction.</p>
+<p>Various other vehicles; among which are a brake van, 6 wagons
+capable of carrying 1&frac12; tons each, and 2 for 2 tons each.
+Full particulars of the construction of the rolling-stock, now
+increased, will be found in Sections V. and VI.</p>
+<p>The gross load which the engine, exclusive of its own weight,
+will haul in regular work is 40 tons on the level, and 20 tons up
+the ruling gradient of 1 in 70; the speed being about 10 miles
+per hour. In an experimental trip, however, a <a
+name="page18"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 18</span>speed of 20
+miles per hour was attained without undue oscillation. This
+weight of train is by no means the limit which can be hauled on
+the line, for, on the Duffield Bank railway, the
+eight-wheel-coupled engine draws far more than this load, and on
+one occasion took eight bogie passenger cars carrying 124 persons
+up a gradient of 1 in 47 on which is a half-circle curve of only
+40 ft. radius.</p>
+<p>The entire cost of construction has been &pound;1,095 per
+mile, exclusive of sheds. This figure would have been materially
+less but for the considerable expense attending the extra
+levelling and turfing required to avoid undue prominence. The
+cost of rolling stock has been &pound;214 per mile, thus bringing
+the total outlay to &pound;1,309 per mile.</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5"><p>The annual expenses were computed
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">s.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">d.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="4"><p>Interest at 4 per cent, on gross
+expenditure</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">285</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="4"><p>Renewal of permanent way, 4 per cent on
+&pound;2,000 (25 years life)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">80</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="4"><p>Renewal of rolling stock, 8 per cent, on
+&pound;900 (12&frac12; years life)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">72</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Working expenses</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">s.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">d.</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3"><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Driver</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">91</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3"><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Brakesman (boy)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">26</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3"><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Two Platelayers</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">99</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3"><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Fuel and oil</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">39</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3"><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5"><p style="text-align: right">&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">255</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5"><p style="text-align: right">Total annual
+cost</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">642</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The cost of loading being the same for railway wagons as for
+carts is not considered. With a minimum traffic of 5,000 tons per
+annum over an average distance of 2&frac12; miles&mdash;equal to
+12,500 ton-miles&mdash;the cost of transport is almost precisely
+1s. per ton per mile; which is materially less than the cost of
+the cart haulage. The same rolling-stock and staff could readily
+deal with 40 tons per working day of eight hours&mdash;equal, at
+five days per week, to upwards of 10,000 tons a year. If the
+traffic were to reach this amount, the cost per ton of transport
+would be greatly reduced With a more powerful engine and
+additional rolling stock, such a line is capable of conveying an
+annual traffic of 40,000 tons.</p>
+<p>There are probably many localities in which a diminutive
+railway like that at Eaton, ample in its capacity for estate
+requirements and extremely flexible in threading existing
+buildings, would well repay construction. The unobtrusiveness of
+so small a line and rolling stock, the relief to the roads, and
+the convenience of constant connection with the nearest railway,
+are points which are deserving of consideration where the
+conditions make such an installation possible.</p>
+<p><a name="page19"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 19</span>The
+laying of the line was begun in August, 1895. The earthwork was
+already well advanced. On account of the large amount of game in
+the neighbourhood of the line, it was considered wiser to employ
+no contractor, nor were any men obtainable with a knowledge of
+such diminutive platelaying. For the first fortnight I worked
+away myself with beater, rammer, and crowbar, till I had taught a
+proportion of my staff of 16 the use of these tools, and how to
+put the permanent way together. My assistant engineer, new to
+railway work, soon picked up the right ideas of what was
+required, and in a month, when I had to leave, everything was
+going nicely. A bonus was paid on every rail-length beyond a
+quarter-of-a-mile per week completed. This, compared with the
+fine work done by the Royal Engineers in the Soudan, appears a
+poor performance, but it must be remembered that we had to bring
+not only rails and sleepers from our base, but also all the
+ballast, and that we left our work thoroughly packed, the banks
+soiled and turfed, the road crossings laid in concrete and
+asphalte with double rails and special sleepers, the
+field-crossings for carts made good, the girder bridges and fence
+bridges (cattle stops) erected, and all points and crossings
+permanently finished off. About Christmas we reached Eaton Hall,
+and in the following May (1896) had pretty well finished all the
+branches.</p>
+<p>Of course work done with such care and by the day was costly,
+and it would doubtless be possible to construct a similar line by
+contract at two-thirds of the price. But it is a question whether
+much would have been saved in the long run, for, except the usual
+platelayers&rsquo; work, no repairs of any sort have been
+necessary since completion, nor has any part of the mechanism
+failed or given trouble; a result not usually attained in
+contract work.</p>
+<p>It may interest those who have similar work to deal with if I
+explain that in making this line all our material had to be
+hauled from our base on the Great Western Railway at Balderton.
+The procedure was as follows:&mdash;At the rail-end four 15 ft.
+lengths of light timber framing 9 in. deep were laid on the bare
+formation. A train then backed up with eight wagons of ballast,
+and on top of them four lengths of rail ready keyed to sleepers.
+The rails were lifted off alongside where they were to be laid,
+the &ldquo;tops&rdquo; of the wagons were removed and the ballast
+shovelled off on each side. The train then drew away to refill.
+The length of framing next the rail-end was lifted forward to the
+end of furthest framing, and so consecutively with the other
+three, thus leaving between the rail end and the fresh laid
+framing a space of 60 ft. with the loose ballast lying thereon.
+Four men with shovels and four with rammers then put the ballast
+in shape and rammed it solid, and also true to a level given by
+the engineer. The rails and sleepers were next lifted into place,
+and the fish plates affixed. The sleepers next the joints were
+temporarily packed, <a name="page20"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+20</span>by which time a fresh train had arrived. The process was
+then repeated. In this manner, with a staff of ten men at the
+rail-end, a driver and boy with the train, six men loading
+ballast, three men straightening and bending rails, and three
+fixing them in sleepers, 60 ft. were laid in about forty minutes,
+including delays for field crossings and cattle-stop bridges.
+After a day or two of this work the men were set to packing and
+finishing what had been laid. With a larger staff the two
+processes might, but less conveniently, have proceeded at the
+same time.</p>
+<p>The following is a detailed account of the cost of
+construction:&mdash;</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">s.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">d.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Earthwork to formation level</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">923</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">18</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Drain pipes</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">33</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">2</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Rails, sleepers (cast iron), and fastenings</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1,814</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">15</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Girders and fittings for four bridges and nineteen
+cattle-stops</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">143</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">5</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">9</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Foreman, trainmen, and platelayers</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">563</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">5</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">8</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Ballast (red furnace cinder)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">337</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">10</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">4</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Road metal, cement, and asphalte</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">39</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">7</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Fencing at cattle-stops</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">42</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">10</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">2</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Sodding in park and finishing banks</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">224</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">5</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">5</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Locomotive coal, oil, &amp;c.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">17</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">3</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">11</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Laying water-supply, Balderton, Belgrave, and Eaton</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">90</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">8</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">6</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Weigh bridge, Balderton</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">22</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">18</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">2</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Tools, huts, carriage of goods, repairs, &amp;c.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">248</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">13</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">4</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Resident engineer</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">427</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">5</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">3</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">Total cost of construction</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">4,928</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">3</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">3</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4"><p>The cost of rolling stock was as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>1 four-wheel locomotive, 4&#8541; in. by 7 in. cylinders,
+15 in. wheels</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">400</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>1 covered bogie parcel van</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">50</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>1 open bogie passenger car (16 seats)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">40</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>1 covered brake van (4 seats)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">25</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>28 wagons (load 1 ton) ... at &pound;12</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">336</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>2 special wagons (load 2 tons) ... at &pound;14 10s.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">29</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>1 rail bending wagon with press and drill</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">32</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>1 platelayers&rsquo; trolley and tool chest</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">9</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">2</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>8 sets timber carriers, and sundries</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">43</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">17</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">9</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">Total cost of rolling stock</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">964</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">19</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">8</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">Add construction</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">4,928</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">3</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">3</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">Total</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">5,893</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">2</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">11</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><a name="page21"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 21</span>The
+amount per mile to which the above works out has already been
+given. I am unable to give the cost of the coal store at Eaton,
+and of the engine and wagon sheds, although I designed them. They
+were executed by the estate, and being, for the most part, of the
+excellence and solidity of the neighbouring buildings, were
+doubtless somewhat expensive.</p>
+<p>For all practical purposes simple wooden sheds would usually
+answer every requirement, and the extra amount spent at Eaton on
+levelling and sodding in the park much more than outweighed the
+omission of this item. As to the coal store this was altogether a
+special matter which does not affect the estimate of the cost per
+mile of this class of railway.</p>
+<p>It will be of interest to give the actual amount of working
+expenses as compared with their estimated amount.</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3"><p style="text-align: center">1896.</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3"><p style="text-align: center">1897.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">s.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">d.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">s.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">d.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Wages driver and boy</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">115</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">3</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">4</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">115</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">12</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>,, platelayers</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">145</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">8</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">8</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">94</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">15</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">8</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Locomotive coal</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">19</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">15</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">19</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">17</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">7</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Oil, stores, and sundries</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">8</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">10</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">9</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">7</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">288</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">8</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">10</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">239</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">12</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">4</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7"><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Tons of material hauled</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">6,067</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="2"><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">5,986</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>No. days in steam</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">225</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="2"><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">207</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Tons hauled per day in steam</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">27</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="2"><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">29</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The best Welsh smokeless coal is used, costing about &pound;1
+per ton.</p>
+<p>From the above figures the following deductions may be
+drawn:&mdash;</p>
+<p>The locomotive worked an average of 4 days per week, hauling
