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diff --git a/44332-0.txt b/44332-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1382c2f --- /dev/null +++ b/44332-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10109 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44332 *** + +Transcriber's note: + +Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). + +Text enclosed by equal marks is in bold (=bold=). + +Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: titlepage] + + + + + BLACKWOOD'S + + Edinburgh + + MAGAZINE. + + VOL. LXVII. + JANUARY-JUNE, 1850. + + [Illustration: Buchanan] + + WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EDINBURGH; + AND + 37 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. + + 1850. + + +BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH. + + + + +BLACKWOOD'S EDINBURGH MAGAZINE. + + NO. CCCCXI. JANUARY, 1850. VOL. LXVII. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + THE YEAR OF REACTION, 1 + + MY PENINSULAR MEDAL. BY AN OLD PENINSULAR. + PART III., 15 + + AMERICAN ADVENTURE, 34 + + HOWARD, 50 + + THE DARK WAGGON. BY DELTA, 71 + + THE GREEN HAND--A "SHORT" YARN. PART VII., 76 + + BRITISH AGRICULTURE AND FOREIGN COMPETITION, 94 + + + =SECOND EDITION.= + + EDINBURGH: + WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, 45, GEORGE STREET; + AND 37, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. + + _To whom all communications (post paid) must be addressed._ + + SOLD BY ALL THE BOOKSELLERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. + + PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH. + + + + +BLACKWOOD'S + +EDINBURGH MAGAZINE. + + NO. CCCCXI. JANUARY, 1850. VOL. LXVII. + + + + +THE YEAR OF REACTION. + + +If the year 1848--"THE YEAR OF REVOLUTIONS" was one pre-eminent +among all others for the magnitude and interest of the events +it brought forth, the year which has just expired--THE YEAR OF +REACTION--is still more worthy of serious reflection, and affords +subjects for more cheering meditation. If the first exhibited the +whirlwind of anarchy let loose, the second showed the power by +which it is restrained; if the former filled every heart with dread +at the fierce passions which were developed, and the portentous +events which occurred in the world, the latter afforded reason for +profound thankfulness, at the silent but irresistible force with +which Omnipotence overrules the wickedness of men, and restrains the +madness of the people. + + "Celsâ sedet Æolus arce, + Sceptra tenens, mollitque animos, et temperat iras. + Ni faciat, maria ac terras coelumque profundum + Quippe ferant rapidi secum, verruntque per auras. + Sed Pater Omnipotens speluncis abdidit atris, + Hoc metuens; regemque dedit qui foedere certo + Et premere et laxas sciret dare jussus habenas."[1] + + [1] _Æneid_, i. 56. + +The history of the world during those periods of convulsion, happily +of very rare occurrence, when an eruption of popular passions +takes place--when thrones are overturned, and the long-established +order of things is subverted--is nothing else but the folly and +wickedness of man warring against the wisdom of nature. All history +demonstrates that there is a certain order of things which is +favourable to human felicity--under which industry flourishes, +population increases, the arts are encouraged, agriculture improves, +general happiness is diffused. The basis of such a state of things +is the _security of property_; the moving power which puts in +motion the whole complicated machine of society, is the certainty +that every man will enjoy the fruits of his toil. As clearly do +past events demonstrate, that there is a state of things wherein +the reverse of all this takes place; when industry is paralysed, +population arrested, the arts languish, agriculture decays, general +misery prevails. The chief cause of such a state of things is to +be found in the insecurity of property, the dread that industry +will not reap its appointed reward; but that external violence +or domestic spoliation may interfere between the labourer and +the fruits of his toil. When such a state of things arises from +internal commotion, it is generally preceded by the warmest hopes, +and the most unbounded anticipations of felicity. It is universally +characterised by a resolute disregard of experience, and a universal +passion for innovation in all the institutions of society, and +all the relations of life. It constantly appeals to the generous +affections: speaks of humanity, justice, and fraternity; proclaims +mankind as brothers; and professes the warmest desire for general +felicity, and the diminution of the sources of human suffering. It +veils the advance of selfishness under the guise of generosity. +Revolutions demonstrate that the homage which vice pays to virtue is +not confined to individuals. The maxim of Rochefoucault applies also +to nations. Its truth is never seen with such brightness as during +the intensity of a revolution; and this demonstrates at once the +wisdom which governs, and the selfishness which desolates the world. + +So prone, however, are the bulk of mankind to delusion; so easily +are they led away by expressions which appeal to their passions, or +projects which seem to forward their interests; so little are the +lessons of experience either known to, or heeded by, the immense +majority of men, that we should be led to despair of the fortunes of +the species, and dread in every age a repetition of the seductive +passions which had desolated the one that had preceded it, were it +not that a provision is made for the extinction of popular passion +in the very first effects of its ebullition. It is in its _effect +upon property_ that the curb is found which restrains the madness of +the people; by the insolvency it induces that the barrier is formed, +which as a matter of necessity forces back society to its habitual +forms and relations. In the complicated state of social relations in +which we live, it is by the capital of the rich that the industry +of the poor is put in motion; by their expenditure that it is +alimented. However specious and alluring the projects may be which +are brought forward by the popular leaders, they involve in them one +source of weakness, which inevitably ere long paralyses all their +influence. Directly or indirectly, they all tend to the destruction +of property. To excite the passions of the working classes, they are +obliged to hold out to them the prospect of a division of property, +or such a system of taxation as practically amounts to the same +thing: the immediate effect of which is a cessation of expenditure +on the part of the affluent classes; a hoarding of capital; a run +upon the banks for specie; universal scarcity of money, general +distrust, and a fearful decrease of employment. These evils are +first felt by the working classes, because, having no stock, they +are affected by any diminution in their daily wages; and they +are felt with the more bitterness that they immediately succeed +extravagant hopes, and highly wrought expectations. Invariably the +effects of revolutions are precisely the reverse of the predictions +of its supporters. No man is insensible to his own suffering, +however much he may be so to that of his predecessors; and thence +the universal and general reaction which, sooner or later, takes +place against revolutions. + +That this reaction would take place to a certainty, in the end, +with the French revolution of 1848, as it had done with all similar +convulsions since the beginning of the world, could be doubted by +none who had the least historical information: and in our first +article on that event, within a few weeks of its occurrence, we +distinctly foretold that this would be the case.[2] But we confess +we did not anticipate the _rapidity_ with which the reaction has +set in. Not two years have elapsed since the throne of Louis +Philippe was overturned, and a republic proclaimed in Paris amidst +the transports of the revolutionary party over all Europe, and the +gaze in astonishment of all the world; and already the delusion is +over, the transports are at an end, the Jacobins are silent, and +the convulsed commonwealth is fast sinking back to its pristine +monarchical form of government. Every country in Europe felt the +shock. The passions were universally let loose; sanguinary wars +arose on every side; and while the enlightened Free-traders of +England were dreaming, amidst their cotton bales, of universal +and perpetual peace, which should open to them the markets of the +world, hostilities the most terrible, contests the most dreadful, +dissensions the most implacable, broke out in all quarters. It was +not merely the war of opinion which Mr Canning long ago prophesied +as the next which would desolate Europe: to it was superadded the +still more frightful contest of races. The Lombard rose against +the German, the Bohemian against the Imperialist, the Hungarian +against the Austrian; the Celt and the Saxon stood in arms against +each other. Naples was rent in twain; a revolutionary state was +established in Sicily; the supreme pontiff was dethroned at Rome; +Piedmont joined the innovating party; Lombardy rose up against +Austria, Bohemia was in arms against Vienna, the Magyars revived +against the Germans the fierce hostility of five centuries; Prussia +was revolutionised, Baden ravaged, Denmark invaded; the Poles could +with difficulty be restrained amidst the general effervescence; the +Irish openly made preparations for rebellion and separation from +Great Britain. England itself was shaken: the gravity and practical +tendency of the Anglo-Saxon character in part yielded to the general +contagion. London was threatened with a revolutionary movement; the +Chartists in all the manufacturing towns were prepared to follow the +example; treasonable placards, calling on the people to rise, were +to be seen on all sides; and the mighty conqueror who had struck +down Napoleon exerted his consummate skill in baffling the rebellion +of his own countrymen, and won a victory over anarchy not less +momentous than that of Waterloo, and not the less memorable that it +did not cost a drop of human blood. + + [2] See "The Fall of the Throne of the Barricades," April 1, 1848. + +What a contrast, within the short period of eighteen months, did +Europe afterwards exhibit! France, the centre of impulsion to the +civilised world, was restrained; the demon of anarchy was crushed in +its birthplace; the visions of the Socialists had been extinguished +in the blood of the barricades. Dispersed, dejected, in despair, +the heroes of February were languishing in exile, or mourning in +prison the blasting of their hopes, the ruin of their prospects, the +unveiling of their sophistries. Revolution had been crushed without +the effusion of blood in Berlin: law had regained its ascendency; +rebellion had quailed before the undaunted aspect of the defenders +of order and the throne. Naples had regained the dominion of Sicily; +the arms of France had restored the Pope at Rome; the Eternal City +had yielded to the assault of the soldiers of Louis Napoleon. +Austria had regained her ascendency in Italy; the perfidious +aggression of Charles Albert had been signally chastised by the +skill and determination of the veteran Radetsky; Milan was again the +seat of Imperial government; the dream of a Venetian republic had +passed away, and the Place of St Mark again beheld the double-headed +eagle of Austria at the summit of its domes. Baden was conquered, +Saxony pacified; the fumes of revolutionary aggression in Schleswig +had been dissipated by the firmness of Denmark, and the ready, +although unexerted, support of Russia. Poland was overawed by the +Colossus of the North; and even the heroic valour of the Magyars, +so often in happier days the bulwark of the Cross, had yielded to +that loyalty and tenacity of purpose which has so long distinguished +the Austrian people, joined and aided by the support which, on this +as on many previous occasions, Russia has afforded to the cause of +order in Europe. Though last, not least, Great Britain was pacified: +the dreams of the Socialists, the treason of the Chartists, had +recoiled before the energy of a people yet on the whole loyal +and united. Ireland, blasted by the triple curse of rebellion, +pestilence, and famine, had ceased to be an object of disquietude +to England, save from the incessant misery which it exhibited; and +its furious patriots, abandoning in multitudes the land of their +birth, were carrying into Transatlantic regions those principles of +anarchy, and deathless hatred at civilisation, which had so long +laid waste their own country. + +Acknowledging, as all must do, with devout thankfulness, that +it is to the Great Disposer of events that we are to ascribe so +marvellous a DELIVERANCE FROM EVIL--so blessed an escape from a fate +which would have renewed, in Europe, a devastation as wide-spread, +and darkness as thick, as occurred during the middle ages--it may +yet, humanly speaking, be discerned how it is that our salvation +has been effected. The days of miracles are past; the law is not +now delivered amidst the thunders of Mount Sinai; the walls of +fortresses do not fall down at the sound of the Lord's trumpet; +there is no longer a chosen people, over whose safety the eye of +Omnipotence watches, and whom, in the last extremity, the destroying +angel rescues from their enemies. The direction of human affairs by +Supreme Wisdom; the coercion of wickedness; the support of virtue; +the ceaseless advance of the race of man, amidst all the folly and +selfishness with which its concerns are conducted, have not, indeed, +passed away: all these are in as complete operation now as when +the Red Sea opened to the retreating Israelites, or the walls of +Jericho fell before the blast of Joshua's trumpet, or the rending +of the vail of the Temple announced that the era had commenced when +the whole human race was to be admitted to the sanctuary of the +temple. But it is by human means alone that Providence now acts; it +is by general laws that the affairs of men are regulated. The agents +of Omnipotence are the moving principles of the human heart: the +safeguards against ruin are to be found in the barriers which, in +injured interests or counteracting passions, are raised up amidst +the agitated multitude, against the further progress of devastation. +It is not from oblivion, therefore, but with a constant recognition +of Divine superintendence, that we shall now endeavour to trace out +the means by which the most alarming moral pestilence which ever +appeared in modern times has been arrested; the happiness of Europe +saved, for the time at least, from the destruction by which it was +menaced--from the earthquake in its own bosom; and the progress of +real freedom throughout the world prevented from being blasted by +the selfish ambition or insane delusions of the demagogues who, for +a time, got possession of its current. + +The first circumstance which must strike every observer, in the +contemplation of the terrible crisis through which we have passed, +is, that the destruction with which we were threatened was mainly, +if not entirely, owing to _want of moral courage_ on the part of +the depositaries of power. The Revolution in Paris, it is well +known, owed its success entirely to the pusillanimity of the _men_ +of the royal family. Louis Philippe, old and enfeebled by disease, +was paralysed by a still more fatal source of weakness--the +consciousness of a throne won by treason--the terror inspired by +the sight of the barricades, behind which his own government had +been constructed. His sons who were present showed that the Orleans +family had lost, with the possession of a usurped throne, the +courage which, for several generations, had constituted the only +virtue of their race. The King of Prussia abandoned the contest +in Berlin in the moment of victory--a nervous reluctance to the +shedding of blood paralysed, as it had done in the days of Louis +XVI., the defenders of the throne. In Austria, the known imbecility, +physical and moral, of the emperor, rendered him wholly unequal +to the crisis in which he was placed--delivered over the empire, +undefended, to a set of revolutionary murderers, and rendered a +change in the reigning sovereign indispensable. In Rome, the Pope +himself began the movement--he first headed the reform crusade; +and whatever his unhappy subjects have since suffered is to be +ascribed to his blind delusion and weak concessions. Such was the +conduct of the kings of Europe--such the front which our sex in +high places opposed to the revolutionary tempest. But women often, +in the last extremity, exhibit a courage which puts to shame the +pusillanimity of the men by whom they are surrounded; and never was +this more signally evinced than in the present instance. The Queen +of France tried in vain, at the Tuileries, to inspire her husband +with her own heroic spirit; the Duchess of Orleans showed it in +front of levelled muskets in the Chamber of Deputies; and, that +order is still preserved in our country, is to be ascribed in no +small degree to the firm conduct of the sovereign on the throne, and +the determination with which she inspired her government to risk +everything rather than concede one iota to the revolutionists. + +As it was the opposite conduct from this, and the moral weakness of +the depositaries of power, which mainly induced the revolutions +of 1848, and rendered them so formidable, so those causes which +have at length arrested that terrible convulsion seem to have been +no other but the moral laws of nature, destined for the correction +of wickedness and the coercion of passion, when they have risen to +such a pitch as seriously to endanger the existence of society. And, +without presuming to scan too deeply the intentions of Providence, +or the great system by which evil is brought out of good, and an +irresistible power says to the madness of the people, as to the +storms of the ocean, "Hitherto shalt thou come, and no farther, and +here shall thy proud waves be staid," we may probably discover, +humanly speaking, the means by which the evil has been arrested. + +The first circumstance which has produced the reaction, and arrested +the progress of evil so much more rapidly than was the case in the +former great convulsion, is the memory of that convulsion itself. +It is no doubt true, that every generation is taught by its own +and none by its predecessors' sufferings; but, in the case of the +first French Revolution, the suffering was so long-continued and +dreadful, that the memory of it descended to the next generation. It +was impossible that the sons of the men who had been guillotined, +exiled, or mown down by the conscription, who had seen their estates +and honours torn from them by the ruthless hand of Revolutionary +violence, should not retain a vivid sense of the sufferings they had +experienced, and the wrongs they had undergone. All classes, not +excluding even those who had been most ardent and active in support +of the first Revolution, had writhed alike under the calamities +and exactions of the latter years of the war, and the ignominious +conquest in which it had terminated, which was only felt the more +keenly from the unparalleled triumphs to which the nation had so +long been habituated. Add to this, that the attention of all the +intelligent classes of society in Europe generally, and in France in +particular, had been long, and to an extent of which in this country +we can scarcely form an idea, riveted on the events of the first +Revolution. The Reign of Terror was not forgotten; the prophecy +of the historian[3] proved true:--"A second French Revolution, of +the same character as the former, and the age in which it is to +arise must be ignorant of the first." Its heartstirring incidents, +its mournful catastrophes, its tragic events, its heroic virtue, +its appalling wickedness, its streams of blood, were indelibly +engraven on the hearts of a considerable, and that too the most +influential, part of the people. The revolutionists, indeed, +in every country--the Red Republicans in France, the Chartists +in England, the Rebels in Ireland, the Carbonari in Italy, the +_Illuminés_ in Germany, were perfectly prepared to renew for their +own profit the same scenes of spoliation, bloodshed, and massacre. +But such extreme characters form, even in the most depraved society, +but a small part of the whole inhabitants. It is the delusion or +timidity of the great body, not the absolute strength or numbers of +the violent party, which is the principal danger. The force of the +first Revolution consisted in its novelty; in the enchantment of its +visions, the warmth of its professed philanthropy, the magnitude of +its promises. But time had dispelled these, as it does many other +delusions. The mask had fallen from the spectre which had charmed +the world, and the awful form of DEATH had appeared. + + [3] ALISON. + +The second circumstance which tended to coerce, more rapidly than +could have been hoped for, the progress of the revolution of 1848, +was the firmness and loyalty of the soldiers. It is historically +known that it was the defection of the troops which brought on, +and rendered irresistible the march of the first Revolution: which +induced, in rapid succession, the Reign of Terror, the assignats, +the conscription, the capture of Paris, the subjugation of the +kingdom. But here, too, experience and suffering came to the aid of +deluded and wandering humanity. It was seen that what is unjust and +dishonourable is _never_ expedient: that the violation of their +oaths by the sworn defenders of order is not the commencement of +the regeneration, but the first step in the decline of society: and +that to fear God and honour the king is the only way to insure, +not only the preservation of order, but the ultimate ascendancy of +freedom. On the foundation of the revolt of the Gardes Françaises +in 1789, were successively built the despotism of the Committee of +Public Salvation, the blood of Robespierre, the carnage of Napoleon. +The awful example was not lost on the next generation. The throne +of Charles X. was overthrown by the defection of the troops of the +line; but it was again found that the glorious fabric of civil +liberty was not to be erected on the basis of treachery and treason. +None of the troops revolted on the crisis of February 1848. The +Guards and the line were alike steady. Marshal Bugeaud, when he +received the command, speedily passed the whole barricades, and in +six hours would have extinguished the revolt. The throne was lost +not by the defection of the troops, but by the pusillanimity of +the princes of the blood; and accordingly, when the next contest +occurred--as occur it ever will in such cases--the troops were +resolutely led, the revolution was put down under circumstances ten +times more formidable, though not without a frightful loss of human +life. + +We are so accustomed to the loyalty and steadiness of the English +army, that the possibility of their wavering never enters into our +imagination. But still all must admit that we too, with all our +boasted safeguards of popular representation, general information, a +free press, and centuries of freedom, stood on the edge of an abyss; +and that, not less than Austria or Prussia, our salvation had come +to depend chiefly, if not entirely, on the fidelity of the soldiers. +If the six thousand men who garrisoned London on the 10th April +1848 had wavered, and one-half of them had joined the insurgents, +where would now have been the British constitution? Had a hundred +thousand men from Kennington Common crossed Waterloo Bridge, headed +by a regiment of the Guards, and three regiments of the line, where +would now have been the British liberties? Where would have been all +the safeguards formed, all the hopes expressed, all the prophecies +hazarded, as to its being perpetual? But in that dread hour, perhaps +the most eventful that England ever knew, we were saved by the +courage of the Queen, the firmness of the government, the admirable +arrangements of the Duke of Wellington, and the universal steadiness +and loyalty of our soldiers. We are quite aware of the special +constables, and the immense _moral_ influence of the noble display +which the aristocracy and middle classes of England made on that +occasion. But moral influence, often all-powerful in the end, is not +alone sufficient at the beginning; physical force is then required +to withstand the _first assault_ of the enemy: and, highly as we +respect the civic force with batons in their hands; and fully as we +admit the immense importance of that citizen-demonstration in its +ultimate effects, we ascribe our deliverance from the instant peril +which threatened, entirely to the steadiness of the British army, +and the incomparable arrangements of their chief. + +In the Continental states, order succeeded in regaining the +ascendency over anarchy entirely in consequence of the fidelity of +the soldiers. On that memorable day, when the Prussian army marched +into Berlin playing the old airs of _the monarchy_, and formed in +a circle around, distant only twenty-five paces from the insurgent +host, and there tranquilly loaded their pieces, the opposing forces +were directly brought into collision; it was seen that, in a few +seconds, law or rebellion would be victorious. Law prevailed, as +it generally does where its defenders are steady and resolutely +led--and what has been the result? Is it that freedom has been +extinguished in Prussia, that liberty has sunk under the pressure of +tyrannic power, and that a long period of servitude and degradation +is to close the bright meridian of her national splendour? Quite +the reverse: anarchy has been extinguished in Prussia only to make +room for the fair forms of order and liberty, which cannot exist but +side by side; the revolutionists are overawed, but the lovers of +real freedom are only the better confirmed in their hopes of the +ultimate establishment of a constitutional monarchy, such as Prussia +has been sighing for for thirty years. It is ever to be recollected +that the prospects of freedom are never so bright as when they are +in the inverse ratio to those of revolution; liberty is never so +safe as where anarchy is most thoroughly repressed; despotism is +never so near at hand as immediately after the greatest triumphs of +insurrection. + +In AUSTRIA a different and more melancholy prospect has been +exhibited. That great and noble country has been the victim, +not merely of the passions of revolution, but of those of race. +It has been torn asunder, not only by the ambition of the +revolutionists, and the ardent zeal of a people yet inexperienced +in social dissensions sighing after freedom, but by the force and +inextinguishable rivalry of different and discordant races. The +Lombard has risen up against the German, the Bohemian against +the Austrian; the Magyars have buckled on their armour against +both, and, animated alike by revolutionary zeal and national +jealousy, have striven to obtain what they deem the first of +blessings--national independence--by revolting against the +government of Austria, in the moment of its utmost need. That +strange compound of races and nations, the Austrian monarchy, +in which it is hard to say whether the Slave, the Magyar, the +Teuton, the Lombard, or the old Roman had the preponderance, and +the union of which, for so long a period, had been a subject of +astonishment to all observers, at length revealed its inherent +weakness. Worse than the war of opinion, the war of races began. +Like the Lacedemonian confederacy, after the defeat of Leuctra, or +the Athenian after the catastrophe of Aigos Potamos, or the Roman +republic after the disaster of Cannæ, the Austrian aggregate of +kingdoms threatened to fall to pieces on the dreadful shock of +opinion which resulted from the success of the French revolution. +The contest of nations did not now intervene, to bar the spread +of democratic ideas; the military passions were not arrayed in +opposition to the civic. Lamartine was perfectly right in his +prognostic: the pacific French revolution of 1848 achieved greater +conquests, in three months, than the warlike republic of 1793 had +gained in ten years. Prussia was apparently revolutionised; Austria +was all but won to the democratic side; Vienna, Prague, and Milan +were in the hands of the insurgents. Never, in the darkest periods +of the revolutionary war, was Austria in such desperate straits, +as when Radetsky retreated behind the Mincio, and the treacherous +assault of Charles Albert was aided by the whole strength of +revolutionary Italy, and the tacit support or lukewarm indifference +of France and England. + +But in that awful hour, by far the most perilous which Austria +ever knew, and which threatened with immediate and irrevocable +destruction the whole balance of power in Europe, she was saved by +the fidelity of her native soldiers, and the incomparable spirit of +her German nobility. Then appeared in its highest lustre what is +the principle of life and the tenacity of purpose which exist in an +aristocratic society, not yet wholly debilitated by the pleasures +and the selfishness of a court. Although the Hungarian nobles, +for the most part, sided with the Magyar insurgents; although the +whole Lombard troops had passed over from the standards of Radetsky +to those of Charles Albert, and all the Hungarians in his service +sullenly wended their way back to their native places; although +Prague was wrested from the crown by the Bohemian insurgents, and +Vienna by a vehement urban tumult in the capital; although Hungary +was not only lost, but arrayed in fierce hostility against the +monarchy--the noble Austrian leaders never lost heart--they realised +the dream of the Roman poet-- + + "Si fractus illabatur orbis, + Impavidum ferient ruinæ." + +Windischgratz in Bohemia, Radetsky in Italy, Jellachich in Austria, +stood forth as the saviours of the monarchy, and, with it, of the +cause of European freedom. Though deserted by their sovereign, who +had bent before the revolutionary tempest, they fronted, sometimes, +it is believed, in opposition to constrained orders, the dangers +with which they were assailed--they acted in conformity with the +maxim of a noble people not yet debased by democratic selfishness: +VIVE LE ROI QUAND-MEME! Slowly, but steadily, the forces of order +regained their ascendant over the assaults of anarchy. The Tyrol, +ever steadfast in its loyalty, first offered an asylum to the +emperor, when driven from his capital; Prague was next recovered, +and Bohemia coerced by the moral courage and skilful dispositions +of Prince Windischgratz; Radetsky, shortly after, reinforced by +the loyalty of Austria, regained his ascendant on the Mincio, +routed the revolutionary rabble of Italy, and restored Milan to the +Imperial government; Vienna, after a desperate conflict, was won by +the forces of Order; and Jellachich and Windischgratz enjoyed the +proud triumph of having restored his capital to their discrowned +sovereign. Hungary, inhabited by a bolder and more numerous race, +actuated by stronger passions, held out longest, and was only +subdued after a sanguinary conflict, by the aroused vigour and +national passions, aided by the support of the Colossus of the +North, which has so often sent forth its battalions as the last +resource of order and religion, when all but vanquished by the +forces of anarchy and infidelity. Yet, though thus constrained, +in the last extremity, to call in the aid of the Czar, and array +a hundred thousand Muscovites on the plains of Hungary, the stand +thus made by the Austrian monarchy is not the less glorious and +worthy of eternal remembrance. It demonstrates what so many other +passages in the history of that noble people indicate, how great is +the strength, and unbounded the resources, of a brave and patriotic +nation, even when afflicted by the most terrible disasters; and how +uniformly Providence, in the end, lends its protection to a people +who have shown themselves worthy of its blessings, by faithfully +discharging their duty in a period of disaster. The year 1849 will +ever rank with the glories of Maria Theresa, the triumph of Aspern, +the devotion of Wagram, as the brightest periods in the long and +glorious Austrian annals. + +The people of England, ever ready to sympathise with even the name +of freedom, and prone beyond any other nation to delusions springing +from generous feelings, acting on erroneous information, were at +one time much disposed to sympathise with the Hungarian insurgents. +They enlisted the wishes of a considerable part, especially of +the citizens of towns, on their side. Never were generous and +estimable feelings more misapplied. The contest in Hungary, it is +to be feared, was not in the slightest degree a struggle for public +freedom: it was an effort only to establish the _domination of a +race_ in opposition to a lawful government. Like the Sikhs or Ameers +in India at this moment, the Normans in England in former times, +or the "insane plebeian noblesse" of Poland, whom John Sobieski +denounced as the authors of the ruin of his country, the Magyars +were a proud and haughty dominant race, not a fourth part of the +whole inhabitants of Hungary, but brave and ambitious, and animated +with the strongest desire of establishing an independent oligarchy +in their wide-spread country. They took the opportunity for +asserting their principles when Austria was pierced to the heart, +and its provinces, apparently all falling asunder, had the fairest +prospect of establishing separate dominions, as in the ancient Roman +empire, on the ruins of the Imperial authority. Had they succeeded, +they would have established the same monstrous tyranny of a dominant +race, which has so long blasted the happiness, and at length +destroyed the independence of Poland. + +That the contest in Hungary was one for the domination of a race, +not the freedom of people, is evident from two circumstances +which have been studiously kept out of view by the Liberal party, +both on the Continent and in England. The first is that _after_ +the emperor had conceded to Hungary the most extreme liberal +institutions, based on universal suffrage, the Magyar leaders sent +private orders to all the Hungarian regiments in Radetsky's army +to leave his banners, and return to Hungary; thus rendering to +all appearance the dismemberment of the monarchy inevitable, and +surrendering the Italian provinces, the brightest jewel in the +Imperial crown, to the tender mercies of Charles Albert. The second +is, that, in the contest which ensued, the Hungarians were in the +end overthrown. Possessing, as Hungary does, fourteen millions of +inhabitants--nearly a moiety of the whole Austrian empire, and four +times more than Upper and Lower Austria, with the Tyrol, which +alone could be relied on in that crisis--it is evident that, if the +_whole_ Hungarian people had been united, they must have proved +victorious, and have decided the contest long before the distant +Muscovite battalions could have appeared on the theatre of war. The +Hungarian insurrection broke out in April 1848, and was aided by +contemporaneous revolts in Prague, Lombardy, Venice, and Vienna. To +all appearance the Austrian monarchy was torn in pieces. Muniments +of war they had in abundance: Comorn, with its vast arsenal and +impregnable walls, opened its arms to receive them. When Georgey +capitulated, he had one hundred and thirty-eight guns, besides +those in the hands of Kossuth and Bem. Fully half the military +stores of Austria fell into the hands of the Hungarians, the moment +the insurrection broke out. Yet, with all these advantages, they +were overcome. This demonstrates that the war was not a national +one, in the proper sense of the word: that is, it did not interest +the _whole_ people. It was an effort of a gallant and ambitious +race, forming a small minority of the population, to establish a +domination over the whole remainder of the inhabitants, and sever +themselves from the Austrian empire; and a greater calamity than +such a separation, both to the Hungarians themselves and the general +balance of power in Europe, cannot be imagined. + +How was the balance of power to be maintained in Europe, especially +against Russia, if the Austrian monarchy had been broken up? +Experience had long ago proved that no coalitions for the +preservation of the independence of central Europe, either against +Russia on the one side or France on the other, had the least chance +of success, in which Austria did not take a prominent part. Even the +disasters of the Peninsular campaigns, and the awful catastrophe +of the Moscow retreat, could not enable Europe to combat Napoleon, +till Metternich, at the Congress of Prague, threw the weight of +Austria into the scale. It was by an alliance of Austria, France, +and England that, at the Congress of Vienna, a curb was put on the +ambition of Russia: by a similar alliance that the Turkish empire +was saved from ruin, when the Muscovite standards were advanced to +Adrianople, and the Pacha of Egypt was encamped on Scutari. It was +a coalition of Austria, England, Russia, and Prussia, which in 1834 +coerced the ambition of France, when M. Thiers had sent orders to +the French admiral to attack and burn the English fleet in the bay +of Vourlas, at dead of night. But if Austria had been broken up into +a Hungarian, a Lombard, and a Bohemian republic, how was such an +alliance to be formed? What central power could, in such an event, +have existed under such circumstances, to oppose a mid impediment to +the grasping ambition of Russia on the one side, and France on the +other? Prussia, it is well known, is entirely under the influence +of Russia, and does not, except in the first fervour of revolution, +venture to deviate from the policy which it prescribes. Sweden and +Denmark are mere subsidiary states. Austria alone is so strong as +to be able, with the aid of England, to bid Russia defiance; and +is situated so near to its southern provinces, as to be actuated +by a ceaseless dread of its encroachments. The breaking up of the +Austrian empire would have been a fatal blow to the balance of +power, and with it to real liberty in Europe. It would have left the +field open to the Cossacks on the one side, and the Red Republicans +on the other. + +It is deeply to be regretted that Austria was not able to regain its +dominion over its rebellious Hungarian subjects, without the aid +of the Muscovite arms. Although the Czar has recalled his troops +after the vast service was rendered, and no projects of immediate +aggrandisement are apparent, yet it is impossible to doubt--it is +fruitless to attempt to disguise--that the influence of Russia in +the east of Europe has been immensely extended by this intervention. +So weighty an obligation as saving an empire from dismemberment is +too great to be easily forgotten; and supposing, what is probably +the case, that gratitude is a feeling unknown to cabinets--and +that the recollection of salvation from ruin is likely to produce +no other sentiment but that of dislike--still the contest, which +was adjourned, rather than decided, on the Hungarian plains, has +for a very long period, it is to be feared, thrown Austria into +the arms of Russia. They are united by the common bond of enduring +interest. The Magyars in Hungary, the Poles in Sarmatia, are the +enemies of both; and each feels that it is by a close alliance +of the cabinets, that the evident dangers of an insurrection of +these powerful and warlike races can be provided against. It is +more than probable that a secret treaty, offensive and defensive, +already unites the two powers; that the crushing of the Magyars was +bought by the condition, that the extension of Muscovite influence +in Turkey was to be connived at; and that the Czar will one day +advance to Constantinople without fear, because he knows that his +right flank is secure on the side of Austria. Certain it is, that +the _joint_ demand made by Austria and Russia, for the extradition +of the Hungarian refugees, and which, as all unwarrantable stretch +against the independence of Turkey, was resisted with so much spirit +and wisdom by England and France, looks very like the first-fruits +of such an alliance. And observe, now, the immediate effects on the +balance of power of the revolution of 1848. This invasion of the +independence of Turkey was made by Russia and Austria in concert, +and was only resisted by France and England! Woful, indeed, for the +interests of real freedom, has been the result of those convulsions +which have ended in transplanting Austria from its natural position, +and have converted the jealous opponent of Muscovite power into its +obsequious ally. Nothing could have effected such a metamorphosis, +but the terrible convulsion which almost tore out the entrails of +the Austrian empire. But that is ever the case with revolutionists. +Blinded by the passions with which they are actuated, they rush +headlong on their own destruction; and destroy, in their insane +ambition, the very bulwarks by which alone durable freedom is to be +secured in their own or any other country. + +It is commonly thought in this country that the war in Hungary was +a contest for national independence, and that it bears a close +analogy to the memorable conflicts by which, in former times, +the independence of Scotland was maintained, or the liberties +of England purchased. There never was a more unfounded opinion. +_After_ the Hungarian insurrection had taken place, indeed, and +when the Austrian empire had been wellnigh torn to pieces in the +shock, Hungary was formally incorporated with Austria, just as +the grand-duchy of Warsaw was with Russia after the sanguinary +revolt of 1831, and Ireland with England after the rebellion of +1798. But _anterior_ to the revolution, what step had the cabinet +of Vienna taken which was hostile to the independence of Hungary? +Not one. The constitution which the Austrian government had given +to the Hungarians, if it erred at all, did so on the liberal side: +for it conceded to a people, scarcely emerged from barbarism, a +constitution founded on universal suffrage, such as England, with +its centuries of freedom, could not withstand for three months. It +was the Hungarian insurgents who are responsible for the loss of +their national independence; because they first put it in issue by +joining Lombardy and the revolutionists of Prague and Vienna, in +their assault upon the Imperial government, at a time when nothing +whatever had been done which menaced their separate existence. The +truth is, they thought, as many others did, that the Austrian empire +was breaking up, and that now was the time to become a separate +power. Having voluntarily, and without a cause, committed high +treason, they cannot complain with reason, if in a mitigated form +they incur its penalties by forfeiting their national existence. + +The ultimate suppression of the revolt in Hungary has been attended +with a most distressing amount of bloodshed on the scaffold, and the +occurrence of several mournful scenes, in which courage and fidelity +have asserted their wonted superiority, in the supreme hour, over +all the storms of fate. God forbid that we should either justify or +approve of such severity, or deprive the heroic Hungarian leaders of +the well-earned praise which some of them deserve, for their noble +constancy in misfortune! But while fully admitting this on the one +hand, we must, in justice to the Austrian government on the other, +recall to recollection the circumstances in which they were placed +at the close of the contest, the dangers they had undergone, and +the dreadful devastation which the Hungarian war had brought upon +their country. When Georgey capitulated and Comorn surrendered, +Austria was wellnigh exhausted by the conflict: she had owed her +salvation in part at least to foreign intervention. She had been +forced to proclaim her weakness in the face of Europe, and to bring +down the hated Muscovite battalions into the heart of the empire. In +judging of the course which her rulers, when victorious, pursued, +we must in justice recall to mind the perils they had escaped, and +the humiliations to which they had been reduced. We must recollect +also the state of civilisation which Hungary has attained, and go +back, in imagination, to what we ourselves did in a similar stage of +national progress. Hungary is hardly more advanced in civilisation +than England was during the Wars of the Roses, when the prisoners on +both sides were put to death without mercy, and eighty princes of +the blood or nobles were massacred in cold blood; or than Scotland +was when the Covenanters murdered all the Irish in Montrose's army, +with their wives and children. What did the English government do +at Carlisle after the advance of the Pretender to Derby, or in +Ireland after the rebellion of 1798? What has she recently done in +the Ionian islands, after the insurrection in Cephalonia? Nay, would +we have been less rigorous than the Austrians, even at this time, +if we had been reduced to similar extremities? It is very easy to +be lenient after an insurrection which has been extinguished in a +cabbage garden, and rendered the insurgents ridiculous in the eyes +of all the world; but what should we have done, and how would we +have felt, if Smith O'Brien at the head of the Irish rebels had +invaded England, taken London, nourished for a year and a half a +frightful civil war in the heart of the empire, and compelled us to +call in the legions of France into the midland counties to save the +nation from ruin? We do not mean, by these observations, to justify +the executions of Haynau and the other Imperial generals: God knows, +we deplore them as much as any one can do, and yield to none in +admiration of the heroism of the Hungarian leaders, who have shown +themselves so worthy of the noble nation to which they belong. But +we extenuate, if we cannot justify, the severity of the Austrians, +by the recollection of their sufferings; and reserve the weight of +our indignation for those insane and selfish demagogues who, for +their own elevation, lighted so terrible a conflagration, and caused +so much noble blood to be shed, alike on the part of those who +fanned and those who sought to extinguish the flames. + +The third circumstance which seems to have mainly tended to stop +the progress of revolution in Europe, has been the great amount of +_interests_ in France which could not fail to be injured, either +by foreign warfare or domestic Socialist triumph. This is mainly +owing to France having already undergone fusion in the revolutionary +crucible. Scarcely anything remains to melt, but the dross which +had flowed out of the first furnace. The great estates and church +lands were divided; two-thirds were cut off from the national debt. +Nobody remained to despoil but the _tiers état_ and revolutionary +proprietors. They stood shoulder to shoulder in defence of their +all, which they saw was seriously menaced; and thence the stoppage +of the revolution at Paris, and the rapid retrograde movement of +opinion on the subject, in the majority, over all France. Foreign +war was not less an object of apprehension than internal spoliation. +The peasants recollected the conscription and the Cossacks, and +the weighty contributions