+an average of 28 tons each day, and burning 1&frac34; cwts. of
+coal at a cost of 1s. 9d.</p>
+<p>Full particulars of the hauling powers of the locomotive are
+given at the end of this section, where it will be seen that 70
+tons a day can readily be dealt with, and that, in an emergency,
+100 tons would be quite within reasonable compass.</p>
+<p>It is required, at Eaton, that the engine should meet the
+wants of several independent departments on the estate, and in
+different directions, added to which only a limited number of men
+are usually available for loading. In effect, instead of matters
+being arranged primarily with a view to the economy of the
+working of the railway, the railway is made an instrument for the
+economical working of <a name="page22"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 22</span>the various departments supplied by
+it. There is doubtless much to be said for the view that, as the
+driver&rsquo;s wages have to be paid, he may as well have his
+engine in steam as often as required. But, notwithstanding this
+easy mode of working the traffic, the cost of haulage is 3d. per
+ton per mile less than the average cost of carting, including
+interest on capital as well as working expenses.</p>
+<p>I may say that the line is kept in the most admirable order,
+clean, well packed, and neatly ballasted, and that, under the
+astute direction of the Hon. Cecil Parker, the Duke&rsquo;s
+agent, the painstaking Superintendent of the line, Mr. Forster,
+records with the greatest accuracy the weight of every truck load
+of goods hauled, and the exact amount of all expenditure on the
+railway, thus giving a value to this somewhat novel experiment
+which it would not otherwise possess.</p>
+<p>It should be mentioned that the amount expended on
+platelayers&rsquo; wages during 1896 exceeded the probably normal
+sum spent in 1897, on account of the road not having become till
+the latter year properly consolidated. The cinder ballast, though
+admirably porous, has proved somewhat deficient in solidity, and
+the sleepers have required a good deal more packing than should
+have been necessary.</p>
+<p>Since the completion of the line in May, 1896, some additions
+have been made to the rolling-stock, with a view of obviating the
+necessity for the immediate unloading of every wagon. There was a
+strongly expressed idea among the employes that tip wagons would
+be more serviceable than the box wagons with loose
+&ldquo;tops&rdquo; supplied by me. I have always felt that the
+greater dead-weight of the former class of wagons in proportion
+to the load carried, and also their increased cost, heavily
+discounted their only advantage: celerity in unloading. In order,
+however, to bring the question to a definite proof, I constructed
+six tip wagons entirely of steel and cast iron which are fully
+described in Section VI. In practice these were found to work as
+well as it is possible for a tip wagon to do, but, nevertheless,
+the unloading advantages were wholly incommensurate with the
+drawbacks of greater dead-weight and less capacity. There was the
+further disability that a wagon of this class could not be used,
+as can the others, for the conveyance of timber or other bulky
+goods. In the end I removed all but two, which were left as
+samples, and replaced them with wagons of the original type.</p>
+<p>I conclude this account of the Eaton railway by giving
+particulars of the trial trips of the small four-wheeled
+locomotive and of its hauling powers, and also of a test
+day&rsquo;s work on time line.</p>
+<p>The trials of No. 4 locomotive at Eaton were carried out in
+Sept., 1896, and the particulars were as follows (all weights
+being accurately taken on the weighbridge):&mdash;</p>
+<p>Weight of engine in working order, with two men on the
+footplate, 3 tons <a name="page23"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+23</span>5 cwt.; weight of brake-van, with two men and a boy, 14
+cwt.; pressure of steam throughout trials, 155 to 165 lbs. per
+sq. in.; ruling gradient between Balderton (G.W.R.) and Eaton, 1
+in 70 rise from Balderton to Eaton, 51 ft.; rise from lowest to
+highest point, 63 ft.</p>
+<p>Trip 1.&mdash;Balderton to Eaton, distance 3 miles exactly. To
+show that engine could haul its guaranteed load of 15 tons gross,
+exclusive of own weight. Coal train of thirteen wagons and
+van:&mdash;</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">Tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">cwt.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">qrs.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Coal</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">10</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">10</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">3</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Thirteen wagons</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">4</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">18</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Van</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">14</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4"><p style="text-align: center">&mdash;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Gross load</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">16</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">3</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Engine</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">3</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">5</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4"><p style="text-align: center">&mdash;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Total weight of train</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">19</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">8</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Time from start to stop, 17 mins.; speed. 10 miles per
+hour.&nbsp; In all cases trains have to stop dead on a rising
+gradient of 1 in 100 before crossing the high road one mile from
+Balderton.</p>
+<p>Trip 2.&mdash;Eaton to Balderton. To test capacity of engine
+for fast running. The same train as above, empty. Time from start
+to stop, 12 mins.; speed, 15 miles per hour.</p>
+<p>Trip 3.&mdash;Balderton to Eaton. To determine maximum speed
+at which average weight of train could be run. Gross load,
+exclusive of engine, 14 tons; time from start to stop, 15 mins.;
+speed, 12 miles per hour.</p>
+<p>Trip 4.&mdash;Eaton to Balderton. To test power of engine to
+haul a long train round the curve of 60 ft. radius on a gradient
+of 1 in 60, with which the line starts from Eaton. Gross load,
+exclusive of engine, 14 tons, consisting of 33 vehicles. The
+gradient was surmounted without difficulty. No time taken.</p>
+<p>Trip 5. Balderton to Eaton. To test maximum capacity of
+engine.</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Coal train of 20 wagons and van:&mdash;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>cwt.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>qrs.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Coal</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">14</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">6</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">2</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Twenty wagons</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">7</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">13</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Van</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">14</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4"><p style="text-align: center">&mdash;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Gross load</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">22</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">13</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">2</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Engine</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">3</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">5</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">0</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4"><p style="text-align: center">&mdash;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Total weight of train</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">25</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">18</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">2</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Time from start to stop, 21&frac12; mins.; speed, 8&frac12;
+miles per hour. The first mile, <a name="page24"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 24</span>fairly level, was run at 6&frac14;
+miles per hour only. The long gradient up to Eaton was run at
+just under 10 miles per hour, the steam blowing off freely with
+injector full on and damper three-quarters closed nearly all the
+last mile-and-a-half.</p>
+<p>Trip 6:&mdash;From 1&frac14; to 2&frac14; mile posts, chiefly
+up gradient of 1 in 80. To test maximum running speed with light
+trains. Load: bogie passenger-car and van only. The maximum speed
+was attained on passing the 1&frac12; mile post, but fell off
+slightly after passing the 1&frac34; post. Time by stop watch,
+from 1&frac12; to 2 mile post, 1&frac12; mins. exactly. Average
+speed, 20 miles per hour.</p>
+<p>It is to be noted, since the 15 in. gauge is almost precisely
+one-quarter that of the standard railway gauge, and since
+possible speed is in direct proportion to gauge, that 10, 15, and
+20 miles on the one equal 40, 60, and 80 on the other. Thus the
+average speed of 10 to 12 miles per hour usually maintained,
+including the road-crossing stop, by the mineral trains on the
+Eaton line is considerably in excess of the proportionate speed
+of similar trains on the standard railways.</p>
+<p>In August, 1897, arrangements were courteously made at my
+request by the Hon. Cecil Parker and by Mr. W. A. Forster, to
+enable me to test the weight of minerals that could be
+transported in a full day&rsquo;s work, over the three miles of
+line from Balderton to Eaton. Care was taken to obviate any
+delays in loading and unloading, but every truck had to be
+weighed separately on leaving Balderton, a process occupying
+about ten minutes with each train. Six trips were run during the
+day, and 69 tons of coal and road-metal were transported. There
+were four loaders at Balderton, and two unloaders at Eaton. The
+trains consisted of 12 wagons and van. The average gross weight,
+exclusive of engine, was about 17 tons, and the weight of
+minerals, or paying load, 12 tons. The speed was just under 10
+miles per hour for the loaded trains, and 11.5 miles per hour for
+the empties. The engine left the shed at 8.15 a.m., and returned
+at 5.45 p.m., with a delay of 55 minutes for dinner. The weather
+was as bad as possible, slight showers all through the day making
+the rails so greasy as to necessitate the constant use of sand up
+the inclines. Time was also wasted in an extra journey for empty
+wagons, and in other unavoidable delays. About 1 hour 10 minutes
+was the average time taken over a trip out and back, reckoning to
+the time of next start. It is thus apparent that, with a little
+more arrangement, eight trips could have been run in the day. In
+the earlier trips, the gross loads hauled were only about sixteen
+tons, increasing later in the day to eighteen and nineteen tons.
+These larger loads might just as well have been also hauled on
+the earlier trips and it was apparent that, under less adverse
+conditions, 100 tons of paying load could have been transported
+in the day. Only 3 cwt. of coal was burned, including lighting
+up. The total distance run was 41 miles, and the average
+consumption of coal per mile, including that burned while
+standing, was 83 lbs. For Eaton Railway Regulations see Appendix
+C.</p>
+<h2><a name="page25"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 25</span><span
+class="GutSmall">V.</span><br />
+LOCOMOTIVES.</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> first locomotive put upon my
+line was completed in 1875. This engine was constructed, not so
+much as a model of what a small locomotive should be, as to
+provide the requisite motive power for the experiments I desired
+to carry out. No great care was, therefore, observed in the
+details, and in its construction a good deal of material which
+happened to be at hand was utilized to save time and expense;
+this much in excuse of the want of proportion in some of the
+dimensions, which will be found in detail under the head of No. 1
+in the table of locomotive dimensions on page 31.</p>
+<p>The boiler was of the launch type, a cylindrical shell with a
+cylindrical fire-box terminating in tubes. This pattern of
+boiler, though giving less heating surface for its size than one
+of ordinary locomotive design, has the great merit of having no
+fire-box projecting below the barrel, thus enabling the over-hang
+of the frame beyond the wheel-base to be equalised at each end, a
+matter of the first importance in small tank engines. Its low
+first cost and the ease with which it can be kept in order are
+additional advantages. So well was I satisfied with the working,
+that in the four boilers since designed for my locomotives I have
+adhered to the original plan, which was copied from some shunting
+engines made by Mr. Ramsbottom for the London and North Western
+Railway. I go so far as to think that, without getting rid of a
+depending fire-box, no really satisfactory tank engine can be
+constructed for a small gauge railway unless idle wheels are
+introduced, a proceeding that cannot too strongly be deprecated.
+The gradients, which are almost invariably the concomitants of
+these small lines, make it essential that the whole of the
+available weight should be utilized for adhesion.</p>
+<p>The difficulty of carrying on four wheels a boiler of
+sufficient length for a more powerful engine, and the
+unsuitableness of an ordinary six-coupled engine to the sharp
+curves in which narrow-gauge lines generally abound, led me, in
+1877, to work out a design by which the wheel-base of an engine
+of the latter type could be made to accommodate itself to any
+required degree of curvature. At this time I was in communication
+with officers engaged in promoting a scheme for an army field
+railway, where great power conjoined with perfect flexibility was
+essential. As the result, I constructed the engine of which the
+dimensions are given under No. 2 in <a name="page26"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 26</span>the table, this being put to work in
+1881. While avoiding the complication of the double-bogie system,
+this engine possesses most, if not all, of its advantages. It is
+six-coupled in the ordinary way, the axles having outside
+bearings and cranks. The wheels, of cast steel, are not fixed
+upon the axles, but each pair is keyed upon a cast iron sleeve,
+through which the axle passes. The sleeve upon the middle axle is
+capable of sliding 1 in. in each direction laterally, but cannot
+revolve upon its axle thus, when the engine reaches a curve, the
+arc of the rail draws the middle wheels on their sleeve to an
+amount equal to the versed sine of the arc, without interfering
+with the rigid position of the axle. The leading and trailing
+pairs are likewise mounted on sleeves, but here the connection of
+the sleeve with the axle is by means of a ball joint at the
+centre, so constructed as to leave the sleeve free to radiate in
+any direction, but obliging it to revolve with the axle. The
+middle sleeve is so connected by external hoops and links with
+the leading and trailing sleeves that, when the former makes a
+lateral diversion, the two latter are radiated precisely to the
+required curve, providing it is within the limit of the travel of
+the middle sleeve, which, in this case, is arranged for a radius
+of 25 ft. This engine excited considerable interest among
+visitors to my railway at the time of the Royal Agricultural Show
+in Derby in 1881, but the opinion was expressed that the
+arrangement would not stand hard work. A few years later,
+however, when some officers of the Royal Engineers were trying
+the engine with a view to adopting the plan on the military
+railway at Chatham, they subjected it to very severe tests,
+loading it up steep inclines to its utmost capacity; stopping it
+with the steam brake almost dead when travelling at various
+speeds and over the most awkward places; and, finally, giving it
+a fifty mile run with all the load that could be got together, at
+an average speed of seven and a half miles an hour, stops being
+made for water, &amp;c., for twelve minutes in each hour. This
+was followed, shortly after, by a continuous run with a similar
+load for an hour and thirty-five minutes, the extreme limit to
+which the water in the tanks would hold out.</p>
+<p>There was no heating of any part during the trials, nor
+failure of any kind. After eight years&rsquo; work, chiefly on
+gradients of 1 in 10 to 1 in 12, where sand has to be used
+freely, the engine came into the shops to be overhauled. During
+this time there had been no mishap or breakage whatever, nor had
+a wheel ever left the rails, except on one occasion in descending
+the steep incline, when, owing to the slippery state of the
+rails, and sand failing, the engine slid away and left the road;
+less than an hour, however, sufficing to get it running
+again.</p>
+<p>On removing and examining, shortly after this, the working
+parts of the radiating gear, they were found in perfect order,
+the tool marks being still visible in the ball joints; and in
+August, 1895, the engine, which was then sent over to do the
+ballast <a name="page27"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+27</span>work on the Eaton Railway, where it worked for thirteen
+months, showed still a clean bill of health. The engine is now
+rebuilding, and it is proof of the excellence of the radiating
+gear that this part is being put together again without
+re-adjustment of any kind. There is thus no doubt of the success
+of this radiating principle.</p>
+<p>This engine is fitted, as already noticed, with a steam brake,
+which can also be applied by hand but the latter alone is far too
+slow in action for the abrupt stops necessary on a line like
+mine.</p>
+<p>The space between the frames being occupied by the radiating
+arrangements, the valve gear is necessarily outside, and, to
+avoid overhung eccentrics, I designed a modification of one of
+Mr. Charles Brown&rsquo;s Swiss valve gears, which are also the
+parents of what is known in this country as Joy&rsquo;s gear. I
+venture to think that my plan, in which nothing projects below
+the connecting-rod, is better suited to small engines where the
+motion is almost always near the ground than any yet produced.
+The gear is extremely simple, and has worked without any trouble,
+the only setting required being the adjustment to length of the
+valve spindles, and the setting of one fixed centre on each side
+of the engine.</p>
+<p>The springs consist of rubber pads placed between the axle-box
+and the horn-block. They are simple to fit, take up no room,
+never get out of order, and last many years. I have no
+steel-carrying spring on any of my stock.</p>
+<p>The safety-valve spring is entirely within the boiler, so that
+it cannot be tampered with or injured by accident.</p>
+<p>The connecting-rod brasses are peculiar. In order to avoid the
+twist to the slide bar when the driving axle, owing to
+inequalities in the road, fails to preserve its horizontal
+parallelism with the frame, the brasses are shaped circular, so
+as to turn slightly in their straps, the latter being bored out
+in the direction of their length instead of slotted. This plan
+not only relieves both crank-pin and slide-bar of torsion, but
+also forms a much more rigid union between the strap and the rod
+end.</p>
+<p>The steam jet is worked by the regulator handle, the valve
+being so arranged that when the handle is moved beyond the point
+at which steam is shut off, the jet is opened. A spring stop
+prevents the jet being opened inadvertently. Thus when steam is
+put on, the jet is by the same action closed, steam is saved, and
+two motions are performed in one.</p>
+<p>An important point in this, as in all the locomotives I have
+built, is that the over-hang at the two ends is equal, and the
+weight also on both leading and trailing axles practically the
+same, when the driver is on the foot plate. A further arrangement
+of value is that in all my engines the cranks are
+counter-balanced. It is impossible to effect the
+counter-balancing on the wheels, nor, even if feasible, will the
+result <a name="page28"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 28</span>be
+so good, as counter-balance weights on the wheel are not at the
+same distance from the axle centre as the disturbing weights, and
+therefore not equable in their effect at different speeds.</p>
+<p>This engine was built for tractive power, not speed, and
+eighteen miles an hour is the highest rate registered over the
+short straight course available. The previous engine, with
+15&frac12; in. wheels, reached a speed equal to 23 miles an hour,
+the time being in both cases taken over a measured distance with
+a stop watch. About 11 miles an hour is the usual average speed
+with passenger cars, which, owing to the severe curves, it is not
+deemed wise to exceed.</p>
+<p>The net cost of the engine under consideration was &pound;309,
+exclusive of drawings and patterns. At the time it was built a
+joiner and occasionally a labourer were my only assistants; the
+work consequently proceeded but slowly, occupying altogether two
+years and a half.&nbsp; Reducing the time to hours, the whole of
+my own labour was almost precisely equal to that worked in one
+year by an artisan, and that of my assistants together to about
+half the amount. This includes the time occupied in moulding, for
+all the castings were made on the premises, with the exception of
+the steel wheels.</p>
+<p>The boiler, frame-plates, and some of the brass fittings, were
+purchased, but the whole of the machine work and fitting was
+executed on the spot. The cost of all material, the hours of
+labour and engine power, interest on tools, &amp;c., were all
+carefully booked, and it will probably not be far from a fair
+trade price for the engine if 10 per cent, for drawings and
+patterns, and 20 per cent, for profit, are added to the cost
+given above, thus bringing the amount to about &pound;400.</p>
+<p>The working of the radiating gear of engine No. 2 proving so
+satisfactory, I elaborated the principle so as to apply it to an
+eight-wheeled locomotive. (No. 3 in the table.) In this case both
+of the middle pairs of wheels have the traversing motion already
+described, but, instead of the leading and trailing wheels being
+radiated from one central pair, the second pair of wheels
+radiates the leading pair, and the third pair of wheels the
+trailing pair, thus forming a mechanism practically equal to a
+double bogie. By this arrangement an eight-coupled engine is
+obtained capable of passing round curves as severe as may be
+necessary. In the present instance, the travel is constructed for
+a minimum radius of 25 ft. The details of the engine are similar
+to those of No. 2, but numerous improvements have been effected,
+into all of which it would be tedious to enter. It may, however,
+be mentioned that the ends of all the crank pins are boxed in by
+the connecting and coupling rod brasses, to exclude dirt. A steam
+water-lifter has also been added, by which the tanks can be
+filled without delay during frost.</p>
+<p>The blast-nozzle is made adjustable by raising or lowering an
+internal cone. <a name="page29"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+29</span>Owing to the steep gradient before alluded to, it was
+impossible to get a fixed size of nozzle that would keep up steam
+with a light load on the level, without being so contracted as to
+lift the fire off the bars on the incline.</p>
+<p>The boiler fittings have been made as symmetrical as possible,
+and circular nuts have been substituted for hexagon, as more easy
+to clean. The water-gauge glasses are put in through the top cock
+and fastened by a single cap nut, thus doing away with the usual
+external glands. The steam brake has a 5 in. cylinder, and the
+rigging is arranged to swing with the traversing wheels.</p>
+<p>The locomotive for the Eaton Railway (No. 4 in the table) was
+built as an example of a four-wheeled engine for use where the
+traffic was small and the gradient reasonable. With the exception
+of radial axles, it is fitted up precisely as No. 8. It has not,
+however, been altogether a success. From the data of its hauling
+powers, it will readily be seen that there is no deficiency in
+this respect; indeed, the maximum load handled exceeded all my
+expectations. In its working, for now nearly two years, nothing
+has gone amiss, nor has there been any trouble. On the contrary,
+the engine has on all these points given full satisfaction. But
+it is with regard to its effect on the road that I have my
+doubts. The running is steady enough, and 20 miles an hour has
+been attained without undue oscillation, yet nevertheless the
+road suffers as it never suffers under the six and eight-wheeled
+engines. The long and short of my experience is that I should not
+again recommend a four-wheeler except for very short distances
+and low speeds. Nothing but the experience I have had with this
+engine could have impressed so forcibly on me the very distinct
+advantages of such a radial action as I have adopted in my other
+locomotives, which enables them to go round a considerably
+sharper curve than the four-wheeler with an ease and absence of
+grinding quite remarkable, to say nothing of the saving to the
+road by the distribution of weight over more points. The relief
+seems to be by no means so much in the lessening of the weight
+per axle, which is not very great, as in the increased number of
+points of support. I am well aware this is not a new discovery,
+but it has come home to me with a practical force that leads me
+to insist somewhat strongly upon its importance.</p>
+<p>The whole of the foregoing locomotives have been entirely made
+in my workshops, with the exception of the boilers and steel
+castings. The former have been chiefly supplied to me of
+excellent workmanship by Messrs. Abbott and Co., of Newark, and
+the latter by the Hadfield Steel Foundry Co., of Sheffield.</p>
+<p>The last locomotive in the table (No. 5) is now being
+commenced, and will combine all the advantages of the previous
+ones in a less costly engine than No. 8 which was built specially
+with a view to see how powerful and fast travelling an engine
+could be put on the 15 in. gauge. No. 5, with its smaller wheel,
+is not <a name="page30"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+30</span>very inferior in hauling power to No. 8, and the expense
+of the extra axle is saved. This is the engine that, if I had to
+build another for the Eaton Railway, I should certainly recommend
+in preference to the four-wheeled No. 4.</p>
+<p>The wheels of such little locomotives, since speed is no
+object, should be kept as small as possible, and the stroke
+should be of the greatest length. The nearer the stroke can be
+extended to half the diameter of the wheel, the more successful
+will the engine prove on steep inclines. Good sand-boxes, front
+and back, of ample capacity are essential, but it is not
+advisable to fit any steam sanding apparatus, for, owing to the
+low position of the motion, a good deal of the sand will rebound
+into the joints and bearings, as I found by experiment.</p>
+<p>Cabs on such small engines are to be avoided as unbearably hot
+in summer, dangerous in case of emergency, and inconvenient at
+all times on account of the contracted dimensions. A stout
+mackintosh is cheaper and far better for the driver.</p>
+<p>A steam water-lifter is a convenience in frosty weather when
+the water supply above ground may be frozen up, but in summer the
+engine tanks get so hot from their proximity to the boiler that
+the water, which becomes lukewarm in the process of being raised
+by the lifter, is then very soon at a temperature which makes the
+action of the injectors precarious.</p>
+<p>I may say that in all my locomotives I use Holden and
+Brooke&rsquo;s restarting injector, which, after experiment with
+many types, I find takes the hottest water and is in all ways
+most reliable. I place brass wire strainers in both steam and
+water-supply pipes close to the injector, which is invaribly
+fixed below the tanks, so that when the injector is overheated
+the water will run through by gravity and cool it; a most
+important advantage.</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p><a name="page31"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+31</span><span class="smcap">Number, Date of Completion, and Name
+of Engine</span>.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">No. 1. 1875. &ldquo;<span
+class="smcap">Effie</span>.&rdquo;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">No. 2. 1881. &ldquo;<span
+class="smcap">Ella</span>.&rdquo;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">No. 3. 1894. &ldquo;<span
+class="smcap">Muriel</span>.&rdquo;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">No. 4. 1896. &ldquo;<span
+class="smcap">Katie</span>.&rdquo;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">No. 5.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Diameter of cylinders</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4&#8542; in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">6&frac14; in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4&#8541; in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">5&frac12; in.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Length of stroke</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">6 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">7 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">8 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">7 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">8 in.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Diameter of wheels</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ft 3&frac12; in</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ft 1&frac12; in</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ft. 6 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ft. 3 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ft. 4 in.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Length of wheel-base</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 6 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4 ft. 6 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">6 ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3 ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">5 ft.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Number of wheels (all coupled)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">6</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">8</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">6</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Length over framing</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">7 ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">8 ft. 8 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">10 ft. 9 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">8 ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">10 ft.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Overhang at each end</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 3 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 1 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 4&frac12; in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 6 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 6 in.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Width over framing</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 3 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3 ft. 10 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3 ft. 10 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3 ft. 10 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3 ft. 10 in.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Length of boiler</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4 ft. 6 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">6 ft. 6 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">8 ft. 3 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">5 ft. 8 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">7 ft. 8 in.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Diameter of boiler</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ft. 10 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 1 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 1 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 1 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 1 in.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Length of firebox (flue)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ft. 9 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 3 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3 ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2 ft. 3 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3 ft.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Diameter of firebox</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">11 in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ft. 3&frac14; in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ft. 3&frac14; in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ft. 3&frac14; in.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ft. 3&frac14; in.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Number of tubes (brass, 1&#8540; in.)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">23</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">57</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">57</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">57</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">57</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Heating surface</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">23 sq. ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">70 sq. ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">91 sq. ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">53 sq. ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">80 sq. ft.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Grate area</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1.25 sq. ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2.12 sq. ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3 sq. ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2.12 sq. ft.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3 sq. ft.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Capacity of tanks</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">18 gals.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">50 gals.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">84 gals.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">49 gals.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">77 gals.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Working steam pressure per sq. in</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">125 lb.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">160 lb.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">160 lb.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">160 lb.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">160 lb.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Weight in working order</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1 ton 3 cwt.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3 tons 15 cwt.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">5 tons</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3 tons 5 cwt.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4 tons 5 cwt. (?)</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Co-efficient of adhesion at 145 lb. mean
+pressure</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3.6</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4.7</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4.5</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4.9 lb</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4.3 (?)</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Tractive power per lb. pressure in
+cylinders</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">6.2 lb.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">12.3 lb.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">17.3 lb.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">9.9 lb.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">15.1 lb.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>If diameter cylinder<sup>2</sup> = 1, ratio
+heating surface =</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">207</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">425</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">336</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">356</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">381</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>If diameter cylinder<sup>2</sup>= 1, ratio
+grate area =</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">11.2</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">12.8</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">11.0</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">14.2</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">14.3</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><p>Load (exclusive of engine) on level.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">15 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">35 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">49 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">28 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">44 tons.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>(These are average working loads which can be considerably
+exceeded on the easier gradients.)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>up 1 in 100</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">9 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">21 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">30 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">17 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">27 tons.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>up 1 in 50</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">6.4 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">14.6 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">21 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">11 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">18 tons.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>up 1 in 25</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3.8 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">8.3 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">12 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">6.5 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">11 tons.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>up 1 in 12</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">1.8 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">3.4 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4.9 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">2.5 tons.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: center">4.4 tons.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h2><a name="page32"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 32</span><span
+class="GutSmall">VI.</span><br />
+WAGONS AND CARS</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> wagons first put upon my line
+measured only 4 ft. by 2 ft. inside. It soon became apparent,
+however, that a gauge of 15 in. could carry with safety a much
+larger vehicle. In fact it may be taken as a reasonable rule that
+the floor area of narrow gauge wagons should not be less than
+four times the gauge in length and twice the gauge in width. I
+have found such a wagon very handy for light work, but on the
+Eaton Railway I adopted an over measurement of 6 ft. by 3 ft.
+with 1 ft. 3 in. depth of side. The wheel base is, in all cases,
+half the length of the wagon. The larger wagon above described
+carries 16 cwts. of coal, and from 20 to 22 cwts. of sand, road
+metal, bricks, etc., and weighs about 7&frac12; cwts., or
+one-fourth of its total gross loaded weight, <i>i.e.</i>, it
+carries three times its own weight. The axles in this case are 2
+in. diameter. For heavier loads I have made the wagons with
+2&frac14; in. axles to carry 30 cwts. which is the standard I
+have finally adopted; and also with 2&frac12; in. axles to carry
+two tons. Two of these last were built for the Eaton line, on
+which logs of timber up to 30 in. square and 60 ft. long have to
+be conveyed from the G. W. Railway to the Estate works. Each end
+of the log rests on a &ldquo;timber fork,&rdquo; which can be
+fitted on to any wagon, and in this way, not only timber, but any
+kind of lengthy goods can be carried with the greatest ease. My
+resident engineer at Eaton gave me an amusing account of the
+arrival from Messrs. Handyside &amp; Co. of the ironwork for the
+coal store at Eaton. This included a number of long and awkward
+shaped pieces, and the foreman sent by this firm to erect the
+shed was in despair at seeing the toy wagons provided for the
+transport of pieces that with some difficulty had been loaded in
+the main line wagons. To his surprise the 15 in. gauge handled
+them with far greater facility than the 4 ft. 8&frac12; in.,
+owing to length being no drawback.</p>
+<p>My standard wagons are constructed of pitch pine with
+angle-iron rims, and the box sides are framed together
+independently of the wagon itself, thus a flat wagon is converted
+into a box wagon by merely placing this frame upon it. These
+sides, or &ldquo;tops&rdquo; as they have come to be called, are
+about 15 in. deep, and the wagons being constructed to a standard
+size, are interchangeable. An iron rim on each enables two or
+three of the tops to be placed one above another upon any wagon,
+to give an extra depth. To empty the wagon, two men readily lift
+off the top, and, if <a name="page33"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 33</span>necessary, turn it over sideways,
+sufficiently to shoot off the contents; or the load may be upset
+without removing the top. This mode is almost as rapid as
+emptying a tip wagon, which, though convenient to unload, is a
+fraud as to capacity, and cannot be designed to carry more than
+one-and-a-half times its own weight; and even then there is the
+objection that the centre of gravity is far higher than in the
+box wagon.</p>
+<p>For carrying timber or other lengthy loads swivelling carriers
+can be placed on any two wagons; and if a greater length is
+required, these two wagons can be set a distance apart, with or
+without other wagons placed between them. By adopting the flat
+wagon as a standard, it is possible to adapt each one to any
+class of work, without the necessity of keeping a large variety
+for various purposes. A narrow gauge is said not to lend itself
+advantageously to the carrying of bulky material, but by loading
+a train of wagons without break from end to end, I clear hay off
+land, to which it happens that carts cannot have access, with
+great despatch. There is, therefore, no valid objection on this
+score. The cost of these wagons is from 80s. to 85s. per cwt. In
+the two years the Eaton line has been at work they have proved
+convenient in every way and show no signs as yet of wear.</p>
+<p>In addition to a number of wagons, some of which are fitted
+with brakes, there are on my line seven bogie passenger cars and
+a bogie van; also a variety of miscellaneous stock, such as
+workmen&rsquo;s car, screw and roller rail-benders, dynamometer
+car, and various small trolleys. The dynamometer car is
+constructed to indicate the tractive effort of the engine, the
+speed, and the distance travelled. The roller rail bender is
+worked by three men, two of whom work the winch which draws the
+rail through the rollers, while the third adjusts the pressure to
+produce the required curvature. The screw bender has two thrust
+blocks, opposite which works a horizontal screw, which
+straightens or bends rails with great accuracy, but in long or
+sharp curves the roller bender is more rapid and efficient, as
+elsewhere noted.</p>
+<p>The passenger stock, which, like everything else, was built on
+the premises, requires a somewhat more detailed notice. There are
+four open cars, holding sixteen persons each, two abreast. These
+are 19 ft. 6 in. long and 8 ft. 6 in. wide, and are carried on
+two bogies of 1 ft. 6 in. wheel base, the total wheel base being
+16 ft. 6 in. A foot brake is fitted to one bogie on each car. The
+weight of these cars is 20 cwt.; they therefore only weigh
+1&frac14; cwt. per passenger seat, and reckoning sixteen persons
+to the ton, the proportion of live to dead weight is as 1 to 1.