of the Allies; the bourgeois dreaded +the cessation of foreign travelling in their country, and the +termination of the prolific shower of English gold. It was a general +terror that the best interests of society were in danger which +produced the determined resistance to the insurgents in Paris on the +23d of June, and formed the majority of four millions who elected +Prince Louis Napoleon to the president's chair. Beyond all doubt, +the greater part of the electors, when they recorded their suffrages +for him, understood they were really voting for an emperor, and +opposing the barrier of force to the revolution. + +This circumstance suggests a very important consideration, on which +it well becomes the people of this country to ponder, in reasoning +from the example of France to themselves. It is not unusual now to +hear the opinion advanced, that the result of universal suffrage in +France proves that the apprehensions entertained on this subject, on +this side of the Channel, are unfounded; and that, in truth, there +is no such effectual barrier against revolution as universal, or, at +least, a very low suffrage. America is frequently referred to, also, +in confirmation of the same opinion. But under what circumstances +has universal suffrage been forced to uphold property in these two +countries? Recollect that both are overspread with a host of small +proprietors: in France no less than 6,000,000 persons, for the most +part in very indigent circumstances, being holders of land; and in +America, the whole soil, from its having been so recently reclaimed +from the forest, and the law of equal succession, _ab intestato_, +being in the hands of the actual cultivators. But can any opinion +be formed from this as to what would be the effect of a change in +the electoral law, which created 6,000,000 of voters in a country +where there are not 300,000 holders of land, and not above an equal +number of proprietors in the funds? It is evident that we can never +argue from a country which _has been revolutionised_, and where +property _has been divided_, to one where neither of these events +has taken place. Doubtless the robber will make a fight before he +allows his prey to be torn from him; and when there are six millions +of persons, for the most part possessed of the fruits of robbery, +the rendering these back will not be very easily effected. But +if we would see the effect of an extended suffrage, in a country +which has not been revolutionised, and where the strong curb-chain +of individual interest does not exist to restrain the majority, +we have only to look to what the electors of France in 1793 did +with the estates of the church and the nobility; to what the +American freeholders did in 1837, when they destroyed five-sixths +commercial wealth of the country, by raising the cry "Bank, or no +Bank:" or what the British ten-pounders have done with the other +classes of society, and, eventually, though they did not intend it, +with themselves, by their measures of free trade and a restricted +currency. Beyond all doubt, _these_ measures would at once be +repealed by an extended constituency; but are we sure they would +stop there? What security have we they would not apply the sponge to +the National Debt, confiscate the church property, and openly, or by +a graduated assessment on land, divide the estates of the nobility? + +But perhaps the most powerful agent, which has been at work, in +stopping the progress of revolution in Europe, has been the public +and private INSOLVENCY which in an abandoned state of society +inevitably and rapidly follows such convulsions. This is the great +check upon the government and the madness of the people. That +France, ever since the revolution of February 1848, has been in a +state of almost hopeless monetary embarrassment, is well known to +all the world. In fact, nothing but the most consummate prudence, +and the adoption of the wisest measures on the part of the Bank of +France, has saved them from a general public and private bankruptcy. +What those measures were, will immediately be explained. In the mean +time, to show the magnitude of the difficulties against which they +had to make head, it is sufficient to observe, that in twenty-one +months the Revolutionary Government has incurred a floating debt +of £22,000,000; and that the deficiency for the year 1849, wholly +unprovided for--and which must be made good by Exchequer bills, or +other temporary expedients--is no less than _eleven millions and a +half sterling_. It is not surprising it should have swelled to this +enormous amount; for the very first demand of revolutionists, when +they have proved victorious, is to diminish the public burdens and +increase the public expenditure. And they did this so effectually +in France, that in one year after the revolution of 1848, they had +increased the public expenditure by 162,000,000 francs, or about +£6,500,000; while they had caused the public revenue to fall by +248,000,000 francs, or nearly £10,000,000! + +The dreadful prostration of industry which such a state of the +public revenue implies, would have proved altogether fatal to +France, had it not been rescued from the abyss by the surpassing +wisdom with which, in that crisis, the measures of the Bank of +France were conducted. But the conduct of that establishment, at +that trying crisis, proved that they had taken a lesson from the +archives of history. Carefully shunning the profuse and exorbitant +issue of paper which, under the name of assignats, effected +so dreadful a destruction of property in France in the first +revolution, they imitated the cautious and prudent policy by which +Mr Pitt surmounted the crisis of 1797, and brought the nation +triumphant through the whole dangers of the war. They obtained an +act from the legislature authorising the issue, not of £600,000,000 +sterling of notes, as in 1793 and 1794, but of 400,000,000 francs, +or £16,000,000 sterling, not convertible into gold and silver. +This, and this alone, it was that brought France through the crisis +of the Revolution. Specie, before this aid was obtained, was fast +disappearing from circulation; the Bank of France had suspended cash +payments; three of the principal banks in Paris had become bankrupt; +the payment of all bills was suspended by act of government--for +this plain reason, that no debtor could find cash to discharge his +engagements. But this wise measure gave the French people that most +inestimable of all blessings in a political and monetary crisis--a +currency which, without being redundant, is sufficient, and, being +not convertible into the precious metals, neither augments the +strain on them, nor is liable to be swept away by foreign export. In +consequence of this seasonable advance, the crisis was surmounted, +though not without most acute general suffering; and industry, since +a government comparatively stable was established, in the person +of Prince Louis Napoleon, has revived to a surprising degree over +the whole country. Indeed, it may be doubted whether the general +misery which prevailed in France, desolated by a revolution, but +sustained by a moderate inconvertible paper currency, was greater +than was felt in the manufacturing cities of Great Britain, saved +by the firmness of government and the good sense of the nation +from a political convulsion, but withering under the fetters of +a contracted currency, and unrestricted admission of foreign +produce.[4] + + [4] In Paris, after the Revolution in April and May, it was + stated there were 300,000 persons out of employment, including + the dependants of those without work. This number was, doubtless, + fearfully great out of a population of 1,200,000 souls. But it was + exceeded in some parts of Great Britain. In April 1848, the number + of unemployed persons in and around Glasgow was so excessive, that + an examination of them was made, by order of the magistrates of that + city, with a view to an application to government for assistance. + The men out of work were found, in that city and its vicinity, to + be 31,000, which, allowing two and a half dependants to each male, + implies 93,000 persons destitute of employment, out of a population + at that time estimated at 360,000; being somewhat more than 300,000 + out of 1,200,000 in Paris. + +One thing is perfectly apparent from the result of the revolution in +Italy, that the establishment of either civil liberty or political +independence is hopeless in that beautiful peninsula. The total +and easy rout of the Piedmontese and Tuscan forces by Radetsky is +a proof of this. Venice was defended by its Lagunæ--Rome not by +the descendants of the ancient masters of the world, but by the +revolutionary mercenaries of Poland, Hungary, and Germany, whom the +Austrian victories drove back from the banks of the Po to those +of the Tiber. On the other hand, the example of Naples, where the +firmness of the king has preserved in the end his dominions entire, +though Sicily for a time was severed from the kingdom, and Naples +itself was the theatre of a bloody convulsion, proves alike of what +flimsy materials revolution is composed in the south of Europe, and +through what a perilous crisis a nation can be safely conducted, +when the depositaries of power are not unworthy of the elevated +duties with which they are entrusted. + +Still more important is the lesson read to the world by the +attempted revolution in England and Ireland. That Great Britain was +threatened with the convulsions, in the throes of which France and +Germany were labouring, is universally known. The Chartists openly +declared that monarchy could not stand two months in England or +Scotland; the Repealers were counting the hours till the Saxon was +expelled from the Emerald Isle, and a Hibernian republic proclaimed +in Dublin, in close alliance with the great parent democracy in +Paris. Where are these boasters now? The English revolutionists +were morally slaughtered in London on the 10th April: the Irish +rebels were blown into the air by the fire of the police in the +cabbage garden. They have been more than vanquished; they have been +rendered ridiculous. In despair, they are now leaving in crowds +their wo-stricken isle; and it is to be hoped a better race, more +industrious habits, and a more tractable people, will gradually be +introduced into the deserts which Celtic improvidence and folly has +made. It is a glorious spectacle to see an attempted revolution +which broke out in both islands suppressed almost without the +effusion of blood; and England, the first-born of freedom in modern +times, reasserting, in its advanced period of existence, at once the +order and moderation which are the glorious inheritance of genuine +Liberty. + +Would that we could say that our foreign policy during the two last +eventful years has been as worthy of praise, as the conduct of our +government in combating our internal enemies has been. But here the +meed of our approbation must fail. Contrary alike to our obvious +interests and to our real and long-established principles, we have +apparently been guided by no other principle but that of fomenting +revolution, after the example of France, in every country which the +contagion had reached. We all but severed Sicily from Naples, and +openly assisted the Sicilian insurgents with arms and ammunition. +We once stopped, for "humanity's sake," the Neapolitan expedition +from sailing to combat the rebels: we more than once interposed +in favour of Charles Albert and the Piedmontese revolutionists: +we have alienated Austria, it is to be feared, beyond redemption, +by our strange and tortuous policy in regard to the Hungarian +insurrection: we, without disguise, countenanced the revolutionary +Germans in their attack upon the Danes. What object Ministers had +in that, or how they thought the interests of England, a great +commercial and exporting nation, were to be forwarded by throwing +its whole customers into confusion and misery, we cannot divine. +Apparently, their sympathy with revolution anywhere but at home, +was so strong, that they could not abstain from supporting it all +around them, though to the infinite detriment of their own people. +And it is a most curious circumstance, that, while the Chancellor of +the Exchequer constantly told us--no doubt with a certain degree of +truth--that the failure of our exports, and the general distress of +the country, was, in a great degree, to be ascribed to the European +revolutions, the whole policy of the Foreign Office, during the +same period, was directed to countenance and support these very +revolutions. + +But from the painful contemplation of the follies and aberrations +of man, let us turn, with thankfulness, to the contemplation of the +great moral lessons which the events of the two last years teach +us as to the wisdom and beneficence of Nature. It is now clear +beyond the possibility of doubt, that the wisdom of Providence has +provided barriers against the passions, vices, and follies of men; +and that if the leaders in thought and station fail in their duty, +an invisible bulwark against the progress of anarchy is provided +in the general misery which is the consequence of their excesses. +Pre-eminent above all others in the history of mankind, THE YEAR +OF REACTION, immediately succeeding THE YEAR OF REVOLUTIONS, is +fraught with the demonstration of these great and consoling moral +and religious truths. From it the patriot will derive consolation +and hope, amidst the darkest periods which may yet be in store for +the human race: for never was a darker period than that through +which we have passed; and from its checkered scenes the virtuous +and upright will draw the conclusion that there are limits to human +wickedness even in this scene of trial; and that the safest, not +less than the most honourable course, for all classes, from the +throne to the cottage, in periods of danger, is to be found in the +fearless discharge of DUTY. + + + + +MY PENINSULAR MEDAL. + +BY AN OLD PENINSULAR. + +PART III.--CHAPTER VII. + + +Next morning, shortly after daybreak, we were all hurried out of +our berths by Joey, to come on deck, and take a first view of the +coast of Spain. We made the land to the north-east of Cape Villano, +and were not a little struck with the bare, black, scowling aspect +of that mountainous and iron-bound coast. Off Oporto we stood in, +with the design of entering the river. But a signal from the shore +announced the bar impassable, and we had nothing before us but +the delightful prospect of standing off and on, till the weather +permitted us to land the bags. Gingham, I observed, stood anxiously +peering with his telescope in the direction of the bar, where the +sea, for miles, was foam and fury. "Well," said I at last, "are you +looking for a cork in that yeast?"--"I am," replied Gingham, "and +there it is. See, they have passed the bar. We shall soon have them +alongside." + +I saw nothing, but at length was able to discern in the distance +a small speck, which was executing most extraordinary vagaries in +the midst of the surf. Now it was high, now low; now visible, now +lost. Its approach was indicated, not so much by any perceptible +change of position, as by an increase of apparent magnitude. +Gingham now handed me the glass, and I saw a large boat, full of +men, pulling towards us like Tritons. At length they reached the +ship. Smart fellows those Oporto boatmen--know how to handle those +clumsy-looking, enormous boats of theirs. What a scene was that +alongside! The wind high; the sea rough; the boat banging against +the ship's side; the men in her all talking together. Talking? Say +jabbering, shouting, screaming. I was in perfect despair. Where was +my Portuguese? Hadn't I studied it at Trinity College, Cambridge? +Couldn't I make out a page of my Portuguese Gil Blas? Hadn't I got +a Portuguese grammar and dictionary in my trunk? And hadn't I got +a nice little volume of Portuguese dialogues in my pocket? Yet not +one word could I understand of what those fellows in the boat were +bawling about. Their idiom was provincial, their pronunciation +Spanish. That I didn't know. It seemed to me, at the time, that all +my toil had been wasted. Never despair, man. If you want to learn a +language, and can't learn it in the country, why, learn it at home. +You may, you probably will, feel at a loss, when you first get among +the natives. But, after two or three days, all will begin to come +right: your ear, untutored hitherto, will begin to do its part; then +your stores of previously acquired knowledge will all come into use, +and you may jabber away to your heart's content. But mind, whatever +the language you learn--Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, or +High Dutch--go to work in a scholarlike, businesslike manner; learn +the verbs, study the syntax, master all the technicalities, or you +are doing no good. Doubtless, in your travels abroad, you will fall +in with lively old English residents, who "speak the language as +fluently as a native," and tell you it's all nonsense, _they_ never +looked into a grammar, nor into a book neither. But never mind that; +follow your own plan. Speak the language whenever you can--that of +course; hear it spoken; dine at the table d'hôte--that's worth a +five shilling lesson at any time, and you get your dinner extra; +but, all the while, read daily, work your grammar, turn out the +words in your dictionary, and mark the result. You, after a space, +can not only speak the language, but _write_ it; whereas those +intelligent individuals, let alone writing, can't _read_ it. Another +suggestion, which I--but where are we? What are we talking about? +While I am boring you with suggestions, the despatches have been +handed into the boat; the boat has shoved off, and is making for the +shore--plunging, ramping, tearing through the surf under a press +of sail: and, on the deck of the Princess Wilhelmina gun-brig, +stand three new and very rum-looking passengers--a Spaniard, a +Portuguese, and a nondescript--one deal box, one old leathern +portmanteau, one canvass bag, two umbrellas (blue,) one ditto +(red,) and a high-crowned Spanish hat, tied up in a faded cotton +pocket-handkerchief. + +Our new companions were all a little "indisposed" the first day; +but, the weather moderating in the night, they grew better the next, +and were able to take their places at the dinner table. The Spaniard +had come on board, assuming that he was to victual himself, or pay +extra. Under this impression, opening his box in the forenoon, he +produced with much gravity a bundle, consisting of half-a-dozen +oranges, some very coarse brown bread, a flask of wine, and a chump +of splendid garlick sausage, all tied up together, in a second +cotton pocket-handkerchief. Spreading said handkerchief on the cabin +table as a cloth, he next brought out from his pocket a formidable +cheese-toaster, and was preparing to do battle with the prog. The +Major, perceiving his mistake, addressed him in Spanish, politely +explaining that the passage-money covered everything, and that +he could call for whatever the ship afforded. The Hidalgo, thus +advised, and courteously thanking the Major, contented himself with +an orange, carefully tied up the remaining provender as before, and +restored it to the sky-blue deal box. + +This act of the Major's, benignant reader, piqued my curiosity. The +Major was a very good fellow, as you have doubtless discovered ere +this; but he was not a man to do anything without a _motive_. I +couldn't feel easy, without getting to the bottom of it. + +"Very kind of you, Major," said I, "to give the Don that information +respecting his rights _in transitu_." + +"Kind?" said the Major indignantly; "what do you mean by kind? Had +he once attacked that sausage, we should have smelt garlic all the +way to Lisbon." I now appreciated the Major's urbanity. + +"Close fellows, those Spaniards," added the Major. "I knew very well +he wouldn't give me part of his sausage. Didn't go for it." + +"Why, if you had shared the feast," said I, "we should have smelt +garlic twice as bad." + +"Yes," replied the Major "but _I_ shouldn't have smelt it _at all_." + +Said hidalgo was a tall, kiln-dried attomy of a man--hair black +and lanky--forehead high and corrugated--eyebrows pencilled and +elevated--eyes almost closed by the dropping of the eyelids--nose +long, thin, and very inexpressive--mouth diminutive--chin +sharp--cheek-bones high and enormously prominent--cheeks hollow and +cadaverous, regular excavations; half one of his oranges, stuck in +each, would about have brought them to a level with his face. Of +course he was dubbed Don Quixotte. The Portuguese came on board +with his hair dressed as a wig, enormous white choker, no neck +(that's why I called him Punch,) _chapeau de bras_, short black +cock-tail coat, white silk waistcoat flowered green and gold, black +satin unmentionables, black silk stockings, and top-boots--the +tops a sort of red japan. As to the third visitor, no one could +assert who he was, or what he was. He obtained a passage without +any document from the Oporto authorities, on the plea that he was +a courier, and carried despatches from Oporto to Lisbon. This, the +Colonel remarked, was rather odd, as the bag generally went by +land. One said he was a Spaniard; another said he was a Jew. Gingham +pronounced him a Frenchman:--but what could a Frenchman be doing +there? The one index of his identity was a nose, which forthwith won +him the name of 'Hookey.' Hookey spoke French, Spanish, Portuguese, +lots besides--disclaimed English--yet seemed always listening while +we talked. He was constantly smiling, too; the habit had given him a +deep semicircular maxillary furrow--say trench if you will--on each +side of his ugly mug. There was something in his smile that I didn't +like. If he saw you looking at him, he put on a smile. + +At dinner the Colonel, anxious to do the honours, took an early +opportunity of challenging Don Quixotte to a glass of wine. The Don +filled a bumper; the Colonel nodded: the Don, with majestic and +silent gravity, rose slowly from his seat, his glass in one hand, +the other on his heart; bowed profoundly to each of the company in +succession; tossed off the wine; melo-dramatically extended the +empty glass at arm's length; bowed again; sighed; squeezed his hand +very hard upon his heart, and sat down. The Major challenged Punch, +who half filled his tumbler, sipped, filled up with water, sipped +again, nodded then, not before, as if he would say "Now it will do," +and drank off the whole. Captain Gabion challenged Hookey, who, +alone of the three, performed correctly. "Hookey, my boy," thought +I, "where did you learn that?" + +Neither Punch nor Don Quixotte manifested the least disposition to +amalgamate with us. They kept themselves apart, replied civilly +when addressed--that was all. I must say, speaking from my own +observations, it is a slander which describes the English abroad as +exclusive. The exclusiveness, so far as I have seen, lies much more +with the Continentals. + +But if, on the present occasion, the Spaniard and the Portuguese +kept their distance, it certainly was far otherwise with my friend +Hookey. I take the liberty of calling him my friend, because +I was particularly honoured by his attentions. I have already +said that he seemed interested in our conversation. The interest +extended to everything about us. He inquired respecting each and +every one; his name, his rank, his department, his destination: +asked me, in an off-hand way, if I could guess how many troops +the British general had--what was to be the plan of the ensuing +campaign--did our Government intend to carry on the war with +vigour? When, by inquiring elsewhere, he discovered that I was +attached to the military chest, he redoubled his attentions, and +eke his interrogatories. Had I bullion on board? How much? Should I +convey treasure from Lisbon to headquarters? On bullock-cars or on +mules? By what route? Of course I should have a guard--did I know? +Travelling up the country would be dangerous as the army advanced +into Spain--wouldn't it advance?--when?--he knew every part of the +Peninsula--was himself bound for headquarters after delivering his +despatches--would be happy to go with me--wouldn't mind waiting a +day or two in Lisbon--would assist me in obtaining a servant--a +horse--a mule--anything. I, communicative as he was inquisitive, +lavished information in floods; advised him as to the amount of +bullion on board, to go down into the hold, and see with his own +eyes; informed him, as a particular secret, that I shouldn't wonder +if I was sent to headquarters, unless it happened otherwise; and +hadn't the least doubt that I should have the conveyance of whatever +amount of treasure was placed under my charge for that purpose; +declined saying anything then about a servant, horse, or mule, as I +should probably find "Milord Vilinton" had thought of me, and had +everything of that kind ready against my arrival; begged to tell him +I was a person of great importance, but maintaining the strictest +incognito--hoped he wouldn't mention it. Presently he stole away to +the forecastle, where I got a sight of him. He was jotting down like +mad. + +On the evening of our second day from Oporto, we made the Berlings; +been six weeks at sea, from leaving the Tagus. If, instead of +coasting it, which secured them a foul wind, they had struck out at +once, from the mouth of the river, two or three days' sail into the +Atlantic, they would probably have got the wind they wanted. That is +what Captain Nil did, when I came home, passenger from Lisbon, 1843, +in his clever little fruit-ship, the King Alfred. Didn't we give the +go-by to the northerly current which blows down the coast, and catch +a south-wester, which was just what we needed? Didn't we jockey two +other orangemen, that started in company, and thought to beat us by +working up along shore? And didn't we bring our prime oranges first +to market, and sell them off-hand at London Bridge, with an extra +profit of ten shillings a chest? + +The morning after we passed the Berlings, we saw the Rock of Lisbon. +This, I suppose, is about the most striking object the mariner +beholds, in approaching any coast in the known world. Not more than +fifteen hundred feet above the level of the sea, it stands so dark +in tint, so grim in aspect, so ragged in outline, you fancy some +fresh earthquake has heaved it up, crude and pinnacled, from the +volcanic bowels of the soil, and there left it to frown above the +waves that thunder at its base, and spout up in unavailing froth and +fume. "There it stands," said Gingham, "the old Rock! Often have I +rounded it before; often have I viewed it; often have I ranged it: +worthy the attention of the naturalist; still more of the geologist; +but, above all, of the meteorologist: the Promontory of the Moon; +yes, + + The hill where fond Diana looked and loved, + While chaste Endymion slept and dreamed of heaven: + +the advanced guard of mountain ridges, that condense the +invisible vapours of the ocean; the medium and thoroughfare of +electric communication between Europe and the Atlantic! See how +the thin air of the tropics becomes mist, when it reaches those +thunder-splintered pinnacles--hem! _Lady of the Lake_. See how +it caps them with a perpetual cloud, which, though perpetual, is +constantly diminished by the moisture which it discharges, and +constantly replenished by fresh supplies of vapour from the sea. +Here, the wind is north: but there, in that elevated region, the +upper current is blowing steadily from the south-west. Take my +advice, Mr Y----. Don't leave Lisbon without visiting the Rock. Go +to Cintra. Inquire for Madam Dacey's hotel; and don't allow her to +charge you more than two dollars a-day, wine included, spirits and +bottled porter extra." + +Gingham now drew out his telescope. "Ah!" said he, "there's Colares; +and there's Cintra, just at the base of the Penha. There goes a +donkey party, on a visit to the Cork Convent. My respects to the +old Capuchins. There's Madam Dacey herself, fat and rosy as ever, +scolding Francisco the cook for spoiling that omelet. How are you, +old lady?--Villain! He's making a _pâté_ with one hand, and taking +snuff with the other! Don't roast that hare, blockhead; it's dry +enough already. Make it into soup. That's the way to serve a Cintra +hare. Clap a thin slice of bacon on the breast of each of those red +partridges, before you put them down. What, boil that gurnet? Bake +it, bake it, stupid! Serve it up cold for supper: beats lobster, +and should be dressed the same way--oil, cayenne, vinegar, and a +modicum of salt. I say, Francisco; mind you send up the soup hot. +What an extraordinary fact, Mr Y----! You may get good soups, and +all the materials for good dinners, go where you will; but our +own countrymen are the only people in the world who know how a +dinner should be served up, and set on table. Why, sir, at those +hotels at Lisbon and Cintra, I've tasted most splendid soups, +magnificent!--but, positively, sent to table lukewarm--neither hot +nor cold--tepid, sir! what do you think of that?" + +I was thinking, just at that moment, that I should like to hear +more about Cintra. But Gingham had now got on the subject of +_la cuisine_; _la cuisine_ was one of his hobbies (he kept a +_stud_)--and, once mounted, there was no getting him off. Yet +Gingham, much as he delighted in dinner-giving, was not himself a +gourmand. In him the passion was disinterested--a matter of taste--a +sentiment. And ah! need I add how it enhanced the value of his +friendship? + +About noon we crossed the bar; by two P.M. were off Lisbon, and, +while I was all agape, admiring the surpassing beauties of the +scene, had dropped our anchor. Captain Gabion took me by the elbow, +and proposed that we should sojourn at the same hotel. The motive +transpired that afternoon. Gingham had his own quarters, in the Rua +d'Alecrim. We all landed together at the Yellow House, where our +luggage underwent an examination--in those days a very off-hand +business, the English, in fact, being in military occupation of the +country. My traps were despatched among the first; and I sat waiting +for the Captain, whose turn came later. Meanwhile Hookey's bag was +opened, and the contents turned out. Among them I expected to see a +letterbox; but there was nothing that looked like despatches. While +Hookey was engaged with his bag, he was joined by a shabby-genteel +personage, who had the look of a military man in plain clothes--an +Englishman, or, I rather thought, an Irishman. They recognised each +other at once, and seemed to meet by appointment--left the office +arm in arm, the new-comer carrying Hookey's bag. They passed without +observing me, as I sat in the background near the door, among bags +and boxes. _Both_ were speaking _English_: _i. e._, Hookey, English +as it is spoken by Frenchmen; his companion, English as it ought +to be spoken, the pure vernacular of the Sister Isle. "Kim, kim +away wid ye, now; isn't it aal krikt and wrigler?"--"Oh, yase; +now I sal comb vid you, presently." "Aha! Mister Hookey; so you +don't understand English," thought I. Not to be an eavesdropper, +I started up, and put out my paw, in tender of a parting shake. +Hookey, a little taken aback, clasped it fervently in both his; and, +repudiating disguise, laughed, and spoke English again, grasping +and shaking my fist with intense cordiality. I suppose it was his +surprise, that made him substitute greeting for leave-taking: "Ah, +how you do, sare? I hope you varraval." + +Gingham took a kind but rather distant leave. The Captain and I +adjourned with our luggage, which was first cleverly laid together +and packed, and then borne, swinging by ropes from two bars, which +rested on the shoulders of four stout Gallegos, who walked two and +two, hugging each other round the neck, and stepping together in +admirable time. The Captain indicated the road; and we soon reached +our domicile, MacDermot's Hotel (as it was then called), Rua do +Prior, Buenos Ayres,--for air and prospect, the finest situation in +all Lisbon; and that is not saying a little. + +I was for ordering dinner forthwith. The Captain, for reasons best +known to himself, wished an hour's delay. Reluctantly acceding, I +retired to my private apartment, and commenced operations in the +soap and dowlas line. Presently the Captain tapped at my door, +and entered. Wanted me just to walk down with him to the water's +side--wanted me particularly. Away we went. The Captain spoke +little--seemed to have some project. At length he opened: "I rather +think the skipper will catch a precious good hiding presently; serve +him right." All this was Greek to me, though I had heard something +of the skipper's bad conduct to the Major. + +We now, having descended by a side street as steep as a ladder, +entered the main road, or broadway, which runs by the water's side. +Who should meet us there, but the Major? He was evidently on the +look-out for us, and joined forthwith. "Has the boat left the brig +yet?" said Captain Gabion. + +"Not yet, I think," said the Major; "I saw her alongside, though. +Come down to the water's edge. That's the place." + +We descended, through a passage between stone walls. Captain Gabion +now addressed me a second time: "Mr Y----, I have already undertaken +to officiate as the Major's friend. You must pick up the skipper." + +"Well, but what's it all about?" said I. "Hadn't any idea of your +intention. You never told me." + +"No time for explanation now," said the Captain. "Will you +officiate, or will you not?" + +"Always ready to do the needful when the case requires," said +I. "But, if the Major feels himself aggrieved, is there no other +redress? Won't it be _infra dig._?" + +"The fact is," said the Major, "I don't intend to give him a +_heavy_ licking--only just to polish him off a bit. As to redress, +if I lodged a complaint, it must come ultimately before our own +authorities. Now Englishmen abroad, when ill-treated, are always +ignored or deserted by their government. I've seen that often. +That rascal would get off scot-free; and the very fact of my +having applied would be remembered to my disadvantage, and perhaps +would injure me in my profession. If I was a Frenchman or a Yankee +travelling abroad, and had been oppressed or ill-treated, I would +apply to my government. But as I am an Englishman, what would be the +use?" + +"Well," said I, "the skipper's conduct on board was very bad, I +admit; to you, I've heard, particularly. But it's all over now. +Come, let him off this time." + +"Very well," said the Major. "In a fortnight he sails for +England--takes home a ship-load of British officers, sick, wounded, +invalided. If he ill treats such fine fellows as you and me, and +goes unpunished, how will he treat them, do you think? I'll tell you +what. All I fear is, after he has got a few taps, he'll go down; +then there'll be no getting him up again, and he'll escape with only +half his deserts. Now that's just what I want you to prevent." + +"Well," said I; "if I am to officiate as the skipper's friend, of +course I must do him justice. I only tell you that." + +"Very well," said the Major, between his teeth. "You pick him up; +that's all." + +We reached the high bank by the water's edge, just above the +landing-place. A boat was seen approaching from the Princess +Wilhelmina: four men pulling, skipper steering. Captain Gabion +addressed the Major: + +"I'll tell you what; it won't do here. First, there isn't room. +Secondly--don't you see?--when he gets more than he likes, he has +nothing to do but to roll down the bank, jump into the boat, and +shove off. Thirdly, the boat's crew might interfere; and then we +should get the worst of it." + +Meanwhile the boat reached the jetty; the skipper landed; ascended +the bank by a zigzag path with Snowball at his heels; passed without +noticing us, as we stood among other lookers on; and walked up the +passage. The Major followed him. Captain Gabion and I followed the +Major. + +Just as the skipper was emerging from the passage into the street, +the Major stepped smartly after him, and tapped him on the shoulder, +exclaiming, "Take that, you ruffian." _That_ was a sharp application +of the toe. + +Like a caged lizard touched in the tail, the skipper sprang fiercely +round. + +"What's that for?" he cried, with a furious look. + +"Ah, what's that for?" replied the Major, administering a stinging +soufflet. + +The skipper, calm in an instant, and savage in cold blood, commenced +peeling. I stepped up to him, received his jacket, and handed it to +the nigger, thereby installing myself in office. The Major turned up +the cuffs of his coat-sleeves. + +"Now, coolly, my man," said I, as the skipper went in like a mad +bull. + +The first three rounds, like the Three Graces, had a +mutual resemblance. Superior to the Major in weight and +strength--formidable, too, as a hitter--the skipper did not succeed +in planting a single effective blow. Some were stopped, some were +dodged, some fell short, and one or two hit short. Still worse for +the skipper, he had no idea of guard. His antagonist, a first-rate +_artiste_, went on gradually painting his portrait. At the end of +the third round, "his mammy wouldn't a' knowed him." The Major, in +striking, did not throw in his weight, merely hit from the shoulder +and elbow. But his punishing told: he hit with a snap; he hit fast; +he had the faculty of rapidly hitting twice with the same hand. +In short, the skipper was evidently getting the worst of it. All +this time, the Major continued perfectly cool and fresh; and, like +Shelton, the navigator--whom I remember well, though you, perhaps, +do not--as often as he stopped a hit, he politely inclined his +head, as much as to say, "Well intended--try again." At the close of +the third round, however, in consequence of the skipper's attempting +a rush, the Major was constrained to put in a really hard blow as a +stopper. It not only answered that purpose, but nearly lifted the +skipper, and sent him reeling some paces backwards. + +Instead of coming, as before, to my extended arms, and seating +himself, like a good child, on my knee till time was up, the skipper +now staggered towards Snowball, and began rummaging in his jacket. I +was too quick for him. Just as he extracted an enormous clasp-knife, +I whipped it out of his hand, and passed it to Captain Gabion. On +this demonstration, supposing that "legitimate war" was at an end, +and my "occupation gone," I was quietly walking away, with my hands +in my pockets. But the Captain, having first communicated with the +Major, met and stopped me, saying, "Come, we overlook that. The next +round." + +The fourth round presented no novelty. The painting went on; I may +say, this time, was pretty well finished. Never was an ugly monkey +more completely "beautified" than the poor skipper. He still had +his strength and wind, and there was as yet no reason why he should +not ultimately win--especially as he hit out like the kick of a +horse, and one of his blows, if it told, might have turned the day. +I began, however, to be apprehensive that he would soon be put _hors +de combat_, by losing the use of his peepers. When, therefore, I +sent him in the fifth time, I whispered, "You must try to close, or +you'll have the worst of it." + +Suddenly rushing in, giving his head, and boring on with his right +arm extended, the skipper, at the commencement of the fifth round, +contrived to get his left about the Major's waist. This led to +a grapple, and a short but fierce struggle. The skipper had the +advantage in physical power; but the Major was his superior in +wrestling, as well as in the nobler science. They fell together, the +Major uppermost. On the ground, strength resuming its advantage, +the skipper soon rolled the Major over, and had the ascendency. +Supposing the round concluded, I was going to pull him off. "Let +alone, let alone," said the Major; "leave him to me." The Major, I +presumed, was waiting an opportunity for a "hoist." + +The skipper now, with his right arm extended, held the Major's +extended left, pinned down by the wrist. The skipper's left arm and +shoulder were passed under the Major's right, so as completely to +put it out of commission. With his left hand, the skipper seemed to +be pulling the Major's hair. All this was so completely _hors des +règles_, that nothing but the Major's veto kept us from interposing. + +At this juncture of the combat there was evidently something out of +the usual course, which particularly interested the nigger. Stooping +down almost to a squat, his face peering close over the heads of +the two combatants, his big eyes bulging and gloating with eager +expectation, his mouth open, his blubber lips projecting, and his +two hands uplifted and expanded with intense curiosity, he watched +the result. Just in time, I grasped the skipper's thumb! Half a +second more, and the Major's eye would have been out of its socket! + +Captain Gabion, breathing the only execration I ever heard from his +lips, choked the skipper off. + +The Portuguese bystanders, though much interested in the fray, had +not been thoroughly sensible of its character. To them, probably, +the fight had looked as if a man, in perfect possession of his +temper, had been merely playing with a very savage assailant, so +clean and easy was the Major's style of punishing. But now, when +they walked up, and looked in the miserable sufferer's face, they +perceived the serious nature of the castigo administered. Instead of +features they beheld--a mask, I was going to say, but that would be +incorrect; for in most masks, you have eyes, nose, and mouth. Here, +distinctness was obliterated; and as to eyes, why, you couldn't see +the eyelashes. I handed the skipper to Snowball, advising he should +be taken on board, and seen to. Snowball walked of, conducting him +down the passage. I thought of the knife, procured it from the +Captain, ran, and handed it to the nigger. "Tell him," said I, +"never to use that again, except for cheese-toasting, picking his +teeth, and so forth." "Yes, massa; me tell him you say so." "I say, +Snowball," added I, "hadn't you better put a little oil on his face, +to keep off the mosquitos? If they get at him as he is now, they'll +drive him mad." "Ah no, massa," said Blackey, regretfully; "no +muskitto here, dis tree, five week; dis place too cold, mosh very. +Let alone, no muskitto on de wottah here, nebber at no time." + +I hurried back, and found Captain Gabion supporting the Major, who +stood with both hands spread out over his right eye, and, to all +appearance, suffering intense agony. Blood was visible between his +fingers, and on his cheek. The Captain, solicitous to ascertain the +amount of injury, made a gentle attempt to withdraw the Major's +hands. + +"Don't! don't!" gasped the Major. "Has he--got my eye--in his +pocket?" + +"All right, all right," replied the Captain; "you have still a spare +eye to wink with. Near thing, though." + +"To-night I meant to have slept at Villa Franca," said the Major, +still speaking as if his agony was extreme. "My man is waiting just +by with the horses, at the _chafriz_." + +"Nonsense, nonsense!" said Captain Gabion; "to-night you must sleep +at our quarters. Pledget is there, and will look at your eye. Mr +Y----, there's the _chafriz_; that stone fountain, where you see the +open space." + +I stepped in that direction, and found an English servant, holding +two horses. The Major had intended to "polish off" the skipper, +mount forthwith, and away for Sacavem at a hand-gallop. So he might; +only that the skipper, according to his own ideas of manly combat, +having got his opponent undermost, and secured a grip of the Major's +love-lock with his four fingers, had hooked his thumb-nail, and eke +a portion of his thumb, in the ----but enough. I brought up the man +and horses, and with some difficulty we got the Major to the hotel. + +Pledget was there, examined the eye, did not consider the injury +serious, but deferred giving any decided opinion. Ordered the Major +to bed, and prescribed leeches: wanted to apply a poultice, but +the patient couldn't bear the pressure. For a few days he remained +a prisoner. After that, I met him in the streets with a green +shade--eye doing well. Next spring, saw him on duty. No damage was +then visible, save and except a small scar at the inner corner of +the eye. + +How soon, or how slowly, the skipper recovered from his polishing +I never learned. The skipper, it appears, a year or two before the +American war broke out, had put into the Tagus in a vessel from New +Orleans, damaged. She was detained for repairs; and he, not liking +an idle life, had procured employment in a Falmouth ship. After the +war commenced, he chose to continue in the packet line. The exact +nature of his offence, offered to the Major, I never ascertained. +But it was something connected with the pumping of bilge-water, +when the Major was suffering from sea-sickness, prostrate on the +deck. Some years after, I heard of the skipper again. He had left +Falmouth, and had obtained the command of a packet running between +Southampton and the coast of France. He still had a bad name for +insulting and ill-treating his passengers; and, what is curious, +he again received a polishing from an English officer, at Dieppe. +On this occasion, if I mistake not, the operator was an officer +of the engineers. Whether said officer came out of the _mêlée_ a +Cyclops--the little dog forgot to mention. + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +The morning after our landing from the packet, I sought out, and +with some difficulty discovered, my uncle's office; where I was very +cordially received by both uncles, and very politely by the other +gentlemen of the department. I announced myself prepared to start +forthwith for headquarters; fully expecting to be off that night, or +next day at latest. Uncle No. 1 told me I must go home with him to +dinner, and see my aunt and cousins. Uncle No. 2 advised me to look +out for a billet. + +All this sounded ominous. The sympathising reader is already +advised, that my progress from Lisbon to headquarters was not quite +so expeditious as I had anticipated. The cause of the delay was this. + +My dear mother, as I have already related, had overruled all +objections to my joining the Peninsular army; and through her +influence, my honoured father gave his reluctant consent. Shortly +after, he was ordered to sea: his ship left the Downs; and he did +not return, till after my departure from England. As the time of my +departure drew nigh, my dear mother, left to her own cogitations, +began to view the subject in a very different light. In short, she +was perfectly frightened at her own act; and, when it came to the +last, wrote off, without my knowledge, a letter to my uncle No. 2, +entreating him by all means to detain me at Lisbon, not for the +world to send me up the country--in short, to keep me far beyond the +sound, let alone the range, of hostile cannon. Her letter, posted at +Deal the very day I started thence for London, came out to Lisbon +by the same conveyance with myself; and was doubtless in my uncle's +hands, when I presented myself at the office. Many years after, in +looking over some old correspondence, I found a letter of hers to my +father at sea, revealing the whole plot. + +Next morning, I again presented myself, still expecting to receive +my orders, and