+On the main lines it is more than 1 to 5. The cost of these cars,
+stained, varnished, and lined with linoleum, was &pound;37
+each.</p>
+<p>In order to demonstrate the capabilities of even so small a
+gauge, a closed car of the same dimensions as those already
+described was constructed, which has <a name="page34"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 34</span>doors and windows of the usual kind.
+Lest it should be supposed that the space is unduly cramped, I
+may mention that a visitor 6 ft. 3&frac12; in. in height, when
+seated, found ample clearance for his tall hat. The cost of this
+car was &pound;67, and the weight is 24 cwt. Here the proportion
+of live to dead weight is as 5 to 6.</p>
+<p>As a further test of the capacity of a 15 in. gauge, I have
+built a dining car and a sleeping car of the same dimensions as
+the cars already described. The former seats eight persons and
+carries a suitable cooking stove in a compartment to itself. The
+latter contains four berths 6 ft. 6 in. long and 1 ft. 10 in.
+wide, with a lavatory and other fittings. This, though hardly an
+essential accompaniment to a line under one mile in length, can
+be utilised as an overflow bedroom for my boys when the house is
+full of guests. I am unable to state the exact cost of these two
+vehicles, but exclusive of fittings, it is little, if at all in
+excess of that of the closed car already quoted. The weights are
+somewhat greater, owing to the bogie truck frames being of cast
+iron instead of elm.</p>
+<p>A closed luggage van, 15 ft. in length, but otherwise of the
+same pattern as the cars, concludes the list, and is used to
+convey luncheons, teas, etc., for large parties, to the station
+where refreshments are served. The extreme height of the closed
+cars is 6 ft.</p>
+<p>All the wagons and cars are carried on chilled iron wheels,
+13&frac12; in. diameter, cast in my foundry. The axles, as has
+been stated, vary from 2 in. to 2&frac12; in. in diameter, and on
+to these the wheel on one side is forced by a hydraulic pressure
+of about 15 tons, while the opposite wheel runs loose to reduce
+the curve friction. The journals run in cast-iron boxes, which
+are lubricated by sponges placed in oil receptacles below. The
+horn-blocks and axle-boxes, with a rubber block between them to
+form the spring, and a cover to the oil reservoir, are secured
+together by a single bolt, after the insertion of which no part
+can come loose. The castings are put together as they come from
+the foundry, without machining or fitting of any kind, the axle
+bedding well into the cast-iron box after a few days&rsquo; wear.
+For the Eaton railway, however, I bored out the boxes, but have
+not found any advantage to result. These bearings require oiling
+only at intervals of several weeks, and although some of them
+have been in use more than eighteen years, there has been no case
+of heating or other failure. The cost of each complete bearing,
+including horn-block box, cover, spring, and bolt, is only 5s.,
+1s. of which goes for the rubber.</p>
+<p>The buffers and couplings are central. A single east-iron
+buffer, which in the case of the cars is mounted on a spring
+draw-bar, has a coupler of the same metal hinged to it by a bolt.
+The latter is self-coupling or not as desired; but, when turned
+back so as not to couple, the driver can, by bringing the buffers
+smartly <a name="page35"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+35</span>together, cause it to fall and couple up. These couplers
+allow the wagons and cars to be shunted out of the train, when
+the engine is either pushing or drawing, by a quick manipulation
+of the points, the hook sliding laterally from its hold as the
+vehicles diverge on different lines. I designed some cast-steel
+coupler-buffers of this type lately for the Royal
+Engineers&rsquo; 30 in. gauge experimental field railway, near
+Chatham, which, though for reasons unconnected with their
+construction not adopted, are reported as the only ones of
+several types experimented with &lsquo;which fulfilled the
+necessary requirements. In the bogie stock the coupler-buffers
+are fitted to the bogie, and not to the car frame, on account of
+the severe curves. In the construction of the wagons and cars
+almost every part is made to gauge, and put together without
+fitting.</p>
+<p>The aim throughout has been to make the details of all the
+rolling-stock as simple, cheap, and efficient as possible, which
+has been principally achieved by adopting designs and modes of
+construction largely at variance with commonly accepted notions.
+The totally different conditions under which minimum-gauge lines
+work, as compared with ordinary railways, renders this possible
+without any sacrifice of safety or durability.</p>
+<p>In Section IV. mention was made of tip-wagons supplied as an
+experiment to the Eaton line. These consist of steel tubs, U
+shaped in section, hung at each end on two trunnions riding in
+cast-iron pedestals, the latter being bolted to an under-frame of
+channel steel fitted with cast iron ends rivetted in, and so
+formed as to carry a drawbar with rubber cushions, to the end of
+which the coupler-buffer is attached. These wagons cost &pound;20
+as against &pound;12 for the standard box wagon. They weigh
+11&frac12; cwts., and carry about this weight of coal, or a
+little more. Loaded with coal, they average a trifle under 24
+cwt., exactly the same as the box wagon, which weighs 7&frac12;
+cwt., and carries 16 to 17 cwt. of coal. Thus the paying loads of
+the two are as 3 to 4 for the same hauled weight. For short
+distances, where the emptying bears a greater proportional
+relation to the running time, or where the load must be got rid
+of in a particularly short space of time, tip-wagons may answer.
+For such purposes as my experience has had to deal with, they are
+a drawback, which, as I have previously pointed out, is increased
+by their inadaptability to the carriage of bulky goods. One of my
+strong contentions is that, on a small line, to avoid expense in
+rolling stock, every vehicle should be available for every
+purpose.</p>
+<h2><a name="page36"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 36</span><span
+class="GutSmall">VII.</span><br />
+THE DUFFIELD BANK WORKSHOPS.</h2>
+<p>A <span class="smcap">brief</span> account of my little works
+will be of some interest to engineers. I have already, in Section
+I., given an outline of my progress as a mechanic.</p>
+<p>I will now describe the machinery by which the locomotives,
+carriage and wagon stock, and permanent way fittings have been
+constructed.</p>
+<p>The machine-shop contains an 11 in. lathe for wheel turning,
+cylinder boring, and the heavier work; an 8 in. lathe for
+surfacing, sliding, and general work; a 7 in. lathe for
+screw-cutting and fine work; a 4 in. Pittler universal lathe,
+with a variety of automatic and other fittings, chiefly used for
+the smaller brass work, such as cocks, glands, lubricators,
+&amp;c.; a 3 in. sliding and screw-cutting lathe, for very light
+work; a planing machine to take work 4 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft
+6 in.; an 8 in. stroke double-table shaping machine, fitted for
+hollow and circular shaping, specially used for machining
+coupling rods, &amp;c.; a 4&frac12; in. shaping machine with
+circular motion, for light work; a milling machine; a 9 in.
+stroke slotting-machine with compound table, for heavy work; a
+2&frac12; in. spindle drilling and boring machine; a 1&frac34;
+in. drilling machine, for general work; a screwing and tapping
+machine, to 1&frac12; in. for bolts and to 2 in. for pipes; a
+cold-sawing machine, to cut iron up to 2&frac14; in. square; a
+slot drilling machine; a twist-drill grinding machine; two
+grindstones, three bench vices, and complete sets of screwing
+tackle and fitters&rsquo; tools.</p>
+<p>The smith&rsquo;s shop contains two fires, of which one is
+blown by a fan, and is suited for the heavier work; anvils for
+ordinary purposes and also for the treatment of angle iron,
+&amp;c.; a 2&frac12; cwt. gas hammer; a punching and shearing
+machine; a bench vice, and complete set of smiths&rsquo;
+tools.</p>
+<p>The erecting shop contains an overhead travelling crane; an
+engine pit; a 30-ton hydraulic press for putting axles into
+wheels, crank pins into cranks, testing samples, &amp;c.; a hand
+screwing and tapping machine to &frac34; in. for bolts and to 1
+in. for pipes; standards for fitting up frame-plates; a rivet
+heating forge; two bench vices, and tools for tube extracting and
+other special processes connected with the construction and
+repair of locomotives.</p>
+<p>The iron-foundry contains a 16 in. cupola worked through a
+double tuy&egrave;re by a &ldquo;Root&rsquo;s&rdquo; blower; an
+overhead travelling crane; a core stove; charge-weighing scales;
+a large supply of boxes for general purposes, and special ones
+for cylinders, <a name="page37"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+37</span>chilled-wheels, sleepers, gutters, &amp;c., with all
+ladles and other appliances suitable for producing castings up to
+half-a-ton weight. Especial pains have been taken to turn out
+chilled wheels (13&frac12; in. diameter), for the rolling stock,
+of perfect smoothness and of even depth of chill.</p>
+<p>The brass foundry contains a furnace, a metal moulding bench,
+and the usual fittings.</p>
+<p>The carriage shop has two lines of 15 in. gauge formed of cast
+plates bolted together and bedded in concrete, and contains a
+wood-morticing and boring machine; fitters and joiners&rsquo;
+vices, with every convenience for erecting, finishing, and
+painting two of the long 20 ft. bogie cars simultaneously, or
+eight of the standard wagons, according to requirements; all
+bulky joiners&rsquo; and carpenters&rsquo; work is also done in
+this shop.</p>
+<p>The pattern and joiners&rsquo; shop contains a 5 in.
+Holtzappfel lathe; and a small circular saw; 2 instantaneous-grip
+vices; saw tooth-setting machine; and a variety of other special
+appliances, in addition to a full set of joiners&rsquo;
+tools.</p>
+<p>The saw-shed contains a 30 in. circular saw bench; a band saw;
+a small general joiner; an 11 in. planing machine, and a small
+emery grinder.</p>
+<p>The engine house contains an 8 horse-power Otto gas-engine, of
+which the water circulation is effected by a small centrifugal
+pump.</p>
+<p>The drawing office is fitted up with the usual appliances, and
+is in telephonic communication with my house and two of the
+stations on the railway.</p>
+<p>The general stores comprise timber; foundry sand of various
+qualities; five kinds of pig iron; copper, spelter, tin, &amp;c.;
+bar, rod, and angle iron; wrought-iron tubing up to 2 in.; bolts,
+rivets, nuts, and pins; steam fittings of all kinds; every sort
+of requisite needed in the construction of small railways and
+rolling stock, and also for meeting house and farm
+requirements.</p>
+<p>The pattern store contains patterns for all the locomotive,
+carriage, wagon, signal, permanent way, and general experimental
+work; and for drain grates, gutters, &amp;c. which are supplied
+from Duffield for my other estates.</p>
+<p>The shops are lit by gas, and the 15 in. gauge line runs
+throughout. The construction, both in wood and iron, is done as
+far as possible to template, and every endeavour is made to turn
+out the very best work, which is perhaps the more easily attained
+in that there are no profits to be considered. At the same time
+it should be explained that the shops and machinery are,
+throughout, though good and sufficient for their purpose, in no
+way models of excellence. Their object is only to turn out the
+chiefly experimental work required, and the gradual additions
+that have been made during the twenty-five years of their
+existence have been done as cheaply as was consistent with
+efficiency.</p>
+<p><a name="page38"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 38</span>Outside
+the shops are a weigh-bridge for weighing rolling-stock and
+loads, and a six-ton crane to tranship heavy goods from drays to
+the 15 in. railway.</p>
+<p>Adjoining the workshops is the locomotive shed, with rails
+raised 30 in. above the floor, so as to get more easily at the
+lower parts of these small engines. It is arranged for two
+locomotives, and is fitted with an air jet for raising steam, and
+with a water supply.</p>
+<p>The carriage and wagon stock is, for the most part, housed in
+three sheds at various stations on the main part of the railway,
+80 ft. above the workshops.</p>
+<h2><span class="GutSmall">VIII.</span><br />
+SCIENTIFIC CONSIDERATIONS.</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> present section contains the
+result of experiments and experience on points which, for the
+most part, are of interest only to those who study the scientific
+side of railway work. I here take the opportunity of placing on
+record various considerations, more or less connected with the
+subject of narrow-gauge railways, of too technical a nature to be
+mixed up with the descriptive pages. This explanation will
+account for the somewhat disjointed nature of the statements
+which follow.</p>
+<p>The fact that narrow gauge locomotives are usually required to
+surmount much steeper gradients than are generally to be found on
+standard railways, makes adhesion a question of the first
+importance. It is very generally supposed that the co-efficient
+of adhesion between a wheel and a rail is a constant fraction of
+the insistent weight, varying slightly with the molecular
+structure of the metals in contact. There is, however, reason to
+believe that it decreases considerably with an increase of
+weight. In locomotives of the standard gauge, with from 12 to 18
+tons per driven axle, it is generally held that a co-efficient of
+adhesion of one-sixth is all that can be counted on with
+certainty. From a number of experiments on the Festiniog Railway,
+with the results of which the late Mr. Spooner, who himself
+supported the theory, was good enough to supply me, I found that
+the load there per driven axle was five tons, the co-efficient
+averaging about one-fifth. Again, with my small engines that have
+a load on each axle of from 1.2 to 1.6 tons, the calculated
+co-efficient is two-ninths, in support of which I give the
+following experiment, conducted in the <a name="page39"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 39</span>presence of two gentlemen belonging
+to a firm of locomotive builders, when it was under consideration
+to build for military purposes some engines on the plan of the
+No. 2 described in Section V.</p>
+<p>I guaranteed that the locomotive referred to should take a
+load equal to its own weight up a gradient of 1 in 10 a quarter
+of a mile long, which then was, in parts, as steep as 1 in 9,
+with a short curve of half-a-chain radius at the severest part.
+This was satisfactorily accomplished. The day being dry, I was
+requested to ascertain what was the maximum load that could be
+hauled. On reaching four tons, when the start had to be made on a
+less gradient, the engine barely struggled up, and this was
+evidently all it could do. When full up with coal and water it
+weighed at that time 3 tons 6 cwt. During the experiment,
+however, there were but 3 tons 2 cwt. on the three axles, all of
+which were coupled. The boiler pressure was 145 lbs. exactly,
+and, the gross weight of engine and train being 7 tons 2 cwt.,
+the gravity resistance on the gradient of 1 in 10 was equal to
+14.2 cwt. The weight of 3 tons 2 cwt. available for adhesion,
+reduced by a tenth part, which the gradient converts into gravity
+resistance, was equal to 56 cwt. Thus, without reckoning the
+curve friction of the whole train and the journal friction of the
+wagons, both uncertain quantities, the proportion of developed
+tractive power to load was as 1 to 3.9. This result confirms the
+probability of the truth of the above assertion. Assuming its
+correctness, which appears beyond doubt, what is the explanation
+of increased proportionate adhesion with a decreased weight on
+the driven axles?&nbsp; The reduced diameter of wheel in the
+smaller engines might seem to offer a solution of the problem.
+Experience, however, goes to prove that, if there is any
+difference, a larger wheel has, with equal insistent weights, a
+better grip of the rail than a small one. I am of opinion that
+the weight is directly responsible for the difference. A wheel
+rests upon a rail on one point, or possibly on a transverse line
+of which the length is equal to the width of the rail. With a
+small insistent weight the molecules of the wheel and rail
+interlock without injury, and adhesion, on the principle of an
+infinitesimal rack and pinion, is the result. As the weight is
+increased on the fine bearing area, the molecules become
+disturbed, and fail to offer so firm a fulcrum. Ultimately they
+become displaced, and move as rollers between the two surfaces,
+materially reducing the adhesion. If this theory be the correct
+one, as is not improbable, the graduated reduction in the
+adhesion would be accounted for.</p>
+<p>That the rolling wheel and rail do actually interlock was
+demonstrated by Sir Douglas Galton in his experiments on the
+retarding power of brakes, when he pointed out that, on a wheel
+becoming skidded, the rack and pinion motion was converted into a
+series of jumps of the wheel across the microscopic teeth of the
+rack, with <a name="page40"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+40</span>a consequent reduction in adhesion proportionate to the
+sliding speed. In confirmation of this statement I detailed,
+during the meeting of the British Association at Sheffield, an
+experiment I made by reversing a locomotive so as to skid the
+wheels, and ultimately to cause them to revolve in a contrary
+direction, while descending an incline. With skidded wheels the
+descent was at a certain speed with backward revolution of the
+wheels the speed increased rapidly, the effect of the reversal
+being to cause the wheel to slip over the rail at a speed greater
+than that at which the engine was moving, thus showing that Sir
+Douglas Galton&rsquo;s theory of the adhesion diminishing in
+proportion to the extent of departure from the interlocking or
+rolling motion of the wheel on the rail remained consistent even
+beyond sliding contact, and disposing of the old theory that the
+loss of adhesion with a skidded wheel was due to the creation of
+a polished point of contact on the wheel.</p>
+<p>Another somewhat curious point in connection with adhesion is
+the slip of the driving wheels, which is naturally in the
+direction of causing a greater number of revolutions of the
+wheels than would be due to the length of rail travelled over.
+Occasionally, however, I have, in experimenting, noticed that
+fewer revolutions are made than would suffice to travel the
+distance as measured on a centre line between the rails. That is,
+the wheels slipped forward instead of back. This freak is
+probably due to the outer wheel on a curve slipping forward when,
+owing to considerable superelevation and a low speed, the inner
+wheel is the more heavily weighted, the distance then travelled
+being the reduced length of the inner rail.</p>
+<p>I now proceed to explain the basis of calculation of the net
+loads hauled on various gradients, as appended to particulars of
+each locomotive described in Section V. The resistance on the
+level consists of journal friction, tire friction, and locomotive
+internal friction. Tire friction is practically nil, except on
+curves and in strong side winds. Journal friction I find, in the
+case of my small rolling stock, to be covered by an allowance of
+10 lbs. per ton. Owing to the numerous curves another 10 lbs. per
+ton must be added to cover tire friction. A tractive power of 20
+lbs. per ton proves quite sufficient to keep the train in motion
+on the level. It is not, however, enough to start the train on a
+curve, nor to overcome the inertia due to journal friction when,
+as on an incline, there is no slack between the wagons, and the
+whole train must be started at once. After considerable
+experience I find it necessary to add a further 20 lbs. per ton
+to the required tractive power. A total of 40 lbs. per ton is
+thus allowed as a good working equivalent of the frictional
+resistance of the train.</p>
+<p>The friction of the locomotive is a much more complicated
+question. There <a name="page41"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+41</span>seems very little information available on this point.
+It has been said, in the case of full sized engines, to absorb
+thirty per cent. of the tractive power, but this is a vague
+estimate, out of all reason excessive, unless it be intended to
+include gravity resistance on a steep incline. It is desirable to
+consider the nature of the various causes of resistance to motion
+separately. Viewed as a carriage only, the journal and tire
+friction of the locomotive may be taken at the same amount per
+ton of its weight as in the case of the trains, namely, 40 lbs.
+The additional resistance due to friction of the moving parts of
+the mechanism cannot be calculated as a constant. If the engine
+is developing but a small portion of its power, the amount will
+be small; when loaded to its full capacity there will be a large
+increase of internal resistance, varying, however, in proportion
+to the accuracy with which it is put together, and the stiffness
+of the framing.</p>
+<p>Such experiments as I have made show clearly that, when
+exerting approximately its full power, the total frictional
+resistance of the engine does not exceed 100 lbs. per ton, and
+when running light is much less, but in what proportion less I
+have as yet failed to ascertain satisfactorily. Of this 100 lbs.
+per ton, from 20 to 40 lbs. is due to journal and tire friction,
+leaving from 60 lbs. to 80 lbs. per ton as the deduction for
+internal friction.</p>
+<p>I thus conclude that an allowance of 40 lbs. per ton for train
+resistance, and 100 lbs. per ton for engine resistance, is a
+basis for calculating the tractive power required on the level
+that is sufficient under all possible narrow-gauge conditions. In
+the case of gradients there must, of course, be added the gravity
+resistance of the engine and train, which is, on a gradient of 1
+in 100, one-100th of the gross weight; on a gradient of 1 in 50,
+one-50th, and so on.</p>
+<p>In calculating the tractive power of the engine, the effective
+pressure in the cylinders may be reckoned at fully nine-tenths of
+the boiler pressure, on account of the low piston speed.</p>
+<p>The above particulars are not to be taken as representative of
+what can be got out of a narrow-gauge engine in a few isolated
+experiments only, but of what is well within the compass of daily
+work.</p>
+<h2><a name="page42"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 42</span><span
+class="GutSmall">IX.</span><br />
+REMARKS ON NARROW GAUGE RAILWAYS.</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">Up</span> to this point I have merely
+detailed the particulars of the construction of my experimental
+railway and of the line at Eaton, giving at the same time the
+reasons that have led me to adopt certain methods and designs. I
+now propose, in conclusion, to offer a few remarks upon the
+application, in this country and abroad, of small railways of 2
+ft. gauge and under to do work at present done by means of horses
+and carts.</p>
+<p>The cases in which such lines can be profitably applied may be
+classed under two heads; the one, where, in a country possessing
+ports or a system of railways, large establishments, private,
+public, or industrial, might be connected therewith by a narrow
+gauge line so as to reduce the cost of transport below that which
+has to be paid for haulage by animal power on roads; the other,
+when no roads worthy of the name are available, and the choice is
+a light railway or nothing. The chief condition of success in
+both cases is a sufficient traffic between two or more definite
+points. Military railways, however, must be regarded from a
+somewhat different standpoint, as the object here is to supply a
+movable centre as expeditiously as possible with the vast
+commissariat requirements of an army rather than to study
+economy. It is not my intention to enter into the pros and cons
+of small railways for war purposes. Suffice it to say that some
+countries are ahead of us in the matter, which is one that has,
+in England, been allowed to drop rather into the background.</p>
+<p>Returning to the consideration of cases where a fairly large
+traffic has to be delivered to a port or railway system, the
+first question that arises is that of transhipment. Material of
+any kind can be as effectively delivered on ship-board by narrow
+gauge railway wagons as by horses and carts, if not better. In
+reckoning up the cost of transhipment from small wagons on to a
+railway system&mdash;no great matter with proper
+appliances&mdash;it must not be lost sight of that, even if a
+branch of standard gauge were constructed to many establishments,
+the large wagons cannot, as a rule, be got up to the point where
+the material lies, and a preliminary transference in barrows or
+carts is necessary. With the little wagons it is usually possible
+to get right up to the place and to load direct, in which case
+there is clearly no additional expense incurred. It is, further,
+often forgotten <a name="page43"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+43</span>that there is on the standard railways endless
+transhipment for the sake of economical transport, in no way
+connected with a break of gauge.</p>
+<p>Again, a small line can be carried round curves, up gradients,
+and through confined premises, where a wider line would be
+inadmissible. In many places the unsightliness of the standard
+gauge would be objected to, nor can such a line be made very
+light if it has to carry, as it must, the 7 or 8 tons per axle of
+a full sized coal wagon (see Appendix A).</p>
+<p>The narrow gauge has also the advantage in first cost, and by
+bringing the small wagons on to a level with the floors of the
+large ones, or, in the case of minerals, by erecting a simple
+shoot, the transhipment difficulty may be reduced to a
+minimum.</p>
+<p>It is not well to have gradients steeper than 1 in 40 where
+avoidable, as difficulty will be experienced in slippery weather;
+but it is quite possible with suitable engines to work inclines
+of moderate length, as steep as 1 in 12. The diminution of the
+power of the locomotive on gradients is also a matter for
+consideration, the importance of which will be clear when it is
+stated that if an engine will haul, as it should, in addition to
+itself, ten times its own weight on the level, it will haul,
+speaking roughly, only four times its weight up 1 in 50, twice
+its weight up 1 in 25, and once its weight up 1 in 12. More work
+can be done if adhesion does not fail, but the above is an
+approximate working average.</p>
+<p>The speed on small lines is not generally a matter of much
+moment, owing to their usually moderate length. A locomotive that
+is sufficiently powerful to start a given load, will without
+difficulty get it along at from 8 to 10 miles an hour. It has
+occurred to me that a very fair approximation to the reasonable
+running speed of which any gauge is capable is to be found in
+estimating that the speed of passenger trains is equal to as many
+miles per hour as the gauge is inches wide, and, for goods
+trains, to half that amount.</p>
+<p>The permanent way should be made a thoroughly sound job, as it
+will then cost but little for repairs. Particulars of what is
+recommended will be found in Sections III. and IV. I am no
+advocate of portable railways, which may be well enough for hand
+trains, or even for horse traction, but a locomotive requires a
+solid and clean road if it is to work to advantage.</p>
+<p>It is often possible to carry a narrow gauge railway by the
+roadside or, as at Eaton, over pasture lands without the
+necessity of fencing the line in. Fences can be crossed as
+described in Sections III. and IV., so long as arable land is
+avoided. Where the route is not wholly the property of the
+projector of the railway, the requisite way-leave may frequently
+be leased by paying an annual acknowledgment of from 3d. to 6d.