be off slick to headquarters. Uncle No. 2 was there; +hoped I had not been _much_ tormented with bugs and fleas; pointed +out a desk with a high seat; and informed me--that was my place! + +The scene, which would have instantly appalled the whole department, +had I given expression to my feelings, was happily prevented by one +reflection, which struck me just in time; viz., that I was now an +_employé_, bound to obedience by military law, and that Nunky was my +commanding officer. + +I sulkily took my seat; and Nunky left me for a few minutes, to the +pleasing process of mental digestion. Presently, he stood by my side +with a huge bundle of papers:--laid the papers on my desk. + +"A fortnight," said he, "will probably elapse ere you can proceed to +headquarters. I wish, in the mean time, you would just see what you +can do, in arranging these convalescent accounts. We could not spare +a hand for them, and they have got sadly into arrear. Do try what +you can make of them." + +I went to work;--worked hard for a fortnight. At the end of that +time, with occasional directions from my uncle, the confused mass +of accounts was reduced to something like order. Still nothing +was said about my journey to headquarters. Fresh work was given +me, which took another week. I began to get regularly savage--was +rapidly turning misanthrope--sympathised with George Barnwell. Nunky +requested my company in a private room. + +"You came out," said he, "expecting to go up the country." + +"Yes; and on that understanding I applied for the appointment, as +I expressed in my letter from England. On that understanding too, +unless I mistook the reply, my services were accepted." + +"Well, G----," said he, "I put it to yourself. The fact is, those +plaguy convalescent accounts have given us more trouble than all +the business of the office besides. Till you came out, we never +have had a clerk that could do them. You do them excellently. +Of course, you are well aware the public service is the first +thing. The long and the short of it is, you perform this duty so +much to our satisfaction, your uncle J---- and I have come to the +determination--we must keep you with us at Lisbon." + +This, my dear madam, with the exception of being crossed in +love--and to that, you know, we all are liable--was my first serious +disappointment in life. Baulked in my schemes of military glory--for +already, in imagination, I was a gentleman volunteer, had mounted a +breach, and won a commission--I had now but one remedy; to resign +my clerkship, and return forthwith to England. And this, under +other circumstances, I should doubtless have done. But the case, as +I then viewed it, stood thus. Here were my two dear uncles, with +enormous responsibility--that of dispensing and accounting for the +whole ready-money transactions of the Peninsular army; here was one +miserable branch of accounts, which gave them more trouble than all +the rest; and here was I, the only lad that could tackle it. Though +that, by the bye, was just so much soft solder; for there were at +least a dozen gentlemen, in our department, who could have made +up and kept the convalescent books quite as well as myself, and +probably far better. + +Well; bad luck to the shilling. There was no remedy; so I settled +to my work; devoting my leisure hours, as a safety-valve, to the +furious study of Portuguese and Spanish. This blew off my wrath, and +in after years proved of good service. + +But I rather suspect, gentle reader, you're a bloody-minded fellow, +and want to get away without further bother from Lisbon to the +seat of war, among shot and shells, grape, canister and congreves. +So, cutting it short, I shall just tell you how, at last, I +out-generalled my dear uncle, and broke from bondage. After that, if +you've no objection, we'll be off at once to join the army. + +Please to bear in mind, then, that I was utterly unconscious +of any wish that I should remain at Lisbon, on the part of my +honoured parents, or either of them. Had I been aware, I would have +acquiesced. My position, according to the view which I now took of +it, was this. My parents had acceded to my scheme of joining the +army: my uncles had brought me out upon that understanding, and upon +no other: and yet, on my arrival, instead of forwarding me up the +country, had, for no earthly reason that I could discover, detained +me at Lisbon, to discharge a duty which, it was now perfectly clear, +might quite as well have been committed to other hands. This, I say, +being my actual view of the case, you will not think it strange, +that I deemed it perfectly fair to employ all lawful means for my +own enlargement and emancipation. + +An opportunity presented itself, in the early part of 1814. The +Allied army was now in the Pyrenees and south of France. Convoys of +specie had been, from time to time, despatched to headquarters; and +were always accompanied by a clerk or conductor of our department, +who went in charge. While headquarters remained in Portugal, or were +not far advanced into Spain, this duty was considered an agreeable +change, and was rather sought than shunned. But, as the distance +lengthened, the departmental view of the subject became different. +The journey was now tedious, and began to be deemed unsafe. Reports +occasionally reached us of British officers ill treated, robbed, or +murdered on the road, by our brave Spanish allies. Our conductors, +who were for the most part natives, began to be very subject to the +fever of the country. Whenever their turn came to take the charge of +treasure to headquarters, they were sure to have it. Well; how could +they help that? You see, it was an _intermittent_ fever. In this +condition of affairs, another large amount of specie was counted +out, packed, and all ready for remittance: and--no conductor being +forthcoming--one of my fellow-clerks received directions to make +the usual preparations for attending it to headquarters. Obeyed, as +a matter of course; but didn't like it at all. Communicated to me +his secret sorrows--was really far from strong--would much prefer +remaining at Lisbon. My determination was taken: I volunteer, as his +substitute. Proposed my plan, to which he assented with hilarity. + +Still, there, was need of management. Had I spoken to Nunky in +private, I knew full well I should be foiled. Combining persuasion +with authority, he would discourage the scheme, and I should have +no course but acquiescence. So, waiting till office-hours, I took +my usual place, expecting his appearance in the great room, where +half-a-dozen of us were seated together at our desks. + +His step was heard in the passage. Half-a-dozen tongues ceased to +wag, and half-a-dozen pens went hard to work, while half-a-dozen +noses came into close contiguity to half-a-dozen official documents. +Nunky entered, took his seat, and commenced the perusal of a pile of +letters. I stood beside him. + +"Well, G----?" + +"I believe, sir, Mr N---- has received instructions to prepare for +a journey to headquarters. Not being in very good health, he would +be glad, with your permission, to remain at Lisbon. I therefore beg +leave to offer myself as his substitute." + +Nunky gave me a look:--saw at once that he was beat. In private, +he might have urged his objections: but, before the whole office, +he could not appear to dissuade me from taking my turn at a duty, +now considered anything but agreeable. No course, then, remained +for him, but to signify his consent. "Oh, very well," said he, "if +that's the way you've settled it between yourselves. Of course, +_I_ can have no objection. Get the usual advance, then; draw your +allowance for a mule; and have all ready for starting the day after +to-morrow." + +Exchanging winks with my fellow-subs, right and left, I returned +triumphant to my seat. Nunky remained a few minutes at his desk, +evidently in a little bit of a fidget. How could I tell that, +do you think, when I sat with my back to him? Oh, I suppose you +never were a clerk in a public office. Else you wouldn't require +to be informed, that office-clerks have eyes in the back of their +heads. When the governor is present, his actions, each and all, are +seen and chronicled by every subordinate in the room. And a great +relief it is, let me tell you, to the tedium of public business, to +recount, criticise, and dramatise them, the moment he's off. Nunky +took up a letter, and began to read it--laid it down unread--took +up another--rose from his seat--sat down again--put on his hat--and +bolted. + +Dicky Gossip--a Portuguese clerk commonly so called--rushed +forthwith to the front office, and returned with equal rapidity. +"Ah, Mister Y----, you is doane. You no sall go up to de coantree +deece toim. Your oankle I vos see him git into him coashe. Ah, him, +gallop down de treet, faster as four mules can carry him. Ah, Mister +Y----, I sall tell you vot!" + +In the course of the afternoon, I received a message to attend my +uncle in another apartment. He met me with a look of triumph, which, +I feared, boded no good. + +"Well, G----," said he, "I wish you had mentioned that business this +morning in private. Then, you know, we would have talked it over +together. As, however, you chose to tender your services in the +public room, of course I was forced to view the thing officially, +and there's no remedy for it. You have volunteered for headquarters, +and to headquarters you must go." + +"Oh, thank you, sir! thank you. That's just what I always wished." + +"Just what you always wished? Of course I know that, as well as you +can tell me, Mr G----. Happy to say, though, I have effected one +arrangement, which will make matters far safer, and more agreeable +too." + +"I fear, sir, if you send me off without the treasure, you will have +some difficulty--" + +"No, no, G----; you and the treasure will go together; that of +course. But the fact is, I've been thinking those Spanish fellows +behave so ill, I'm hardly justified in forwarding so large an amount +of specie by land, all the way from Lisbon to the Pyrenees. In +short, since you spoke to me this morning, I have been on board the +flag-ship--seen the admiral. You and the treasure go to Passages +in a frigate. Beautiful vessel--passed under her stern in coming +ashore." + +Alas, my object, then, was only half effected! I was to join the +army, but not to travel through Spain. Nunky saw my chagrin and +chuckled. + +"Come, come, Mr G----," said he, "you beat me this morning; now I've +beat you. So make up your mind to a voyage by his Majesty's frigate +the M----. Be quick with your arrangements, for she's prepared to +sail at a moment's warning. We shall ship the treasure instanter. So +everything is ready, when you are." + +The next day, at noon, I stood on the deck of the M----, a silent +and admiring spectator of a grand, peristrephic panorama, as we +glided down the Tagus under easy sail. + + +CHAPTER IX. + +No occurrence worthy of record signalised our voyage from Lisbon +to Passages. As you are a member of the Yacht Club, though, and +passionately fond of romantic scenery, follow my advice, and treat +yourself, some fine week in the summer, to a run along the north +coast of Spain--say from Cape Finisterre to the mouth of the +Bidassoa. By the bye, hadn't you better reverse it? An awkward thing +you'd find it, to catch an on-shore wind at the head of the Bay of +Biscay. What would become of you--ah, and what would become of that +clever little craft of yours, the Water Wagtail, with her dandified +rig, and her enormous breadth of beam, and her six pretty little +brass popguns as bright as candlesticks, should a stiff north-wester +surprise you on that horrid coast? Won't it be better, then, to +secure some safe roadstead--the Gironde for instance--make that your +starting-point; choose your weather; and, coasting along the shores +of Biscay and Asturias, have the pleasure of feeling that you are +running out of the Bay, and not running into it? + +That I leave to you. But depend upon it, if you visit that coast, +you will see not merely rocks, not merely mountains, not merely +wild scenery; but scenery so peculiar in character, that you will +not easily find the like. Such was the scenery which, on a fine day +towards the beginning of March, 1814, I viewed one morning early, +standing by the side of the Hon. Mr Beckenham, third lieutenant +of the M----. Mr B., having the morning watch, and thinking it +dull alone, had persuaded me to turn out, long, long before +breakfast;--as he said the night before, "to view that magnificent +coast at daybreak;" but, as he obligingly informed me when I came on +deck, "that he might enjoy the pleasure of my agreeable society." + +The scene, at a first glance, rather disappointed my expectations. +"Stupendous ridge of mountains those Santillanos, though," said Mr +B.; "equal, I should think, to the Pyrenees themselves--of which, in +fact, they are a continuation, though some maps of Spain don't show +it." + +The view, as I viewed it, had a threefold character. _First_, there +was the coast itself; a black line, occasionally diversified with +specks of white; this line a ledge of rocks, extending along shore +as far as the eye could reach, both east and west. The ocean-swell, +incessantly rolling in, though the morning was still, thundered on +this eternal sea-wall: and the surf, of which, at our distance, the +eye distinguished nothing but those white specks, visible from time +to time, presented, when viewed with a glass, every conceivable +variety and vagary of breaking waves: the foam now rushing up some +sloping shelf, like troops storming a breach; now arched sublime in +a graceful curve, that descended in a smoking deluge of spray; now +shooting vertically to a columnar height, as though the breaker had +first dashed downwards into some dark abyss, and then, reverberated, +flew sky-high in a pillar of froth. Beyond this line of rocks, +appeared, _secondly_, a ridge of low hills, presenting nothing very +remarkable, either in aspect or in outline. And beyond these again, +further up the country, appeared, _thirdly_, a very respectable and +loftier range--mountains, if you're a Lincolnshire man, and choose +to call them so. + +"So, this is your ridge of mountains," said I. "Stupendous? I don't +call twelve or fourteen hundred feet stupendous, anyhow. And I'm +inclined to think you might look down on most of them, at that +altitude." + +"You don't see them," said he. "You are looking at the coast range. +Do you perceive nothing beyond?" + +"Nothing but a few light clouds," said I, "in the sickly blue of the +morning sky." + +"Well, look at them," replied Mr. B. "View those clouds attentively. +Watch whether they change their shape, as clouds usually do, when +seen near the horizon." + +I watched, but there was no visible change. The clouds were +fixtures! Sure enough, those faint, pale streaks above the hills, +that gleamed like aerial patches of silver vapour, were no other +than the lofty summits of the distant Santillanos, capped with +snow, and touched by the beam of early morning. It was worth a +turnout, any day. + +Well, at length we reached Passages. Night had closed in, before we +dropped our anchor off the harbour's mouth. The captain dreaded the +very disaster to which I have already alluded, that of being caught +by an on-shore wind in that ugly corner. It was settled, therefore, +that a boat should be sent at once to announce our arrival, and the +treasure landed next morning early, in order that the frigate might +be off with the least delay possible. + +Next morning early, then, the treasure--dollars packed in boxes, +one thousand dollars in a bag, two bags in a box--was brought up +from the hold, and stowed in three boats alongside. Making my best +bow to the captain, and tendering both to him and to his staff, my +sincere and grateful acknowledgments for all the polite attentions, +&c., I stepped over the side, and seated myself in the boat destined +for my conveyance. In the largest boat, which also contained the +largest portion of the treasure, sat the Hon. Mr Beckenham; in the +next was a middy; in my own, which was the smallest, were only +about half-a-dozen boxes, and four sailors to pull ashore. Mr B. +requested me to steer. We pulled for the mouth of the harbour, which +was distinguishable, at the distance of a mile, by an abrupt and +narrow cleft, dividing two lofty hills; and by a line of foam, which +extended right across the entrance, without any visible opening. + +Three boats leaving the ship in company, there was a race of +course. Mine was astern, having been brought close alongside for my +accommodation, and so getting the last start. The race was commenced +by middy, who, by the rules of the service, ought to have kept +astern of Mr B., and therefore tried to get ahead of him. My men, +seeing the contest, began pulling like mad; and, though outnumbered +by the crew of the other boats, yet ours being light, and the +weather moderate, soon overtook and passed them. We pulled away, +maintaining the lead, till a dull roar, like continued thunder, +reminded us that we were just upon the bar. There it was, right +ahead, crossing our course, not a hundred yards distant, and no +passage perceptible; the sea, elsewhere, comparatively tranquil, +there swelling and raging, like a mild-tempered man in a passion; +the breakers curling, flouncing, tumbling one over the other, +rolling in opposite directions, tilting as they crossed, and flying +up with the force of the shock. How were we to pass? or by what +dodge to give the go-by? My men, excited by the race, would have led +at that moment into Charybdis. Still they pulled, onward, onward, +to all appearance right upon the reef. The difficulty was solved, +like many other difficulties, just when we got into the thick of +it. The reef, single in appearance, was in reality double; that +is to say, it consisted of two ledges, one ledge overlapping the +other: so that, just at the instant when three strokes more of the +oars would have taken us into the midst of the tumblification, a +narrow opening, with comparatively smooth water, appeared at our +left; a turn of the rudder brought us cleverly round into that +friendly channel, and the next moment we floated on the tranquil +surface of the outer harbour. The luff-tackle and the reefer, as +if they had let me go ahead only to see how a landsman could turn +a corner, now seemed disposed to renew the race. Raising a shout, +which rang from hill to hill in the cleft of that narrow roadstead, +their crews gave way again with redoubled ardour. But, having gained +the precedence outside, we easily kept it in smooth water, and led +in, with a sweep, through the larger harbour to the town. There, +as we coasted along, I noticed a little jetty; and on it, in the +full uniform of our department, a little man, who was anxiously +watching our approach. I laid my boat alongside, jumped ashore, +and received a hearty welcome from Mr Deputy-Paymaster-General +Q----, whom I had previously known at Lisbon, and who was now in +charge of the military chest at Passages. Another individual whom +I had met at Lisbon, a gentleman holding office in a department +attached to the army--suppose, for want of a better name, we call +him "My Friend"--stepped up at the same time, as if he had come by +accident, was amazingly glad to see me, took my hand, and greeted +me with many smiles--begged I wouldn't think of troubling myself +about a billet--his quarters were quite roomy enough for two. Had +I a mule? Shouldn't be able to get one in all Passages. Must have +something. He would sell me a pony cheap. + +A working party was at hand, to convey the boxes of specie from +the jetty to the office, which was established hard by, for the +convenience of landing remittances that came by sea. A guard was +now set, and the sailors turned to, handing the boxes smartly out +of the boats, and ranging them on _terra firma_; the shore party +began conveying them from the jetty into the office. The Hon. Mr +Beckenham was in a dreadful fuss to get back to the frigate. "The +skipper wants to be off while the wind is fair, and the men haven't +breakfasted,"--nor had he. Up came my commanding officer just at the +moment, and hoped Mr B. and the middy would favour us with their +company to breakfast, as soon as the boxes were stowed. + +Mr B. glanced circularly at the horizon, looked at the clouds, +looked at the flags in the harbour, looked at the clouds again. +"Don't think there's any sign of a change of wind at present," said +he. "Blows very steady from the south, sir," said the middy. The +boxes were housed; they suffered themselves to be persuaded, and +walked with us into the office. "My friend" also received an invite, +and came in company. + +The men in the boats were supplied with bread, butter, and cheese; +some enormous Spanish sausages, by way of a relish, delicious +Spanish onions, as mild as an apple, and a handsome allowance of +brilliant draught cider. By all means ship a barrel, if you touch at +Passages in the Water Wagtail. Mr Q---- conducted us to his private +apartment, where we found a substantial breakfast awaiting us. I +walked into the balcony, which looked towards the water; took a view +of the men in the boats. All had their knives out, each sat in an +attitude of his own, the cider evidently gave general satisfaction, +the prog was rapidly disappearing, and the subject of conversation +was twofold--the race, already accomplished, from the frigate to +the jetty; and the race, soon to come off, from the jetty to the +frigate. "My friend" stood at my elbow, saw me laughing at Jack, +laughed himself--laughed heartily. "When will you come and look at +the pony?" said he. Mr Q---- summoned us to breakfast. + +Breakfast over, the lieutenant and his aide-de-camp took their +leave. I went to look after my baggage, of which "my friend" had +taken charge in the hurry of landing, promising to see it stowed +with the treasure, where it would be under a guard. There was the +guard, and there was the treasure; but there, was not my baggage. +Found him--demanded an explanation. "Why, to tell the truth, the +working party being there, he had embraced the opportunity, and +had sent off my things at once to his own billet. We might as well +go there at once. Could look at the pony by the way." Just as we +started, my commanding officer called after me, "Mr Y----, I shall +want you to give me a few particulars respecting the treasure. You +may as well do so before going out. Then you may consider yourself +at liberty for the rest of the day." I accompanied him into a small +room, on the door of which was wafered "Private." "My friend" waited +outside, in the street. + +"Did you send any message to that gentleman last night," said Mr +Q----, "when the boat came ashore from the frigate?" + +"None whatever, sir. I didn't even know he was at Passages." + +"Wasn't he aware that you were coming from Lisbon?" + +"I don't see how he could be, sir. For it wasn't mentioned there +till the day before I sailed; and of course no intelligence could +have come in that time by land." + +"Then he didn't meet you this morning by appointment?" + +"Certainly not, sir. The meeting was quite casual." + +"Casual? He was waiting about here for an hour before you landed; +running into the office, out of the office, poking his nose into +every corner--couldn't think what he wanted. Oh, I suppose he must +have fallen in with the second lieutenant yesterday evening. That's +how he heard of you, no doubt. Old cronies, I suppose." + +"Not at all, sir. We met twice at Lisbon. That's all that I ever saw +of him, till this morning." + +"Indeed! Well, he seems very attentive. Does he appear to have any +object? What was he saying to you in the balcony?" + +"Said something about a pony he wants to sell. That was all, sir." + +"Oh!" said Mr Q----. The "oh" came out something like a groan +a yard long, first forte, then minuendo, with the forefinger +applied laterally to the apex of the nose, and one eye sapiently +half-closed. "Ay, ay; I see. That's what he's after, no doubt; he +wants you to buy Sancho. Well, perhaps you can't do better. I know +the pony well. Doubt whether you'll find anything else to suit you +in all Passages. A mule, indeed, would answer your purpose better; +but the price of mules is enormous. Have you drawn your allowance +for a horse?" "No, sir. As I came by water, and dollars are +cumbersome, I thought it best to defer that till I reached Passages." + +"Oh, very well; it's all right, then. Mr Y----, I feel it my duty +to say this to you; let me know before you close the bargain. Till +then, the eighty dollars are as well in my hands as in yours. +Horses will soon be dog-cheap. Few to be had in Spain for love or +money; lots, though, in France. Once at headquarters, you may mount +yourself _ad libitum_; and the pony will do well enough to carry +you up. Well, Mr Y----, with regard to quarters, the town is so +full, I was thinking we must try and accommodate you here. But as Mr +what's-his-name has made the offer, I feel it my duty to say this to +you--you had better accept it." + +"Will you look at the invoice of the treasure, now, sir? Or shall I +bring it to-morrow?" + +"Show it me now. Any gold?" + +"All silver, sir; dollars, half-dollars, and quarters." + +"What's this? Eight bags of a thousand, halves; twelve bags, +quarters; five bags, small mixed. Why, it will take us an age to +count it all." + +"My fingers were sore with counting, before I left Lisbon, sir." + +"Yes; and they must be sore again, before you leave Passages. Glad +to find you have had practice, though. Shouldn't mind the dollars: +a middling hand, you know, can count his thirty thousand a-day; +but that small mixed takes no end of time. Well, Mr Y----, I feel +it my duty to say this to you--hold yourself in readiness to start +for headquarters, in charge of treasure, this day week at latest. +If I can get you off a day or two earlier, all the better. But the +money must be counted; the boxes must be looked to and repaired. +And then the mules--why, you'll want sixty at least. Let me see. +Nearer eighty, unless I can take part of the silver, and give you +doubloons. Well, I'll see old Capsicum in the course of the morning, +and ascertain what mules he can let me have. Be here to-morrow at +ten, and then I shall be able to tell you more about it." + +Delighted to hear once more the name of Capsicum, and doubting +whether to call on him, or wait till we met, I was leaving the room +to rejoin "my friend" in the street, when Mr Q---- called me back. + +"Of course, you know, Mr Y----," said he, "I have no wish to +interfere with a fair bargain. Make your own agreement for the +pony. I have nothing to say against the party who wishes to sell, +and would be the last man to disparage a gentleman attached to any +department of the British army. Only I feel it my duty to say this +to you--keep your weather-eye open. Good morning." + +"My friend" and I walked off together to the stable. His Portuguese +servant, Antonio, was in attendance, led out the pony, walked +him, trotted him, led him in again. The pony, I thought, was a +respectable pony enough; not in bad condition, neither; rather +small, though, for a rider six feet high. His legs, supple, +well-turned, and slender, were decidedly Spanish. But the barrel, +round, bulging, and disproportionably large; the hum-drum, steady, +_business-like_ pace; the tail, long, thick, and coarse the drooping +neck, the great hairy ears, the heavy head, the lifeless eye, and +the dull, unmeaning cast of countenance, betokened rather a Gallic +origin. I declined giving an immediate answer as to purchasing. +"My friend," with a laugh, said I was quite right; and we walked +off together to his billet. "Very dull place, this Passages," said +he. "Shall be happy to go with you across the harbour, and show you +the market. By the bye, of course, before you leave, you'll take a +view of St Sebastian. There stands the poor old town, all knocked +to smash, just as it remained after the siege. If you wish to form +a conception of the tremendous effect of cannon-balls, ride over by +all means. You may get there in less than half-an-hour, upon the +pony." + +We now reached "my friend's" quarters, which consisted of one long, +narrow room, with a couple of windows at the end nearest the street, +and a couple of alcoves at the other, each alcove containing a very +humble bed. As to the windows, you are not to understand by the term +window, bless your heart, anything in the shape of glass, sashes, +or window-frame; but simply a stone opening in the stone wall, with +nothing to keep out the wind and rain, but a pair of old clumsy +shutters, which were far from shutting hermetically. The whole +furniture of the apartment consisted of a ship's stove, borrowed +from one of the transports in the harbour; a door laid on two +trestles, to serve as a table; and, on each side of the said table, +a bench. Yet often, when the troops were engaged in active service, +such accommodations as ours would have been deemed a luxury; and +many a wrangle arose for far worse quarters. I noticed that the +trestles and benches, which consisted of rough deal, hastily knocked +together, looked new. This "my friend" explained, by informing me +that the captain of the transport had lent him his carpenter. Having +seen to my baggage, which was all right, and ascertained that we had +four hours to dinner, I took the first opportunity of cutting my +stick, having inwardly formed my determination to be off at once on +foot, and take a view of St Sebastian. Six or seven months had now +elapsed since St Sebastian was stormed and taken by the British and +Portuguese forces. + +Less than an hour's walk brought me to the scene of that fierce, +and, for a period, doubtful conflict. The road was closed up by +hills, which afforded no opportunity for a prospect; and not a soul +did I meet in the whole distance. All at once I came in sight of +the battered and demolished fortress. Imagine a town knocked to +pieces. Imagine this town suddenly presenting itself to your view. +The road unexpectedly opened upon a sandy plain, on which rose a +few eminences, called the Chofres, that had afforded a position for +some of the breaching batteries of the besiegers; at the extremity +of this plain ran the river Urumea, discharging itself into the sea; +and on an isthmus, beyond the river, stood St Sebastian. It stood +like a city in the desert. All was solitude and desolation. The +town, though it had contained many thousand inhabitants, at this +moment afforded no visible indication of human residence. It was not +forsaken; yet nothing could I discover of the tokens which usually +indicate life and activity as we approach the abodes of men--on the +road, neither vehicles, nor cattle, nor human beings. I was alone, +and the city was solitary. No; here, at my feet, upon the sandy +plain, was a memorial, at least, of man and of his doings. A rise in +the level had been washed down at its edge by the rains of winter; +and, projecting from the crumbling bank, appeared the bleached +and ghastly remains of a human being; doubtless one out of the +multitudes who, having fallen in the siege, had been consigned to +a shallow and hasty grave. I will not deny that the sight arrested +my steps. Remember, it was the first victim of war I had ever +looked upon. Nay, more; it invested the whole panorama with a new +character. I stood, as it were, surveying a vast cemetery, the soil +now concealing in its bosom the multitudes who, not long before, +had drenched its surface with their blood. Entering the town, I +did indeed see before me, as "my friend" had said, "the tremendous +effect of cannon-balls." Yet that was not the whole: destruction +appeared in a threefold aspect. The batteries had knocked houses and +defences into rubbish and dust; the mines had torn up the works from +their foundations; and a general conflagration had ravaged the whole +town. The scene was sombre and oppressive. War had now advanced +his pavilion into other lands; but here had left in charge two vast +and hideous sentinels--Desolation and Silence! I passed through +some of the principal streets, in which the fallen stones had been +piled on each side, to make a thoroughfare; and walked along the +ramparts, where some of the dead were still visible, partially +covered by fragments of the ruined masonry. No living creature +did I encounter, save one, a miserable object, a soldier in the +Spanish uniform, apparently an invalid, recovering from wounds or +sickness. On my approaching him, he appeared unwilling to speak or +be spoken to. Nor is it difficult to explain why a Spaniard, meeting +an Englishman on the walls of St Sebastian, should feel little +disposed for conversation. And so I visited the place, inspected the +fortifications, and returned to Passages, without exchanging a word +with any one. + +"My friend," in honour of my arrival, had invited a brace of +dinner-guests: one, like myself, a clerk of the military chest, the +other a young hospital mate. Our dinner was excellent; Irish stew, +a Passages hare, and an enormous omelet, all cooked by Antonio; +capital draught cider; with the cheese, two bottles of English +porter as a particular treat; and Andalusian wine _ad libitum_. + +I must here say a word on the subject of Irish stew. A standing dish +at headquarters was that Irish stew. Amongst the followers of the +army were a number of youths, Spanish and Portuguese, principally +the latter, age from sixteen to twenty, happy, on the small +consideration of a few dollars per month, to enter the service of +any Senhor Inglez who would hire them. Most of the clerks attached +to headquarters had a servant of this description; and as each clerk +was entitled to draw double rations, the arrangement was convenient. +It was the chief business of this servant, to discharge the two +very congenial duties of groom and cook; and no one was eligible +to the office who could not make Irish stew. "Well, Pedro, what's +for dinner to-day?"--The answer was invariable, "Oirish-too." The +ration beef--it was generally beef--was popped into a saucepan with +anything else that came to hand--bread, onions, leeks, potatoes if +you could get them, and just enough water to cover the whole;--then +stewed. Whatever the ingredients, still it was "Oirish-too." +Now--perhaps the idea never struck you--the true difference between +English and foreign cookery is just this: in preparing butcher's +meat for the table, the aim of foreign cookery is to make it tender, +of English, to make it hard. And both systems equally effect their +object, in spite of difficulties on each side. The butcher's meat, +which you buy abroad, is tough, coarse-grained, and stringy; yet +foreign cookery sends this meat to table tender. The butcher's meat +which you buy in England is tender enough when it comes home; but +domestic cookery sends it up hard. Don't tell me the hardness is in +the meat itself. Nothing of the kind: it's altogether an achievement +of the English _cuisine_. I appeal to a leg of mutton, I appeal to +a beef-steak, as they usually come to table; the beef half-broiled, +the mutton half-roasted. Judge for yourself. The underdone portion +of each is tender; the portion that's dressed is hard. Argal, the +hardness is due to the dressing, not to the meat: it is a triumph of +domestic cookery.--Q.E.D. Well; if time was short--say, a meal to +be prepared on coming in from a march, the rations not issued till +three hours after, and Pedro ordered to "make haste, and get dinner +_depressa_,"--why, then, to appease the wolf in your stomach, the +Irish stew was ready in no time--boiled like fury--dished up in half +an hour. In that case, you got it in the genuine English style--done +in a hurry: the broth watery and thin, the potatoes bullets, and +the _bouilli_ shrunk, indurated, screwed up into tough elasticity, +by the sudden application of a strong heat, and the potent effect +of hard boiling. Engage a "good plain cook"--tell her to boil a +neck of mutton--that will show you what I mean. All London necks of +mutton come to table crescents--regularly curled. But if, on the +contrary, you were in quarters, or the troops halted a day, then you +got your Irish stew after the foreign fashion. Breakfast cleared +away, your horse is brought to the door, that you may ride a few +miles forwards, and take a view of the operations, or ogle Soult +through a telescope. Pedro then commences his culinary operations +forthwith. The beef--and what-not besides--is whipped into the +saucepan; the saucepan is set among the embers upon the hearth: and +there it stands--not boiling--scarcely simmering--suppose we say +digesting--throughout the forenoon, and till you are ready to eat. +Long before dinner, savoury steams announce a normal process of +the _cuisine_, a process both leisurely and effectual. At length, +crowned with laurels, and, like all heroes, hungry after fighting, +you return from the skirmish in front, having barely escaped a stray +cannon-ball that made your horse--oh, didn't it?--spin round like a +teetotum. The rich repast awaits you--the whole is turned out, and +smokes upon the table--the _bouilli_ is tender, the "jus" appetising +and substantial, the _tout-ensemble_ excellent. And if, with an eye +to his own interest in the concern, Pedro has slipped in a handful +or so of garlic, why, you live all day in the open air--so it +doesn't much signify. + +Well, so much for Irish stew. We wound up the evening with +ship-biscuit and brandy-and-water--ration brandy--French--superb. +What an exchange for the horrid _agoardente_ of Lisbon, that +excoriated your palate, indurated your gizzard, and burnt a hole in +your liver! I happened to mention my morning visit to St Sebastian. +All my three companions had seen St Sebastian during the siege--were +present at the storming. "Sorry I was not ordered up in time," said +I. + +"You'll never see anything like that," said the doctor. + +"Well, can't you tell me something about it?" + +"No, no," replied he; "rather too late for that to-night. I must be +moving." + +"Come, gentlemen; mix another tumbler round," said "my friend." "If +we cannot go into particulars, at least, for the satisfaction of Mr +Y----, let us each relate some one incident, which we witnessed when +the city was taken by storm. Come, doctor; you shall begin." + +"Really," said the doctor, "it was such a scene of slaughter and +confusion, I can hardly recollect anything distinctly enough to tell +it. I got into the town almost immediately after the troops, to look +after the wounded; just those that required to be operated on at +once. Found my way into a by-street; came among some of our fellows, +who were carrying on such a game, drinking, plundering, firing at +the inhabitants, and I don't know what-all besides, I was glad +enough to escape with my life, and got out of the place as fast as +I could. Don't really remember any particular occurrence to relate. +Oh, yes; just as I was coming away, I saw one old woman--beg pardon; +ought to have said elderly gentlewoman--pinned to a post with a +bayonet, for defending her daughter's virtue." + +Well, gentlemen, said "my friend," "I also will relate an incident, +connected with that dreadful day. But, first of all, I must show +you something. What, would you say, is the value of that, doctor?" +He produced a very handsome diamond ring. "Worth fifty dollars at +least," said the doctor, holding it to the lamp. "I say, _worth_ it; +that is, in the trade. Would sell, in Bond Street, for more than +double that price, as they'd set it in London." The doctor, I should +mention, was the son of a fashionable watchmaker--bore the sobriquet +of Tick. + +"Well," continued my friend, "how do you think I became possessed of +that ring? Just after the town was carried, I watched a lull in the +firing from the castle, and went in over the breach. Only one or two +round-shot fell, as I was climbing up. Met there an English sailor, +a man-of-war's man, coming along in high good humour, perhaps a +little the worse for liquor. He was shouting, laughing, holding up +his two hands, as if he wanted me to look at them. The fellow had +been plundering; plundering a jeweller's shop. "Now I'm dressed out +for a ball," said he, "all for one like a Spanish lady." What d'ye +think he had done? All his fingers, both hands, were covered down +to the tips with splendid rings, rings set with precious stones, +as thick as curtain-rods. Brilliants, rubies, emeralds, amethysts, +he had stuck them on, one after the other, till there was no room +left. Told him I'd buy them: offered him a dollar for the lot; two +dollars; five dollars. 'Avast,' said he, 'I'm a gentleman. Don't +want none of your dumps, messmate. Shouldn't mind giving you one, +though, for good luck. Here, take this big un.' It was a great +ugly Brazilian topaz. 'No, no,' said I; 'give me this little one.' +He gave it me; I thanked him; and he walked away, laughing and +shouting.--Worth fifty dollars, you say. Is it though, doctor? For +forty-five down, you shall have it." + +The doctor made no reply; and, for a few seconds, there was a dead +silence. "Come, Mr Pagador senior," said he; "I've got three gunshot +wounds, an ague, and a dysentery.--Must see them all, before I go to +bed. Please to proceed." + +"I think," said my fellow-clerk, "our host had a good chance of +being shot, when he mounted the breach; for the French, I remember, +kept up a fire on all who passed that way, long after it was +carried. You're sure you got that ring on the breach, are you?... I, +also, had a narrow escape, after I got into the town. I was walking +up one of the streets, and passed a wine-shop, where a lot of our +fellows were assembled, within and without. A few yards beyond was +a corner; another street crossed. Just at the crossing, in the +middle of the road, lay an English soldier, dead. There was nothing +particular in that; for I had passed several dead before, as I came +along. Walking on, I noticed two soldiers looking at me and talking. +'Better tell him, then,' said one of them. 'Tell him yourself,' +said the other; 'I shan't tell him. He's only a commissary.' Just +before I reached the corner, some one gently laid hold of my arm. +I turned round. It was that officer of the engineers--Gabion--yes, +Captain Gabion. 'Wouldn't advise you to go beyond the corner,' +said he.--'Why not?' said I. 'Don't you see that man lying on the +road?' said he.--'Any danger?' said I. 'I'll soon let you see that,' +said he: 'have the kindness to lend me your hat.' I gave him my +hat--staff-hat--bought it new at Vittoria. He stepped forward, held +it out by one end, just poked about half of it beyond the corner. +Crack! a rifle-bullet came clean through it. 'The French,' said +he, 'still occupy that street. I set a sentry here just now, to +keep people from passing on. But he's off; plundering, I suppose, +or getting drunk. I'm sorry for your hat, though.' Rum trick, that +of Captain Gabion's, I must say. I thought it very unkind. Kept me +from getting shot; much obliged to him for that. But spoiled my new +staff-hat--cost me ten dollars." + +"Yes," said the doctor, "that's just what he is; always up to some +practical piece of wit, and grave as a judge. Grave? I should rather +say melancholy. Such a fellow for joking, too! Why, he'd crack a +joke if a shell was fizzing at his feet. One of the coolest officers +in the service." + +"Where is Captain Gabion now?" said I. + +"Oh, somewhere in advance," said the doctor; "you may be sure of +that; somewhere with the troops in the south of France. He and his +friend, that major of the artillery, had a narrow escape, though, in +the winter. Must needs go paying a morning visit to a French family +just this side of St Jean de Luz, before the enemy were driven +across the Nivelle. Just escaped a party of them by hard riding. +Don't see, though, that your hat, Mr Pagador, is much the worse, +merely for being pinked." + +"It makes people stare so," said he, "that's all I care about. Looks +just exactly as if one had been shot through the head." + +"Shouldn't mind giving you my new foraging cap and a dollar for it," +said "my friend." Again there was a short silence. It was clear, in +fact, that "my friend's" disposition to barter and bargain was not +altogether admired. + +"Well, gentlemen," said I, "you have all been good enough to tell me +something about St Sebastian. Now, I'll tell you something. Did you +ever see a dead man swim?" + +"I've seen a dead man float," said the doctor; "never saw one swim." + +"Well, that's what I saw this morning. And you may see it to-morrow, +if you choose to go and look. I'll tell you how it was. The tide was +up, and the river Urumea nearly full. I was standing on that part +of the rampart, where, as you know, the rubbish dislodged by the +springing of the mine is shot down into the bed of the river. In +that vast heap, no doubt many of the storming party found a grave, +where they still lie buried, under tons upon tons of shattered +masonry. In some instances, however, the sufferers were not entirely +overwhelmed by the explosion; and their remains are still partly +visible, bleached by the sun and wind. The water was perfectly +clear; you might see the rocks in the bed of the stream. My eye, +measuring the shattered pile on which I was standing, mechanically +descended from its summit to its base, which juts out far into +the river. Just under water, I noticed something in motion. The +appearance attracted my attention. Descending the mound to the +water's edge, what do you think I saw? A man half emerging from the +fragments, and swimming, yes, swimming beneath the surface, striking +out with both hands, as if struggling to get free. So visible was +the object, so distinctly I saw every movement, my first impulse was +to step down into the water, drag him out from the rubbish before +he was drowned, and land him on _terra firma_. I looked again--he +was long past drowning. There he had swum, at high water, every day +since the city was stormed, and the mine was sprung. His bones, +half bared of flesh, were still held together by the ligaments; the +mine, by its explosion, had buried him up to the middle; but from +the loins he was free: the play of the waves tossed him to and fro; +the water, in its flux and reflux, now caught his arms and spread +them out; from his sides to their full extent, now brought them +back again:--anybody would have said it was a man swimming. Well, I +shall dream of it to-night. I shall again be standing on that breach +before daylight; fancy I see the dead man swimming out beneath my +feet; and perhaps hear him calling for help under water. Only hope I +mayn't fancy it's myself." + +"It's curious," said the doctor, "when a fellow first joins, how a +thing of that kind strikes him as remarkable. Well, good night all." + + + + +AMERICAN ADVENTURE.