+per yard run.</p>
+<p><a name="page44"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 44</span>It now
+remains to show what traffic is required in order that a line of
+this description may repay the outlay upon it. This may best be
+effected by drawing a comparison between the cost of locomotive
+traction on rails and horse traction on roads. The cost of
+loading and unloading will not be included, as these are the same
+in both cases. (See also Section IV.)</p>
+<p>Taking the minimum distance apart of two points, between which
+haulage may be supposed to be required, as one mile, the smallest
+and cheapest gauge as 15 in., and allowing 2,000 yds. to the mile
+so as to include the necessary sidings, the cost of the line will
+be as follows:&mdash;</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p>2,000 yds. of 16 lbs. steel rails, cast-iron sleepers,
+ballast, and laying</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;650</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Fence bridges, field crossings, fencing, and other
+structural works; but exclusive of river bridges, tunnels, or
+other costly requirements</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;200</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Earthwork, if an approximately surface line ... say</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;250</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>One 4&frac12; in. cylinder four-wheeled locomotive</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;400</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>12 wagons to hold 1 cube yd., at &pound;12 each</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;144</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Extras ... say</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;156</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">Cost of 1 mile of line, equipped
+complete</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;1,800</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>If laid with pitch pine sleepers a reduction of about
+&pound;100 per mile would be effected, the cost of renewal being
+correspondingly increased.</p>
+<p>The engine would be capable of hauling a gross load, exclusive
+of its own weight, of 12 tons up a gradient of 1 in 50, which may
+be taken as a fair ruling gradient for a surface line. This would
+be equal to an average paying load of about 8 tons; so that,
+supposing the engine to make one trip per hour, about 60 tons
+would be moved per day; although, with a double set of wagons and
+men, 100 tons would easily be handled.</p>
+<p>If the engine worked two days a week, or say 100 days per
+annum, it would have hauled 6,000 tons one mile in the year. A
+less load hauled on the return journeys need not be taken into
+account, as this would make no difference in the comparison, such
+work being practically done without extra cost in both cases.</p>
+<p>The cost of the line per annum would be as follows:&mdash;</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Interest on &pound;1,800 at 4 per cent.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;72</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Driver and boy, who would keep the rolling stock and line
+in order</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;100</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Fuel, oil, stores, and sundries, at 5s. per day</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;25</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Renewal of permanent way and rolling stock at 15 years
+life on &pound;1,200</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;80</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Cost of moving 6,000 tons one mile</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&pound;277</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><a name="page45"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 45</span>This is
+equal to about 11d. per ton. Now the same haulage by horses and
+carts in Great Britain would usually cost about 1s. 3d. per ton,
+and in this case there is the advantage of being able to haul, if
+necessary, in other directions if required, which would somewhat
+reduce the financial advantage of the railway, but still leave it
+a distinct superiority.</p>
+<p>It is probable that a traffic of 5,000 tons annually over a
+mile of line is the smallest amount that would repay the
+construction of a narrow gauge railway, for the estimate has been
+based upon the narrowest line which can profitably be employed.
+If the line were longer, the balance in its favour would be
+greater. This would also be the case if the traffic were greater,
+and with the maximum amount which the line, using only one, but a
+larger engine, could accommodate, say 40,000 tons, the concern
+would be very profitable, for the extra charge for renewals would
+not be heavy, and the cost per ton carried would be reduced to
+about 5d. or 6d.</p>
+<p>No allowance has been made for way leaves or purchase of land.
+Should there be outlay under these heads, the cost of transport
+would be increased accordingly.</p>
+<p>In concluding these comparisons, in which it may be thought
+that the railway is shown in a less attractive light than might
+have been expected from an enthusiast, I may explain that I am no
+advocate of ill considered schemes, planned without proper
+knowledge, cheaply constructed, and carelessly worked. My figures
+represent thoroughly sound and serviceable plant, kept in good
+repair. If it is not worth while to go to such expense, then it
+is not worth while to construct a railway at all. I have been
+fortunate enough to work my line for twenty years without the
+slightest injury to a single person of the many thousands that
+have been carried as invited guests for pleasure, as visitors
+interested in my experiments, or as workmen on the premises. None
+of the rolling stock has sustained more than the most trivial
+damage; and derailments, beyond an occasional mishap in shunting,
+are unknown. The working of the Eaton line has been equally
+satisfactory. This immunity from accident I attribute entirely to
+proper care having been taken to construct every part, not only
+of the best materials and workmanship, but also with a careful
+eye to the fitness of each detail for the purpose it has to
+serve.</p>
+<p>That there are many openings for lines of 2 ft. gauge and
+under, is beyond dispute. But while, already, this mode of
+transport is largely made use of abroad and in our colonies, a
+deeply rooted prejudice has hitherto prevented it from gaining a
+footing in England and Scotland.</p>
+<p>Admirable articles pointing out the advantages of light
+railways have appeared from time to time in the daily press with
+little or no effect. It is one of the <a name="page46"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 46</span>strangest anomalies in the progress
+of civilisation in this country that Great Britain almost wholly
+refused till lately to countenance such lines. The reasons for
+this obstinacy are not readily discoverable. Probably the innate
+conservatism of every Englishman&mdash;for there exists here no
+such thing as liberalism out of the region of politics&mdash;has
+been the principal factor in determining this course of
+inaction.</p>
+<p>Even now that the Light Railway Act has passed, there is
+little or no movement in the direction of making small lines such
+as I refer to, and not much in respect of larger ones. Whether,
+in the future, private individuals will, in their own interest
+and in that of their neighbours and dependents, lay out money in
+this way, it is impossible to foresee. But undoubtedly there are
+many openings for such installations, particularly on large
+estates, where the possession of the land gives the owner a free
+hand.</p>
+<h2><span class="GutSmall">X.</span><br />
+APPENDIX</h2>
+<h3>A</h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> following letter, which
+appeared in <i>The Times</i> two years ago, is here reprinted as
+bearing on various points connected with narrow-gauge railways.
+Special attention is directed to what is advanced under the third
+head.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>LIGHT RAILWAYS.</b><br />
+<i>TO THE EDITOR OF</i> &ldquo;<i>THE TIMES</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Sir,&mdash;The movement in favour of secondary railways has
+evoked from your numerous correspondents widely divergent views.
+This want of accord is more apparent than real, and it would
+facilitate the proceedings of the approaching conference <a
+name="citation46"></a><a href="#footnote46"
+class="citation">[46]</a> if conflicting opinions could be
+partially reconciled beforehand.</p>
+<p>The causes to which these differences are due may be
+summarized under three heads:&mdash;</p>
+<p>1. The absence of a defined terminology of the distinctive
+kinds of railways.</p>
+<p><a name="page47"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 47</span>2. The
+failure to appreciate that a scheme which is good for one
+locality is not of necessity the best for all.</p>
+<p>3. The apparently meagre acquaintance on the part of those who
+state their views with the practical working of any but the
+standard railways of the country.</p>
+<p>Under the first head, some confusion has arisen in consequence
+of the application of the term &ldquo;light railway&rdquo; now to
+lines of the standard gauge only, and again to narrow-gauge lines
+also. Similarly with other expressions. It may be pointed out
+that the term &ldquo;light railway&rdquo; is properly applicable
+and should be confined to a line of standard gauge, of which the
+entire construction is lighter, cheaper, and simpler than is
+obligatory where weighty engines, heavy traffic, and high speeds
+are dealt with. Any line of less than the standard, gauge is
+correctly described as a &ldquo;narrow-gauge railway,&rdquo; and
+such lines, when not of a permanent character, come under the
+title, simply, of &ldquo;portable railways,&rdquo; for these are
+invaribly of less than the normal width. The term
+&ldquo;tramway&rdquo; should be restricted to its modern meaning
+of a line laid in the metalled or paved surface of a road or
+street. Finally, the not unfamiliar appellation of
+&ldquo;secondary railways&rdquo; might be fitly adopted as
+generally descriptive of all lines not amenable to the standard
+railway regulations of the Board of Trade. It would be well that
+the conference should pronounce on these points.</p>
+<p>In regard to the second head, needless controversy is
+engendered by attempting to assume that, because a light railway
+is right here, therefore a narrow-gauge railway is wrong there,
+or vice versa. In estimating the transport requirements of any
+particular locality, if connection is to be made with the railway
+system, the applicability of a light railway, as above defined,
+should first be considered. By its adoption the use of existing
+rolling-stock is secured, transhipment is avoided, and the line
+can be subsequently and without difficulty transformed, if
+necessary, into a railway of standard
+construction&mdash;advantages for which much may be sacrificed.
+But as it would be almost invariably essential to build a light
+railway of sufficient strength to carry the 15 tons gross weight
+of a standard coal wagon, the permanent way would be of a
+somewhat costly character, and, in the case of severe gradients,
+considerable difficulty would arise in providing suitable
+locomotive power.</p>
+<p>Where the impediments in the way of a light railway branch are
+insuperable, or where the proposed line has no connexion with the
+railway system, the advantages of a narrow-gauge railway may
+properly be weighed&mdash;such as the smaller width occupied, the
+sharper curves admissible, the lighter, cheaper, and more
+easily-handled permanent way and rolling-stock, the absence of
+much of the unsightliness of a line of standard gauge, the ease
+with which, in the ease of gauges under 2 ft., the rails can be
+laid among and into existing buildings, and, lastly, the
+convenience of being <a name="page48"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 48</span>able to load and unload small wagons
+at the exact point required without the intervention of carts or
+barrows.</p>
+<p>In regard to the third head, it may be noticed as a curious
+fact, that the strong and commendable predilections of English
+engineers for the standard gauge, whenever obtainable, appear to
+lead them, where circumstances compel the adoption of a narrower
+one, to advocate as little reduction as possible. Now, the
+general result of foreign experience goes strongly to show that
+narrow gauges exceeding 30 in. approximate so closely to a
+full-size line as to forfeit, to a considerable extent, the
+advantages of either system. This attitude is probably due to
+ignorance of what can be done on the narrowest gauges, for, in
+spite of the fact that many hundreds of miles of lines of less
+than 2 ft. gauge are at work abroad, our professional advisers
+persist in regarding such railways as mere toys. Yet a line of 15
+in. gauge has been at work in this country for twenty years, on
+which thousands of passengers have been carried without a single
+accident, as many as 120 in one train, over gradients as steep as
+1 in 20, the goods traffic being worked in all weathers up a long
+gradient of 1 in 11 without difficulty. <a
+name="citation48"></a><a href="#footnote48"
+class="citation">[48]</a></p>
+<p>It would be well that our railway engineers should inform
+themselves more fully on the subject, as otherwise their valuable
+assistance, which would insure that narrow-gauge railways were
+constructed in a solid and reliable manner, will be thrust on one
+side by the requirements of the times, and the work will be
+wholly in the hands of the many manufacturers of narrow-gauge
+plant, whose designs, being chiefly of what is known as the
+portable class, are, for the most part, ill adapted for permanent
+locomotive traffic. If so, it is likely that, in the push that
+may very possibly be presently made for secondary railways, the
+results will not be so satisfactory as would be the case if the
+work were carried out under the direction of professional
+advisers.</p>
+<p>Under the same head, attention may be directed to the fact
+that it is entirely unnecessary to urge the adoption of a
+standard narrow gauge. The circumstances of each case will decide
+the most suitable gauge, and it is only where there is a
+possibility, as in the North Wales district, of a wide
+ramification of connected narrow-gauge lines that the adoption of
+a particular standard is of any importance.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">I am, Sir, your obedient
+servant,</p>
+<p style="text-align: right">ARTHUR PERCIVAL HEYWOOD.</p>
+<h3><a name="page49"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+49</span>B.</h3>
+<p>The annexed letter, published in The Times about two years
+ago, deals with possible difficulties to be met with by those who
+make a private line of railway. I brought to bear all the
+influence I could to obtain the insertion of a clause in the Act
+which would meet the &ldquo;public road crossing&rdquo;
+difficulty, but without success. The course which I took in the
+case of the Eaton Railway here detailed may be of service.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>PRIVATE LIGHT RAILWAYS</b>.<br
+/>
+<i>TO THE EDITOR OF</i> &ldquo;<i>THE TIMES</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Sir,&mdash;May I, through your columns, draw attention to a
+class of light railway which does not apparently come within the
+purview of the Bill now before Parliament&mdash;that of lines
+constructed by private individuals or firms for their own
+purposes? These will usually confer advantage upon the district
+in which they may be situate by relieving the roads of a more or
+less heavy traffic, and in some cases by offering facilities of
+transport to a section of the neighbourhood.</p>
+<p>In a proposed route two difficulties may arise. In the first
+place, land not in possession of the projector may have to be
+invaded, and way-leaves obtained by a judicious tact in selecting
+the ground and in approaching the owners, since private interest
+is properly debarred from invoking compulsory powers. This
+problem, then, may frequently be satisfactorily solved. The
+second and more common impediment is the crossing or skirting of
+highways, and it is to this point that my letter is specially
+directed. The county and district councils are usually ready in
+their own interest to permit a private line to cross a road on
+the level&mdash;an over or under bridge is almost invariably
+impossible by reason of the expense&mdash;or to make use for a
+short distance of waste space by the road side. But&mdash;and
+here is the crux&mdash;no permanent agreement is obtainable,
+because councils have apparently no power to bind their
+successors in office, and without such guarantee the projector is
+naturally unwilling to risk his capital when the possible
+rescinding of the concession would render his entire outlay
+abortive.</p>
+<p>The Light Railway Bill contains, apparently, no provision
+under which this disability can be remedied, for it is improbable
+that the Commissioners would take action in respect of a private
+concern. The above difficulty was lately met with in the
+construction of a private narrow-gauge line for the Duke of
+Westminster, which crosses a main road. The matter was ultimately
+compromised by the insertion of a clause in the agreement to the
+effect that, should the county council give notice to discontinue
+the crossing, the Duke should be entitled to appeal to the Board
+<a name="page50"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 50</span>of Trade
+for arbitration. There is, however, no assurance that the Board
+would consent to appoint an arbitrator if called upon, but it is
+very certain that if a provision legalizing such an appeal could
+be incorporated in the Bill a serious hardship would be thereby
+removed, and some encouragement given to private persons to
+embark capital in enterprises of the kind.</p>
+<p>As a case in point, and doubtless there are plenty of others,
+a quarry owner of my acquaintance is at the present time
+conveying some 80,000 tons of stone annually by means of
+traction-engines from his works to the railway along 2&frac12;
+miles of highway. The road authorities, levying &pound;400 a year
+for extraordinary traffic, are utterly incapable of coping with
+the destructive action of the heavy loads, and the roads are in a
+state of disintegration that baffles description. The proprietor
+of the quarry would at once set about making a narrow-gauge line
+at his own expense, with the cordial good-will of the county and
+district councils and his neighbours generally, could he only
+obtain some guarantee that the permission to cross and, in some
+parts, run alongside the road, which to-day would be gratefully
+accorded, would not be suddenly revoked at a future date.</p>
+<p>Perhaps those in charge of the Bill will see their way to give
+this point their consideration.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">I am, Sir, your obedient
+servant,</p>
+<p style="text-align: right">ARTHUR PERCIVAL HEYWOOD.</p>
+
+<div class="gapmediumline">&nbsp;</div>
+<p style="text-align: center">FROM A MANCHESTER PAPER.</p>
+<p>According to a correspondent in yesterday&rsquo;s <i>Times</i>
+projectors of private light railways have hitherto been very
+chary of risking their capital owing to the precarious nature of
+their running powers. In nine cases out of ten the light railway
+proposes to cross or skirt the highways at certain points, and
+the permission which may be given by one district council in such
+cases is revocable by the next. This must be so inevitably, for
+circumstances might well arise under which a level crossing, for
+instance, would become a public danger. The difficulty might well
+be met by an appeal to arbitration in all cases of proposed
+revocation of the running powers; and if the Board of Trade were
+to undertake to nominate the arbitrator, the projector ought to
+have no reasonable ground for timidity. The present Bill can only
+be regarded as proposing to set an example and provide occasional
+assistance to the construction of light railways. Seeing,
+therefore, that its chief result, if successful, will be to
+encourage a more extensive construction of railways, it is
+important that all obstacles in the way of private enterprise in
+this direction should be at once removed. The <i>Times</i>
+correspondent suggests that the insertion of a clause providing
+for arbitration in all cases of dispute with the highway
+authorities would meet the difficulty.</p>
+<h3><a name="page51"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+51</span>C.</h3>
+<p>The regulations given below, which I drew up for use on the
+Eaton line, and which have worked very well for two years, may,
+to some, be of interest.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>EATON RAILWAY</b>.</p>
+<h4>GENERAL REGULATIONS.</h4>
+<p>1. All persons connected with the Railway shall be held
+responsible for making themselves acquainted with such of the
+regulations as apply to them, and for acting in accordance
+therewith.</p>
+<p>2. All workmen on the Estate shall be liable to such fines for
+infraction of the Railway Regulations as are herein set forth,
+and as the Estate Office may see fit further to order.</p>
+<p>3. All men employed on the Railway Staff shall promptly report
+any infraction of the Regulations which may come under their
+notice, or they shall be themselves liable to any penalty which
+may attach to such offence.</p>
+<p>4. All workmen on the Estate are particularly requested to
+remove any impediment, such as sticks or stones, which they may
+see on the line; and in case of any serious block, such as a tree
+fallen across the rails, to give prompt notice to one of the
+Railway Staff.</p>
+<p>5. No wagon or car shall (under a penalty of 1s.) be moved by
+hand on to or along the main line, except by special arrangement
+with the engine-driver; and the term &ldquo;main line&rdquo;
+shall be understood to include every part of the railway not
+being a siding or within a terminal yard.</p>
+<p>6. Hand shunting of vehicles on sidings shall be done
+carefully, so as to avoid injury to the rolling stock; but no
+vehicle shall be moved at all except by an authorised person.</p>
+<p>7. No vehicle shall (under a penalty of 1s.) be left in such a
+position on a siding as to interfere with the free passage of
+other vehicles along adjoining rails.</p>
+<p>8. If it is necessary to throw over time weight of any
+point-lever, this shall be done gently, and the weight shall
+always be returned as soon as possible to the position in which
+the white bar thereon is uppermost. Point levers of which the
+weights are pinned in one direction, shall not (under a penalty
+of 1s.) have the locking pins tampered with.</p>
+<p><a name="page52"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 52</span>9. No
+material of any kind whatever shall (under a penalty of 1s.) be
+deposited within a distance of two feet from the rail on any part
+of the main line or sidings.</p>
+<p>10. No heavy weight shall be dropped upon the rails or
+sleepers, and no carts shall cross any part of the line except
+where a proper crossing of double rails is provided. But in the
+terminal yards light loads may cross the rails where the ballast
+is for that purpose made level with the top of the metals. Any
+unintentional damage to rolling stock or the line shall be at
+once reported to the engine-driver or foreman platelayer.</p>
+<p>11. No unauthorised person shall ride on any part of the
+train, and those having permission shall, whenever possible,
+travel in vehicles provided with seats.</p>
+<p>12. It is desired that all workmen on the Estate should
+understand that there exists the same liability to accident on a
+narrow-gauge line as on one of full size, and that it is only by
+a similar careful observance of proper regulations that serious
+mishaps will be avoided.</p>
+<h4>REGULATIONS FOR YARDMEN.</h4>
+<p>13. Yardmen shall carefully observe the General Regulations
+for the safe conduct of traffic comprised in Rules 1 to 12
+inclusive.</p>
+<p>14. The yardman at each terminus shall clean and oil all
+points in or near his yard at least once a week, and keep them
+perfectly free from grit, leaves, etc.</p>
+<p>15. In frost or snow the points shall receive daily attention,
+and great care shall be taken in releasing frozen switches not to
+strain them. Salt for this purpose, shall, on account of its
+injurious effect on the rails, be used only as a last
+resource.</p>
+<p>16. Yardmen shall take care that the loads on wagons are
+securely placed, evenly balanced, and not in excess of the
+specified weight.</p>
+<p>17. Lengthy articles shall be loaded on a sufficient number of
+wagons to ensure that the ends thereof do not catch against other
+wagons.</p>
+<p>18. All vehicles shall be loaded to the satisfaction of the
+engine-driver.</p>
+<p>19. Yardmen shall give the earliest possible intimation to the
+engine-driver of the nature and quantity of the material
+requiring transport from their respective yards, that he may
+provide the necessary wagons at the proper time.</p>
+<p>20. Yardmen shall take care that the wagons and cars are not
+roughly handled, and shall see that heavy lumps of coal or other
+material are not thrown carelessly on to the wagon bottoms.</p>
+<p>21. The yardman at Balderton shall be responsible for the
+washing of all wagons when necessary, and the yardman at Eaton
+shall similarly see to all the bogie cars. Care shall be taken in
+washing that no water is allowed to run into the axle boxes.</p>
+<p><a name="page53"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 53</span>22.
+Yardmen shall use their best endeavours to get the rolling stock
+in their respective yards promptly unloaded, and also put under
+cover at night and in wet weather.</p>
+<h4>REGULATIONS FOR PLATELAYERS.</h4>
+<p>23. Platelayers shall carefully observe the General
+Regulations for the safe conduct of traffic comprised in Rules 1
+to 12 inclusive.</p>
+<p>24. The foreman platelayer shall be responsible for keeping
+the whole of the permanent way, bridges, cattle stops, banks,
+road crossings, etc., in proper repair.</p>
+<p>25. He shall see that every set of points on the line is kept
+in good working order, but he shall only be responsible for the
+oiling and cleaning (as under Rules 14 and 15) of such points as
+are not under charge of a yardman. He shall report to the
+engine-driver any set of points not under his personal charge
+which he finds neglected, as also any defect which he is himself
+unable to repair.</p>
+<p>26. He shall keep clear all road and field crossing grooves,
+and shall at once acquaint the engine-driver when repair to the
+surface of any road crossing is necessary.</p>
+<p>27. At least once a week he shall walk over the whole length
+of the main line and sidings, observing carefully that the keys,
+bridge bolts, fish bolts, and sleepers are in order.</p>
+<p>28. He shall, at the same time note, and as soon as possible
+rectify, all loose sleepers, crooked rails, and defective
+superelevation.</p>
+<p>29. He shall pay particular attention to the prompt repair of
+all parts of the line marked by the engine-driver as defective,
+but, independently of such notice, he shall be responsible for
+detecting defective places.</p>
+<p>30. In regard to any special repairs, or other emergencies of
+the traffic, he shall be under the direction and obey the
+instructions of the engine-driver.</p>
+<p>31. When any part of the line is under repair, care shall be
+taken that the surface of the rails is kept clear of ballast
+grit, and that the free passage of trains is in no way
+obstructed.</p>
+<p>32. When it is necessary to remove a sleeper, a red flag shall
+be set up between the rails in such a position that the
+engine-driver can discern it from a distance of at least 150
+yards in each direction. Such flag shall remain until the line is
+made good. On no account shall the engine or a loaded wagon pass
+over any rail from which a sleeper is removed.</p>
+<p>33. If from any cause it is necessary to remove a rail, or
+otherwise block the line, the foreman platelayer shall previously
+notify the engine-driver, and arrange with him a convenient time
+for the work to be done; and without such notification <a
+name="page54"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 54</span>the line
+shall under no circumstances whatever be so blocked. A red flag
+(as directed under Rule 32) shall remain exhibited until the line
+is clear.</p>
+<p>34. No platelayer other than the foreman shall be authorised
+to undertake any work interfering with the free passage of
+trains.</p>
+<p>35. If, for ballasting or other purposes, wagons are left by
+the engine-driver at any point on the main line, such wagons
+shall on no account be subsequently moved by hand to any other
+point on the main line, except by special arrangement with the
+engine-driver.</p>
+<p>36. The platelayer&rsquo;s trolley shall under no
+circumstances be left standing on the main line and when not in
+use, or unattended, the trolley shall always be put at a safe
+distance from the line, with the wheels padlocked.</p>
+<p>37. The foreman platelayer shall report to the engine-driver
+any case of material found deposited within two feet of the rail,
+and likewise any other infraction of Regulations which may come
+to his notice.</p>
+<h4>REGULATIONS FOR ENGINE-DRIVER.</h4>
+<p>38. The engine-driver shall be responsible for the efficient
+working of the line, and shall use the utmost promptitude in
+dealing with the traffic as notified to him by the yardmen.</p>
+<p>39. He shall be responsible also for the care of the
+locomotive, rolling stock, and fittings appertaining thereto, any
+defect in which that is beyond his own power to rectify he shall
+at once notify to the Superintendent, with whom any further
+responsibility in regard to such defect shall then rest. But the
+washing of the wagons and cars shall be done by the yardmen as
+set forth under Rule 21.</p>
+<p>40. He shall, further, be responsible for the proper oiling of
+the axle boxes, spring slides, swivelling forks, and bake gear of
+the whole of the rolling stock; and shall on no account run on
+the train a loaded wagon having a hot axle box or a bent
+axle.</p>
+<p>41. He shall see that all rolling stock is kept, as far as
+possible, under cover at night and in wet weather.</p>
+<p>42. He shall watch carefully that the whole of the line and
+its accessories are kept in thorough working order, and shall
+direct the foreman platelayer in regard to any part requiring
+attention.</p>
+<p>43. He shall put down white mark pegs, of which he shall at
+all times carry a sufficient supply in the brake van, at all
+points of the line which he may notice to be in special need of
+repair.</p>
+<p>44. He shall arrange with the foreman platelayer, as set forth
+under Rule 33, in regard to the time of execution of any work
+requiring the blocking of the line.</p>
+<p><a name="page55"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 55</span>45. He
+shall promptly enquire into, and report to the Superintendent,
+any case of material left within two feet of the rails, as also
+any other infraction of the Regulations which may be brought to
+his notice. He shall take care that Rule 11, in regard to
+passengers by the train, is strictly observed, and shall allow no
+person to ride on the engine without permission of the Duke or
+from the Estate Office.</p>
+<p>46. He shall carefully observe the following County Council
+Regulations in regard to crossing the public roads, and shall be
+personally liable to the County and District Councils
+respectively for the consequences of any infraction
+thereof:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>a</i>) Every train about to cross the
+road shall be brought to a stand at a point not less than 10 yds.