[5] + + [5] _Sights in the Gold Regions, and Scenes by the Way._ By THEODORE + T. JOHNSON. New York: 1849. + + _The California and Oregon Trail: being Sketches of Prairie and + Rocky Mountain Life._ By FRANCIS PARKMAN, Jun. New York and London: + 1849. + + _Los Gringos; or an Inside View of Mexico and California: with + Wanderings in Peru, Chili, and Polynesia._ By LIEUTENANT WISE, + U.S.N. New York and London: 1850. + + +There is a class of literature peculiarly American, and unlikely +to be rivalled or imitated to any great extent on this side the +Atlantic, for which we entertain a strong predilection. It is the +literature of the forest and the prairie, of the Indian camp and +the backwood settlement, of the trapper's hunting ground, and, +we now must add, of the Californian gold mine. It comprises the +exploits and narratives of the pioneer in the Far West, and the +squatter in Texas; of the military volunteer in Mexico, and the +treasure-seeking adventurer on the auriferous shores of the Pacific. +In common with millions of Europeans, we have watched, for years +past, with wonder, if not always with admiration, the expansive +propensities of that singularly restless people, who, few in number, +in proportion to their immense extent of territory, and prosperous +at home under the government they prefer, yet find themselves +cramped and uneasy within their vast limits, and continually, with +greater might than right, displace their neighbour's boundary-mark +and encroach upon his land. The mode in which this has been done, +in a southerly direction, by the settlement of emigrants, who, +gradually accumulating, at last dispossess and expel the rightful +owner, has been often described and exemplified; and nowhere more +graphically than by Charles Sealsfield, in his admirable _Cabin +Book_ and _Squatter Nathan_. The Anglo-German-American, deeply +impressed by the virtues of his adopted countrymen, and especially +by that intelligence and enterprising spirit which none can deny +them, sees merit rather than injustice in the forcible expulsion of +the Spaniard's descendants, and makes out the best possible case in +defence of the Yankee spoliator. Still, when stripped of factitious +colouring and rhetorical adornments, the pith of the argument seems +to be that the land is too good for the lazy "greasers," who must +incontinently absquatilate, and make way for better men. As for +Indians, they are of no account whatever. "Up rifle and at them!" +is the word. In utter wantonness they are shot and cut down. Let us +hear an American's account of the process. + + "When Captain Sutter first settled in California he had much + trouble with the Indians, but he adopted, and has pursued + steadily from the first, a policy of peace, combined with the + requisite firmness and occasional severity. Thus he had obtained + all-powerful influence with them, and was enabled to avail + himself of their labour for moderate remuneration. Now all was + changed: the late emigrants across the mountains, and especially + from Oregon, had commenced a war of extermination, shooting + them down like wolves--men, women, and children--wherever + they could find them. Some of the Indians were undoubtedly + bad, and needed punishment, but generally the whites were the + aggressors; and, as a matter of course, the Indians retaliated + whenever opportunities occurred; and in this way several unarmed + or careless Oregonians had become, in turn, their victims. + Thus has been renewed in California the war of extermination + against the aborigines, commenced in effect at the landing + of Columbus, and continued to this day, gradually and surely + tending to the utter extinction of the race. And never has this + policy proved so injurious to the interests of the whites as in + California."--(_Sights in the Gold Regions_, p. 152-3.) + +Mr Johnson illustrates by examples the system he thus condemns, +and shows us war-parties of white men issuing forth for _razzias_ +upon Indian villages, receiving, as they depart, the valedictory +benediction of the patriarch of the settlement, a veteran +backwoodsman, well known in the Rocky Mountains as a guide and +pioneer, and who, after a long and adventurous career, has at last +located himself, with his active, reckless, half-breed sons in the +beautiful and romantic valley of the Saw Mill. This bloody-minded +old miscreant, John Greenwood by name, boasted of having shot +upwards of a hundred Indians--ten of them since his arrival in +California--and hoped still to add to the murder-list, although +incapacitated by age from distant expeditions. His cabin was the +alarm-post where the foragers assembled, and whither, on their +return from their errand of blood and rapine, they brought their +ill-gotten spoils, the captive squaws, and the still reeking +scalps of their victims. With male prisoners they rarely troubled +themselves; although, upon one occasion during Mr Johnson's stay in +their vicinity, they brought in a number, and shot seven of them in +cold blood, because, "being bad-looking and strong warriors," it +was believed they had participated in the murder of five English +miners, surprised and slain a short time previously. Expeditions +of this kind are called "war-parties;" and the propriety of the +system of which they form a part is as fiercely and passionately +defended by the Americans in California, as is the propriety of +slave-holding by the free and enlightened citizens of the southern +states of the Union. It were far from prudent to preach emancipation +in Florida or Louisiana; at the "diggins" it is decidedly unsafe +to call the shooting of Indians by the harsh name of murder. "We +saw a young mountaineer, wild with rage, threaten the life of an +American who had ventured to suggest that the murders committed by +these Indians were provoked by many previous murders of the whites, +and that they should not be avenged by _indiscriminate_ slaughter, +but by the death of the _guilty_." The horrible character of the +frequent massacres is aggravated by the adoption, on the part of +the white savages, of the repugnant and barbarian usages of the +unfortunate heathens whom they first provoke and then hunt to the +death, by the tearing off of scalps, and suchlike hideous and +unchristian abominations. Unfortunately, these scenes of slaughter +and atrocity are of constant occurrence, not only in that far-off +land where gold is to be had for the gathering, but wherever the +white man and the red come in contact. The air of the prairie and +backwoods seems fatal to all humane and merciful feelings, and +the life of the Indian is held no dearer than that of skunk or +buffalo. Mr Parkman tells us of "a young Kentuckian, of the true +Kentucky blood, generous, impetuous, and a gentleman withal, who +had come out to the mountains with Russel's party of California +emigrants. One of his chief objects, as he gave out, was to kill an +Indian--an exploit which he afterwards succeeded in achieving, much +to the jeopardy of ourselves and others, who had to pass through +the country of the dead Pawnee's enraged relatives." No censure +is passed upon this generous and gentlemanly young murderer by Mr +Parkman, whose book would nevertheless indicate him to be a man of +education and humanity, but who is apparently unable to discern any +moral wrong in wantonly drilling a hole through the painted hide of +a Pawnee. The system of extermination seems practically inseparable +from the aggrandisement of American territory at Indian expense. +When Mexicans are to be ejected, the process is more humane, or at +least less cold-blooded and revolting in its circumstances. But, +although the barbarity diminishes, the injustice is as great. By +American annexators and propagandists, respect of property may be +set down as an Old World prejudice; still it is one by which we are +contented to abide; and we cannot see the right of any one to turn +a man out of his house because he does not keep it in repair and +occupy all the rooms, or to pick a quarrel with him as a pretext for +appropriating a choice slice of his garden. A considerable portion +of the people of the United States are evidently convinced that they +are the instruments of Providence in the civilisation and population +of the New World, and look forward to the time as by no means remote +when their descendants and form of government shall spread south +and north, to the exclusion of British rule and Spanish-American +republics, from Greenland to Panama. As a preparatory step, their +pioneers are abroad in all directions; and some of them, being handy +with the pen as well as with the rifle, jot down their experiences +for the encouragement of their countrymen and edification of +the foreigner. Before us are three books of the kind completely +American in tone and language, and of at least two of which it +may safely be affirmed that none but Americans could have written +them. In fact they are written in American rather than in English; +particularly Mr Johnson's "Sights," of which we can truly say +that, but for our intimate acquaintance with the language of the +United States, acquired by much study of this particular sort of +literature, we should have made our way through it with difficulty +without reference to the dictionary, which we presume to exist, of +American improvements on the English tongue. The book swarms with +Yankeeisms, vulgarisms, and witticisms; the latter of no elevated +class, and seldom rising above a very bad pun; notwithstanding +which, _Sights in the Gold Regions_ is a very amusing, and, to +all appearance, a very honest account of life at the diggings. +The other two books are the work, the one of a philosopher in the +woods, and the other of a sailor on horseback. Mr Parkman, who, as +regards literary skill, is superior to either of the companions we +have given him--although his book has less novelty and pungency +than either of theirs--left St Louis in the spring of 1846, on a +tour of curiosity and amusement to the Rocky Mountains, with the +especial object of studying the manners and character of Indians in +their primitive state. He has a good eye for scenery and tolerable +descriptive powers, and some of the adventures and anecdotes he +relates are striking and interesting. But, for a fine specimen of +rich rough-spun Yankee narrative, commend us to Lieutenant Wise of +the United States navy. There is no mistake about the gallant author +of _Los Gringos_. He makes no more pretence to style or elegance +than a boatswain's mate spinning a yarn upon the forecastle. +Despising the trammels of orthography and probability, sprinkling +his comical English with words from half-a-dozen other languages +(often ludicrously distorted), sometimes shrewd, frequently very +humorous, invariably good-humoured and vivacious, this rollicking +naval officer hoists the reader on his shoulders, and carries +him at a canter through his great thick closely-printed New York +volume, with infinitely less fatigue to the rider than he himself +experienced when, perched upon a Spanish saddle, and armed with +a whip "whose lash was like the thongs of a knout," he urged the +sorry posters along the road to Mexico's capital. In a few lines of +preface, the humorous lieutenant discloses his plan and gives us a +glimpse of his quality. "The sketches embodied in this narrative," +he says, "were all written on the field of their occurrence: the +characters incidentally mentioned are frequently _nommes du mer_. It +is not expected by the author that even the most charitable reader +will wholly overlook the careless style and framing of the work, or +allow it to pass without censure; nor has it been his object to deal +in statistics, or any abstract reflections, but merely to compile +a pleasant narrative, such as may perchance please or interest the +generality of readers; and in launching the volume on its natural +element--the sea of public opinion--the author only indulges in +the aspiration, whether the reader be gentle or ungentle, whether +the book be praised or condemned, that at least the philanthropy +of the publishers may be remunerated, wherein lies all the law and +the profits." After which facetious and characteristic preamble, +Lieutenant Wise goes on board his frigate; is tugged out of Boston +harbour, and sails for Monterey; is alternately buffeted and +becalmed; is in danger of stranding on the Dahomey territory and +reviles creation accordingly, but ultimately escapes the peril +and sets foot on shore at Rio Janeiro, in which pleasant latitude +he frequents the coffee-houses, and partakes of mint juleps and +other cold institutions; watches the niggers dancing and jabbering +their way along the streets, with little fingers affectionately +interlaced, and _sistling_ polkas through their closed teeth; and +is somewhat scandalised, and yet vastly amused, by the _samacueca_, +a South American polka of much grace but questionable decency, on +beholding which he, Lieutenant Wise, being, "as an individual, +fond of a taste of cayenne to existence," clapped his hands and +vociferously applauded. This eccentric dance, however, was at +Valparaiso, we find--not that the fair Brazilians are behind any +of their South American sisters in the license they accord their +supple forms and twinkling feet. At last, and in the heat of the war +between Mexico and the States, Lieutenant Wise reached Monterey, +where his ship cast anchor. California had been taken possession of +by the Americans, and fighting was going on in the neighbourhood. +Before the war, Monterey contained about five hundred inhabitants, +but when Mr Wise, arrived, scarcely a native was to be seen. The +men were away fighting in the southern provinces, a few women +scowled from their dwellings at the _gringos_ (the name given to +Anglo-Americans in Mexico and California). Yankee sentinels were +posted, knife in girdle, and rifle-lock carefully sheltered from the +rain; and persons moving about after dark were greeted at every turn +with the challenge--"Look out thar, stranger!" quickly followed by a +bullet, if they delayed to shout their name and calling. There was +nothing to be had to eat, drink, or smoke, and the general aspect +of affairs was cheerless enough. Presently in rode sixty horsemen, +gaunt bony woodsmen of the Far West, dressed in skins, with heavy +beards and well-appointed rifles, fellows "who wouldn't stick at +scalping an Indian or a dinner of mule-meat," and who belonged to +the Volunteer Battalion, in which they had enrolled themselves "more +by way of recreation than for glory or patriotism." They were not +easy to understand, having passed most part of their lives in the +Rocky Mountains, a district which has its own peculiar phraseology. + + "We soon became quite sociable, and, after a hearty supper of + fried beef and biscuit, by some miraculous dispensation a five + gallon keg of whisky was uncorked, and, after a thirty days' + thirst, our new-found friends slaked away unremittingly. Many + were the marvellous adventures narrated of huntings, fightings, + freezings, snowings, and starvations; and one stalwart, bronzed + trapper beside me, finding an attentive listener, began:--'The + last time, captin, I cleared the Oregon trail, the Ingens fowt + us amazin' hard. Pete,' said he, addressing a friend smoking a + clay pipe by the fire, with a half pint of corn-juice in his + hand, which served to moisten his own clay at intervals between + every puff--'Pete, do you notice how I dropped the Redskin who + put the poisoned arrow in my moccasin! Snakes, captin! the + varmints lay thick as leaves behind the rocks; and, bless ye, + the minit I let fall old Ginger from my jaw, up they springs, + and lets fly their flint-headed arrers in amongst us, and one + on 'em wiped me right through the leg. I tell yer what it is, + hoss, I riled, I did, though we'd had tolerable luck in the + forenoon;--for I dropped two and a squaw, and Pete got his good + six--barrin' that the darned villains had hamstrung our mule, + and we were bound to see the thing out. Well, captin, as I tell + ye, I'm not weak in the jints, but it's no joke to hold the + heft of twenty-three pounds on a sight for above ten minits on + a stretch; so Pete and me scrouched down, made a little smoke + with some sticks, and then we moved off, a few rods, whar we got + a clar peep. For better than an hour we see'd nothin'; but on a + suddin I see'd the chap--I know'd him by his paintin'--that driv + the arrer in my hide: he was peerin' round quite bold, thinkin' + we'd vamosed; I jist fetched old Ginger up and drawed a bee line + on his cratch, and, stranger, I giv him sich a winch in the + stomach that he dropped straight into his tracks: he did! In + five jumps I riz his har, and Pete and me warn't troubled again + for a week.'" + +After two months passed at Monterey, the American squadron assembled +and a new commodore arrived, whereupon Lieut. Wise's captain was not +sorry to be allowed to lift his anchors, and avoid playing second +fiddle to the new commander-in-chief by transferring his pennant to +the waters of the San Francisco. On the way thither his lieutenant +treats us to some yarns of extraordinary toughness. Speaking of +the lasso, in the use of which the Californians are particularly +skilful--catching a bull by the tail and making him fling a somerset +over his horns, or dragging a grizzly bear for miles to the baiting +place--he calls to mind having once seen a troop of horses "at +General Rosas' quinta, near Buenos Ayres, trained to run like hares, +with fore and hind legs lashed together by thongs of hide: it was +undertaken to preserve the animals from being thrown by the Indian +_bolas_, and the riders, as a consequence, lanced to death. But I +was far more amused one afternoon, when passing a fandango, near +Monterey, to see a drunken cattle-driver, mounted on a restive, +plunging beast, hold at arm's length a tray of glasses, brimming +with aguardiente, which he politely offered to everybody within +reach of his curvettings, without ever once spilling a drop." These +marvellous feats are nothing, however, compared to the cannibal +exploits of some unfortunate emigrants, who, having loitered on +their way, were overtaken by the snow in the Californian mountains, +and compelled to encamp for the winter. Their provisions and +cattle consumed, even to the last horse hide, famine and insanity +ensued. Those who starved to death were eaten by the survivors, +whose appetites, if we may believe Mr Wise, were quite prodigious. +A Dutchman, he gravely assures us, actually ate a full-grown body +in thirty-six hours; and another boiled and devoured, in a single +night, a child, nine years of age. We cannot venture to extract +the revolting details that follow. The lieutenant's facetiousness +upon this horrible subject is rather ghastly; and the particulars +supplied by a young Spaniard, who "ate a baby," are abominable in +the extreme, although possibly true. At least Mr Wise assures us he +had them from the lad's own lips. And, whilst his strength lasted, +poor Baptiste was drudge to the whole party, doing his duty well, +fetching fuel and water, until at last, as he told Mr Wise, "very +hungry, sir; eat anything." + +On the wild and dreary track from the States to California, +frightful disasters occur to caravans of emigrants, which, +encumbered with women and children, and sometimes under incompetent +leaders, lose precious time by the way, and are caught and crushed +by the terrible winter of those desolate regions. Journeying near +the Sacramento, Mr Johnson came upon the house of "old Keysburg the +cannibal, who revelled in the awful feast on human flesh and blood, +during the sufferings of a party of emigrants near the pass of the +Sierra Nevada, in the winter of 1847. It is said that the taste +which Keysburg then acquired has not left him, and that he often +declares, with evident gusto, 'I would like to eat a piece of you;' +and several have sworn to shoot him, if he ventures on such _fond_ +declarations to them. We therefore looked upon the den of this wild +beast in human form with a good deal of disgusted curiosity, and +kept our bowie-knives handy for a slice of him if necessary." + +Sailor though he is, Mr Wise troubles his reader very little with +nautical matters. During a few weeks he was a good deal afloat, +having succeeded to the command of the Rosita, a forty ton schooner, +with a crew of fifteen sailors, a small boy, and a mulatto cook, +who had once been "head bottle-washer of a Liverpool liner, with +glass nubs on de cabin doors;" but otherwise most of his time +seems to have been spent on shore, riding, shooting, dancing, and +love-making, doing military duty in garrison at Mazatlan, throwing +up fortifications, and surprising parties of Mexicans, whose fear +of the Gringos was most intense and ludicrous. In their civil wars, +and when contending with the Spaniards for their independence, +the Mexicans have occasionally fought doggedly, although never +skilfully; but when opposed to combatants of the Anglo-Saxon race, +they have invariably shown themselves arrant cowards. Although the +soldiers of the States have even less military discipline than those +of Mexico, the bodily strength, skill with the rifle, intrepidity, +and self-reliance of the former, would render them formidable +opponents even to well-drilled European troops. As to the Mexicans, +no matter how great the numerical odds in their favour, they never +could or would stand against the hardy Yankee volunteers. In the +summer of 1846, Mr Parkman met, upon the wild and lonely banks of +the Upper Arkansas, Price's Missouri regiment, on its way to Santa +Fé. + + "No men ever embarked upon a military expedition with a greater + love for the work before them than the Missourians; but if + discipline and subordination be the criterion of merit, these + soldiers were worthless indeed. Yet when their exploits have + rung through all America, it would be absurd to deny that they + were excellent irregular troops. Their victories were gained + in the teeth of every established precedent of warfare; they + were owing to a singular combination of military qualities + in the men themselves. Without discipline or a spirit of + subordination, they knew how to keep their ranks, and act as + one man. Doniphan's regiment marched through New Mexico more + like a band of Free Companions than like the paid soldiers of + a modern government. When General Taylor complimented Doniphan + on his success at Sacramento and elsewhere, the colonel's reply + very well illustrates the relations which subsisted between the + officers and men of his command. 'I don't know anything of the + manoeuvres. The boys kept coming to me to let them charge; and + when I saw a good opportunity, I told them they might go. They + were off like a shot, and that's all I know about it.' + + "The backwoods lawyer was better fitted to conciliate the + good-will than to command the obedience of his men. There were + many serving under him, who both from character and education, + could better have held command than he. At the battle of + Sacramento, his frontiersmen fought under every possible + disadvantage. The Mexicans had chosen their own position; they + were drawn up across the valley that led to their native city + of Chihuahua; their whole front was covered by intrenchments, + and defended by batteries of heavy cannon; they outnumbered the + invaders five to one. An eagle flew over the Americans, and + a deep murmur rose along their lines. The enemy's batteries + opened; long they remained under fire, but when at length the + word was given, they shouted and ran forward. In one of the + divisions, when midway to the enemy, a drunken officer ordered + a halt; the exasperated men hesitated to obey. 'Forward, boys!' + cried a private from the ranks; and the Americans, rushing like + tigers upon the enemy, bounded over the breastwork. Four hundred + Mexicans were slain upon the spot, and the rest fled, scattering + over the plain like sheep. The standards, cannon, and baggage + were taken, and among the rest a waggon laden with cords, which + the Mexicans, in the fulness of their confidence, had made ready + for tying the American prisoners." + +A curious picture of military _un_discipline--of egregious cowardice +on the one hand, and fortunate audacity on the other. It is evident +that the Doniphan mode of carrying on the war--consulting the men's +pleasure, with officers drunk before the enemy, and privates giving +the word of command--however successful it may prove against the +wretched Mexicans, or in mountain and guerilla warfare, would never +answer in the open field against a regular and skilfully commanded +army. The question, then, follows,--How far could these staunch +and gallant American riflemen be trained to the strict discipline +and military exercises and manoeuvres essential to the efficiency +of large bodies of troops, without impairing the very qualities, +the feelings of independent action and self-reliance, which render +them so valuable as irregular warriors? This inquiry, however, is +not worth pursuing; for we suppose there is little chance of Uncle +Sam meddling in European quarrels, and sincerely trust he will so +curb his annexing mania as to avoid all risk of European armaments +encountering him in his own hemisphere. Touching these Missourian +volunteers, however, Mr Parkman's account of their appearance, and +of his interview with them, is most graphic and characteristic. One +forenoon he and his companion, Mr Shaw, turned aside to the river +bank, half-a-mile from the trail, to get water and rest. They put +up a kind of awning, and whilst seated under it upon their buffalo +robes, and smoking, they saw a dark body of horsemen approaching. + + "'We are going to catch it now,' said Shaw: 'look at those + fellows; there'll be no peace for us here.' And, in good truth, + about half the volunteers had straggled away from the line of + march, and were riding over the meadow towards us. + + "'How are you?' said the first who came up, alighting from his + horse, and throwing himself upon the ground. The rest followed + close, and a score of them soon gathered about us, some lying at + full length, and some sitting on horseback. They all belonged + to a company raised in St Louis. There were some ruffian faces + among them, and some haggard with debauchery; but, on the whole, + they were extremely good-looking men, superior beyond measure + to the ordinary rank and file of an army. Except that they + were booted to the knees, they wore their belts and military + trappings over the ordinary dress of citizens. Besides their + swords and holster pistols, they carried, slung from their + saddles, the excellent Springfield carbines, loaded at the + breech. They inquired the character of our party, and were + anxious to know the prospect of killing buffalo, and the chance + that their horses would stand the journey to Santa Fé. All this + was well enough, but a moment after a worse visitation came upon + us. + + "'How are you, strangers? Whar are you going, and whar are you + from?' said a fellow, who came trotting up with an old straw + hat on his head. He was dressed in the coarsest brown homespun + cloth. His face was rather sallow, from fever and ague, and his + tall figure, although strong and sinewy, was quite thin, and + had, besides, an angular look, which, together with his boorish + seat on horseback, gave him an appearance anything but graceful. + Plenty more of the same stamp were close behind him. Their + company was raised in one of the frontier counties, and we soon + had abundant evidence of their rustic breeding: dozens of them + came crowding round, pushing between our first visitors, and + staring at us with unabashed faces. + + "'Are you the captain?' asked one fellow. + + "'What's your business out here?' inquired another. + + "'Whar do you live when you're at home?' said a third. + + "'I reckon you're traders,' surmised a fourth; and, to crown the + whole, one of them came confidently to my side, and inquired, in + a low voice, 'What is your partner's name?' + + "As each new comer repeated the same questions, the nuisance + became intolerable. Our military visitors were soon disgusted at + the concise nature of our replies, and we could overhear them + muttering curses against us. Presently, to our amazement, we saw + a large cannon with four horses come lumbering up behind the + crowd; and the driver, who was perched on one of the animals, + stretching his neck so as to look over the rest of the men, + called out,-- + + "'Whar are you from, and what's your business?' + + "The captain of one of the companies was amongst our visitors, + drawn by the same curiosity that had attracted his men. + + "'Well, men,' said he at last, lazily rising from the ground + where he had been lounging, 'it's getting late; I reckon we had + better be moving.' + + "'I shan't start yet, anyhow,' said one fellow, who lay half + asleep, with his head resting on his arm. + + "'Don't be in a hurry, captain,' added the lieutenant. + + "'Well, have it your own way, we'll wait awhile longer,' replied + the obsequious commander. + + "At length, however, our visitors went straggling away as they + had come, and we, to our great relief, were left alone again." + +A most mirth-provoking specimen of American character. But we +must return to our friend and favourite, Lieutenant Wise, who is +truly a Yankee Crichton in a pea-jacket. Besides his nautical +skill, and the lingual accomplishments already adverted to, he is +a Nimrod in the hunting-field, a Centaur on horseback, a Vestris +in the mazes of the dance. Lovers of wild sports in the West will +luxuriate in his descriptions of hunting exploits, of his combats +with grizzly bears fourteen hundred pounds weight, and his chase of +an antelope whose fore-leg he had nearly severed from its shoulder +with a rifle bullet, but which still managed to run four leagues, +the wounded member "traversing round in its flight like a wheel," +before receiving its death-wound. Unable to extract a tithe of +the passages that tempt us, we hurry on to his departure for the +Mexican capital, whither he was sent early in the month of May, as +bearer of a despatch, and in company with a Mexican officer, with +whom the lieutenant was at first disposed to be most friendly and +sociable, but who forfeited his esteem by the cool proposal of a +plan to cheat the government, and whom he soon managed to leave +behind--no difficult matter, for the Mexican was cumbered with +portmanteau and sumpter mule, whereas the Yankee's sole baggage, as +he himself informs us, consisted of two shirts and a toothbrush. +Thus lightly equipped, his pace was very rapid; not so much so, +however, as to prevent his noting down all that occurred by the +way. After La Barca and Ruxton, it is a difficult task to give +novelty to an account of Mexican travel and peculiarities. Mr Wise +has surmounted the difficulty; and so great is the freshness and +originality of his narrative, that we read it with as much zest and +enjoyment as if it were the first instead of the twentieth book +relating to Mexico which we have perused within the last few years. +His anecdotes are most racy and piquant; his sketches of Mexican +women, officers, _leperos_, and of his own countrymen in Mexico, +are taken from the life with a truthful and vivid pencil. With the +class of leperos he had already made acquaintance on the threshold +of the country. Turning, one day, into a bowling alley at Mazatlan, +with the officers of a British frigate, he gave a fine horse to +hold to one of those Mexican mendicants. The fellow's hatred of +the _gringos_ was stronger than his love of gain; for no sooner +was he left alone than he drew a pistol from the holsters, shot +the horse, and ran for his life, which certainly would not have +been worth a maravedi had he tarried for the arrival of the enraged +lieutenant. "Oh, Mr Smithers!" exclaims the disconsolate mariner +thus cruelly dismounted--"Oh, Mr Smithers! you keep a good ten-pin +alley, sing a good song, and your wife prepares good chocolate; +you are, together, good fellows; but you should never, O Smithers! +transform your establishment into a knacker's yard. And you, my +cruel _lepero_! had I ever got a sight of you along that weapon you +handled so well--ah! I wellnigh wept for sorrow that night, and did +not recover my spirits for a fortnight." The leperos, we need hardly +explain, are the pest of Mexico--ragged, dirty, often disgusting +with disease or deformity, born idlers, beggars, and thieves--in +the latter capacity so especially skilful, that Mr Wise inclines to +the belief that a man, standing open-mouthed in a crowd of them, +could hardly escape having the gold picked from his molars. They +reaped a rich harvest at the time of the American invasion. It was +a case of "_nos amis les ennemis_." The conquerors were preyed upon +by the conquered. Iron bars were unavailing against the cunning +rogues. "One evening some expert practitioner contrived to entice +a valuable pair of pistols, clothing, and other articles, from my +table in the centre of a large apartment, by introducing a pole and +hook through the iron _grille_ of the window; and the same night, my +friend Molinero was robbed of his bed-clothes, while sleeping, by +the same enterprising method." By a strange tolerance, these leperos +are admitted everywhere; and in the splendid coffee and gambling +houses of the large cities, they are found rubbing their filthy rags +against officers' embroideries and the fine broadcloth of wealthy +burgesses. At Guanaxato, Mr Wise gives a lively description of a +scene of this kind in the handsome saloons of the _Gran Sociedad_, +recalling to our memory, though at a long interval, some striking +pages of the first volume of Sealsfield's gorgeous Mexican romance, +_Der Virey and die Aristocraten_. The lepero's chief pastimes +are thieving, sleeping, and gambling for copper coins. By way of +variety, he occasionally gets up a mortal combat. We think the +following the best account of a knife-duel we ever read:-- + + "A lepero was purchasing a bit of chocolate; it fell in the + dirt, when another, probably thinking it a lawful prize, seized + it and took a large bite; whereupon the lawful owner swung a + mass of heavy steel spurs attached to his wrist, jingling, with + some force, on the offender's head. In a second down dropped the + spurs, and _serapas_ (a kind of blanket) were wound round the + left arms. With low deep curses and flashing eyes, their knives + gleamed in the light; the spectators cleared a ring, and to work + they went. I sprang upon a stone pillar to be out of harm's way, + and thus had a clear view of the fray. Their blades were very + unequally matched: one was at least eight inches, and the other + not half that measurement; but both appeared adepts at the game, + watching each other like wild cats, ready for a spring--moving + cautiously to and fro, making feints by the shielded arm, or + stamp of the foot, for a minute or two; when, quick as a flash, + I saw two rapid passes made by both: blood spirted from an ugly + wound in the spur-vender's throat, but at the same moment his + short weapon sealed the doom of his antagonist, and he lay upon + the ground, lifeless as the bloody steel that struck him. I + glanced at the wounds after the affair had terminated, and found + the knife had been plunged twice directly in the region of the + heart. There was no effort or attempt made by the beholders to + arrest the parties; and the survivor caught up his spurs--a + bystander quickly folded a handsome kerchief to his neck--and + threading the crowd he was soon out of sight. The corpse was + laid upon a liquor-stand, with a delf platter upon the breast." + +The Mexican capital was not a little Americanised at the period +of Mr Wise's visit. The account he gives of the state of affairs +there, is not very creditable to the morals and tastes of the +victorious volunteers; and he expresses a natural doubt whether the +scenes there enacted will have been beneficial to the thousands +of young men whom the war had called to Mexico. The great hotels +and coffee-houses were all under Yankee dominion, with Yankee ice, +and drinks, signs, manners, customs, and habits, "as if the city +had been from time immemorial Yankeefied all over, instead of +being only occupied a short twelvemonth by the troops." Debauchery +of every kind was rife, but gambling was the vice that took the +strongest hold. In the large tavern or _restauration_, where Mr Wise +usually dined, in every nook from hall to attic, with the exception +of the eating-room, in the corridors and on the landing-places, +gaming-tables were displayed. + + "Such a condensed essence of worldly hell, in all its glaring, + disgusting frightfulness, never existed. And there never + was lack of players either--no! not a table but was closely + surrounded by officers and soldiers--blacklegs and villains + of all sorts--betting uncommonly high, too--many of the banks + having sixty and eighty thousand dollars in gold alone on the + tables--and once I saw a common soldier stake and win two + hundred ounces at a single bet. Other saloons were filled with + Mexican girls, with music and dancing, attended by every species + of vice, all going on unceasingly, day and night together." + +This is an American's account. Of course most of this lavish +expenditure and gambled gold had their origin in the plunder of +Mexico. Indeed, Lieutenant Wise does not mince the matter at all, +but informs us how he himself, after a night-excursion in the +vicinity of Mazatlan, returned laden with spoil, and felt such an +itching to search people's pockets that he made no doubt of soon +becoming as good a freebooter as ever drew sword. He was then, +however, but a novice in the science of pillage, for he afterwards +learned that a saddle, which he had appropriated, contained six +golden ounces, whereby the saddler, to whom he intrusted it for +renovation, was much benefited. When an officer holding the United +States commission saw nothing derogatory in plunder, there can be +no doubt of the rapacity of the dissipated and reckless desperadoes +of which the American expeditionary force was notoriously in part +composed. And in an army where discipline was lax, and a spirit +of anti-military equality prevailed amongst officers and men, the +contagion would rapidly spread. Doubtless this was an aggravating +cause of Mexican hatred to the _Gringos_. Nevertheless, when +the fighting was over, kindness and attention were shown to the +invaders, and some of the Mexican officers appear to have been +thrashed into a most affectionate regard for their conquerors. One +fine fellow, a colonel of cavalry, all gold and glitter, with richly +chased sabre scabbard, and spurs of a dazzling burnish, insisted +upon giving a breakfast to a large party of American officers. +There were a number of Mexican _militaires_ present, all decorated, +some with emblems of battles in which they had been defeated; and +as the repast was in some degree public, (being held in a large +billiard-room,) a number of casual observers assembled round the +table, and helped to drink the numerous toasts, pocketing their +glasses after each, to be ready for the next. The banquet began +with a bumper of brandy, by way of whet; a most miscellaneous +collection of edibles was then placed upon the board, and claret +and sherry circulated rapidly to the health and memory of a host +of living and dead generals, both Mexican and American, beginning +with Washington and Hidalgo, and gradually arriving at Santa Anna +and "Skote," (Scott,) for which last-named pair of warriors Mr Wise +estimates that at least eighty or ninety cheers were given. The +Mexicans, habitually temperate, got exceedingly drunk, and, like +most southerns when in that state, furiously excited; the chief +characteristics of their intoxication being unbounded affection for +their guests, and admiration of their own prowess. + + "Our gallant host, in a few disjointed observations, assured us + that he was not only brave himself, and loved bravery in others, + but that his horse was brave, and had been wounded in divers + battles. '_Io soy valiente!_' said the fierce colonel, pounding + the orders on his capacious breast, and forthwith proclaimed to + the audience his intention to pay for everything that anybody + could possibly eat or drink for a fortnight; and, seizing me by + the arms, he impressively remarked that I was the most intimate + friend he ever had except his wife, and requested me to throw + his huge shako up to the ceiling, solely for _amistad_, and for + the good-fellowship of the thing--which I instantly did, and + made the bearskin and golden plates ring against the rafters. + Thereupon he called for more wine, and desired all who loved + him to break a few glasses, commencing himself with a couple of + decanters." + +At which period of the action the landlord cut off the supplies +of liquor, anticipating, doubtless, the entire demolition of his +establishment; and the revellers got to horse, and went for a turn +in the Alameda, then thronged by all the fashion of Queretaro, in +which city these jovial proceedings occurred. After galloping round +the promenade, at a pace that terrified the natives, Lieutenant Wise +ran a "jouist," as he calls it, with one of his Mexican friends, who +was still under the influence of his unwonted libations. + + "In true Californian style, he shook his bridle, gave spur, and + came leaping like a flash towards me. I was no novice at the + sport, and, touching one of the finest horses in the army with + my heel, the gallant sorrel sprang forward to meet him. We met + in full career; my charger stood like the great pyramid, but the + shock rolled my antagonist into the street. I should in courtesy + have got down from the saddle to his assistance, but, reflecting + that without a ladder I never should be able to get on my high + steed again, I remained quiet. Being a sailor, I gained great + reputation by this feat, and gave an entertainment on the + strength of it." + +Surely there never was a jollier fellow than Lieutenant Wise of +the United States navy. A rare good companion he must be, a real +_bonus socius_ across a julep, a very storehouse of fun, frolic, +and adventure. So well do we like his society, that we are only +sorry we cannot at present accompany him further on his rambles, or +return with him to Mazatlan, where he arrived at a flying gallop, +after a ride of 2500 miles on horseback--the last 112 leagues in +fifty-three hours, (said to be the quickest trip on record,) to be +received by a host of friends, and by a Yankee band playing, "Hail, +Columbia!" and sail with him to Polynesia, and revisit Valparaiso +and Lima, and many other places, in all of which he manages heartily +to amuse both himself and his reader, till he finally drops anchor +in the waters of the Chesapeake, arriving, with equal satisfaction +to both parties, at the end of 450 pages, and 55,000 miles. His +book richly deserves an independent notice; but as we started by +associating it with others, we are compelled to lay it aside, +whilst we visit the glittering coast of California, in company +with Mr Theodore Johnson, who arrived on the 1st of April 1849 in +Sancelito Bay, and proceeded forthwith to look for the city of the +same name, whose wide and elegant streets he had frequently traced +upon the map. After some search, he found the city. "It consisted +of one board-shed and one tent, holding on to the hill-side like a +woodpecker against a tree." Thus was his first illusion dissipated. +A few other Californian castles were speedily to crumble. "The +latitude of Richmond, and climate of Italy, the gold of Ophir, the +silver, red wood and cedar of Solomon's temple, the lovely valley +of the Sacramento, the vineyards of France, indigo of Hindostan, +and wheat of America, golden rocks, and rivers flowing over the +same metal," such were a few of the bright promises that had lured +him, "in company with thousands of his go-ahead countrymen," to the +Eldorado of the Pacific. These were the things he expected; let +us collect, from his first week's experience in California, those +that he really found. Ugly barren hills, a miserable sandy-clay +soil, producing a weed which a starving jackass will scorn, and +a fine dust, against which the most impenetrable eyelids are +not proof, a repulsive and disagreeable climate in the month of +April, (growing worse as the summer advances,) the extremes of +heat and cold following each other in constant succession, water +often extremely scarce, and impregnated with quicksilver, platina, +and other minerals, killing the fish, and giving Christians the +Sacramento fever, "a slow, continual fever, which men go about +with for months; but in its more violent forms soon mortal, always +affecting the brain, and, in case of recovery, leaving the mind +impaired. The lung fever and rheumatism are brought on by working +in the cold water, and stooping continually under the burning sun." +The scurvy, too, was prevalent, from the use of salt provisions, for +none could find time to procure fresh ones, to hunt or tend cattle; +and if they did leave their eternal digging for such pursuits, the +prices they expected were preposterous. Wild cattle and game are +plenty in the valley of the Sacramento and adjacent mountains, but +in California the hours are truly golden, and not to be wasted on +kitchen considerations; to say nothing of the hardship of driving +wild oxen or carrying a gun across a rugged country with the +thermometer at 109° to 112° in the shade--the usual temperature in +June and July, and one fully justifying the derivation of the name +California from two Spanish words signifying a hot oven, _caliente +horno_. "The thermometer stood at 90° Fahrenheit, at noon, in the +shade of Culloma valley, on the 16th of April; and at night we slept +cold in our tent with our clothing on, and provided with abundant +blankets." With such a climate, and with no grass in the mountains +fit to sustain them, it is no wonder that the best pack-horses can +carry but one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds weight across +the mountains, and frequently fall down and die if overladen. At the +time referred to--that is to say, in the month of April last--Mr +Johnson "continually saw old miners departing for the cañons[6] of +the middle and north Forks, with one month's supply of provisions, +consisting of seventy-five lb. of pork and seventy-five lb. of pilot +bread, for which they paid respectively at the rates of one hundred +and fifty and one hundred and twenty dollars per hundred pounds! +Now, although the prices of these articles were rapidly declining +on the sea-board, by reason of the immense importation, yet the +price of fresh beef was twenty-five dollars per hundred pounds in +San Francisco, and must farther enhance there, the supply then being +quite insufficient. Fresh provisions will therefore be consumed at +the seaport and trading towns, and not in the mining region. The +humbug of preserved meats was already exploded, great quantities +having been spoiled." All this was very different from the promised +vineyards and corn-fields; and Mr Johnson, who had not come to +California to feed on salt junk at six shillings a pound, and to +drink mercurial water, began to wish himself back again almost as +soon as arrived. + + [6] "A cañon is the narrow opening between two mountains, several + hundred and sometimes a thousand feet in depth; rising, some of + them, like perpendicular cliffs on either hand, as if torn asunder + by a violent convulsion of nature. Through these pour the rushing + mountain torrents of the _wet diggins_ of the gold regions of + California."--_Sights in the Gold Regions_, p. 180. + +In countries where a large majority of the men are content to give, +year after year, their skill, energy, and time, in exchange for a +few hundred pieces of gold, or even of silver, the reports of a +land where the most precious of these metals turns up under the +ploughshare, abounds in the rivers, mingles with the highway-dust, +and is picked from the bricks of the houses, are naturally at first +received with doubt and misgiving, and suspected of exaggeration, +if not condemned as fiction. We confess, for our part, that we +attached little weight to the first accounts of Californian marvels, +and that long after the wise men of the East had begun to debate, +in the shadow of the grasshopper, the possible effect upon the +currency of the anticipated influx of the produce of the diggings, +we still were sceptics as to the magnitude of the newly-found +treasure. But even those who gave readiest credence to the tale +of wonder, could hardly, we should have thought, have expected +that the ingots were to be gathered without trouble or pain beyond +that of performing a long journey and filling a big bag. Evidently +this was Mr Johnson's notion, and that of not a few others of his +sanguine countrymen, "who left their homes and families, and the +decencies of civilisation, with the expectation of acquiring an +adequate competency by the efforts of a single year." At what figure +Mr Johnson rates an "adequate competency" we know not; but it is +evident he expected to be placed on pretty nearly the same footing +as those Oriental princes who, after wandering through the desert +to the enchanted gardens, had the free pick of trees whose fruits +were diamonds and rubies. The real state of affairs proved very +different. A few persons, dwellers in California when the golden +richness of the soil was first discovered in 1848,[7] may have made +large fortunes on easy terms, by being early in the field, and +through barter with the Indians, who (before they were frightened +and soured by the shooting and scalping practices of the Oregonians +and others) were willing enough to labour and trade, and to give +gold-dust weight for weight for glass beads and other baubles. We +read of one man, a western farmer, owner and occupier of a loghouse, +known as the Blue Tent, who arrived in California before the gold +discoveries, treated the Indians well, learned their language, +employed them to dig, and realised, it is said, two hundred thousand +dollars. Another old settler, we are told, accumulated, in the +season of 1848, also by help of the Indians, nearly two bushels of +gold-dust. Our arithmetic is not equal to the reduction of this +into pounds sterling, but at a rough estimate we should take it to +represent a very pleasing sum--possibly the competency Mr Johnson +aspired to. But those palmy days of gold-gathering have fled, +violently driven away; the Indians, welcomed with bullets instead +of beads, will work no more, and every man must dig for himself. +And so did Mr Johnson--but only for a very short time, and with no +very prosperous result. The gold fever, under whose influence he and +his companions started for the diggings, was still burning in their +veins when, on the second day after leaving San Francisco, they +halted for the night on the river bank, and one of them, "thrusting +his bowie-knife into the ground, revealed innumerable shining yellow +particles, immediately announced gold discoveries on the Sacramento, +and claimed the _placer_." But it was mica, not gold. They had much +further to go, and worse to fare, before reaching the right metal. +It was the interest of the United States' government and of certain +speculators to tempt emigrants to the distant territory on the shore +of the Pacific; and accordingly, says Mr Johnson, "the wonders of +the gold region were trumpeted to the world, with unabating, but +by no means unforeseeing zeal. Glowing accounts were sent to the +United States of the result of all the most successful efforts in +the mines. To these were added a delicious climate and wonderful +agricultural fertility. The inaccessibility of the _placeres_, the +diseases, the hardships, &c. &c., were quite forgotten or omitted." +And thus a certain number of ambitious young men, (many of them +wholly unfitted, by their previous mode of life for roughing it +in a new country,) were lured from their comfortable homes in New +York and elsewhere, in the confident expectation that, on arriving +in California, they would ascend beauteous rivers in commodious +ships, sleep on board at night, and pleasantly pass a few hours +of each day in collecting the wealth that lay strewn upon the +shore. Such is the account given of the matter by poor Johnson, who +denounces the journey across the mountainous and roadless country +as most toilsome, and the whole adventure as disappointing and +unsatisfactory. At last he and his companions reached the lower +bar[8] on the south fork of American River, shouldered shovels, +buckets, and washing-machine, and applied themselves to the task. + + [7] At Sutter's saw-mill, from which the Culloma valley takes its + second name, Mr Johnson saw and conversed with Mr Marshall, a + proprietor of the mill, and one of the first discoverers of the + gold. The discovery was made when cutting out the mill-race, across + a portion of the former bed of a stream. "He pointed out to us the + particular location of the first discoveries. This is some fifty + yards below the mill, where a large fir-tree extends across the + race. He stated that they threw up a good deal of gold, mixed with + the sand and clay, before they seriously examined it, or ascertained + its character." It must have struck many as singular, that gold + mines so near the surface should so long have been unobserved. + California was explored as far back as the year 1700 by the Jesuit + Eusebio Kino, who first ascertained it to be part of the great + American continent, and not an island, as was previously believed: + Soon afterwards, missionary stations were established there, paving + the way for the Spanish conquest of the country. Some of the + _padres_ still remain, but their mission-houses are dilapidated, + and their influence is gone. To them Mr Johnson attributes the + long concealment of the metallic wealth of California. "That these + priests were cognisant of the abundance of the precious metal at + that period, (a century ago,) is now well known; but they were + members of the extraordinary society of the Jesuits, which, jealous + of its all-pervading influence, and dreading the effect of a large + Protestant emigration to the western, as well as to the eastern + shores of America, applied its powerful injunctions of secrecy to + the members of the order; and their faithful obedience, during so + long a period, is another proof both of the strength and the danger + of their organisation."--_Sights in the Gold Regions_, p. 111. + + [8] "This '_placer_,' or _bar_, is simply the higher portion of + the sandy and rocky bed of the stream which, during the seasons + of high water, is covered with the rushing torrent, but was now + partially or entirely exposed. This is covered with large stones + and rocks, or, on the smooth sand, with clumps of stunted bushes or + trees."--_Sights in the Gold Regions_, 177. + + "The scene presented to us was new indeed, and not more + extraordinary than impressive. Some, with long-handled shovels, + delved among clumps of bushes, or by the side of large rocks, + never raising their eyes for an instant; others, with pick and + shovel, worked among stone and gravel, or with trowels searched + under banks and roots of trees, where, if rewarded with small + lumps of gold, the eye shone brighter for an instant, when the + search was immediately and more ardently resumed. At the edge + of the stream, or knee-deep and waist-deep in water, as cold as + melted ice and snow could make it, some were washing gold with + tin pans, or the common cradle-rocker, while the rays of the + sun poured down on their heads with an intensity exceeding any + thing we ever experienced at home, though it was but the middle + of April. The thirst for gold and the labour of acquisition + overruled all else, and totally absorbed every faculty. Complete + silence reigned among the miners: they addressed not a word to + each other, and seemed averse to all conversation." + +After digging and washing twenty bucketfuls of earth, Mr Johnson's +party had obtained but four dollars' worth of gold. At noon, the +sun's heat being intolerable, they knocked off from work; not much +encouraged by the result. This, however, they admit, was a poor +digging, the stream being yet too high, and the bar not sufficiently +exposed--to say nothing of their being novices at the work. They +persisted little, however: another trial was made with no better +result; and, in short, a week's effort and observation sickened +them of a toil so far less lucrative than they had anticipated. Two +of the party (Mr Johnson was one of them) resolved to return to +San Francisco till the healthier season of winter; a third, having +some goods, took to trading; the fourth and last, a hardy little +down-easter from Maine, stuck to the diggings. + +By this time, we are not entirely dependent on American books or +newspaper correspondence for intelligence from the Californian +mines. Some portion of the gold that has come to this country has +been brought by the finders; and only the other day, a party of them +reached England, having left the diggings as lately as the beginning +of October. The details obtained from these men, who are of various +European countries, confirm, in all important particulars, the +statements of Mr Johnson, with merely the difference of tint +imparted by failure and success. Either easily discouraged or +physically unequal to encounter the hardships inseparable from the +search for and extraction of the gold, Mr Johnson, disappointed in +his sanguine expectations, makes a sombre report of the speculation; +whereas these more persevering and prosperous miners, having safely +returned to Europe, their pockets full of "chunks," scales and dust +of the most undeniable purity and excellence, naturally give a more +rose-coloured view of the enterprise. They admit, however, (to use +the words of one of them,) that "it takes a smart lad to do good in +California," and that it is useless for any one to go thither unless +prepared to rough it, in the fullest sense of the word. At first, +they inform us the amount of theft and outrage was very great; but +summary and severe punishment checked this. Mr Johnson deplores the +existence of Lynch-law. It really appears to us that California is +the very place where such a system is not only justifiable, but +indispensable. One miner stated that he belonged to a band or club, +thirty in number, who threw together all the gold they found, and +shared alike; sharp penalties being denounced against any member of +the society who attempted to divert his findings from the common +stock. The amount obtained by each member of this joint-stock +company during the season of eight or nine months was equivalent +to thirteen or fourteen hundred pounds sterling. Not quite the +"adequate competency" anticipated by Mr Theodore T. Johnson, but +still a very pretty gain for men, most of whom would probably have +found it impossible, in any other way, and in the same time, to +earn a tithe of the amount. More than one of them proposed, after +depositing his treasure safely in Europe, to augment it by a second +trip to the gold region; and held the time occupied by the voyage +to and fro as little loss, digging being impeded by the winter +snows. The winter of 1848-9 was very severe, the snow lying four +feet deep on the mountains, and having fallen even on the coast; a +circumstance unprecedented in California, whose Spanish and Indian +inhabitants attributed the disagreeable phenomenon to the American +intruders. Notwithstanding this unwonted rigour, however, we learn +from Mr Johnson that "large numbers of hardy and industrious +Oregonians spent the last _winter_ in the mines of California, +generally with success commensurate with their perseverance, +prudence, and sobriety." The lumps of gold, according to the account +of the miners already referred to, (and which tallies exactly in +this particular with Mr Johnson's statement) are found in what are +called the dry diggings, in the red sandy clay of the ravines on the +mountain sides; whilst the dust and scales are obtained by washing +the earth and sand from the rivers. Lumps of pure gold, with a +greater or less admixture of quartz, are also found in the crevices +of a white-veined rock. + +Whilst denouncing the expense of health and labour at which the +Californian gold is obtained, Mr Johnson admits the vast quantity +of the metal that has been and still is being collected. In town, +fort, and settlement,--in every place, in short, where a score +or two of men were congregated, he beheld astonishing evidence +of its abundance. "Quarts of the dust or scale gold were to be +seen on the tables or counters, or in the safes of all classes +of men; and although the form of small scales was most common, +yet pieces or lumps of a quarter to three ounces were to be seen +everywhere; and among several _chunks_ one was shown us by C. L. +Ross, Esq., weighing _eighty-one ounces_. This was solid pure gold +with only the appearance of a little quartz in it." In one day he +saw bushels of gold, most of it too pure for jewellery or coin, +without alloy. Although the price of the metal was maintained at +sixteen dollars per ounce, its depreciation in comparison with +labour and merchandise was enormous; and in the mines, during the +winter of 1848, "a good deal of gold was sold for _three or four +dollars the ounce_." Carpenters and blacksmiths received an ounce +a-day. Lumber was at six hundred dollars per thousand feet. A lot of +land, purchased two years previously for a cask of brandy, fetched +eighteen thousand dollars. At a French _café_, a cup of coffee, +bit of ham, and two eggs, cost three dollars, or 12s. 6d. A host +of details of this kind are added, most of which have already been +given in the American and English newspapers. Captain Sutter's +saw-mill was earning a thousand dollars a-day. At the Stanislaus +diggings, in the winter of 1848-9, a box of raisins, greatly needed +for the cure of scurvy, then raging there without remedy, sold +for its weight in gold dust, or four thousand dollars! Reckless +expenditure is the natural consequence of easily-acquired wealth. +The diggers, after a brief period of severe labour, would come into +town for what they called "a burst," and scatter their gold dust +and ingots like sand and pebbles, keeping "upon the ball" for three +or four days and nights, or even for a week together, drinking +brandy at eight and champagne at sixteen dollars the bottle, often +getting helplessly drunk and losing the whole of their gains. +One fellow, during a three days' drunken fit, got rid of sixteen +thousand dollars in gold. Two hopeful youths, known as Bill and +Gus, who took an especial liking to Mr Johnson and his party, had +come in for "a particular, general, and universal burst;" and they +carried out their intentions most completely. They were tender in +their liquor, and, in the excess of their drunken philanthropy, they +purchased a barrel of ale at three dollars a bottle, and a parcel +of sardinas at eight dollars a box, and patrolled the district, +forcing every one to drink. In paying for something, Bill dropped a +lump of gold, worth two or three dollars, which Mr Johnson picked +up, and handed to him. "Without taking it, he looked at us with a +comical mixture of amazement and ill-humour, and at length broke out +with--'Well, stranger, you _are_ a curiosity; I guess you hain't +been in the diggins long, and better keep that for a sample.'" Even +in all sobriety, miners would not be troubled with anything less +than dollars, and often scattered small coins by handfuls in the +streets, rather than count or carry them. And as neither exorbitant +prices nor drunken bursts sufficed to exhaust the resources of +the gold-laden diggers, gambling went on upon all sides. "Talk of +_placers_," cried an American, who had just cleared his thousand +dollars in ten minutes, at a _monte_-table in San Francisco; "what +better _placer_ need a man want than this?" At Sutter's Fort, a +halting-place of the miners, gambling prevailed without limit +or stint, men often losing in a single night the result of many +months' severe toil. Drunkenness and fighting diversified the scene. +"Hundreds of dollars were often spent in a night, and thousands on +Sunday, _when Pandemonium was in full blast_." Such iniquities were +no more than might be expected amongst the ragamuffin crew assembled +in California, and which included discharged convicts from New South +Wales, Mexicans, Kanakas, Peruvians, Chilians, representatives of +every European nation, and thousands of the more dissolute and +reckless class of United States men. + +It is not surprising that some of the minority of honest and +respectable men, who found themselves mingled with the mob of +ruffians and outlaws assembled in California, thought the prospect +of wealth dearly purchased by a prolonged residence in vile society +and a most trying climate, and by labour and exposure destructive to +health. Mr Johnson assures us that, among the miners who had been +long at the diggings, he saw very few who were not suffering from +disease--emaciated by fever till they were mere walking shadows, or +tormented by frequently recurring attacks of scurvy and rheumatism. +If there was a constant stream of adventurers proceeding to the +diggings, there was also a pretty steady flow of weary and sickly +men returning thence. It would seem, from Mr Johnson's account, +that no previous habit of hard labour qualifies the human frame to +follow, without injury, the trying trade of a gold-grubber. "We met +a party of six sailors, of the Pacific whalers, who were returning +to go before the mast again, swearing, sailor-fashion, that they +would rather go a whaling at half wages than dig gold any more." +Mr Johnson was somewhat of the same way of thinking. He sums up a +general review of California in the following words:-- + + "So large an emigration of the American people, as have gone + to that territory, must make something of the country. They + will make it one of the states of this Union, at all events, + and speedily, too: and although the country is only adapted + by nature for mining and grazing, yet a constant trade must + result from the former, and more or less agriculture be added + to the latter, from the necessity of the case. A few have made, + and will hereafter make fortunes there, and very many of those + who remain long enough will accumulate something; but the + great mass, all of whom expected to acquire large amounts of + gold in a short time, must be comparatively disappointed. The + writer visited California to dig gold, but chose to abandon + that purpose rather than expose his life and health in the + mines; and as numbers were already seeking employment in San + Francisco without success, and he had neither the means nor the + inclination to speculate, he concluded to return to his family + and home industry." + +Finally, the disappointed gold-seeker addresses to his readers a +parting hint, apprehensive, seemingly, of their supposing that +his own ill-success has warped his judgment, or induced him to +calumniate the country. "If you think," he says, "we have not shown +you enough of _the elephant_, but got on the wrong way and slid off +backwards, please to mount him and take a view for yourself." By +which metaphorical phrase, if the worthy Johnson means that we are +to go to the diggings, and judge for ourselves, we can only say we +had much rather take his word than his advice, and read his book by +our fireside than tread in his footsteps amongst the mountains of +California. + +Without further comment, but with a warm recommendation, we close +these three American volumes. It were idle to subject to minute +criticism books that make no pretensions to literary merit, and +which, professing only to give, in plain language, an account of +the writers' personal adventures and experiences, are written in +off-hand style, and are wholly free from pedantry and affectation. +If they are occasionally somewhat rude in form, like the men +and countries they portray, they at least are frank and honest +in substance; and they contain more novelty, amusement, and +information, than are to be found in any dozen of those vapid +narratives of fashionable tourists with which the Bentley and +Colburn presses annually cram the nauseated public. We have been +much pleased and diverted by the unsophisticated pages of Messrs +Johnson, Wise, and Parkman. + + + + +HOWARD.[9] + + [9] _John Howard and the Prison-World of Europe._ From original and + authentic Documents. By HEPWORTH DIXON. + + +To add another to the numerous eulogies which have been justly +bestowed on the memory of Howard the philanthropist, is not our +object. We are far from making the attempt: our aim is to contribute +something to the more accurate and familiar knowledge of the man +himself--his life, his character, his career, his services. + +It not unfrequently happens that the great men of history, whom we +have admired in our youth, sink grievously in our estimation, and +lose their heroic port and proportions, when we survey them more +nearly, and at a season of maturer judgment. They shrink into the +bounds and limits of commonplace mortality. We venture even to +administer reproof and castigation, where, perhaps, we had venerated +almost to idolatry. Such is not the case with Howard. Poets have +sung his praises, and his name has rounded many an eloquent period. +Howard the philanthropist becomes very soon a name as familiar to +us as those of the kings and queens who have sat upon our throne; +but the vague admiration, thus early instilled into us, suffers no +diminution when, at an after period, we become intimately acquainted +with the character of the man. We may approach the idol here without +danger to our faith. We may analyse the motive--we may "vex, +probe, and criticise"--it is all sound. Take your stethoscope and +listen--there is no hollow here--every pulse beats true. + +The Howard that poets and orators had taught us to admire loses +none of its greatness on a near approach. But it undergoes a +remarkable _transformation_. The real Howard, who devoted his +life to the jail and the lazaretto, was a very different person +from that ideal of benevolence which the verse of Darwin, or the +eloquence of Burke, had called up into our minds. Instead of this +faint and classic ideal, we have the intensely and somewhat sternly +religious man, guided and sustained, every step of his way, not +alone, nor principally, by the amiable but vacillating sentiment +which passes under the name of philanthropy, but by an exalted, +severe, imperative sense of duty. It is Howard the Christian, Howard +the Puritan, that stands revealed before us. The form changes, but +only to grow more distinct and intelligible. The features have no +longer that classic outline we had attributed to them; but they bear +henceforth the stamp of reality--of a man who, without doubt, had +lived and moved amongst us. + +Those who have rested content (and we think there are many such) +with that impression of Howard which is derived from the panegyrics +scattered through our polite literature, and who accordingly +attribute to him, as the master-motive of his conduct, simply a wide +benevolence--a sentiment of humanity exalted to a passion--must +be conscious of a certain uneasy sense of doubt, an involuntary +scepticism; must feel that there is something here unexplained, or +singularly exaggerated. Their Howard, if they should scrutinise +their impression, is a quite anomalous person. No philanthropist +they have ever heard of--no mere lover of his kind, sustained only +by the bland sentiment of humanity, not even supported by any new +enthusiastic faith in the perfectibility of the species--ever lived +the life of this man, or passed through a tithe of his voluntary +toils and sufferings. Philanthropists are generally distinguished +for their love of speculation; they prefer to think rather than to +act; and their labours are chiefly bestowed on the composition of +their books. Philanthropists have occasionally ruined themselves; +but their rash schemes are more notorious for leading to the ruin of +others. As a race, they are not distinguished for self-sacrifice, or +for practical and strenuous effort. There must, therefore, to the +persons we are describing, be a certain doubt and obscurity hanging +over the name of Howard the philanthropist. It must sound like a +myth or fable; they must half suspect that, if some Niebuhr should +look into the matter, their heroic figure would vanish into thin air. + +Let them, however, proceed to the study of the veritable Howard, +and all the mystery clears up. The philanthropist of the orator +gives place to one who, in the essential elements of his character, +may be ranked with Christian missionaries and Christian martyrs. +Instead of the half-pagan ideal, or personification of benevolence, +there rises before them a character which a rigorous analysis +might justly class with those of St Francis or Loyola, or whatever +the Christian church has at any time exhibited of exalted piety +and complete self-devotion. The same spirit which, in past times, +has driven men into the desert, or shut them up in cells with the +scourge and the crucifix; the same spirit which has impelled them to +brave all the dangers of noxious climates and of savage passions, +to extend the knowledge of religion amongst barbarous nations--was +animating Howard when he journeyed incessantly from prison to +prison, tracking human misery into all its hidden and most loathsome +recesses. He who, in another century, would have been the founder +of a new order of barefooted monks, became, in Protestant England, +the great exemplar of philanthropic heroism. Perhaps he too, in one +sense, may be said to have founded a new religious order, though +it is not bound together by common rules, and each member of it +follows, as he best may, the career of charitable enterprise that +lies open before him. The mystery, we say, clears up. Benevolent +our Howard was, undoubtedly, by nature, as by nature also he was +somewhat imperious; but that which converted his benevolence into +a ceaseless motive of strenuous action, of toil, and of sacrifice; +that which _utilised_ his natural love of authority, transforming it +into that requisite firmness and predominance over others without +which no man, at least no reformer, can be rigidly just, and, face +to face, admonish, threaten, and reprove; that which constituted +the mainspring and vital force of his character, was intense piety, +and the all-prevailing sense of duty to his God. The craving of his +soul was some great task-work, to be done in the eye of Heaven. Not +the love of man, nor the praise of man, but conscience, and to be a +servant of the Most High, were his constant motive and desire. + +Men of ardent piety generally apply themselves immediately to +the reproduction in others of that piety which they feel to be +of such incomparable importance. This becomes the predominant, +often the sole object of their lives. It is natural it should be +so. In such minds all the concerns of the present world sink into +insignificance; and their fellow-men are nothing, except as they +are, or are not, fellow-Christians. Howard was an exception to +this rule. Owing to certain circumstances in his own life; to the +manner of his education; to his deficiency in some intellectual +qualifications, and his pre-eminence in others, he was led to take +the domain of physical suffering--of earthly wretchedness--for +the province in which to exert his zeal. For the preacher, or +the writer, he was not formed, either by education or by natural +endowment; but he was a man of shrewd observation, of great +administrative talent, of untiring perseverance, and of an +insatiable energy. The St Francis of Protestant England did not, +therefore, go forth as a missionary; nor did he become the founder +of a new sect, distinguished by any doctrinal peculiarity; but +he girded himself up to visit, round the world, the cell of the +prisoner--to examine the food he ate, the air he breathed, to rid +him of the jail-fever, to drive famine out of its secret haunts, +and from its neglected prey. It was this peculiarity which led men +to segregate Howard from the class to which, by the great elements +of his character, he belongs. To relieve the common wants of our +humanity was his object--to war against hunger and disease, and +unjust cruelties inflicted by man on man, was his chosen task-work; +therefore was it vaguely supposed that the sentiment of humanity was +his great predominant motive, and that he was driven about the world +by compassion and benevolence. + +His remains lie buried in Russia. Dr Clarke, in his travels through +that country, relates that "Count Vincent Potoçki, a Polish +nobleman of the highest taste and talents, whose magnificent library +and museum would do honour to any country, through a mistaken design +of testifying his respect for the memory of Howard, has signified +his intention of taking up the body that it might be conveyed to his +country seat, where a sumptuous monument has been prepared for its +reception, upon a small island in the midst of a lake. His countess, +being a romantic lady, wishes to have an annual _fête_ consecrated +to benevolence; at this the nymphs of the country are to attend, and +strew the place with flowers." There are many, we suspect, of his +own countrymen and countrywomen, who would be disposed to honour the +memory of Howard in a similar manner. They would hang, or carve, +their wreaths of flowers upon a tomb where the emblems of Christian +martyrdom would be more appropriate. We need hardly add that the +design of the romantic countess was not put into execution. + +The vague impression prevalent of this remarkable man has been +perpetuated by another circumstance. Howard has been unfortunate +in his biographers. Dr Aikin, the earliest of these, writes like +a gentleman and a scholar; manifests throughout much good sense, +a keen intelligence, and a high moral feeling; but his account is +brief, and is both defective and deceptive from his incapacity, or +unwillingness, to portray the religious aspect of the character +he had undertaken to develop. Dr Aikin's little book may still be +read with advantage for the general remarks it contains, but it is +no biography. Neither was Dr Aikin calculated for a biographer. He +wanted both the highest and the lowest qualifications. Details, such +as of dates and places, he had not the patience to examine; and he +wanted that rarer quality of mind by which the writer is enabled +to throw himself into the character of a quite different man from +himself, and almost feel by force of sympathy the motives which have +actuated him. This the cultivated, tasteful, but, in spite of his +verse, the quite didactic mind of Aikin, was incapable of doing. + +The Rev. Samuel Palmer, who had known Howard for thirty years, +appended to a sermon, preached on the occasion of his death, some +account of his life and career. But this, as well as several +anonymous contributions to magazines, and a brief anonymous life +which appeared at the same time, can be considered only in the light +of materials for the future biographer. + +The task lay still open, and Mr Baldwin Brown, barrister-at-law, +undertook to accomplish it. He appears to have had all the +advantages a biographer could desire. He had conversed with the +contemporaries and friends of Howard, and with his surviving +domestics--an advantage which no subsequent writer could hope to +profit by; he was put in possession of the materials which the +Rev. Mr Smith and his family, intimate friends of Howard, had +collected for the very purpose of such a work as he was engaged +on; Dr Brown, professor of theology at Aberdeen, another intimate +friend of Howard, transcribed for him, from his commonplace book, +the memoranda of conversations held with Howard, and committed +to writing at the time; and, above all, he was furnished with +extracts and memoranda from diaries kept by Howard himself, and +which fortunately had escaped the general conflagration to which +the philanthropist, anticipating and disliking the curiosity of the +biographer, had devoted his papers. Several influential men amongst +the Dissenters interested themselves in obtaining information for +him; and the list of those to whom he expresses obligations of +this kind, occupies two or three pages of his preface. Mr Brown +was himself a man of religious zeal--we presume, from his work, a +Dissenter: he could not fail to appreciate the religious aspect of +Howard's character. As a lawyer, he was prepared to take an interest +in the subject of his labours--the reformation of our prisons +and our penal laws. Thus he brought to his task many peculiar +advantages; and the work he produced was laborious, conscientious, +and very valuable. Unfortunately, Mr Baldwin Brown was a dull +writer, by which we here imply that he was also a dull thinker, and +his book will be pronounced by the generality of readers to be as +dull as it is useful. Notwithstanding the attractive title it bears, +and the many interesting particulars contained in it, his biography +never attained any popularity. It was probably read extensively +amongst the Dissenters, to whose sympathies it more directly appeals +than to those of any other class of readers; but we think we are +right in saying that it never had much circulation in the world at +large. + +More parsonic than the parsons, our lawyer-divine can resist no +opportunity for sermonising. The eloquence of a Dissenting pulpit, +and that when it is but indifferently _supplied_--the tedious +repetition, and the monotonous unmodulated periods of his legal +text-books--these combine, or alternate, through the pages of Mr +Brown. Yet those who persevere in the perusal of his book will be +rewarded. He is judicious in the selection of his materials. He +presents us with the means of forming an accurate conception of +Howard; though, in so doing, he seems to reveal to an attentive +reader more than he had well understood himself. + +Tedious or not, this is still the only biography of Howard. A Mr +Thomas Taylor has written what appears to be an abridgment of the +work. His book is more brief, but it is still more insipid. What +notion Mr T. Taylor has of biography may be judged of from this, +that he thinks it necessary, in quoting Howard's own original +letters, to amend and improve the _style_--preserving, as he says, +the sense, but correcting the composition. He is apparently shocked +at the idea that the philanthropist should express himself in +indifferent English, even though in a hasty letter to a friend. + +Very lately Mr Hepworth Dixon, whose work has recalled us to this +subject, has presented us with a life of Howard. It cannot be said +of Mr Dixon's book that it is either dull or insipid; it has some +of the elements of popularity; but we cannot better describe it in +a few words than by saying that it is a _caricature_ of a popular +biography. Its flippancy, its conceit, its egregious pretensions, +its tawdry _novelistic_ style, are past all sufferance. It is too +bad to criticise. But as, in the dearth of any popular biography +of Howard, it has assumed for a time a position it by no means +merits, we cannot pass it by entirely without notice. For, besides +that Mr Dixon writes throughout with execrable taste, he has not +dealt conscientiously with the materials before him. His notion +of the duty of a biographer is this--that he is to collect every +incident of the least piquancy, no matter by whom related, or on +what authority, and colour it himself as highly as he can. Evidently +the most serious preparation he has made, for writing the life of +Howard, has been a course of reading in French romances. It is with +the spirit and manner of a Eugene Sue that he sits down to describe +the grand and simple career of Howard. + +Mr Dixon has not added a single new fact to the biography of Howard, +nor any novelty whatever, except such as he has drawn from his own +imagination. Nor does he assist in sifting the narrative; on the +contrary, whatever dust has the least sparkle in it, though it has +been thrice thrown away, he assiduously collects. That he should +have nothing new to relate is no matter of blame; it is probable +that no future biographer will be able to do more than recast and +reanimate the materials to be found in Brown and Aikin. But why +this pretence of having written a life of Howard from "original +documents?" We beg pardon: he does not absolutely say that he has +written _the Life of Howard_ from original documents--the original +document, for there is but one, may apply to the "_prison-world +of Europe_," of which also he professes to write. This "earliest +document of any value connected with the _penology of England_," +which, with much parade, he prints for the first time, relates to +the state of prisons before the labours of Howard. Impossible to +suppose, therefore, that Mr Hepworth Dixon meant his readers to +infer that, by the aid of this document, he was about to give them +an original Life of Howard. + +Let us look at Mr Dixon's preface--it is worth while. It thus +commences:-- + + "Several reasons combined to induce the writer _to undertake the + work of making out for the reading world_ a new biography of + Howard; the chief of them fell under two heads:-- + + "_It lay in his path._ Years ago now, circumstances, which do + not require to be explained in this place, called his attention + to the vast subject of the _prison-world_." + +We must stop a moment to admire this favourite magniloquence of our +author. Howard wrote a report on the state of prisons; Mr Dixon +writes on nothing less than the _prison-world_ of Europe! He heads +his chapters--"The Prison-world of the Continent," "The Prison-world +of England." If Mr Dixon, in his patriotic labours, should turn his +attention to the nuisance of Smithfield market, he would certainly +give us a treatise on "The _Butcher-world_ of Europe," with chapters +headed, with due logical gradation, "The Butcher-world of England," +and "The Butcher-world of London." + +"It lay in his path," was one reason why he wrote his biography. +"It needed to be done," was the other. We agree in the last of +these reasons, whatever demur we make to the first. A more popular +biography than Mr Brown's would certainly be a useful book. But what +can Mr Dixon mean by saying, that, "although Howard was the father +of prison-science, the story of his life has hitherto been made out +without reference to that fact?" Messrs Brown and Aikin were not, +then, aware that the excitement of the public attention to the great +subject of prison-discipline was the chief result, and the direct +and ostensible aim of the labours of Howard! + +But now we arrive at Mr Dixon's statement of his own peculiar +resources for writing the Life of Howard, and the valuable +contributions he has made to our better knowledge of the man; in +short, his claims upon our gratitude and confidence:-- + + "It has been the writer's study to render this biographical + history of Howard as worthy of its subject, and of the + confidence of the reader, as the nature of the materials at + his disposal would allow. He has carefully collated every + document already printed--made, and caused to be made, numerous + researches--conversed with persons who have preserved traditions + and other memorials of this subject--travelled in his traces + over a great number of prisons--examined parliamentary and + other records for such new facts as they might afford--and, in + conclusion, has consulted these several sources of information, + and interpreted their answers by such light as his personal + experience of the prison-world suggested to be needful. The + result of this labour is, that some new matter of curious + interest has turned up--_amongst other things_, a manuscript + throwing light on the early history of prison reforms in this + country, found in the archives of the Society for Promoting + Christian Knowledge, and for which he is indebted to the + courtesy of the secretary, the Rev. T. B. Murray; and the + writer is assured _that no other papers_ exist in any known + quarter. The material for Howard's life is therefore _now fully + collected_; whether it is herein finally used, will entirely + depend upon the verdict of the reader." + +From all this mystification, the reader is at least to conclude +that something very important has been done, and contributions +very valuable have been made, for a final biography of Howard. +Documents collated--researches made, and caused to be made--then a +discovered manuscript, which now is, and now is not, appertaining +to the subject--assurance "that no other papers exist in any +known quarter!"--"materials _now_ fully collected!" Oh, Admirable +Crichton! Our author has done all this for us! Our author has read +the memoirs of Baldwin Brown--and that not very attentively: if he +has done more it is a pity, because there is not the least trace of +it in his book. Our author has read the memoirs of Baldwin Brown, +and travestied his narrative, and then writes this preface, as a +travesty, we presume, of erudite prefaces in general. The book +altogether does not belong to literature, but is a sort of parody +upon literature. + +We may as well give our readers the benefit of the rest of the +preface:-- + + "The mental and moral portraiture of Howard attempted in this + volume is new." [Fortunately, and to the recommendation of + the volume, it is not new, but a transcript of that which his + predecessor had drawn.] "As the writer's method of inquiry and + of treatment was different to that ordinarily adopted, so his + result is different. His study of the character was earnest, + and, he believes, faithful. After making himself master of all + the facts of the case which have come down to us, biographically + and traditionally, his plan was to _saturate himself with + Howardian ideas_, and then strive to reproduce them _living, + acting, and suffering_ in the real world." + +How the Howardian ideas _suffered_ from this process, we can +somewhat guess. The rest of the sentence is not so plain:-- + + "The writer lays down his pen, not without regret. Long + accustomed to contemplate one of the most noble and beautiful + characters in history, he has learnt to regard it with a human + affection; and at parting with his theme--the mental companion + of many hours, and the object of his constant thoughts--_he + feels somewhat like a father who gives away his favourite + daughter in marriage_. He does not lose his interest in his + child; but she can be to him no longer what she has been. A + touch of melancholy mingles with his joy. He still regards his + offspring with a tender solicitude--_but his monopoly of love is + ended_." + +Oh, surely no! + +We propose, as far as our limits will permit, to retrace the chief +incidents in the biography of Howard. A brief sketch of his life and +character may not be unacceptable to our readers. Such strictures as +we have passed upon his latest biographer, Mr Dixon, we shall have +abundant opportunities to justify as we proceed. + +The well-known monument in St Paul's Cathedral, which, from the +circumstance of the key held in the hand of the statue, has been +sometimes taken by foreigners for the representation of the apostle +St Peter, bears inscribed on the pedestal that Howard "was born in +Hackney, in the county of Middlesex, September 2, 1726." But both +the place and the year of his birth have been differently stated by +his biographers. The Rev. S. Palmer, who had known him long, writes +that he was born at Clapton; Dr Aikin, that he was born at Enfield. +To the authority of the Doctor, on such a point as this, we attach +no weight; it is plain to us that he gave himself little trouble to +determine whether he was born at Clapton or Enfield. It was probably +at Clapton; but Clapton is in the parish of Hackney, so that there +is really no discrepancy between Mr Palmer's statement and that on +the monument. The year 1726 seems also to be generally received as +the most probable date of his birth. After all the discussion, we +may as well adhere to the inscription on the pedestal of the statue. + +The father of Howard had acquired a considerable fortune in business +as an upholsterer and carpet warehouseman in Long Lane, Smithfield. +He was a dissenter, of Calvinistic principles; and, it is presumed, +an Independent. The question has been raised, whether our Howard +was descended from any branch of the noble family of that name; but +his biographers generally agree in rejecting for him the honours of +such a pedigree. Nor can any one be in the least degree solicitous +to advance such a claim. The military achievements of a Norman +ancestry would diffuse a very incongruous lustre over the name of +our Christian philanthropist. Thus much, however, is evident, that +at one time there existed some tradition, or belief, or pretence, +in the family of the citizen Howard, that they were remotely +connected with the noble family whose name they share. "The arms +of the Duke of Norfolk, and of the Earls of Suffolk, Effingham, +and Carlisle, are placed at the head of the tombstone which Howard +erected to the memory of his first wife, on the south side of +Whitechapel churchyard." Such is the assertion of the anonymous +biographer in the _Universal Magazine_, (vol. lxxxvi.) who stands +alone, we believe, in maintaining the validity of this claim. And +Mr Brown, after quoting these words, adds--"From actual inspection +of the mouldering monument, I can assure those of my readers who +may feel any curiosity on the subject, that this description of its +armorial bearings is correct; and am further enabled to add, on the +authority of his relative, Mr Barnardiston, that the distinguished +individual by whom that monument was erected, occasionally spoke of +Lord Carlisle as his relative; thus claiming at least a traditional +descent from the Howards, Earls of Suffolk." That such a man as +Howard should have used these arms _once_ is significant; that he +should have used them only once, is equally so. He was one of the +last men, if we have read his character correctly, who would have +assumed what he did not, at the time, think himself entitled to; and +one of the last who would shrink from claiming a right where his +title was clear. + +Mr Dixon not only rejects the claim, but is highly indignant that it +should ever have been suggested. "Howard sprang from a virgin and +undistinguished soil;"--why the upholsterer's should be peculiarly +_a virgin soil_ we do not see. "Attempts, however, have not been +wanting to _vulgarise_ his origin--to rob its greatness of its most +natural charm--by circling his brows with the _distant glitter_ of +a ducal crown; by finding in his simple lineaments the trace of +noble lines, and in his veins the consecrated currents of patrician +blood." Strange waste of eloquent indignation! But he does not keep +quite steady in his passion. "No," he exclaims, "let Howard stand +alone. His reputation rests upon a basis already broad enough. _Why +should we pile up Pelion on Olympus?