+therefrom, and the brakesman shall proceed to the centre of the
+road with a red flag, and shall, as soon as any approaching
+vehicles have crossed the railway, wave the said flag as a
+warning to distant vehicles and as a sign to the engine-driver to
+proceed and shall continue to wave until the whole of the train
+shall have passed over the road. After dusk a red lamp shall be
+used in place of a flag (but a green light shall be momentarily
+shewn to the driver when the road is clear).</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>b</i>) No train shall cross the road at
+a greater speed than five miles an hour, nor shall any train
+impede the traffic along the road further than is necessary for
+the crossing thereof, which shall in no case exceed three
+minutes.</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>c</i>) Every train crossing the road
+shall be in charge of a competent engine-driver and brakesman,
+and shall consist of not more than twenty-five vehicles,
+exclusive of the engine.</p>
+<p>47. He shall take care to run no train without a brake-van at
+the rear end, and a brakesman in attendance.</p>
+<p>48. He shall at all times whistle before putting his engine in
+motion, and also on approaching all road crossings, termini, and
+other points where a warning may be desirable. He shall, during
+fog, proceed with the utmost caution, particularly in crossing
+roads, and shall be ready to stop promptly where cattle may be
+upon the line.</p>
+<p>49. He shall approach all facing points with caution,
+especially after dark, and shall see that his train is well under
+control in descending inclines, particularly the gradient by the
+Eaton cricket ground.</p>
+<p>50. He shall cross the Great Western Siding at Balderton only
+when the yard gates are closed, and at dead slow speed, and shall
+be personally responsible for any mishap resulting from neglect
+of this rule.</p>
+<p><a name="page56"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 56</span>51. He
+shall perform no fly-shunting with the engine pushing, and in
+draw-shunting he shall proceed with the utmost caution.</p>
+<p>52. He shall take care to avoid injury to the rolling stock
+from shocks, careless usage, or foul shunting.</p>
+<p>53. He shall, between September and February inclusive, carry
+on the train all necessary lamps ready trimmed.</p>
+<p>54. He shall take care that the breakdown tackle is always
+kept ready on the brake van in case of emergency.</p>
+<p>55. He shall under no circumstances leave his engine with the
+steam up without the hand-brake hard down, the lever out of gear,
+and the cylinder cocks open.</p>
+<p>56. He shall take care that the spark arrester is kept
+effective; the sand boxes full, and that, in conveying
+passengers, condensed water is cleared from the cylinders before
+starting.</p>
+<p>57. He shall keep his engine in good working order, clean, and
+smart; executing all necessary repairs at the earliest
+opportunity.</p>
+<p>58. He shall keep a careful watch that point-lever weights are
+left in the right positions, and that the white bars thereon are
+kept clearly painted.</p>
+<p>59. He shall notify to the Superintendent at the earliest
+possible time any requirement for the rolling stock or line, such
+as coal, stores, material for repairs, oil, waste, etc., etc.,
+and shall keep such booked records of the working as are
+required.</p>
+<p>60. He shall impress upon the brakesman the following
+orders</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>a</i>) To travel always in the
+brake-van; to keep a sharp look-out and promptly put down his
+brake should occasion require, or on receiving a signal from the
+engine.</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>b</i>) To carefully watch the loaded
+wagons, and in the event of any part of the load appearing
+unsafe, to signal at once to the engine-driver to stop the
+train.</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>c</i>) To carry always on the van a red
+flag, and, between September and February inclusive, a hand lamp
+ready trimmed, which latter, in travelling after dusk, shall shew
+a red light at the back of the train.</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>d</i>) To perform shunting operations
+with caution, taking care that all point-lever weights are left
+in their proper position.</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>e</i>) To keep his van clean and smart,
+washing it when required.</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>f</i>) To carefully observe such of the
+Railway Regulations as apply to the brakesman&rsquo;s work.</p>
+<h4><a name="page57"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+57</span>SIGNALLING REGULATIONS.</h4>
+<p>61. The engine-driver shall give three short whistles when he
+requires the brake-van brakes to be put down, and one short
+whistle when they are to be released. When he requires facing
+points to be set for the main line he shall give two, and for a
+branch or siding three medium whistles. A whistle continued for
+several minutes is a call for assistance, and workmen within
+hearing should at once proceed to the spot.</p>
+<p>62. A red light is a signal to stop; a green light, to proceed
+cautiously; and a white light, to go a-head. In shunting, a green
+light, if waved up and down, is a signal to move a-head; if from
+side to side, to back.</p>
+<p>63. It is important that all persons having to do with
+shunting operations should understand that if an engine is either
+in contact with no vehicles, or has vehicles both in front and
+behind, it is said to go a-head when it moves chimney first, and
+to back when it moves fire-box first. If in contact with vehicles
+at one end only, it is said to go a-head when it draws and to
+back when it pushes such vehicles, without regard to its own
+direction.</p>
+<h3>D.</h3>
+<p>The following rather neat parody, which appeared in a London
+evening paper at the time of the passing of the Light Railways
+Act, expresses a very reasonable doubt, in which I fully share,
+as to the specially beneficial effect of the measure on
+agriculture. Fortunately, the Act has been taken very quietly,
+and such schemes as have been promoted will, for the most part,
+be of considerable general advantage. Certainly there are some
+cases in which farmers would be the gainers by a light railway,
+but these are an infinitesimal proportion of their whole
+number.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">THAT TIGHT LITTLE, LIGHT LITTLE</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Non si male nunc et olim<br />
+Sic erit.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p class="poetry"><span class="smcap">You</span> farmers, who
+lately<br />
+Have suffered so greatly<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; From agricultural depression,<br />
+Shake off gloom and sorrow,<br />
+A brighter to-morrow<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; Will dawn in the course of the Session.</p>
+<p class="poetry">By no relaxation<br />
+Of rates or taxation,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; By a certain sure-never-to-fail way,<br />
+Through Government&rsquo;s pleasure<br />
+To bring in a measure<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; For giving some districts a railway:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; A tight little, light little
+railway,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; A nice little,
+light little railway,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; O think of the joy<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Of that exquisite toy,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; A tight little,
+light little railway.</p>
+<p class="poetry">Your wheat may grow cheaper,<br />
+The pay of your reaper<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; May rise to a figure outrageous;<br />
+The weather may lay all<br />
+Your crops, and your hay all<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; Be ruined by tempests rampageous;<br />
+Your stock mayn&rsquo;t grow fatter,<br />
+But that does not matter,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; Except in a bargain and sale way:<br />
+What are these to the blessing<br />
+Of really possessing<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; A tight little, light little railway?</p>
+<p style="text-align: center" class="poetry">(<i>Chorus</i>.)</p>
+<p class="poetry">You may not have a fraction<br />
+Of produce for traction,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; Not a stone&rsquo;s weight to put in a wagon,<br />
+Not a horse in your stable,<br />
+No bread on your table,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; Not a shoe to your foot, not a rag on:<br />
+All this would be frightful<br />
+Were it not so delightful<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; To see in as-slow-as-a-snail way<br />
+The trucks all go gliding<br />
+From track into siding,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; From siding to track on your railway.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center" class="poetry">(<i>Chorus</i>.)</p>
+<p class="poetry">Then, oh <i>fortunati</i><br />
+<i>Agricol&oelig;</i>, wait, aye<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; Wait, for the clouds to roll by you:<br />
+Your troubles are over;<br />
+To-morrow, in clover,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; You&rsquo;ll laugh at the ills that now try you.<br
+/>
+&ldquo;<i>Ex machin&acirc; Deus</i><br />
+Is coming to free us,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; Not in an old-fashioned or stale way.&rdquo;<br />
+Let this be your chorus&mdash;<br />
+&ldquo;A future&rsquo;s before us;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp; Three cheers for the light little
+railway!&rdquo;</p>
+<p style="text-align: center" class="poetry">(<i>Chorus</i>.)</p>
+<h2>PLATES.</h2>
+<h3>Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate01b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway"
+title=
+"Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway"
+src="images/plate01s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate02b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway"
+title=
+"Tennis Ground station, Duffield Bank Railway"
+src="images/plate02s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Viaduct, Duffield Bank Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate03b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Viaduct, Duffield Bank Railway"
+title=
+"Viaduct, Duffield Bank Railway"
+src="images/plate03s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Curve, 25 feet radius, Duffield Bank Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate04b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Curve, 25 feet radius, Duffield Bank Railway"
+title=
+"Curve, 25 feet radius, Duffield Bank Railway"
+src="images/plate04s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Engine No 2 and Goods Train, Duffield Bank Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate05b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Engine No 2 and Goods Train, Duffield Bank Railway"
+title=
+"Engine No 2 and Goods Train, Duffield Bank Railway"
+src="images/plate05s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Engine No 1 and Passenger Train, Duffield Bank Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate06b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Engine No 1 and Passenger Train, Duffield Bank Railway"
+title=
+"Engine No 1 and Passenger Train, Duffield Bank Railway"
+src="images/plate06s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Balderton Junction&mdash;Engine and Waggon Sheds, Eaton
+Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate07b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Balderton Junction&mdash;Engine and Waggon Sheds, Eaton Railway"
+title=
+"Balderton Junction&mdash;Engine and Waggon Sheds, Eaton Railway"
+src="images/plate07s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Engine No 4 and Train, Eaton Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate08b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Engine No 4 and Train, Eaton Railway"
+title=
+"Engine No 4 and Train, Eaton Railway"
+src="images/plate08s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Eaton Terminus&mdash;Coal Store and Carriage Shed, Eaton
+Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate09b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Eaton Terminus&mdash;Coal Store and Carriage Shed, Eaton
+Railway"
+title=
+"Eaton Terminus&mdash;Coal Store and Carriage Shed, Eaton
+Railway"
+src="images/plate09s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Estate Works Sidings, Eaton Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate10b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Estate Works Sidings, Eaton Railway"
+title=
+"Estate Works Sidings, Eaton Railway"
+src="images/plate10s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Belgrave Engine Shed, Eaton Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate11b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Belgrave Engine Shed, Eaton Railway"
+title=
+"Belgrave Engine Shed, Eaton Railway"
+src="images/plate11s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Engine No 1, Duffield Bank Railway, 1874.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate12b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Engine No 1, Duffield Bank Railway, 1874"
+title=
+"Engine No 1, Duffield Bank Railway, 1874"
+src="images/plate12s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Engine No 2, Duffield Bank Railway, 1881.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate13b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Engine No 2, Duffield Bank Railway, 1881"
+title=
+"Engine No 2, Duffield Bank Railway, 1881"
+src="images/plate13s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Engine No 3, Duffield Bank Railway, 1894.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate14b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Engine No 3, Duffield Bank Railway, 1894"
+title=
+"Engine No 3, Duffield Bank Railway, 1894"
+src="images/plate14s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Engine No 4, Eaton Railway, 1896.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate15b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Engine No 4, Eaton Railway, 1896"
+title=
+"Engine No 4, Eaton Railway, 1896"
+src="images/plate15s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Dining Car (to seat eight), Duffield Bank Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate16b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Dining Car (to seat eight), Duffield Bank Railway"
+title=
+"Dining Car (to seat eight), Duffield Bank Railway"
+src="images/plate16s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Parcel Van, Duffield Bank Railway.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate17b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Parcel Van, Duffield Bank Railway"
+title=
+"Parcel Van, Duffield Bank Railway"
+src="images/plate17s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Arrangement drawing of Dining Carriage to seat eight.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate18b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Arrangement drawing of Dining Carriage to seat eight"
+title=
+"Arrangement drawing of Dining Carriage to seat eight"
+src="images/plate18s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Arrangement drawing of Sleeping Carriage with four
+berths.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate19b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Arrangement drawing of Sleeping Carriage with four berths"
+title=
+"Arrangement drawing of Sleeping Carriage with four berths"
+src="images/plate19s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Side elevation of Passenger Carriage to seat sixteen.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate20b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Side elevation of Passenger Carriage to seat sixteen"
+title=
+"Side elevation of Passenger Carriage to seat sixteen"
+src="images/plate20s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Arrangement of Radiating Wheels on six-coupled engine No.
+2.</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate21b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Arrangement of Radiating Wheels on six-coupled engine No. 2"
+title=
+"Arrangement of Radiating Wheels on six-coupled engine No. 2"
+src="images/plate21s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Plan and Section of Eaton Railway</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate22b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Plan and Section of Eaton Railway"
+title=
+"Plan and Section of Eaton Railway"
+src="images/plate22s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h3>Cross Sections of Eaton Railway</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/plate23b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Cross Sections of Eaton Railway"
+title=
+"Cross Sections of Eaton Railway"
+src="images/plate23s.jpg" />
+</a></p>
+<h2>FOOTNOTES</h2>
+<p><a name="footnote46"></a><a href="#citation46"
+class="footnote">[46]</a>&nbsp; The then approaching Board of
+Trade Light Railway Conference.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote48"></a><a href="#citation48"
+class="footnote">[48]</a>&nbsp; The Duffield Bank Railway is here
+referred to.</p>
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MINIMUM GAUGE RAILWAYS***</p>
+<pre>
+
+
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
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+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #44341 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44341)