_" There was, then, a Pelion to +pile upon Olympus? We had thought not. Our author should have kept +these red and purple patches at a greater distance: they do not +harmonise. + +Meanwhile the father of Howard had so little of what is commonly +called aristocratic pride, that although he had retired from +business, and had a good property--and property, too, in land--to +leave to his son, he yet wished that son to tread in his own +footsteps. He apprenticed him to a wholesale grocer in Watling +Street. + +The education of young Howard was such as is, or was, generally +given to a lad of respectable parents intended for trade. He was at +two schools. Of the first, Howard himself is reported to have said, +that, having been there seven years, "he left it not fully taught +in any one thing." He left it when a boy, and what boy ever left +his school "fully taught in any one thing?" The remark is rather +characteristic of the speaker than condemnatory of John Worsley, +the schoolmaster in question. His second school was kept by a Mr +Eames, a man of acknowledged ability. But how long he remained there +is not known. At this school he made the friendship of one Price, +afterwards that Dr Price who remains, to all posterity, impaled in +Burke's _Letter on the French Revolution_. The great orator thrust +his spear through his thin texture, and pinned him to the board; and +never, but in this rich museum, will any one behold or think of Dr +Price. Perhaps he deserved a better fate, but his case is hopeless +now. Yet, if it can heal his memory to connect his name with one +who was not a _revolutionary philanthropist_, let him have all the +benefit of the association. Howard had never acquired the art of +writing his own language with ease and correctness, and therefore it +will be directly understood how valuable to him, in the preparation +of his reports, was the help of a literary friend. That literary +friend he found in Dr Price. In a letter to him, Howard writes, "It +is from your kind aid and assistance, my dear friend, that I derive +so much of my character and influence. I exult in declaring it, and +shall carry a grateful sense of it to the last hour of my existence." + +After his father's death, Howard purchased his freedom from the +wholesale grocer's in Watling Street, and travelled upon the +Continent. He was not without taste for the arts; and it was at this +time, Mr Brown supposes, that he brought with him from Italy those +paintings with which he afterwards embellished his favourite seat at +Cardington. + +On returning from this tour, he took lodgings at Stoke Newington, +in the house of Mrs Loidore, a widow, upwards of fifty, of rather +humble station in life, and a perpetual invalid. She, however, +nursed him with so much care, through a severe illness, by which he +was attacked while residing under her roof, that, on his recovery, +he offered her marriage. "Against this unexpected proposal," says +Mr Brown, "the lady made remonstrances, principally upon the ground +of the great disparity in their ages; but Mr Howard being firm to +his purpose, the union took place, it is believed, in the year +1752, he being then in about the twenty-fifth year of his age, and +his bride in her fifty-second. Upon this occasion, he behaved +with a liberality which seems to have been inherent in his nature, +by settling the whole of his wife's little independence upon her +sister. The marriage, thus singularly contracted, was productive of +mutual satisfaction to the parties who entered it. Mrs Howard was a +woman of excellent character, amiable in her disposition, sincere +in her piety, endowed with a good mental capacity, and forward in +exercising its powers in every good word and work." + +Thus runs the sober narrative of Mr Brown. Not so does Mr Dixon let +pass the opportunity for fine descriptive writing. Read and admire:-- + + "As he became convalescent, his plan ripened into form. When + the danger had entirely passed away, his health was restored + to its accustomed state; he offered her, as the only fitting + reward of her services--a toy? an ornament? a purse? a house? + an estate? or any of those munificent gifts with which wealthy + and generous convalescents reward their favourite attendants? + No. He offered her his hand, his name, his fortune! Of course, + the good lady was astonished at the portentous shape of her + patient's gratitude. She started objections, being older, and + having more worldly prudence than her lover. It is even said + that she seriously refused her consent to the match, urging + the various arguments which might fairly be alleged against + it,--the inequality in the years, fortune, social position of + the parties, and so forth--but all to no purpose. Howard's mind + was made up. During his slow recovery, he had weighed the matter + carefully--had come to the conclusion that it was his duty to + marry her, and nothing could now change his determination. The + struggle between the two must have been extremely curious: the + sense of duty on both sides, founded upon honest convictions, + no doubt,--the mutual respect without the consuming fire,--the + cool and logical weighing of arguments, in place of the rapid + pleading of triumphant passion; the young man without the + ordinary inspirations of youth, on the one hand; the widow, + past her prime, yet simple, undesigning, unambitious, earnestly + struggling to reject and put aside youth, wealth, protection, + honour, social rank,--the very things for which women are + taught to dress, to pose, to intrigue, almost to circumvent + heaven, on the other;--form together a picture which has its + romantic interest, in spite of the incongruity of the main + idea. Humble life is not without its heroic acts. _Cæsar + refusing the Roman crown_, even had he been really serious, and + without after-thought in its rejection, _is a paltry piece of + magnanimity, compared with Mrs Loidore's refusal of the hand + of Howard_. At length, however, her resistance was overcome by + the indomitable will of her suitor. One of the contemporary + biographers has thrown an air of romance over the scene of + this domestic struggle, which, if the lady had been young and + beautiful--that is, if the element of passion could be admitted + into the arena--would have been truly charming. As it is, the + reader may receive it with such modifications as he or she may + deem necessary. 'On the very first opportunity,' says this grave + but imaginative chronicler, 'Mr Howard expressed his sentiments + to her in the strongest terms of affection, assuring her that, + if she rejected his proposal, _he would become an exile for ever + to his family and friends_. The lady was upwards of forty [true + enough! she was also upwards of fifty, good master historian,] + and therefore urged the disagreement of their years, as well as + their circumstances; but, after _allowing her four-and-twenty + hours for a final reply_, his eloquence surmounted all her + objections, and she consented to a union wherein gratitude was + to supply the deficiencies of passion!' Criticism would only + spoil the pretty picture--so let it stand." + +Criticism had already spoilt the picture, such as it is. But +this matters not to Mr Dixon. The quotation he has thought fit +to embellish his pages with, is taken from an anonymous pamphlet +published in 1790, under the title of _The Life of the late John +Howard, Esquire, with a Review of his Travels_. Mr Dixon, however, +evidently extracts it second-hand from the note in Mr Brown, where +it is quoted, with some other passages from the same performance, +for the express purpose of refutation and contradiction. This is +what Mr Dixon would call _artistic_--the picking up what had been +discarded as worthless, and, with a gentle shade of doubt thrown +over its authenticity, making use of it again. + +A note of Mr Brown's, in the same page of his memoirs, (p. 634,) +will supply us with another instance of this ingenious procedure. +That note runs thus:-- + + "We are informed in the memoirs of Mr Howard, published in + the _Gentleman's Magazine_, that, during the period of his + residing as a lodger in the house of Mrs Loidore, he used to + ride out in the morning for a few miles with a book in his + pocket, dismount, turn his horse to graze upon a common, and + spend several hours in reading. 'On a very particular inquiry, + however,' says the author of the _Life of Mr Howard_, inserted + in the _Universal Magazine_, 'of persons very intimate, and who + had often rode out with him, we are assured that they never saw, + nor ever _heard_ of such a practice.'" + +Mr Dixon makes use of the first part of the note, ignoring the +second. + + "It is said," he writes, gravely suspending his judgment on + the authenticity of the fact--"it is said, in a contemporary + biographical notice, that he would frequently ride out a mile + or two in the country, fasten his nag to a tree, or turn him + loose to browse upon the way-side; and then, throwing himself + upon the grass, under a friendly shade, would read and cogitate + for hours. This statement, if true, would indicate more of a + romantic and poetical temperament in Howard, than the generally + calm and Christian stoicism of his manner would have led one to + expect." + +That Mr Dixon never consulted the memoir itself, in the _Gentleman's +Magazine_, we shall by-and-by have an opportunity of showing. That +memoir, worthless as an authority, has become notorious for the +calumny it originated. But this collator of documents, this inquirer +after traditions, this maker of unimaginable researches, has never +turned over the pages of the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for that +obituary which, owing to its slanderous attack, has excited so much +controversy in all the biographies of Howard, his own included. + +This wife, so singularly selected, died two or three years after +her marriage. Howard is again free and solitary, and again betakes +himself to travel. We are in the year 1755, and the great earthquake +of Lisbon has laid that city in ruins. He goes to see the grand +and terrific spectacle. Dr Aikin calls it a sublime curiosity. +We presume that no other motive than curiosity impelled him on +this occasion; it would be certainly very difficult to suggest +any other. No difficulties, however, daunt Mr Dixon. According to +him,--"Howard, attracted by reports of the unexampled sufferings of +the survivors, no sooner found himself at his own disposal, than he +determined to haste with all possible speed to their assistance!" +Single-handed, he was to cope with the earthquake. + +Lisbon, however, he was not fated to reach. The vessel he sailed +in was taken by a French privateer, and he, with the rest of the +passengers and crew, carried into Brest, and there retained prisoner +of war. The calamities of imprisonment he here endured himself, and +under no mild form: afterwards, when other circumstances had drawn +his attention to the condition of the prisoners, the remembrance +of his own sufferings came in aid of his compassion for others. +"Perhaps," he says, in the preface to his first report, "what I +suffered on this occasion increased my sympathy with the unhappy +people, whose case is the subject of this book." + +Released upon parole, he returned to England, obtained his +exchange, and then sat himself down on his estate at Cardington. +Here he occupied himself in plans to ameliorate the condition of +his tenantry. Scientific studies, and the study of medicine, to +which, from time to time, he had applied himself, also engaged his +attention. It was at this period he was elected a member of the +Royal Society, not assuredly, as Mr Thomas Taylor presumes, from +the "value attached" to a few communications upon the state of the +weather, but, as Dr Aikin sensibly tells us, "in conformity to the +laudable practice of that society, of attaching gentlemen of fortune +and leisure to the interests of knowledge, by incorporating them +into that body." + +Howard now entered into matrimony a second time. On the 25th April +1758, he married Henrietta Leeds, second daughter of Edward Leeds, +Esq. of Croxton, in Cambridgeshire. This alliance is pronounced by +all his biographers to be in every respect suitable. Parity of age, +harmony of sentiment, and, on the part of the lady, the charms of +person and amiability of temper, everything contributed to a happy +union. And it was so. Unfortunately, the happiness was as brief as +it seems to have been perfect. His second wife also expired after +a few years,--"the only years," Howard himself has said, "of true +enjoyment he had known in life." + +On this occasion, Mr Dixon, after infusing into Howard "the bland +and insinuating witchery of a virgin passion," proceeds to describe +his Henrietta in the most approved language of the novelist: +"Although her features were not cast in the choicest mould of +Grecian beauty, she was very fair--had large impressive eyes, an +ample brow, a mouth exquisitely _cut_," &c. Shall we never again get +the chisel out of the human face? + +Connected with this second marriage of Howard, his biographers +relate a trait of character which will be differently estimated by +different minds--we relate it in the words of Mr Dixon:-- + + "We must not omit an incident that occurred before the ceremony, + which is very significant of Howard's frankness and firmness + at this epoch. Observing that many unpleasantnesses arise + in families, from circumstances trifling in themselves, in + consequence of each individual wishing to have his own way + in all things, he determined to avoid all these sources of + domestic discord, by establishing his own paramount authority + in the first instance. It is just conceivable that his former + experience of the wedded life may have led him to insist upon + this condition. At all events, he stipulated with Henrietta, + _that, in all matters in which there should be a difference of + opinion between them, his voice should rule_. This may sound + very ungallant in terms, but it was found exceedingly useful in + practice. Few men would have the moral honesty to suggest such + an arrangement to their lady-loves at such a season; though, at + the same time, few would hesitate to make the largest mental + reservations in their own behalf. It may also be, that few young + belles would be disposed to treat such a proposition otherwise + than with ridicule and anger, however conscious _they_ might + be, that as soon as the hymeneal pageantries were passed, their + surest means of happiness would lie in the prompt adoption of + the principle so laid down. + + "Would that men and women would become sincerer with each other! + The great social vice of this age is its untrustfulness." + +And Mr Dixon thereupon launches into we know not what heroics upon +etiquette, upon English law, morals, and the constitution, all +_à propos_ of Henrietta's obedience! For our own part, we do not +look with much respect upon this stipulation which calls forth +the admiration of Mr Dixon, and apparently meets with his cordial +sympathy. Such a stipulation would probably be a mere nullity; with, +or without it, the stronger will would predominate; but if we are +to suppose it a really binding obligation, forming the basis of the +conjugal union, it presents to us anything but an attractive aspect. +It was the harsh feature in Howard's character, or the mistaken +principle that he had adopted--this love of an authority--this claim +to a domestic absolutism--which was to give no reasons, and admit of +no questioning. + +In justice to the character of Howard, we must not leave this matter +entirely in the hands of Mr Dixon. Everything he draws is, more or +less, a caricature. The authority on which his narration is founded +is the following statement of the Rev. S. Palmer, given in Brown, p. +55:-- + + "The truth is," says Mr Palmer, in his manuscript memoir of his + distinguished friend, "he had a high idea (some of his friends + may think, too high) of the authority of the head of a family. + And he thought it right, because most convenient, to maintain + it, for the sake of avoiding the unhappy consequences of + domestic disputes. On this principle I have more than once heard + him _pleasantly relate_ the agreement he made with the last + Mrs Howard, previous to their marriage, that, _to prevent all + altercation about those little matters_ which he had observed to + be the chief grounds of uneasiness in families, he should always + decide. To this the amiable lady readily consented, and ever + adhered. Nor did she ever regret the agreement, which she found + to be attended with the happiest effects. Such was the opinion + she entertained, both of his wisdom and his goodness, that + she perfectly acquiesced in all that he did, and no lady ever + appeared happier in the conjugal bonds." + +Here the matter has a much less repulsive aspect than in Mr Dixon's +version, who has, in fact, exaggerated, in his zeal, a trait of +Howard's character, which his best friends seem always to have +looked upon with more or less of regret and disapproval. + +As the only other circumstance connected with Howard's domestic +life which we shall have space to mention, has also a peculiar +reference to this trait in his character, we will depart from the +chronological order of events, and allude to it here. His last wife +left him one child, a son. This son grew up a dissolute youth; +his ill-regulated life led to disease, and disease terminated in +insanity. To this last malady, Mr Brown tells us he is authorised to +say that there was a hereditary predisposition--we presume he means +upon the mother's side. + +Immediately on the death of Howard, there appeared, amongst the +obituaries of the _Gentleman's Magazine_, a memoir of the deceased, +in which the miserable fate of the son is directly charged upon the +severity of the father. The whole memoir is full of errors. For +this, the extreme haste in which it was necessarily written forms an +excuse. But no excuse can be given for the perverse and malignant +spirit it betrays. The very next number of the magazine opens with +four or five letters addressed to Mr Urban, all remonstrating +against, and refuting this baseless calumny; and every biographer +has felt himself compelled to notice and repel the slander. + +The fact is, that the writer or writers of the memoir--for +several were engaged in concocting this very hasty and wretched +performance--were quite ignorant, both of the education the son +had received, and of the profligate course, and the consequent +derangement of his health into which he had fallen. They knew only +that the son was in a lunatic asylum, and that the father was a +severe disciplinarian; and they most unwarrantably combined the two +together, in the relation of cause and effect. "All prospects," they +say, speaking of the youth, "were blasted by paternal severity, +which reduced the young man to such an unhappy situation as to +require his being placed where he now is, or lately was." + +The vindication of Howard from this slander is complete; the origin +of the son's malady is clearly traced; his affection for his child +is amply demonstrated, and his unceasing anxiety to train him to +virtue and piety is made equally manifest. But his most intimate +friends entertained the opinion that his conduct towards his son was +not _judicious_, and that his method of training up the youth was +by no means so wisely, as it was conscientiously adopted. This is +the sole charge, if such it can be called, to which the father is +obnoxious; nor, from this, do we pretend to acquit him. + +"It is agreed, on all hands," says Mr Brown, "that Howard +entertained the most exalted notions of the authority of the head +of a family--notions derived rather from the Scriptural history of +patriarchal times than from any of our modern codes of ethics, or +systems of education." Accordingly, we are told that he trained +up his child from earliest infancy to an implicit obedience. +Without once striking the child, but by manifesting a firmness of +purpose which it was hopeless to think of shaking, he established +such an authority over him that Howard himself, on one occasion, +said, that "if he told the boy to put his finger in the fire, he +believed he would do it." When he was an infant, and cried from +passion, the father took him, laid him quietly in his lap, neither +spoke nor moved, but let him cry on till he was wearied. "This +process, a few times repeated, had such an effect, that the child, +if crying ever so violently, was rendered quiet the instant his +father took him." When he grew older, the severest punishment his +father inflicted was to make him sit still in his presence, without +speaking, for a time proportioned to the nature of the offence. +But this impassive, statue-like firmness must have precluded all +approach to companionship or confidence on the part of the son. +It was still the obedience only of fear. "His friends," we quote +from Mr Brown, "and amongst the rest the most intimate of them, the +Rev. Mr Smith, thought that in the case of his son he carried those +patriarchal ideas rather too far, and that by a lad of his temper +(the son is described as of a lively disposition) he would have +been more respected, and would have possessed more real authority +over him, had he attempted to convince him of the reasonableness +of his commands, instead of always enforcing obedience to them +on his parental authority." We therefore may be permitted to say, +that we look upon this aspect of Howard's character as by no means +estimable. As a husband he claimed an unjust prerogative, and as a +parent he divorced authority from persuasion, nor allowed obedience +to mingle and ally itself with filial affection. + +Mr Dixon does not, of course, omit his tribute of indignation +against the calumny of the _Gentleman's Magazine_. We said that he +had not given himself the trouble to look at the memoir itself which +he denounces. Here is the proof:-- + + "The atrocious slander to which reference is made," says Mr + Dixon, "was promulgated in the _Gentleman's Magazine_, in an + obituary notice of the philanthropist. The charge was made _on + the strength of one asserted fact_--namely, that Howard had + once locked up his son for several hours in a solitary place, + put the key into his pocket, and gone off to Bedford, leaving + him there till he returned at night. On the appearance of this + article, the friends of the illustrious dead came forth publicly + to dispute the fact, and to deny the inferences deduced from it. + Meredith Townsend, one of Howard's most intimate friends, sifted + the story to the bottom, and gave the following account of its + origin." + +The charge was _not_ made on the strength of this one asserted +fact--nor on any fact whatever--it was made on the mere authority +of the writer. The story alluded to is _not to be found_ in the +obituary of the _Gentleman's Magazine_. The writers of that obituary +had never heard of the story, or we may be sure they would have made +use of it. The friends of the illustrious dead could not, therefore, +have come forward, in refutation of this article, to "dispute the +fact and deny the inferences." If Mr Dixon had but read Brown's +memoirs attentively he would not have fallen into this blunder, +which shows how little else he can have read. + +The story alluded to had been circulated during the life of Howard, +and when he was absent on one of his journeys. The Rev. Mr Townsend, +"many years Mr Howard's pastor at Stoke Newington," took the first +opportunity _he_ had of mentioning it to Howard himself, who +contradicted it, and related to him the incident which he supposed +must have given rise to the report. On the death of Howard the +story was again revived, where, or by whom, Mr Brown does not tell +us. The Rev. Mr Palmer thereupon obtained from Mr Townsend the +explanation which he had received from Howard himself. The letter +which the latter gentleman addressed to the Rev. Mr Palmer is given +at length in Brown, (note, p. 645.) This letter the Rev. Mr Palmer +communicates to the _Editor of the Universal Magazine_, and mentions +that extracts from it, unauthorised by him, had found their way into +the _Gentleman's Magazine_. + +The explanation of the story there given, is briefly this. Howard +was engaged one day with his child in the root-house, which served +also as a summer-house, when the servant came in great haste, to say +that a gentleman on horseback wished to speak to him immediately. +Not to lose time, he told the little fellow to sit quiet, and he +would soon come to him again. To keep him out of mischief he locked +the door. The gentleman kept him in conversation longer than he +expected, and caused his forgetting the child. Upon the departure of +the guest, recollecting where the child had been left, he flew to +set him at liberty, and found him quietly sleeping on the matting of +the floor. + +It was on the 31st March 1765 that Howard lost his second wife. +After spending some time in the now melancholy retirement of +Cardington, he again quits England for the Continent. Travel +is still with him, as with so many others, the mere relief for +unavailing sorrow, or for the wasting disease of unemployed +energies. It is during this journey to Italy that we are able to +trace, more distinctly than usual, the workings of Howard's mind. +Some memoranda, and fragments of a diary which he kept, have given +us this insight. + +It was his design to proceed to the south of Italy. He stops at +Turin. He is dissatisfied with himself. This life of sight-seeing, +this vagrancy of the tourist, does not content him. He will go no +further. But we must give the extract itself from his journal. We +quote from the more faithful text of Mr Brown--Mr Dixon having +the habit of omitting, here and there, a sentence if it does not +please his taste, and tricking the whole out with dashes and a novel +punctuation. + + "_Turin, 1769, Nov. 30._--My return without seeing the + southern part of Italy was on much deliberation, as I feared + a misimprovement of a Talent spent for mere curiosity, at the + loss of many Sabbaths, and as many donations must be suspended + for my pleasure, which would have been as I hope contrary to + the general conduct of my Life, and which on a retrospective + view on a death Bed would cause Pain as unbecoming a Disciple + of Christ--whose mind should be formed in my soul.--These + thoughts, with distance from my dear boy, determine me to check + my curiosity and be on the return.--Oh, why should Vanity and + Folly, Pictures and Baubles, or even the stupendious (_sic_) + mountains, beautiful hills, or rich valleys, which ere long + will all be consumed, engross the thoughts of a candidate for + an eternal everlasting kingdom--a worm ever to crawl on Earth + whom God has raised to the hope of Glory which ere long will be + revealed to them which are washed and sanctified by Faith in the + blood of the Divine Redeemer! Look forward, oh! my Soul! how + low, how mean, how little is everything but what has a view to + that glorious World of Light, Life, and Love--the Preparation of + the Heart is of God--Prepare the Heart, Oh! God! of thy unworthy + Creature, and unto Thee be all the glory through the boundless + ages of Eternity. + + Sign'd J. H. + + "This night my trembling soul almost longs to take its flight to + see and know the wonders of redeeming Love--join the triumphant + Choir--Sin and Sorrow fled away--God my Redeemer all in all--Oh! + happy Spirits that are safe in those mansions." + +Accordingly he retraces his steps. He flies back to Holland. He is +now at the Hague. It is Sunday evening, 11th February 1770. Here is +a portion of his self-communing. Many of these quotations we will +not give; we know they look out of place, and produce a strange, and +not an agreeable impression, when met with in the walks of polite +literature. But, without some extracts, it is impossible to form a +correct idea of the character of Howard. + + "Oh! the wonders of redeeming love! Some faint hope, even I! + through redeeming mercy in the perfect righteousness--the full + atoning sacrifice shall, ere long, be made the instrument + of the rich free grace and mercy of God through the divine + Redeemer. Oh, shout my soul grace, grace--free, sovereign, + rich, unbounded grace! Not I, not I, an ill deserving, hell + deserving creature!--but where sin has abounded, I trust grace + superabounds. * * * * + + "Let not, my soul, the interests of a moment engross thy + thoughts, or be preferred to my eternal interests. Look forward + to that glory which will be revealed to those who are faithful + to death. My soul, walk thou with God; be faithful, hold on, + hold out, and then--what words can utter!--J. H." + +But he could not rest in Holland. "Continuing in Holland," he +writes, "or any place, lowers my spirits." He returns to Italy. He +visits Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Rome, and extends his tour to Naples. + +It was, and may still be, a custom with a certain class of religious +people, to make, in writing, a solemn covenant with God, and sign it +with their own hand. It is at Naples that Howard retires into his +chamber, indites and signs such a covenant. He appears, afterwards, +to have carried it with him. With the same sort of formality with +which a person republishes a will, he "renews the covenant, Moscow, +September 27, 1789." + +Through the remainder of this journey we need not follow him. He +returns to England, and we see what sort of man has landed on its +shores. + +Those who are acquainted with the religious world and religious +biographies, will bear us out when we say, that the language we have +quoted from this journal, and the other extracts which may be read +in Brown, would not, _of themselves_, manifest any extraordinary +degree of piety or self-devotion. With a certain class of persons, +such language has become _habitual_; with others, it really +expresses nothing but a very transitory state of excitement. Solemn +self-denunciations--enthusiastic raptures--we have heard them both, +from the lips of the most worldly, selfish, money-loving men we have +ever known. It is the after life of Howard which proves that in him +such language had its first, genuine, full meaning. These passages +from his diary explain his life, and his life no less explains them. + +On his return to Cardington, he occupied himself, as before, with +plans to improve the condition of his tenantry; building for them +better houses, and erecting a school. But at length an event +occurred which supplied his self-consuming energy with the noble +task it craved. Elected High Sheriff for the county of Bedford, +the duties of his office led him to the interior of the prison. He +witnessed the sufferings, the extortion, the injustice, the manifold +cruelty, which the supineness of the legislature allowed to reign +and riot there. + + "The distress of prisoners," he tells us, in the preface to his + first report, "came more immediately under my notice, when I was + sheriff of the county of Bedford; and the circumstance which + excited me to activity in their behalf was the seeing some, who, + by the verdict of juries, were declared _not guilty_; some, on + whom the grand jury did not find such an appearance of guilt as + subjected them to trial; and some, whose prosecutors did not + appear against them; after having been confined for months, + dragged back to jail, and locked up again, till they should + pay _sundry fees_ to the jailor, the clerk of assize, &c. In + order to redress this hardship, I applied to the justices of + the county for a salary to the jailor in lieu of his fees. The + bench were properly affected with the grievance, and willing + to grant the relief desired; but they wanted a precedent for + charging the county with the expense. I, therefore, rode into + several neighbouring counties in search of a precedent; but I + soon learned that the same injustice was practised in them; and, + looking into the prisons, I beheld scenes of calamity, which I + grew daily more and more anxious to alleviate." + +These oppressions, these calamities he dragged to light. He may +be said to have _discovered_ them--so indifferent, at this time, +was one class of the community to the misery of another. His +official position gave him just that elevation requisite to make +his voice heard. The attention of parliament was roused. He was +examined before a committee of the whole House; he received the +thanks of parliament; and a bill was passed to remunerate the +jailor by a salary, instead of by fees--thus remedying one of the +most extraordinary mal-practices that was surely ever endured in a +civilised society. + +Here, then, was a task to strain all his powers, and absorb all his +benevolence. Here was misery to be alleviated, and injustice to be +redressed, and a nation to be aroused from its culpable negligence. +Benevolent, liberal, systematically and perseveringly charitable, +not averse to the exercise of authority and censorship, of restless +and untameable energy, and of a singular constancy and firmness +of purpose, the task employed all his virtues, and what in some +positions of life would have proved to be his failings. Even to his +love of travel, his new occupation suited him. What wonder that, +with all these aptitudes, the _religious man_, devoured by his +desire to do some good and great work, should have devoted to it his +life and his fortune, his days and his nights, and every faculty of +his soul. He had now found his path. His foot was on it; and he trod +it to his dying hour. + +After inspecting the jails of England, Scotland, and Ireland, he, in +1775, took the first of those journeys on the Continent, which had, +for their sole object, the inspection of prisons. And henceforward, +in all his travels, he is so absorbed in this one object, that he +pays attention to nothing else. Not the palace, rich with painting +and sculpture; not the beautiful hills and valleys--only the prison +and the lazaretto can retain him for a moment. Once he is tempted to +hear some fine music--it distracts his attention--he foregoes the +music. The language of Burke, in his well-known panegyric, is true +as it is eloquent. + + "He has visited all Europe--not to survey the sumptuousness of + palaces or the stateliness of temples--not to make accurate + measurements of the remains of ancient grandeur, nor to form a + scale of the curiosity of modern art--not to collect medals or + collate manuscripts--but to dive into the depths of dungeons, + to plunge into the infection of hospitals, to survey the + mansions of sorrow and pain, to take the gauge and dimensions + of misery, depression, and contempt, to remember the forgotten, + to attend to the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and compare + and collate the distresses of all men, in all countries. His + plan is original, and it is full of genius as it is of humanity. + It was a voyage of discovery, a circumnavigation of charity. + Already the benefit of his labour is felt more or less in every + country. I hope he will anticipate his final reward, by seeing + all its effects fully realised in his own." + +But the boon--for a great task of this kind was a veritable boon +to such a spirit as Howard's--was nearly missed. Before he went +abroad on his first journey of philanthropy, he ran the risk of +being imprisoned himself, within the walls of the House of Commons, +as member for the town of Bedford. The borough had formerly been +under the control of the house of Russell. Responding to the cry of +"Wilkes and Liberty!" the corporation had risen against their lord. +To free themselves from his control, they had boldly created five +hundred honorary freemen, coined, in short, five hundred votes, +which were to be at their own disposal. The measure seems to have +passed undisputed. They were, of course, victorious. Whom they +elected, in the first glow of patriotism, we do not know; but, after +a few years, the corporation rewarded their own patriotic efforts +by selling the borough to the highest bidder. Such, at least, was +the accusation brought against them in the town of Bedford itself, +where a strong party rose which made strenuous efforts to wrest the +election out of their hands. By this party, Whitbread and Howard +were put in nomination. The candidates of the corporation were Sir +W. Wake and Mr Sparrow. After a severe struggle on the hustings, and +in the committee of the House of Commons, the election was decided +in favour of Whitbread and Wake. Howard lost his election--happily, +we think--by a majority only of four votes. + +On his return from the Continent, he published his first report on +the state of prisons. We had designed to give some account of this, +and the subsequent publications of Howard, but our space absolutely +forbids. Perhaps some other opportunity will occur, when we can +review the history of our prisons, to which the volumes of Howard +form the most valuable contribution. We must content ourselves with +a few general remarks on his labours, and with the briefest possible +account of this the great and eventful period of his life. + +To lead our readers over the numerous, toilsome, and often +perilous journeys which Howard now undertook, for this national +and philanthropic object of improving our prisons and houses of +correction, would be utterly impracticable. But, to give them +at once some adequate idea of his incessant activity, we have +thrown into a note a summary, taken from Dr Aikin, of what may be +considered as his public labours.[10] + + [10] 1773. High Sheriff of Bedfordshire--visited many county and + town jails. + + 1774. Completed his survey of English jails. Stood candidate to + represent the town of Bedford. + + 1775. Travelled to Scotland, Ireland, France, Holland, Flanders, and + Germany. + + 1776. Repeated his visit to the above countries, and to Switzerland. + During these two years revisited all the English jails. + + 1777. Printed his State of prisons. + + 1778. Travelled through Holland, Flanders, Germany, Italy, + Switzerland, and part of France. + + 1779. Revisited all the counties of England and Wales, and travelled + into Scotland and Ireland. Acted as supervisor of the + Penitentiary Houses. + + 1780. Printed his first Appendix. + + 1781. Travelled into Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Poland, Germany, and + Holland. + + 1782. Again surveyed all the English prisons, and went into Scotland + and Ireland. + + 1783. Visited Portugal, Spain, France, Flanders, and Holland; also + Scotland and Ireland, and viewed several English prisons. + + 1784. Printed the second Appendix, and a new edition of the whole + works. + + 1785.{ From the close of the first of these years to the beginning + of the last, on + 1786.{ his tour through Holland, France, Italy, Malta, Turkey, and + Germany. + 1787.{ Afterwards went to Scotland and Ireland. + + 1788. Revisited Ireland; and, during this and the former year, + travelled over all England. + + 1789. Printed his work on Lazarettos, &c. Travelled through Holland, + Germany, Prussia, and Livonia, to Russia, and Lesser Tartary. + + 1790. January 20. Died at Cherson. + +These long, incessant, and often repeated journeys--were they +necessary, some will be tempted to ask, for the object he had in +view? Surely a few instances, well reasoned on, would have been +sufficient to put us on the right track for the reformation of our +prisons. But it should be considered, in the first place, that +Howard was teaching a people pre-eminently practical in their +intellectual character, a people who require to be taught by example +and precedent. The most philosophical reasoning, the most eloquent +diatribe, would not have availed half so much to stir the public +mind, as, on the one hand, these details which Howard threw before +it, fact upon fact, unsparingly, repeatedly--details of cruelty +and injustice perpetrated or permitted by our own laws; and, on +the other hand, this plain statement, brought from abroad, that in +Ghent, that in Amsterdam, that even in Paris, many of the evils +which we suffered to remain as incurable, _were_ cured, or had never +been allowed to exist. It was much to tell the citizen of London +that in Flanders, and in Holland, there were prisons and bridewells +that ought to put him to the blush. + +And, in the second place, let it be considered, that Howard +himself was pre-eminently a practical man. He neither wrote books +of speculation, nor thought in a speculative manner. It was from +detail to detail that his mind slowly advanced to principles and +generalisations. These prisons, they were his books; these repeated +circuits he made through the jails of Europe, they were his course +of reading. He reperused each blotted page of human misery till he +was satisfied that he had comprehended all it could teach. He was no +Beccaria to enunciate a principle from the recesses of his library, +(though it should be mentioned, in passing, that he had read +Beccaria--that the man of speculative talent had stimulated the man +of administrative talent, and the two were co-operating, all over +Europe, on the same great subject of penal legislation;) his eye was +ever upon practices, he got wisdom in the concrete, principle and +instance indissolubly combined: he so learnt, and he so taught. + +Again, in England itself, there was no system that equally regulated +all the jails of the country; or, to speak more correctly, there was +no uniformity in the abuses which existed amongst them. Arrangements +were found in one, no trace of which might be discovered in another. +All were bad, but the evils in each were different, or assumed +different proportions. In some, there was no separation between the +debtor and the criminal; in others, these were properly classified, +but the criminal side might be more shamefully mismanaged than +usual. In some, there was no attention paid to the sick; in others, +the infirmary might be the only part of the jail that was not +utterly neglected. There might be a good supply of medicine, and +no food. In some, the separation of the two sexes was decently +maintained; in others not. It was impossible to make any general +statement that would not have called forth numerous contradictions. +An accusation strictly just with regard to York, might be repelled +with indignation by Bristol; whilst, on some other charge, Bristol +might be the culprit, and York put on the show of injured innocence. + +Some prisons were private property; they were rented to the jailor, +and he was to extract the rent and his profit, by what extortion +he could practise on his miserable captives. These were prisons +belonging to liberties, manors, and petty courts, of the existence +of which few people were aware. In some of these the prisoner lay +forgotten by his creditor--lay there to starve, or live on the +scanty and precarious charity of those who gave a few pence to "the +starving debtor." In many cases the jailor--for all remuneration and +perquisite--was allowed _to keep a tap_. Of course, whatever was +doled out to the prisoner by charity, was spent in drunkenness. The +abuses were of all kinds, strange, and numberless. Howard tracked +them out, one by one--recorded them--put them in his book--published +them to the world. + +Add to all this, that, after some time, he became invested with +the character of _censor_ of the prisons. He looked through them +to see that, when a good law _had_ been made, it was obeyed. There +was never a commissioner so universally respected. Men are not so +bad but they all admired his great benevolence, and his justice +equally great. No bribery, no compliments, and no threats, could +avail anything. In vain the turnkey suggested to _him_, that the +jail-fever was raging in the lower wards: the crafty official +had so deterred many a visiting magistrate, who had thanked him +politely for his warning, and retired. Howard entered, and found +_no_ jail-fever; but he found filth and famine, that had been shut +up there for years from the eyes of all men. No danger deterred him. +The infected cell, where the surgeon himself would not enter--from +which he called out the sick man to examine him--was the very +last he would have omitted to visit. This character of public +censor he carried with him abroad, as well as at home. Foreign +potentates courted his good opinion of their institutions--consulted +him--shrank from his reproof--a reproof all Europe might hear. +The Grand-duke of Tuscany, the Emperor of Germany, the Empress of +Russia, were all anxious to see and hear him. He had no flattery +for them; the report he gave was as faithful as a page out of his +note-book. + +As a popular misconception has prevailed upon the character of +Howard, attributing benevolence to him as almost a sole motive, so +a like popular misconception has prevailed, as to the nature and +objects of that benevolence. He is sometimes spoken of as if to +visit the sick and the captive, and relieve _them_ individually, +was the main object of his charitable journeys, and his unremitting +inquisitions. If, indeed, he had done nothing more than seek out +those unhappy men, who, at the bottom of their infected dens, lay +abandoned by all the world, he would have been entitled to our +admiration, and to all the merits of a heroic charity. But he did +more than this. He aimed at a permanent improvement of the condition +of the prisoner. He aimed farther still. His object was the same +which excites so much attention at the present moment: by a good +system of imprisonment, both to punish and reform the criminal. +"To make them better men," is a phrase often in his mouth, when +speaking of prisoners; and he thought this might be effected by +combining imprisonment with labour, with perfect abstinence from +intoxicating drinks, and other good regulations. Those who will read +his reports with attention, will be surprised to find how often he +has anticipated the conclusions to which a wider experience has +led the reflective men of our own age. There is a note of his upon +Solitary Confinement which might be adopted as a summary of those +views which enlightened men, after many trials of various systems, +have rested in. No false sensibility accompanied the benevolence of +Howard. In some respects he was a sterner disciplinarian than would +be generally approved of. + +Upon this aspect of his character there remains only one remark to +add: his mind was never absorbed in the great objects of a public +philanthropy to an oblivion of his _near duties_ and his private +charities: he was to the last the just, considerate, benevolent +landlord, quite as much as he was Howard the philanthropist. + + "During his absence in one of his tours," says Dr Aikin, "a + very respectable-looking elderly gentleman on horseback, with + a servant, stopt at the inn nearest Mr Howard's house at + Cardington, and entered into conversation with the landlord + concerning him. He observed that characters often appeared very + well at a distance, which could not bear close inspection; he + had therefore come to Mr Howard's residence in order to satisfy + himself concerning him. The gentleman then, accompanied by the + innkeeper, went to the house, and looked through it, with the + offices and gardens, which he found in perfect order. He next + inquired into Mr Howard's character as a landlord, which was + justly represented; and several neat houses which he had built + for his tenants were shown him. The gentleman returned to his + inn, declaring himself now satisfied with the truth of all he + had heard about Howard. This respectable stranger was no other + than Lord Monboddo; and Mr Howard was much flattered with the + visit, and praised his lordship's good sense in taking such a + method of coming at the truth, since he thought it worth his + trouble." + +The traveller who undertook all these philanthropic journeys +was a man of slight form, thin, and rather beneath the average +height. Every feature, and every movement, proclaimed energy and +determination. "An eye," says Dr Aikin, "lively and penetrating, +strong and prominent features, quick gait and animated gestures, +gave promise of ardour in forming, and vivacity in executing his +designs." "Withal there was a bland smile," says another of his +biographers, "always ready to play upon his lips." "I have," +continues Aikin, "equally seen the tear of sensibility start into +his eyes, on recalling some of the distressful scenes to which he +had been witness; and the spirit of indignation flash from them, on +relating instances of harshness and oppression." In his dress and +person he was remarkably neat, and in his ablutions, we are told, +punctilious as a Mussulman;--far more so, we suspect. For the rest, +he had reduced his wants to the lowest possible scale. Water and +the simplest vegetables sufficed. Animal food, and all vinous and +spirituous liquors, he had utterly discarded. Milk, tea, butter, and +fruit were his luxuries; and he was equally sparing in the quantity +of food, and indifferent as to the stated times of taking it. + +From the prisoner, and the subject of prison-discipline, it is well +known that the attention of Howard was directed to measures for +arresting the plague. It was a grand idea this--that he would lead +the way to some general scheme to be adopted throughout Europe, and +the contiguous parts of Asia, for checking the incursions of, and +perhaps finally exterminating, the plague. For no object did he +suffer so much, or expose himself to so great dangers; embarking +purposely in a vessel with a foul bill of health, and undergoing the +perilous confinement of the lazaretto, that every practice of the +quarantine might be thoroughly known to him. Nowhere was his conduct +more heroic. It cannot be said here, however, that his object was +equally well chosen, or that his labours were attended with any good +result. Whilst it would be difficult to over-estimate the value of +his service as inspector-general of the prisons of Europe, we can +detect nothing in this latter scheme but an unfortunate waste of +heroic benevolence. In dealing with jails and houses of correction, +he was dealing with evils, the nature of which he, and all men, +could well understand; but, in dealing with the pestilence, he was +utterly in the dark as to the very nature of the calamity he was +encountering. It is very probable that, had he realised his utmost +wishes, and built a lazaretto on the most improved plan, combining +every valuable regulation he had observed in every lazaretto of +Europe, it would only have proved an additional nuisance. + +This period of his life is more full of striking incidents than any +other, but we must hurry rapidly over it. + + "The point," says Mr Brown, "at which he wished to commence his + new investigations was Marseilles; but the extreme jealousy of + the French government respecting their Levant trade, had long + kept the lazaretto of that port carefully concealed from the + eye of every foreigner; but, as Mr Howard's object was such + as ought to have awakened neither political nor commercial + jealousy in any one, Lord Caermarthen, then secretary of state + for foreign affairs, made an application to the French minister + for permission for him to view this celebrated building. After + waiting some time at the Hague, in expectation of its arrival, + he went to Utrecht to visit his friend Dr Brown, at whose house + he received a letter from his lordship, informing him, not only + that the request he preferred had been peremptorily refused, + but that he must not think of entering France at all, as, if he + did, he would run a risk of being committed to the Bastille. + Howard, however, was not to be deterred. He started immediately + for Paris. At Paris, "having gone to bed, according to his + usual custom, about ten o'clock, he was awaked between twelve + and one, by a tremendous knocking at his room door, which, + starting up, in somewhat of an alarm, he immediately opened; + and, having returned to bed, he saw the chambermaid enter with a + candle in each hand, followed by a man in a black coat, with a + sword by his side, and his hands enveloped in an enormous muff. + This singular personage immediately asked him if his name was + not Howard. Vexed at this interruption, he hastily answered, + 'Yes--and what of that?' He was again asked if he had not come + to Paris in the Brussels diligence, in company with a man in + a black wig? To this question he returned some such peevish + answer, as that he paid no attention to such trifles; and his + visitor immediately withdrew in silence. Not a little alarmed + at this adventure, though losing none of his self-possession, + and being unable to compose himself to sleep, Mr Howard got up; + and, having discharged his bill the night before, took his small + trunk, and, removing from this house, at the regular hour of + starting took his seat in the diligence, and set off for Lyons." + +Such is the narrative of Mr Brown. It has been supposed that this +midnight visitor was an officer of the police, and that, had Howard +remained a few hours longer at his hotel, he would have been +arrested. But some mystery still hangs over this adventure. Howard, +in one of his letters, alluding to it, says that he had since learnt +who his strange visitor was, and adds that "he had had a narrow +escape;" and his biographer Mr Brown tells us that-- + + "He learned that the man in a black wig was a spy, sent with + him to Paris, _by the French Ambassador at the Hague_, and that + he himself would have been arrested then, (at Paris,) if Mr Le + Noir had not been at Versailles on the day of his arrival; and, + several persons having recently been arrested on very false or + frivolous grounds, he had left orders for no arrests being made + before his return, which was not until late in the evening of + the next day, when he was pursued, but not overtaken." + +If it was this that Howard learnt, we think his informant must +have deceived him. An air of great improbability hangs over this +story. The French government is represented as being so anxious to +arrest Howard, if he should enter France, that it sends a spy to +travel with him from the Hague; if so, the identity of Howard was +sufficiently known to the police on his arrival at Paris. Yet we are +next told that an officer visits Howard at midnight, only to assure +himself that it _is_ Howard;--pays a visit, in short, that can have +no other effect than to give the alarm to his intended captive. +In addition to this, we are to suppose that this person, whom the +French government is so anxious to arrest, pursues his journey +unmolested, and spends five days at Marseilles, visiting the very +lazaretto to which it was known he was bound, and the inspection of +which that government was so solicitous to prevent. + +As to the other motives by which Mr Brown accounts for these hostile +proceedings of the French government, we can attach no weight +to them whatever. On a previous visit to Paris, Howard had been +extremely desirous to survey the interior of the Bastille. Not +being able to obtain permission, he had boldly knocked at the outer +door, and, assuming an air of official authority, walked in. He had +penetrated to some of the inner courts before this little _ruse_ was +detected. He was then, of course, conducted out. He was obliged to +content himself with an account of the Bastille written in French, +and the publication of which had been forbidden by the government. +He obtained a copy, and translated it into English. For this, and +for another cause of offence of a far slighter character, it is +difficult to suppose that Howard had excited the peculiar animosity +of the French government. + +Howard visited the lazaretto of Marseilles, however, under the +full impression that the police were on the search for him. From +Marseilles he went to Toulon, and inspected the arsenal and the +condition of the galley-slaves. To obtain admission into the +arsenal, he dressed himself, says Mr Brown, "in the height of the +French fashion," Englishmen being strictly prohibited from viewing +it at all. We are told that this disguise was easy to him, "as he +always had much the air and appearance of a foreigner, and spoke the +French language with fluency and correctness." Mr Dixon, faithful +to his system of caricaturing all things, describes him as "dressed +as an exquisite of the Faubourg St Honoré!" We presume that it was +the French gentleman of the period, and not the French dandy, that +Howard imitated. + +He next visited the several lazarettos of Italy--went to Malta--to +Smyrna--to Constantinople, everywhere making perilous inquisitions +into the plague. At Smyrna he is "fortunate enough" to meet with a +vessel bound to Venice with a foul bill of health, and he embarks in +it. On its way, the vessel is attacked by pirates. "The men," says +Mr Brown, "defended themselves for a considerable time with much +bravery, but were at length reduced to the alternative of striking, +or being butchered by the Moors, when, having one very large cannon +on board, they loaded it with whatever missiles they could lay +their hands upon, _and, pointed by Mr Howard himself_, it was +discharged amongst the corsair crew with such effect that a great +number of them were killed, and the others thought it prudent to +sheer off." Pointed by Mr Howard himself! We can well understand it. +The intrepid, energetic man, Fellow too of the Royal Society, would +look at the elevation of the gun, and lend a helping hand to adjust +it. + +We throw into a note a parting specimen of the manner of Mr Dixon. +Not satisfied with the simple and probable picture which Mr Brown +presents to us, he makes Howard load the gun as well as point +it--makes him sole gunner on board; and in order to improve his +_tableau_, after having fought half the battle through, recommences +it, that he may discharge his gun with the more effect.[11] Mr Dixon +advertises, as his next forthcoming work, a history of our prisons. +We are sorry that so good a subject has fallen into such bad hands. +Unless he should greatly improve, we shall have a book necessarily +replete with much popular and interesting matter, in not one page of +which will the narrative be strictly trustworthy. + + [11] "For a while the Venetian sailors defended themselves with + desperate courage, for it was a question of victory or perpetual + slavery with them; but their numbers were limited, their arms + indifferent, and altogether the contest seemed too unequal to + last long. It was the first actual fighting in which Howard had + been present; but the imminency of the danger and the sight of + conflict appealing to the strong combative instincts of his race, + he fought on deck with the coolness of a Saxon and the courage of + a knight-templar. Indeed, it was his self-possession which proved + the salvation of the crew. There was only one gun of large calibre + on board, and of this he assumed the direction, though he had + probably never fired even a rifle in his life; but, in the hour of + peril, fighting seemed to come to him, as to most of his countrymen, + by inspiration. _This gun he rammed almost to the muzzle with + nails, spikes, and similar charge, and then, steadily waiting his + opportunity, as the privateer bore down upon them with all her crew + on deck, apparently expecting to see the Venetians strike their + flag, he sent the contents in amongst them with such murderous + effect_, that, after a moment or two of consternation, the corsairs + hoisted sail, and made off at their best speed."--(P. 356.) + +At Venice he is conducted to the lazaretto, to undergo the +quarantine. He is shut up in a close loathsome room, the very walls +of which are reeking with foul and pestilential odours. Surely never +was a valuable life so heroically ventured, for so futile a purpose. +Whilst lying here, smitten with a low fever, he received--we quote +from Mr Brown--"intelligence from England of two circumstances +which had transpired there, each of them an occasion of the deepest +affliction to his mind. The first was the formation of a fund for +the erection of a statue to his honour; the second the misconduct of +his only son." + +We can well believe they were _both_ afflictions. Those who have +entered into the character of Howard, will feel at once that +the project of doing him any public honour would be, in his own +language, "a punishment, and not a reward." It was mingling with his +conduct and motives that very alloy of vanity, and consideration +for men's opinion, which he was so anxious to keep them clear from. +If a generous man has done a kind action for kindness' sake, how +it spoils all if you _pay_ him for it! You lower him at once. He +refuses your payment; he would deny, if he could, his previous +action; he begs, at all events, it may be utterly forgotten. To +pay Howard in praise was, to his mind, as great an incongruity. +He shrank from the debasing coin. He would have denied his +philanthropy: "Say it is my hobby, if you will," he is heard at one +time to mutter. Dying, he says to his friend--"Lay me quietly in the +earth, place a sun-dial over my grave, and let me be forgotten." +Child of Time--was it not enough? + +When he had escaped the lazaretto and returned to England, he +wrote a letter to the gentlemen who had undertaken to collect +subscriptions, requesting them to lay aside their project. The money +collected was in part returned, a part was spent in liberating a +certain number of poor debtors, and the residue was applied towards +erecting, at his death, the statue of him in St Paul's Cathedral. + +His son he was compelled to consign to the care of a lunatic +asylum. He now published the information he had obtained, at so +much risk, upon lazarettos, and the mode of performing quarantine, +together with additional observations upon prisons and hospitals at +home and abroad. Connected with this publication, an incident is +related, which shows the extraordinary value Howard had put on the +materials he had collected, and also the singular perseverance and +determination of the man. We give it in the words of Mr Brown:-- + + "On his return from his Turkish tour, one of his boxes was + stolen as he was getting into a hackney-coach in Bishopsgate + Street, from the stage in which he had travelled from Dover. It + contained a duplicate of his travels, twenty-five guineas, and + a gold watch. The plan of the lazaretto of Marseilles, of which + he possessed no duplicate, was, happily, _in the other box_. + Had it not been so, he declared to his friend Dr Lettsom, that, + notwithstanding the risks he had run in procuring that document, + so important did he consider it, that he would a second time + have exposed himself to the danger of a visit to France to + supply its place." + +We believe he would. + +This publication completed, and his son so unhappily disposed of, +the veteran philanthropist quitted his country again, and for the +last time. It was still against the plague that his enterprise was +directed. He seems to have thought that successful barricades, by +quarantine and other measures, might be erected against it. With +the plague, as with the cholera, it is generally admitted there is +some occult cause which science has not yet penetrated; but the +predisposing, or rather the co-operating causes, are, in both cases, +dirt and bad diet; and the quarantine which would attack _these_ +is the only measure which, in our present state of knowledge, is +worthy of serious consideration. It was his purpose, this time, to +travel through Russia into Turkey, and thence, perhaps, to extend +his journey far into the East, to whatever city this grim enemy of +mankind might have taken possession of. + +He had reached as far as Cherson, on the eastern borders of Russia, +visiting, according to his wont, prisons and hospitals on his way. +Here he was seized by a fever which proved mortal, and which he is +supposed to have caught in visiting, with his usual benevolence, +a young lady, to whom also it proved fatal. He was buried in the +grounds belonging to the villa of a French gentleman who had shown +him much attention. A small brick pyramid, instead of the sun-dial +he had suggested, was placed over his grave. The little pyramid +or obelisk still stands, we are told--stands alone, "on a bleak +desolate plain." But Protestant England has a monument in that +little pyramid, which will do her as much honour as any colony or +empire she has planted or subdued. + + + + +THE DARK WAGGON. + +BY DELTA. + + +I. + + The Water-Wraith shrieked over Clyde, + The winds through high Dunbarton sighed, + When to the trumpet's call replied + The deep drum from the square; + And, in the midnight's misty shade, + With helm, and cloak, and glancing blade, + Two hundred horsemen stood arrayed + Beneath the torches' glare. + + +II. + + Around a huge sepulchral van + They took their stations, horse and man-- + The outer gateway's bolts withdrawn, + In haste the drawbridge fell; + And out, with iron clatter, went + That sullen midnight armament, + Alone the leader knew where bent, + With what--he might not tell. + + +III. + + Into the darkness they are gone:-- + The blinded waggon thundered on, + And, save of hoof-tramp, sound was none:-- + Hurriedly on they scour + The eastward track--away--away-- + To none they speak, brook no delay, + Till farm-cocks heralded the day, + And hour had followed hour. + + +IV. + + Behind them, mingling with the skies, + Westward the smoke of Glasgow dies-- + The pastoral hills of Campsie rise + Northward in morning's air-- + By Kirkintilloc, Cumbernold, + And Castlecary, on they hold, + Till Lythgo shows, in mirrored gold, + Its palaced loch so fair.[12] + + [12] It is mentioned by both the chroniclers, Hemingford, (i. 196) + and Trivet, (332,) that Edward the First built "a strength" or + fort "at Linlitcu" in 1301, and there enjoyed the festivities of + Christmas. Lord Hailes inaccurately states that he wintered there; + for, by dates since collected from writs, Chalmers has proved that, + although Edward was still at Linlithgow on the 12th January, he + was, on his way home, at Roxburgh on 12th February, and had reached + Morpeth by the 24th. + + This fort, or castle, was probably the same that was, a few years + afterwards, taken by the stratagem of the patriotic yeoman, Binnock, + in concealing some of his followers in a waggon of hay; and who was + rewarded by King Robert with an estate, which his posterity long + afterwards enjoyed. + + +V. + + Brief baiting-time:--the bugle sounds, + Onwards the ponderous van rebounds + Mid the grim squadron, which surrounds + Its path with spur and spear. + Thy shrine, Dumanie, fades on sight,[13] + And, seen from Niddreff's hazelly height, + The Forth, amid its islands bright, + Shimmers with lustre clear.[14] + + [13] Dalmeny Church is unquestionably of very great antiquity. From + the style of its architecture, which a most competent authority, Mr + Billings, ("Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities," vol. i.) has + pronounced to be of the purest Norman, it is referred, at least, + to the tenth or eleventh centuries. There is extant a charter of + Waldeve, Earl of Dunbar, from 1166 to 1182, witnessed by the parson + of Dumanie. + + [14] On these banks a castle was afterwards erected by the Earls of + Wintoun, the picturesque ruins of which are yet a prominent object, + by the edge of the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, to the west of + Kirkliston. Queen Mary is said to have slept there, on her flight + from Lochleven to Hamilton, 2d May 1568. + + +VI. + + The Maiden Castle next surveyed, + Across the furzy hills of Braid, + By Craig-Milor,[15] through Wymet's glade + To Inneresc they wound;[16] + Then o'er the Garlton crags afar, + Where, oft a check to England's war, + Cospatrick's stronghold of Dunbar[17] + In proud defiance frowned. + + [15] The name has for centuries been vulgarised into Craigmillar. + Adam de Cardonnel, in his "Picturesque Antiquities," adheres to + the spelling in the text; although it is generally now admitted + that the appellation is Gaelic--_Craig-moil-ard_, or the high bare + rock running out into a plain. The original structure is of unknown + antiquity. + + [16] Woolmet, or Wymet, and Inneresc, were granted by charter + of David the First to the Abbey of Dunfermline; the latter in + confirmation of a previous grant by Malcolm Canmore and Queen + Margaret, ("Registrum de Dunfermlyn," Imp. Edin. 1842, p. 5, 6.) A + small mausoleum of the Wauchope family now occupies the site of the + chapel of Wymet; and the venerable pile of St Michael the Archangel, + at Inneresc, was ruthlessly demolished in 1804. The house in which + the great Randolph died, which was about half a mile distant, was + also hewn down, about ten years afterwards, to make way for a shabby + masonic lodge. + + [17] The family of Cospatrick, a powerful Northumbrian nobleman, + took refuge in Scotland after the death of Harold at Hastings, and + in 1072 had extensive lands in the Merse and Lothian gifted them by + Malcolm Canmore. They continued to be one of the most opulent and + powerful houses in the east of Scotland for a considerable period, + as evidenced by their donations, noted in the chartularies of + Coldingham, Newbottle, Dryburgh, Kelso, Melrose, and Soltra. Founded + on a steep rugged rock, within sea-mark, and communicating with the + land through a covered passage, the castle of Dunbar might well, + before the invention of gunpowder, have been deemed impregnable. It + was often the theatre of warlike contention, and two great battles + were fought in its immediate neighbourhood,--the first in 1296, when + Earl Warenne defeated the army of Scotland sent for its relief; and + the second in 1650, when Leslie was overthrown by Cromwell. It was + often besieged, and as often bravely defended; but perhaps never so + brilliantly as by Black Agnes against the Earl of Salisbury in 1337. + + +VII. + + Weep through each grove, ye tearful rills! + Ye ivied caves, which Echo fills + With voice, lament! Ye proud, free hills, + Where eagles wheel and soar, + Bid noontide o'er your summits throw + Storm's murkiest cloud! Ye vales below, + Let all your wild-flowers cease to blow, + And with bent heads deplore! + + +VIII. + + Ye passions, that, with holy fire, + Illume man's bosom--that inspire + To daring deed, or proud desire, + With indignation burn! + Ye household charities, that keep + Watch over childhood's rosy sleep, + Ashes bestrew the hearthstone,--weep + As o'er a funeral urn! + + +IX. + + On--on they speed. Oh dreary day, + That, like a vampire, drained away + The blood from Scotland's heart--delay, + Thou lingering sun to set! + Rain, twilight! rain down bloody dews + O'er all the eye far northward views; + Nor do thou, night of nights! refuse + A darkness black as jet. + + +X. + + Heroic spirits of the dead! + That in the body nobly bled, + By whom the battle-field for bed + Was chosen, look ye down,-- + And see if hearts are all grown cold,-- + If for their just rights none are bold,-- + If servile earth one bosom hold, + Worthy of old renown? + + +XI. + + The pass-word given, o'er bridge of Tweed + The cavalcade, with slackened speed, + Rolled on, like one from night-mare freed, + That draws an easier breath; + But o'er and round it hung the gloom + As of some dark, mysterious doom, + Shadows cast forward from the tomb, + And auguries of death. + + +XII. + + Scotland receded from the view, + And, on the far horizon blue, + Faded her last, dear hills--the mew + Screamed to its sea-isle near. + As day-beams ceased the west to flout, + Each after each the stars came out, + Like camp-fires heaven's high hosts about, + With lustre calm and clear. + + +XIII. + + And on, through many a Saxon town + Northumbrian, and of quaint renown, + Before the morning star went down, + With thunderous reel they hied; + While from the lattices aloof, + Of many an angled, gray-stone roof. + Rose sudden heads, as sound of hoof + And wheel to southward died. + + +XIV. + + Like Hope's voice preaching to Despair, + Sweetly the chimes for matin prayer + Melted upon the dewy air + From Hexham's holy pile; + But, like the adder deaf, no sound, + Or stern or sweet, an echo found + 'Mid that dark squadron, as it wound + Still onwards, mile on mile. + + +XV. + + Streamers, and booths, and country games, + And brawny churls, with rustic names, + And blooming maids, and buxom dames,-- + A boisterous village fair! + On stage his sleights the jongleur shows, + Like strutting cock the jester crows, + And high the morrice-dancer throws + His antic heels in air. + + +XVI. + + Why pause at reel each lad and lass? + A solemn awe pervades the mass; + Wondering they see the travellers pass, + The horsemen journey-worn, + And, in the midst, that blinded van + So hearse-like; while, from man to man, + "Is it of Death"--in whispers ran-- + "This spectacle forlorn?" + + +XVII. + + Bright are thy shadowy forest-bowers, + Fair Ashby-de-la-Zouche! with flowers; + The wild-deer in its covert cowers, + And, from its pine-tree old, + The startled cushat, in unrest, + Circles around its airy nest, + As forward, on its route unblest, + Aye on that waggon rolled. + + +XVIII. + + And many a grove-encircled town, + And many a keep of old renown, + That grimly watched o'er dale and down, + They passed unheeding by; + Prone from the rocks the waters streamed, + And, 'mid the yellow harvests, gleamed + The reapers' sickles, but all seemed, + Mere pictures to the eye. + + +XIX. + + Behold a tournay on the green! + The tents are pitched--the tilters keen + Gambol the listed lines between-- + The motley crowds around + For jibe, and jest, and wanton play + Are met--a merry holiday; + And glide the lightsome hours away + In mirth, to music's sound. + + +XX. + + And hark! the exulting shouts that rise, + As, cynosure of circling eyes, + Beauty's fair queen awards the prize + To knight that lowly kneels. + "Make way--make way!" is heard aloud-- + Like Red Sea waters part the crowd, + And, scornful of that pageant proud, + On grinding rush the wheels! + + +XXI. + + Hundreds and hamlets far from sight, + By lonely granges through the night + They camped; and, ere the morning light + Crimsoned the orient, they + By royal road, or baron's park, + Waking the watchful ban-dog's bark, + Before the first song of the lark, + Were on their southward way. + + +XXII. + + By Althorpe, and by Oxendon, + Without a halt they hurried on, + Nor paused by that fair cross of stone, + Now for the first time seen, + (For death's dark billows overwhelm + Both jewelled braid, and knightly helm!) + Raised, by the monarch of the realm, + To Eleanor his queen.[18] + + [18] This venerable memorial, which gives the name of "Queen's + Cross" to the neighbouring locality in Northamptonshire, is a + beautiful specimen of architecture, although much defaced by time, + and the efforts of renovators. + + The "trellised" vest, mentioned in stanza XXIV., was a species of + armour, so called by contemporary Norman writers; and consisted of + a cloth coat, reaching only to the haunches. This was intersected + by broad straps of leather, so laid on as to cross each other, and + leave small intervening squares of cloth, in the middle of which was + a knob of steel. (_Vide_ MEYRICK'S _Ancient Armour_, vol. i. p. 11.) + + +XXIII. + + Five times through darkness and through day, + Since crossing Tweed, with fresh relay + Ever in wait, their forward way + That cavalcade had held; + Now joy!!! for, on the weary wights, + Loomed London from the Hampstead heights, + As, by the opal morning, Night's + Thin vapours were dispell'd. + + +XXIV. + + With spur on heel, and spear in rest, + And buckler'd arm, and trellised breast, + Closer around their charge they press'd-- + On whirled, with livelier roll, + The wheels begirt with prancing feet, + And arms,--a serried mass complete, + Until, by many a stately street, + They reached their destined goal. + + +XXV. + + Grim Westminster! thy pile severe + Struck to the heart like sudden fear;-- + "Hope flies from all that enter here!" + Seemed graven on its crest. + The moat o'erpassed, at warn of bell, + Down thundering the portcullis fell, + And clang'd the studded gates,--a knell + Despairing and unblest. + + +XXVI. + + Ye guardian angels! that fulfil + Heaven's high decrees, and work its will-- + Ye thunderbolts! launched forth to kill,-- + Where was it then ye slept-- + When, foe-bemocked, in prison square, + To death fore-doomed, with dauntless air, + From out that van, + A shackled man-- + Sir William Wallace stept! + + + + +THE GREEN HAND. + +A "SHORT" YARN. + + +PART VII. + +"Well," continued the commander, his voice making use of the breeze +as he stood aft of the group, "I could not have slept more than +three or four hours on a stretch, when I was woke up by a fellow +shoving his lantern in my face, and saying it wasn't me he wanted; +for which I gave him a hearty objurgation, and turned over with a +swing of the cot to go to sleep again. The sailor grumbled something +about the parson being wanted for the captain, and all at once it +flashed on my mind where we were, with the whole of last night's +ticklish work--seeing that, hard rub as it was, it had clean left +me for the time. "Try the aftermost berth, then," said I, slipping +out in the dark to put on my trousers. The fact was, on going below +to our state-room, I had found my own cot taken up by some one +in the confusion; and as every door stood open at night in that +latitude, I e'en made free with the nearest, which I knew was the +missionary's. In a minute or two I heard Westwood meet the mate, who +said he thought the captain would like to see him, and hoped they +hadn't "disturbed the other gentleman." "Oh no, I daresay not," said +Westwood, rather nervously, guessing, I daresay, what he was wanted +for; while Finch slipped quietly past to listen at the state-room +door, where both he and I might hear the "other gentleman," whoever +he was, snoring pretty plain. When the first officer shut the door +to, however, turned the key, and put it in his pocket, I nearly +gave vent to a whistle.--"I see!" thought I; "but, my fine fellow, +it seemed you never were meant for a good jailor, anyhow!" He was +no sooner gone than I walked forward toward the captain's cabin, +near the after-hatchway, anxious enough to see how the poor man +was, since I had had such a share in bringing him to a point, one +way or another. Westwood was standing against the light out of +the open door, and I looked in along with him, at the cot slung +high to the beams like a lump of shadow, the lamp striking across +below it on all the captain's little affairs--his glazed hat and +his wet coat, the names of two or three old books, even, hanging +in shelves against the bulkhead--and into the little state-room +off the cabin, where the surgeon was stooping to mix a draught. +The hard-featured Scotch mate stood holding the captain's wrist +with one clumsy flipper, as if trying to feel his pulse, fumbling +about his own face with the other, and looking more concerned than +I'd thought possible for him. "Well, I've slept a--good deal," +said the captain, in a weak voice, putting up his hand slowly to +rub his eyes, but seemingly quite composed, and knowing nothing +of what had happened--which rid me of the horrid notion I could +scarce help before, that he had known what he was about. His head +was close shaved, and the look of a sailor clean gone off his face +with the bluff, honest oak-colour it commonly had, till you'd have +wished him decently in his bed thousands of miles off, with women +slipping out and in; only the blood from his arm hanging down on the +sheet, with the sharp point of his nose and the shape of his knees +coming up off the shadow, kept it all in one with the wild affair +on deck a few hours gone. "She's on her course, you say?" added he, +listlessly. "Must be a _very_ light breeze though, Mr Macleod." "So +it is, sir; so it is, no doubt!" replied the second-mate, soothing +him; "did ye say we'll _pent_ the ship, sir?" "Ay, before we go +into port, Mr Macleod, to be sure," said Captain Williamson, trying +to put a cheerful tone into his voice; "she's had a good deal of +buffeting, but we musn't let 'em see it, you know! Didn't you lose +a mizen-topmast somehow, though, Mr Macleod?" "'Deed ay, sir," said +Macleod hastily, afraid he was getting upon the scent of what had +happened; "the first officer's watch it was, sir--will I tell Mr +Finch ye're wanting to speak to him about it, Captain Williamson?" +and he began to shuffle towards the door. "Finch? Finch?" said the +sick man, passing his finger over his eyes again; "what voyage _is_ +this, Mr Macleod?" "Why--why," said the Scotchman, starting, and +rather puzzled himself. "Oo, it's just _this_ voyage, ye know, sir! +Mr Finch, ye mind, sir?" "No, no; don't let him leave the deck for +a moment, Macleod!" said the captain anxiously: "harkye, James, +I'm afraid I've trusted overmuch to the young man all along! I'll +tell ye, Mr Macleod, I don't know whether I was asleep or not, but +I _heard_ him somewhere wishing he had the command of this ship! +I shouldn't like him to take her off my hands! Have you seen the +Scilly lights yet, Mr Macleod?" The mate shook his head; he had +contrived to persuade the poor man we were far homeward bound. "If +you'd only get the pilot aboard, Mr Macleod," the captain went on, +"I'd die contented;--but mind the charts--mind the charts--I've +got the charts to mind for another sort of voyage myself, James!" +"Hoot, hoot, captain!" said the Scotchman, "what sets ye for to talk +after that fashion--you'll be up an' about decks directly, sir! +What were ye saying about topem'sts now, sir?" Captain Williamson +gave the second mate a glance that looked into him, and he held +down his head, for the man evidently believed fully, as none of +us could help doing, that there was death on the captain's face. +"James, James!" said the captain slowly, "you've no notion how some +things weigh on the mind at a pass of this kind! Other things one +don't remember--but there's one in particular, almost as it were +yesterday--why, surely you were with me that voyage, Mr Macleod! +when I let some o' the passengers take a boat in a calm, and all--" +Here he stopped, seemingly overcome. "There was one young creature +amongst 'em," he went on, "the age of my own girl, Macleod--my own +little Nan, you know--and now--now I miss _her_--and, and--" The +poor man gave a great gulp, clutching the mate's arm, and gazing him +in the face. "Wasn't it a long time ago?" said he, very anxiously; +"if it wasn't, I would go mad! They were all drowned--drowned--I +_see_ that black squall coming down on the swell _now_, man, and the +brig, and all of us looking out to the wind'ard!" "I mind something +about it," replied Macleod stoutly, though he looked away; "'twas +none o' your fault, though, Captain Williamson--they were just +_fey_, sir; and more than that, if ye mind, sir, they took the boat +again' all orders--on the sly, I may say." Westwood was on the +point of starting forward to make known how the case stood, on the +strength of our finding the paper in the bottle; when I pressed his +arm, and whispered that it could only make things worse, and cheat +the sick man of a notion more likely to do him good than otherwise. +"It's a heavy charge, Mr Macleod, a heavy charge!" said he, falling +back again; "and one Mr Brown needn't envy." "Mr _Finch_, sir, ye +mind," put in the second mate, setting him right; "but keep up your +heart, sir, for anysake!" "I feel I'll last over the time o' next +full tide," said the captain solemnly. "I don't want to know _how_ +far we're off, only if there's any chance at all, Macleod, you won't +spare canvass to carry her in." The Scotchman rubbed one of his hard +cheek-bones after the other, and grumbled something or other in his +throat by way of agreement. The whole thing was melancholy to see +after last night's stir, with the dim lamp or two twinkling along +the gloom of the steerage, the dead quietness of the ship, and the +smothered sort of glare under the captain's cot bringing out the +mere litter on the floor, to the very cockroaches putting their ugly +feelers out of one of his shoes in a corner: he shut his eyes, and +lay for a minute or two seemingly asleep, only murmuring something +about a breeze, and then asking them to shove out the port, 'twas so +close. The second mate looked to the surgeon, who signed to him to +do it, as if it didn't much matter by this time; while he gave him +the draught of physic he was mixing, however. + +The Indiaman was beginning to swing slowly before the first of +the flood, stern off at her anchors; and whenever the port was +opened, 'twas so still otherwise, that you heard the tide clearly +in the cabin, rippling along the timbers to the copper upon her +bows--plash, plash, and lap, lip, lap, like no other earthly sound +that a man can hear--and you even began to note it on something else +a good bit off, though it seemed to be all quite dark out-board. +The captain's eyes opened by degrees, till we saw them looking at +us out of the shadow of the cot, and the second mate started as if +to mend his mistake; only 'twas plain enough, by that time, the +captain _knew_ the sound, half raising himself up and listening. A +few early musquitoes came in, and, after dancing about to refresh +themselves in the light and warmth under the cot, began to bite +savagely; every one of us had a distant horn sounding in his ear, +and each was rubbing it or his nose, except the sick man; but not +one of them settled on him. As the starboard port slued gradually +opposite to the nearest shore, a low, deep hum was carried in over +the water, ebbing and flowing, and full of dim, creeping noises, +like things stirring in their sleep, as if the little cabin had been +an ear to the ship. At times the tree-frogs broke out in a loud +clicking chirrup; then, between the fits of it, when all seemed +still again for a moment or two, you heard a low, half-smothered, +small sound, deeper down, as it were, fill up the break with its +throbbing and trill-trilling, as if just _one_ land-cricket or a +grasshopper did it, till it came out as clear as though it were a +child's rattle close by, and all of a sudden stopped; when back +floated the huge whispering hum again, with a damp smell of leaves +on a cold breath of the land air, that died away as quickly as it +reached us. The bewilderment on Captain Williamson's white face +for that minute's time was cruel to witness, and Macleod would +certainly have closed the port, but for the captain's seizing his +arm again, with a wild, questioning sort of a look into the second +mate's eyes. "Oh, good God!" faltered out the captain, "it's--it's +_land_!--where--where?--" "For goodsake, sir," said Macleod, "don't +ask me the now--take a bit sleep, sir." We could hear one another +breathing, when ting-tang went four bells on deck. You heard it +going across to the shore, as it were; and a few moments after, out +of the humming far and wide along the land, back came the sound of +another bell, toll upon toll, like some clock striking the hour a +long way off. Then a third one followed on it, from a different +direction, ringing clearer in the air; while the murmur and the rush +seemed to swell up the more all round, and the plashing of the tide +made the ship heave at her anchors. The mate shivered, Westwood +and I started, but some extraordinary notion or other gleamed over +the captain's face as he sat up. He was quite in his senses, too, +apparently, though it seemed to be neither more nor less than +sheer joy that overcame him, for he let out a long breath, and his +eyes were glistening as if the tears stood in them. "James--James +Macleod!" said he quickly, with a husky voice, "you oughtn't to've +deceived one you've sailed so long with; but you meant me a good +surprise, and 'twas kindly done of you! I know the very run o' the +clocks off Greenwich Reach, man; d'ye think one could mistake the +sound of Lon'on town, fidgeting when it wakes, either?--we're--we're +_home_ already!" And he fell back in the cot, with the drops running +down his cheeks, smiling happily all the time at Macleod in a way +that went to one's heart; while the Scotchman stared helplessly +to the surgeon, who slipped to the port and closed it. "I know by +your way, James," continued the poor man, "you wanted to send up to +Virginia Row for 'em _all_; but don't send for an hour yet; better +go up yourself and break it to 'em--_break_ it to 'em, be sure of +that, James; I shouldn't wonder but I pulled up, after all. Ay--that +first one we heard was Greenwich Hospital--t'other in Dickson's +brewery or Redriff--" Here his eyelids began to drop, owing to the +sleeping-draught he had got, when suddenly they opened wide again. +"Ha!" said he, listening, and putting up a finger, "but I haven't +heard St Paul's strike six yet; it's seldom so long after; ought +to be heard from here of a morning; let's--" By little and little, +however, the sick man's eyes closed, and you heard him murmuring, +as his finger sank down, "Macleod, say--to her--say--luff, luff, my +lad, keep her her course--," till his shrunk face was as quiet on +the pillow as if he'd been really at home the first night after a +voyage. + +"Oh man, doctor!" said the second mate, heaving a breath, "isn't +terrible! Good forgive me for a lee to a dying man! Take an old +seaman's word for it, Doctor Small, yon clock ashore was no mortal +soond, sir; ye may keep your drogues for them they'll do good to. +'Twas neither more or less than the captain's _dregy_!" "Phoo!" +answered the Scotch surgeon, who was one of your sceptical chaps, +as I heard say, "some other vessels here, of course, that's +all." The sailor gave him only a smile of pity for not being +able to distinguish the sound of a ship's bell. "There can't be +a town hereabout, Collins?" whispered Westwood. "A town,--no!" +said I, "it's the best wilderness sign you can have--the African +bell-bird!"[19] "Ah, ah!" said the surgeon, laughing, "there now, +Macleod,--of course it can be explained naturally, like other +things." The second mate gave me a doubtful scowl; but seeing +Westwood, whom he had always seemed to think rather in the way +before, his eye softened. + + [19] _Sc._--The South African and South American _Campanero_, or + bell-bird, whose peculiar note may be heard two or three miles off, + chiefly in the loneliest parts of the Brazilian or Benguela forests. + +"You'll be wanting to see the captain as soon as he wakes up, +sir," said he. "I'm terrified to face him--but if ye'd juist slip +in when he comes to himself, sir, I'm thinking, reverend sir, ye +might wile him off yon terrible notion o' his." Westwood shook his +head seriously, not knowing what to say. "Ay, ay, sir," continued +Macleod, as he half closed the door, "no doubt a man ought to be +upon better things; but it's hard for him, when he's got a wife +and weans six thousand miles away, and wants them alongside in a +couple of hours--uncommon hard, sir! She's a douce, careful body, +too, Mistress Williamson, like the captain's self; and I heard her +fleech sore with the captain before we sailed, for to bide quietly +ashore this time, for good. Poor woman! if she didn't e'en go the +length o' partin' in anger the last morning, wae's me! till the very +moment when (he telt me himself, sir,) she out with her arms round +his neck, crying like to choke! An' all to--but if the captain had +a fault, 'twas the love o'--good forgive me, though, when it was +but studying his faim'ly, Mr Thomas! If it was only an auld tarry +deevil like me, now, with neither kith or kin!" "Except cousins, +Mr Macleod," said the surgeon, as he wiped his lancet on his +coat-tail--"plenty of them in the High--" But he caught Westwood's +eye, and was ashamed to finish his cursed heartless joke, though +the rough second mate was too full of his feeling to hear it: when +Westwood said something about our all thinking too little of these +things before-hand, but how the captain was plainly a man that had +done his duty carefully, which no doubt would ease his mind. The +mate looked up, and eyed him sideways for a moment: "Eh? what?" said +he, bluntly; "it's not so little I mind o' what I used to hear at +the kirk langsyne, as not to know that's not the right doctrine. +D'ye think, sir, _that's_ what'll put him over, when he finds out +this is not Greenwich Reach? There's the Methody minister with the +glasses, though!" he broke out, when again a look of despair came +over his broad hard-favoured countenance. "They're always upon +works, too, I've heard!" said he, turning and murmuring to himself; +"oh, if I could but hoist out a bit screed o' the truth, myself, to +comfort the poor man with! Lord, how didn't I think of the Shorter +Carritch--let's see how't went--'What is the chief end of'--no, +it's 'What is faith in--faith in the only rule to direct us--no, +no.--Baptism is a sacrament--where--whereby"--and he was still +overhauling some old catechism in this fashion, twisting himself all +the time as if he were twisting a stiff rope the wrong way, with +a look of misery none of us could have had the heart to laugh at, +when a middy's voice came squeaking down the dark after-hatchway. +"Mr Macleod, sir, the chief officer wants you on deck." Westwood +slipped quietly off, and the young surgeon was beginning to talk +easily, to rid his mind of something, perhaps; till I asked if +there wasn't any chance. "Oh, the captain, you mean?" said he, +"don't think there is--he's a bad subject! If we were out at sea +now, Mr Collins, the _calenture_ would make him think the waves all +grass, or something as green as--as the cawdets used to call--" I +looked at the fellow sternly, and he changed his key, though with +a surprised air. "You're blessed early up, though, you two!" said +he. "I suppose that cursed squall kept you idlers awake; but how +they managed without the first mate I can't think. Clever fellow, +Finch! but wasn't it a curious trick of the poor skipper to box him +up below here? I fancy he'd a guess we would all soon be under the +mate's command! It's a queer thing the brain, isn't it, Mr Collins? +For exaumple, now, there's the captain it makes think something or +other a clock near London, with everything accordingly! Macleod +fancies it a soopernatural knell, and twaddles about some Calvinist +stuff he learnt at school. Then you and me, you know, imaugines it's +a bird--now whuch is it after all? _Nothing_--maybe, eh?" The fellow +capped all with a sneer, as much as to say I was a fool, which I had +stood from him several times before; though now I could have kicked +him, more for his heartless way than aught else. "I'll tell you, Mr +Small," said I, "what I think _you_--you're neither more nor less +than a--" but I turned on my heel. "I'm off, however," said he, "to +turn in again." + +Through the half-closed door one could see the sick man's face +sleeping so quiet in the shadow from the lamp, you heard not a +breath. I looked up the after-hatchway. It seemed still quite dark; +and a patch of the deep dark-blue sky showed high over the square +opening, with two or three keen sparks of stars, green ones and blue +ones--you'd have thought the ladder, short as it was, went up to +somewhere clean above the world. But the moment I got on deck, I saw +it was really lighter--the heavy fog creeping slowly astern of the +ship on both hands; the white mist rolling faster over it before the +sea-breeze against her bows, which had swung seaward by this time +from the tide, that rushed like a mill-stream upon both her tight +cables; while the muddy river-water, bubbling, eddying, and frothing +away past, spread far up in the middle, into the dusk astern. +_Such_ a jabbering, croaking, hissing, shrieking, and yelling, +too, as burst into one's ears out of the dark, as if whole legions +of monkeys, bull-frogs, parrots, parroqueets, and what not, were +coming together full upon us from both sides, one band nearer than +the other; till the heavy boom of the surf round the point, and the +roar of the tide coming in over the shallows about the river-mouth, +pretty well drowned it. The sudden change was a good relief, Babel +though it seemed, after the closeness below, with what had been +going on; and I looked ahead towards the sea, which lay away out off +our larboard bow, round the headland, and over the opposite point; a +cold, watery streak of light showing it from where the breakers rose +plunging and scattering along the sandy bar, to the steady gray line +of horizon, clipped by one of the two brown chops we had got into. +It looked dreary enough as yet, the mouth of it being wider than I'd +fancied it from seaward at night; though even with full water over +the long spit of sand in the middle, there was no draught at all for +the Indiaman except by the channel betwixt it and the bold point on +our right; and pretty narrow it appeared from our present berth, +heaving as it did with the green swell that set in, while meantime +the mist scudding across the face of the headland let us see but the +hard lump of bare black rock underneath. + +In less time than I've taken to speak, however, the full space of +sky aloft was turning clear, the sea far away suddenly shone out +blue, with the surges tipped white; you saw a sparkling star high +over it sink slowly in, and the fog spread off the water near us, +till here and there you caught the muffled-up shape of a big tree +or two looming through, not half-a-mile off our starboard quarter; +the mist creeping over the headland till the sharp peak of it stood +out against its shadow on the shoulder of a hill beyond, and old +Bob Martin's single clump of cocoas on the rise, waving in landward +from the brisk sea-breeze. One passenger after another came peeping +sleepily out of the companion-hatch, at the men clearing away the +wreck of the spars, and swabbing the quarter-deck down; but scarce +had Smith, one of the young writers, reached the poop, when he gave +a shout that covered both poop-ladders in no time, with people +scrambling over each other to get up. Next minute you'd have fancied +them a knot of flamingoes with their wings out, as the bright red +daybreak brought out the edge of the woods far astern, through a +hazy lane in the purple mist, topped so with stray cocoa-nut trees +and cabbage-palms, dabbled like brushes in the colour, that they +scarce knew them to be woods at all, and not a whole lot of wild +savages fresh from other business of the kind, coming down with all +sorts of queer tools upon us; more especially when one heard such a +chorus of unaccountable cries, whistling, and screaming, as seemed +to struggle with the sound of the sea ahead of us, and the plash +alongside. The huge round sun struck hot crimson along the far turn +of the reach, with all manner of twisted blots upon him, as it were, +and the very grass and long reeds seemingly rustling into his face, +so one didn't for the moment know _him_ either; while the muddy +chocolate-coloured eddies, sweeping and closing beyond the ship's +rudder, glittered and frothed up like blood; and every here and +there, along the streak of light, the head of a log or a long branch +came dipping up terribly plain no wonder the old Seringapatam had +apparently turned tail to it all, ready to bolt if she could. Almost +as soon as you took your hands off your eyes, though, and could see +without a red ball or two before them,--_there_ was the nearest +shore growing out toward our starboard bulwark all along, crowded +with wet green woods, up into steaming high ground--all to eastward +a dazzle of light, with two or three faint mountain-peaks shooting +up far off in it, and a woody blue hill or so between; while here +and there a broad bright hazy spoke off the sun came cutting down +into the forest, that brought out a patch full of long big leaves, +ten times greener than the rest, and let you look off the deck into +the heart of it amongst the stems over the bank. The jabber in the +woods had passed off all at once with the dusk, the water deepening +over the bar, and the tide running slower, so that every one's +confused face turned breathless with delight as it grew stiller and +stiller. The whole breadth of the river shone out by this time, full +and smooth, to the opposite shore three times as far away, where the +wood and bulrushes seemed to grow out of the water; a long thick +range of low, muddy-looking mangroves, with a cover of dark-green, +rounding from the farthest point one saw, down to some sandy +hummocks near the mouth, and a ridge of the same, drifted up by the +wind off the beach. Beyond that side there was nothing, apparently, +but a rolling sweep of long coarse grass, with a few straggling +cocoa-nut trees and baobabs, like big swollen logs on end, and taken +to sprouting at top: a dun-coloured heave of land in the distance, +too, that came out, as it got hotter, in a long desert-like, red +brick-dust sort of a glare. The sole living things to be seen as +yet, were some small birds rising up out of the long grass, and the +turkey-buzzards sailing high over all across, as if on the look-out. + +The air was so cool and clear, however, from the tornado +overnight--not a cloud in the sky, and the strange scent of the land +reaching us as the dew rose off it--you could see far and wide, with +a delicious feeling of it all, that kept every one standing fixed +on the spot where he first gained the deck, even the men looking +over their shoulders with the ropes in their fists, and the fresh +morning breeze lifting one's hair. Surprised as the passengers were, +nobody spoke a word, except the three or four children shouting, +dancing, and pointing together; without being noticed, till all at +once the whole poopful burst into one confusion of questions and +exclamations, running hither and thither, shaking hands and jostling +each other like distracted people. I had a spyglass at my eye, +making out the other shore, when, turning round in the middle of +it, the first thing I saw was Violet Hyde's face, as she stood with +one little foot on the stair-head behind me, holding the rail with +one hand, her eyes sparkling and her parted lips murmuring like one +in a dream. "Oh, Mr Collins!" exclaimed she, breathless; "what is +this? Where are we--is it fairyland? A _river_!" "Yes, in Africa," +I said; "but whether it's the Bembarooghe or the--" "That fearful, +fearful evening!" continued she, shuddering: "I saw the frightful +sky, and heard the storm--and now!--_Were_ we not in some very +great danger, sir?" "Yes, ma'am, we were," replied I, as stiffly +as I could; "but, happily, its over now," and I gave my cap a lift +to move off, uneasy as I was every moment, lest Sir Charles should +catch me speaking again to his daughter. However, Miss Hyde was +gazing eagerly at the land, and I had to wait. "What lovely, lovely +green!" she half whispered: "oh, if one could only tread upon!--so +unEnglish those strange tall trees look! are they not cocoa-trees +and--and--" Suddenly her voice faltered, and she turned round with +her bright blue eyes swimming in tears--"How--how thankful we should +be that we are not--like our poor, poor friends, who were lost!" +exclaimed she. I thought of the poor captain below in his cot, but +next moment I was explaining, to her sheer amazement, how the real +truth of the matter stood, though, if possible, it seemed to horrify +her still more. "I can't think what they may be," I rapped out; "but +if I had the command of this ship, I'd up anchor this very hour, and +go out--at least as soon as the tide ebbed; but, at any rate, at the +Cape I mean to get hold of some schooner or other, and if it were to +China, why, I'll cruise after 'em till I--" "Then you think--" began +she, and an arch, inquisitive sort of look danced in both her eyes +as she turned away to watch the shore again, saying slowly, "You +_are_ a--a naval gentleman, then, Mr West--Mr Collins?" I tried to +stammer out something by way of an explanation, but it wouldn't do, +and I said, "At any rate, I'm no better, by this time, than an idler +aboard _here_, ma'am!" + +All at once I caught a side-look from her eyes, that wasn't meant +for me, as she glanced over the poop-netting. Half provoking and +half sweet it was, though, and it made my brain somehow or other +seem to spin round, till a little after, before I well knew what +I was about, I was holding the long spy glass for her to see the +bank of the river,--her warm breath coming on my ear as I stooped +before her, near enough to have kissed the muslin on her shoulder, +while her rosy mouth changed with every new spot that the glass +brought near; and she had to hold one taper fore-finger on the other +eye-lid to keep it shut, so that I could dwell on her face as if +she'd been asleep. "There, there!" exclaimed she, "are actually +flowers--with such immense leaves! And now--an enormous tree, with +roots hanging from the branches, and other stems growing up into +them. Why, yes!--is not that a banian-tree, Mr--," and she looked +away at _me_, when of course the tree was vanished, and instead of +that, the rather undeniable expression of a fellow in love, two +or three inches off, bent fair upon her. Violet Hyde coloured a +little, and looked in again. "And--I think--" continued she, "I +see--oh, two such beautiful creatures--deer, I think--coming out +to drink from the river!" All this time, the ecstacies of the rest +kept up the noise and confusion: the young lady's maid was gaping +open-mouthed at the shore, not even noticing her young mistress's +straw bonnet fall off, and I had just picked it up with one hand, to +put it quietly over that matchless nut-brown hair of hers, shining +suddenly in the sun like silk, when the Judge's voice sang out sharp +from the other stair, "Violet, child, you'll have a sun-stroke. +Kitmagar, you scoundrel, _beebee sahib punkah lao, sirrah_!" I held +on to the telescope like grim death, while that eternal punkah was +hoisted over us both, the Judge eyeing me somewhat coolly for the +first moment. "Well, well, Mr Westwood," said he, however, "you've +got rid of that proud freak of yours;--such behaviour as yours +yesterday, I assure you, I shouldn't have endured from any one else, +young man! But, my dear boy," added he, suddenly, "from what I can +gather, indeed saw myself last night, I am convinced we owe you a +very great deal--even, I suspect, the safety of the entire vessel!" +Miss Hyde had left off using the glass, and, as I stood up, she gave +me a quick glance of amazement. "Mere chance, sir," I stammered. +"Why," said Sir Charles, "I saw you at the steerage in the middle +of the hurricane, when I believe the actual officers of the ship +had left it in dismay. I tell you what, Mr Westwood, you're a bold +fellow; and your uncle and I must see in India if we can't reward +you in some way, my dear boy!" All this fondling style of thing, and +for little more than a piece of luck, would have disgusted me, if I +hadn't been more taken up with watching the side of Violet Hyde's +face, as she listened for sounds in the woods ashore. "Strange +wasn't it, Violet, my dear," continued he to his daughter, that my +friend the Councillor's nephew should have gone out in the same +Indiaman, so fortunately--though of course, after all, it _was_ +the first this season." "Ah!" said she, starting, "I beg pardon, +papa,--what did you--weren't you talking of the river?" "Don't you +hear, child," said the Judge, "I said it was a curious coincidence, +Mr Westwood's going in this vessel." "Oh yes, indeed!" answered +she, and couldn't help looking down a little confounded. But the +lady's-maid was putting on her tiny slipper, which had come off, +while her father mentioned that of course I'd had practical reasons +for not owning my profession hitherto;--meaning, I suppose, that I +didn't speak for fear of having to work, like the monkeys--though +the sharp old lawyer must have had a better guess by this time, and +queer enough it must have been to see her face, listening to him +as he explained it all. I stood biting my lips, meanwhile--two or +three times on the point of telling him it was all nonsense about my +being a nephew of any hanged old nabob whatever; when Sir Charles +said carelessly he should leave the Seringapatam, if possible, at +the Cape of Good Hope, as he couldn't trust safely to the present +officers. + +Just then up got the merry chant of the men running round with the +capstan-bars, to get up anchor; the chief officer wishing, as it +was found, to carry her farther into the river with the breeze--for +the sake of filling our water-casks the easier, according to him, +but more likely out of sheer spite at what had been done without +him. What with eagerness in the cuddy to get on shore and see the +woods, the breakfast below was a rare scene, no one minding what he +did, even to rushing slap into a couple of ladies' berth for his +boots, or laying a couple of loaded Joe Mantons into somebody's bed, +swallowing biscuit and butter on the way. + +Suddenly we heard the splash of paddles in the water, with a hail in +some foreign tongue or other, and hurried on deck in a body; where +we found the ship tiding it slowly up, under jibs and foretopsail, +and beginning to open a longer reach where the river seemed to +narrow in. A black-eyed, black-bearded fellow, with a tallowy, +yellow, sweaty sort of complexion, in a dirty jacket, drawers, and +short boots, and an immense grass hat, shouting Portuguese louder +and louder into the first-mate's ear, till he actually put both +hands together and roared through them,--pointing to himself now and +then, as if surprised he wasn't known. All at once, evidently quite +disgusted, he turned and looked over the side, saying something to +one of the ugliest and most ill-looking mulattoes I ever saw, who +sat in the stern of a long rough canoe, hollowed out of some tree, +with two naked black rowers, less of the real nigger than himself, +as they leant grinning up at the bulwarks with their sharp teeth, +that appeared as if they'd been filed to a point. The mulatto +gloomed, but he gave no answer, and as one of the cadets and I knew +a little Portuguese, we managed together to get something out of +the fellow on deck; though at noticing me for the first time that +morning, I saw Finch turn red with surprise. We understood the man +to ask if we wanted nothing particular in the river, the meaning +of which I saw better on bethinking me of the fire along the bush +inside the headland, that had let me see the marks of it--no doubt +a signal to some craft they had taken us for. However, so soon as +he heard we needed no more than water and spars, after musing a +minute, and speaking again to Rodriguez, as he called the mulatto, +he said he would pilot us to a convenient berth himself, for two or +three dollars; notwithstanding his title was, as he said, Don José +Jeronimo Santa somebody, commandant of the Portuguese fort something +else. The river, we found, was the Nouries or the Cuanené, where +they had a settlement called Caconda, a good way up; a remarkably +bad country, he gave us to know, and not worth staying in, from +the number of flies, and the elephants having got into a cursed +way of burying their tusks,--except, he hinted, for the plenty of +blacks, all anxious to be sold and to see foreign countries; but +the trade was nothing yet, absolutely nothing, said he, blowing +his nose without a pocket handkerchief, and suiting the act to the +word, as he mentioned his notion of throwing it up and going farther +north-west. By this time we had stood over to the lowest shore, till +you could see the thick coffee-coloured mud in among the roots and +suckers of the dark-green mangroves, with their red pods bursting +under their rank-looking leaves,--and over them, through the tall +coarse guinea-grass, to the knots of feathery cocoas behind, +swarming with insects: when he gave the sign to go about, one of his +blacks heaving a lead, and grunting out the depth of water, as the +ship made a long stretch across towards the woody side again, and +Don José all the time taking it as easy as if the quarter-deck were +his own, while he asked for a cigar and lighted it. Joke though he +did, yet I couldn't like the fellow at all; however, as soon as she +got pretty near the shore, about a quarter of a mile from the mouth +of what seemed a wide creek, glittering up between a high fringe of +cane and bamboo clumps, he had the sails clued up, a single anchor +let go in four or five fathoms, and our Portuguese friend got his +money and bundled over the side, pulling quietly ashore. + +The tide by this time was quite still, and the breeze sank almost +at once, as we were shut in from the sea; when we were surprised to +see the striped Portuguese flag rise off a tall bamboo stick, among +the bushes on the open shore, nearly abreast of us; where a low, +muddy-like wall was to be made out, with something of a thatched +roof or two, and a sort of rude wooden jetty running before it into +the water. Shortly after, Don José came paddling out again, and got +on board, this time with an old cocked hat on, excusing himself for +not having fired a gun--which was to save us expense, he remarked, +being particular friends--seeing that he'd got to demand twelve +dollars of harbour dues and duties, whereas, if he saluted, he must +have charged fourteen. The cool impudence of this brought the chief +officer from the capstan; but the steady face of the fellow, and the +glance he took round the deck when the cadet told him he'd better be +off at once, made me think he had something or other to back him. Mr +Finch, as usual, fumed up into a passion, and told the men to fling +him over into his canoe, which they accordingly did, without the +least nicety about it; the Portuguese next minute picking himself +up, and standing straight, with the look of a perfect devil, as he +shook his fist at the whole ship, while the canoe slid off to the +shore. + +Budge even so much as a single fathom, at present, we could not; +and most of us were too much in the spirit of fun and venture to +care a fig for having made an enemy of Don José-So-on, as the +cadet called him; indeed, it seemed rather to set a finer point +on people's admiration of the green jungly-looking shore next to +us, with its big aloes and agaves growing before the bush, and +all sorts of cocoas, palms, monkey-bread, and tall white-flaked +cotton-trees, rising in every way out from over the rest. For my +part, I thought more of the Portuguese's _interest_, after all, than +his hatred--which proved correct, by his soon sending out a sulky +message by the mulatto, offering to sell us fowls and a bullock, +at no ordinary price. However, all hands from the cabin were mad +already to get ashore somewhere, and the cadets bristling with +fowling-pieces and rifles, each singing out that he was ready to +supply the whole ship with fresh meat; so the mulatto had to sheer +off, with a boat nearly lowered over his head. From where we lay +at the time, what with the large creek off one bow, and the broad +river ahead of us, spreading brimful along to the light, the water +had the look of a huge lake, fringed in by a confused hazy bluish +outline steeping in the heat, where the distance clipped behind +the lumps of keen verdure, showering over a dark mangrove-covered +point. Before the two large quarter-boats could be got ready for the +ladies and the rest of us, in fact, we heard the gig full of writers +and cadets beginning to pop away at everything they saw alive, out +of sight from the ship; till at last we were afloat, too, pulling +slowly into the middle of the stream, and the men eyeing us lazily +as they turned-to about the rigging, to send up new spars in place +of those lost. The old Indiaman's big bows stood looming up broad +astern of us on the sluggish eddies round her cable, with her tall +steady fore-spars and furled yards rising white against the low line +of marshy shore in the distance, and wavering in her shadow below, +till the thick green branches of the next point shut her out, and +the glare off the face of the creek shot level over all of us in the +two cutters, wild with every kind of feeling that India passengers +could have after two months' voyage. + +For my own part, I should have had rather a suspicion how absurd it +was to go a pleasuring in an African river we knew nothing about, +especially when I saw that a day or two so long after the rains +might suck it up, during ebb, into a pretty narrow mid-channel: all +I thought of was, however, that I was steering the boat with Violet +Hyde in it, the kitmagar holding his gaudy punkah over her before +me, while the Judge, with his gun in his hands, was looking out as +eagerly, for the time, as the four griffins were pulling furiously, +in spite of the heat that made the sweat run into their eyes. + +The other party were soon off ahead of us up the main river, under +care of the Scotch surgeon, laughing, talking, and holloing in chase +of the cadets who had first left. However, Sir Charles thought there +was more likelihood of game along the creek, and the ladies fancied +it something new, so I steered right into it; the fat midshipman, +Simm, watching me critically as I handled the yokelines which he +had given up to me in a patronising way, and the sailor in the bow +regarding the exertions of the griffins with a knowingly serious +expression, while he dabbled his flipper at ease in the water. As +the tide steadied, this said creek proved to be a smaller river, +apparently from the hilly country I had noticed beyond the woods; by +the clearness of its current, that showed the pale yellow reflection +of the close bamboo-brake on one side, deep down into the light--the +huge sharp green notched aloe-leaves and fern shoving here and +there out of it--the close, rank, stifling smell of rotten weeds +and funguses giving place to the strange wild scent of the flowers, +trailing and twisting in thick snaky coils close up the stems on our +opposite hand, and across from branch to branch, with showers of +crimson and pink blossoms and white stars; till, eager as the ladies +were to put foot on land, 'twas no use looking as yet for a spot of +room, let alone going farther in. The cadets were not long in being +blown, either; when the midshipman, the bowman, and I had to relieve +them. However, _then_ I could look straight toward Violet Hyde's +face, the shade of the scarlet punkah hanging over it, and her soft +little straight nose and forehead catching a flickering burst from +the leaves as we sheered at times under cover of the bank; while her +eyelids, dropping from the glare, gave her bright eyes a half-sleepy +sort of violet look, and it was only her lips that let you see how +excited she felt. The griffin who had the tiller steering with the +judgment of a tailor's 'prentice on a picnic to Twickenham, we came +two or three times crash into the twigs of some half-sunk tree; +then a blue bird like a heron would rise direct ahead of us, with +its tall wet spindle legs and spurs glistening like steel behind +it into the light, and a young snake in its sharp bill; or a gray +crane rustled out of the cane from overhead, its long wings creaking +in the air out of our sight. Suddenly you heard a long chirruping +croak from a tree-frog, and the ground ones gave full chorus from +farther in, whining and cackling, and peep-peep-peeping in one +complete rush that died as suddenly away again, like thousands of +young turkeys--then out in the midst of the quiet would come a loud +clear wheetle-wheetling note from some curious fowl in an opening, +with another of the same to match, dimmer amongst the thick of the +bush. However everything of the kind seemed to sink down with the +heat at noon, the very buzz of flies round every dark feather of +the cocoas, and the musquito hum along the bank, getting fainter; +till one _heard_ the heat, as it were, creeping and thrilling down +through the woods, with the green light that steeped into both edges +of the long creek; every reed, cane, leaf, and twig, seemingly, at +last giving it back again with a whispering, hushing crackle, and +the broad fans of the palms tingling in it with rays from them, as +they trembled before you in the glare, back into the high bundles of +knotted and jointed bamboo, with their spiky-tufted crowns. + +"Can you not almost _feel_ the forest grow!" exclaimed Miss Hyde; +while the boat floated quietly to one side, and her charming young +face shining out from the punkah, before Master Gopaul's deucedly +ugly one, coolly staring past his snub nose, made one think of a +white English rose and a black puff-ball growing together under a +toadstool; plenty of which, as red as soldiers' coats, and as big as +targets, looked here and there out of the bank. It put new spirit +into me to see her, but still we could do little more than shove +across from one side to the other--till something all at once roused +us up in the shape of a long scaly-like log, seemingly lying along +in the sun, which tumbled off the edge with a loud splash, and two +of the young fellows let drive from their fowling-pieces, just after +the alligator had sunk to the bottom. Rather uncomfortable it was +to come sheering right over him next moment, and catch a glimpse +of his round red eyes and his yellow throat, as the mud and weeds +rose over him. The other ladies shrieked, but Violet Hyde only +caught hold of her father's arm and started back; though her blue +eye and the clear cut of her pretty nostril opened out, too, for +the moment her lips closed. Five minutes after, when a couple of +large guinea-fowl sprang up, Sir Charles proved himself a better +shot than the cadets, by dropping one of them over the water ahead +of us, which was laid hold of by the reefer of the Indiaman, and +stowed away fluttering into the stern-locker--Simm observing coolly +that it was a scavengering carrion-sort of bird, but perhaps one of +his messmates might like to take it home stuffed to his sister. The +Judge merely smiled and patted the mid on the shoulder, remarking +in great good-humour that he, Simm, would make a good attorney; and +on we held, soaking to our shirts and panting, until the bowman +hooked down the stem of a young plantain, with a huge bunch of full +ripe yellow bananas under the long flapping leaves at its head, +right into the midst of us, out of a whole clump of them, where +the smooth face of the cove showed you their scarlet clusters of +flowers and green round pods hanging over it, hidden as they were +from above. Every man of us made a clutch, and the stem almost +lifted Simm out of the boat with it, as it sprang back into the +brake, rousing out a shower of gaudy-coloured butterflies, and a +cloud of musquitoes, and making the paroquets scream inside; while +the cadets' mouths were so full they couldn't speak, the reefer +making a gulp with the juice seeming to come out at his eyes, the +sailor spitting out his quid and stuffing in a banana, and the +ladies hoping they were safe to eat; as I peeled the soft yellow +rind off, and handed one to Violet Hyde, which she tasted at once. +But if ever one enters into the heart of things in the tropics, I'd +say 'tis when that same delicious taste melts through and through +and all over you, after chewing salt junk for a space. I remember +one foremast-man, who was always so drunk ashore he used to remember +nothing in India but "_scoffing_[20] one bloody benanny," as he +called it; "but hows'ever, Jack," he'd say, "'twas blessed good, ye +know, and I'm on the look-out for a berth again, jist for to go and +have another." One of us looked to the other, and Miss Hyde laughed +and coloured a bit when I offered her a second, while her father +said full five minutes after, "'Gad, Violet, it almost made me think +I saw Garden Reach in the Hooghly, and the Baboo's Ghaut!" + + [20] _Anglicè_, eating. + +This whole time we couldn't have got more than three-quarters of a +mile from where the ship lay, when all at once the close growth on +our left hand began to break into low bush, and at length a spot +offered where we might get ashore tolerably, with two or three big +red ant-hills heaped up out of the close prickly-pear plant, and the +black ants streaming over the bank, as well as up the trunk of a +large tree. The monkies were keeping up a chattering stir everywhere +about; and two or three bright-green little lizards changing into +purple, and back again, as they lay gleaming in the sun on the sides +of the ant-heaps, and darted their long tongues out like silver +bodkins at the ants coming past. In we shoved with a cheer, and had +scarce moored to the tree ere the ladies were being handed out and +tripping over the ground-leaves to the ankles, starting on again +at every rustle and prick, for fear of snakes; till the bowman in +charge was left in the boat by himself, and, there being seven of us +with guns over our arms, the next notion of the griffins was to get +a sight of some "natives." + +In fact there was a sort of a half track leading off near the bank, +through among the long coarse grass and the ferny sprouts of young +cocoas, and a wide stretch of open country seen beyond it, dotted +all over with low clumps of trees and bush rounded off in the +gush of light, that gave it all a straw-coloured tint up to where +a bare reddish-looking ridge of hill looked over a long swell of +wild forest, off a hot, pale, cloudless sky. Here and there you saw +the shadow of one bluff lying purple on the side of another, and a +faint blue peak between, letting north'ard into some pass through +the hills, but no signs of life save a few dun big-headed buffaloes +feeding about a swampy spot not very far off, and rather too shaggy, +by all appearance, to make pleasant company. Accordingly, we held +for a few yards under the shade, where the fat mid, thinking to +show off his knowingness by getting cocoa-nuts for the ladies, +began to shy balls of mud from the creek-side at the monkeys in the +trees. However, he brought us rather more than he bargained for, +till the whole blessed jungle seemed to be gathering between us and +the boat to pelt us to death with nuts as big as eighteen-pound +shot, husks and all; so off we had to hurry into the glare again, +Sir Charles half carrying his daughter through guinea-grass up to +the waist--when somebody felt the smell of smoke, and next minute +we broke out near it, wreathing up white from inside a high bamboo +fence, propped up and tied all along with cocoa-nut husk. "What +the devil!" shouted the foremost cadet, as soon as he found the +opening, "they're cannibals!--roasting a black child, by heaven!" +and in he dashed, being no chicken of a fellow _ashore_ at any +rate, the others after him, while the Judge, Simm, and I, kept +outside with the ladies, who were all of a shudder, of course, what +with the thought, and what with the queer scent of roast meat that +came to us. "Ha, ha!" laughed the cadet next moment, "it's only a +monkey, after all!--come in, though, Sir Charles, if you please, +sir,--nobody here, ladies." There, accordingly, was the little +skinned object twirling slowly between two bamboo sticks, over a +fire beneath two or three immense green leaves on a frame, with its +knees up not to let its legs burn; about a dozen half-open sheds and +huts, like little corn-stacks, thatched close with reeds, and hung +with wattled mats of split bamboo, giving the place more the look +of a farmyard than a village; as there was a big tree spreading in +the middle, a few plantains, yams, and long maize-stalks flowering +out of the coarse guinea-grass which the niggers hadn't taken the +trouble to tread down all round inside of the fence. However, we +weren't long of perceiving an old gray-headed black sitting on his +hams against the post of a hut, watching us all the time; and a +villanously ugly old thief he looked, with a string of Aggry beads +about his head, and a greegree charm-bag hung round his shrivelled +neck, which was stuck through a hole in some striped piece of stuff +that fell over to his knees, as he sat mumbling and croaking to +himself, and leering out of the yellows of his eyes, though too +helpless to stir. Something out of the way attracted my notice, +glittering in front of the hut over his head; but, on stepping up to +it, I wasn't a little surprised to find it the stern-board of some +small vessel or other, with the tarnished gilt ornament all round, +and the name in large white letters,--"Martha Cobb,"--the port, +Boston, still to be made out, smaller, below. This I didn't think +so much of in itself, as the craft might have been lost; till, on +noticing that the old fellow's robe was neither more nor less than +a torn American ensign, in spite of his growls and croaks I walked +past him into the hut, where there was a whole lot of marlinspikes, +keys, and such like odds and ends, carefully stored up in a bag, +marked with the same name, besides a stewpan with some ostrich +feathers stuck where the handle had been, as if this rascally black +sinner wore it on his head on state occasions, being probably the +head-man and a justice of the peace! What struck me most, though, +was a pocket-book with a letter inside it, in a woman's hand, +addressed to the master of the brig Martha Cobb; dated a dozen years +before, yellow and fusty, and with tarry finger-marks on it, as if +the poor skipper, God knows, had read it over and over in his cabin +many a fresh breeze betwixt there and Boston. I put it in my pocket, +with a curse to the old black devil, as he croaked out and fell on +his face trying to bite me with his filed teeth when I passed out, +to follow the rest out of the bamboo pen; wondering, of course, +where all the negroes could be, unless they were dodging about the +river shore to watch the Indiaman,--little chance as there was of +their trying the same joke with the Seringapatam, as with the Martha +Cobb. + +As for the women, however, I had scarce joined our party going out, +when we met a half-naked black hag with a bunch of cocoa-nuts and +husk. The moment she saw us she gave a squeal like an old hen, and +fell flat, while several younger ones, jogging along with their +naked black picaninnies on their backs, turned tail and were off +with a scream. Next minute we were almost as startled as they could +be, when three plump young jetty damsels dropped down right into the +bushes alongside of us, off as many tall cocoas which they'd been +climbing by a band round them, for the nuts. "Mercy on us!" said +the eldest of our lady-passengers: and it _was_ rather queer, since +they had nothing earthly upon them save very very short pet--I beg +your pardon ma'am, but I didn't know any other word--however off +they scampered for the woods, Simm and one of the cadets hard after +them, and we turning away to smother our laughter, especially as the +griffin had forgot his mother being with us. The middy being first +started, he was a good way ahead, when all at once the sternmost +of the black girls tripped in the band she had over her shoulder, +Simm giving a cheer as he made prize of his chase; but scarce before +the whole three of the dark beauties had him smothered up amongst +them, laughing, yelling, and squalling as they hauled him about; +till I saw the dirk Simm sported glitter in one of their hands, and +I made towards the spot in the notion of their finishing him in +right earnest. The black damsels ran off together as the unlucky +reefer picked himself up, coming to us with his hair rubbed up +like a brush, his cap out of shape in his hand and the gold band +off it, his red face shining, and all the gilt anchor-buttons off +his jacket, besides being minus his dirk. "Simm! Simm! my fine +fellow!" said his friend the cadet, like to die with laughing, +"what--what--did they do to you? why, your head looks like a +chimney-sweep's mop!" Simm knocked his cap against a tree to set it +right, without a word, and we followed the others to the boat, where +he swore, however, that he'd kissed 'em all three; at which Mrs +Atkins fairly took him a slap on the side of the head, saying he was +a nasty improper boy, and she was glad _his_ poor mother couldn't +see him run after creatures of that kind in African woods--"Natives, +indeed!" said she, "I have heard so often of native modesty, too, +in books; but, after all, there's nothing like experience, I think, +Sir Charles?" "Certainly not, ma'am," replied the Judge, humouring +her, as she hadn't often had the chance of speaking to him before; +"'tis almost as bad in India, though, you know!" "Oh, _there_, Sir +Charles," said the lady, "I never happened to go out, of course, +except in the carriage!" "Ah," said the Judge coolly, "you should +try an elephant sometimes, ma'am." + +After this, as Sir Charles was bent on getting a shot at something +better, with a glass or two of Madeira to refresh us, we pulled +farther still up the small river, passing the mouth of a deep marshy +inlet, where I noticed a few long canoes belonging to the Congo +village we had seen; the close, heavy heat of the woods getting if +possible worse, and the rank green growth topping up round us as +flat as before; when the sound of a loud rush of water up-stream +broke upon us through the bush to northward, the surface rippling, +and a slight cool breath seeming to flutter across it now and then, +the very noise putting fresh soul into you. Suddenly we opened out +on a broad bend where it was hard work to force her round, and next +moment a low fall was gleaming before us, where a hill-stream came +washing and plashing over one wide rocky step above another in the +turn, then sweeping out of a deep pool to both hands, and running +away ahead, in between the spread of trees, seemingly to a sort of +a lagoon, where you saw the light in the middle glancing bright +down upon its face. A broad blue burst of air and light struck +down along the hollow the stream rushed out of, off the roots of +a regular mountain, leaning back to the sky, with its big tufted +knolls and its shady rifts thrown out blue beyond one or two thick +scaly-stemmed date-trees, waving their long, feathery, fringe-like +leaves to the least bit of a breeze, on as many rough points near +at hand: the _whole_ shape of the mountain you couldn't see for +the huge mahogany trees, teak, and African oak, rising up over one +shoulder into a lump of green forest. In five minutes more we were +through into the lagoon, which very possibly took round into the +main river again, only the opposite end, to our surprise, was all +afloat with logs of big timber choking it up, so that there we must +stick or go back upon our wake. + +However, the lagoon itself being broad enough and round enough in +all conscience, with a deep hollow opening up out of it on the high +ground, the Judge and the cadets thought a better place couldn't +have been chosen for landing after a little sport, while we left +the fair ladies to rest in the cool, and look at the lotus-lilies +spread all over one cove of it, floating white on their large +leaves. The green edge of scum ran about the black shadow on the +rest of it, gathering round where a big branch or two had fallen +in, with the hot white sky looking bluer out through the broad +leaves coming together aloft, and the showers of little sharp ones +in the tamarind twigs, mangoes, iron-wood, sumach, and all sorts; +while here and there a knot of crimson blossoms looked out from +under the boughs in the dark, humming with small flies. Beautiful +spot as it was everyway, especially after the heat, yet I didn't +much like the idea of letting the ladies stay by themselves, except +the sailor and the kitmagar. Nothing particular had turned up to +trouble us, certainly; but I daresay 'twas because there was _one_ +of them I never looked at without her soft fairy-like air making me +think of something that might happen to her, life-like though she +seemed. When I saw a big branch over her head, I kept fancying what +it would do if it fell-- and now, the thumping slabs and stones we +scrambled over up into the gully toward the mountain, seemed to have +come tumbling down off it to the very water's edge, covered with +nets of thick creeping plants, and trails of flat fingery-leaved +flowers, such as you see in hot-houses at home. A few yards higher, +too, where the ground broke away into a slanting hollow out of the +bush, 'twas all trampled and crushed, half-withering together in +the heat of the sun, the young trees twisted and broken, and two +or three good-sized ones lying out from the roots, which I set to +the score of the timberers rolling down their logs, for some craft +that evidently got their cargoes hereaway. After all, the thought of +a slap at some wild game was tempting enough, the Judge appearing +to consider any one but a sportsman nobody at all: so up we went +behind him out of the gully, till we were all blowing like so many +porpoises on the head of it, Sir Charles raising his finger as we +peeped across a grassy slope right under us, where a whole drove +of small slender-legged antelopes were feeding. We had just time +to rest, getting a breath of air off the heights, when one of the +foremost lifted its head, listening the opposite way from us; next +moment the entire scatter of them came sweeping direct over to +leeward in a string,--we could almost catch their bright black eyes +through the grass, when the crack of our seven barrels turned them +bolt off at a corner, and they were gone like wind on water. All of +us had missed save Sir Charles Hyde; but his rifle-bullet had sent +one of the antelopes springing up in the air ten feet or so, rolling +over and over into the grass again, where we found it lying with its +tongue out, and its large eye glazing amongst the blades and dust--a +pair of huge turkey-buzzards falling, as it were, out of two specks +in the sun above us, already, and rising with an ugly flap while we +got round the dead creature. + +"Hallo!" said the mid, suddenly, looking back over toward the hollow +we'd come out of; "what's that?" + +From where we stood we could just see through the wild cane to the +mouth of the gully, half a mile down or more, leading upon the trees +by the lagoon. I thought I could hear a dull heavy sound now and +then going thump thump down the hollow and along it, the stones +rumbling from one spot to another at the root of the hill; but +noticing a light smoke rising farther into the course of the creek, +with a faint echo of axes at work somewhere in the woods below, I +wasn't sorry to find the timberers were still in the river, showing +we weren't the only civilised folks that thought it fit to visit. +Perhaps it might have been a quarter of an hour more, however, and +we were all looking out sharp for birds of any kind to pop at, +happening to turn my head, I saw the long reeds were moving about +the banks below, and the trees twisting about furiously; and no +sooner had I made a few paces than, good heavens!--right in the +break of the trees at the landing-place--_there_ was a huge brute +of some sort coming slowly up out of the water; then another, and +another, glistening wet in the bright light as the shadow of the +branches slipped behind them. A blindness came over my eyes, and +I had scarce time to make out the big block-like heads and moving +trunks of five or six black African elephants, ere the whole case +flashed upon me, and away I dashed full speed down the slope. The +big beasts were turning quietly off into the hollow, and two or +three of their calves trotted after them out of the bushes, munching +the young cane-stalks as they lifted their pillars of legs, and +their tufty little tails, when I passed a fire of sticks blazing +under a slab of rock, with the Judge's guinea-fowl plucked and +roasting before it from a string, the bowman's tarpaulin and his +pipe lying near by--a sight that doubled the horror in me, to know +he had left the boat at all; and no doubt, as I thought, taken +fright and run off, man-o'-war's-man though he was. I made three +springs over the stones down to the water, terrified to look in, +hearing it, as I did, splash and wash about the sides, up among the +leaves of the trees; while a couple of monstrous brutes were to be +seen by the light in the midst of it, still wallowing about, and +seeming to enjoy sending the whole pool in wide rings and waves as +far as it would go, with the noise besides: the one half swimming, +and the biggest standing aground as he poured the water out of his +long trunk all over his back, then broke off a branch and waved it +to and fro like a fan round his flapping leathery ears. + +Such a moment I hope never to know again--not the least sign of the +boat could I see in the green black blink of the place, after the +glare above; and I stood like a madman at the thought of what the +herd of monsters had _done_, when they came suddenly down upon it; +then I gave a wild cry, and levelled my ship's musket at the big +elephant's head, as he brought his small cunning eye slowly to bear +upon me, dropped the branch, and began to swing his forehead, all +the time looking at me and wading out to the shallow--by Jove! my +flesh creeps at it _just now_--though I couldn't have stirred for +worlds till he was close enough for me to fire into that devilish +eye of his. 'Twas no more than the matter of half a minute--till +you may fancy what I felt to catch sight all at once of the cutter +splashing up and down in the gloom below the branches, the ladies +and the Hindoo crouching down terrified together, except Violet +Hyde, who stood straight, holding the boat firm in by a bough, her +white face fixed through the shadow, and her hair floating out of +her straw-bonnet each time her head went up among the leaves, with +her glittering eyes on the two elephants. Suddenly some heavy black +figure dropped almost right over her into the boat, and she let go +with a low cry, and sank down with her hands over her eyes; when +they went sheering out towards the creek, the fore-topman handling +his boat-hook in her bow, without his tarpaulin. As for the wild +elephants, I had just time to come to myself before the foremost had +his feet on the stones below me, getting cautiously out of the pool; +these awkward antics of theirs being possibly signs of too much +satisfaction in a bathe, for them to show aught like fury, if you +didn't rouse them; so I was slipping quietly round the nearest tree +when I heard the cadets halloing up the hill. The old bull-elephant +seemed a dangerous customer to meet, and I was hurrying over the +dead grass and branches to give warning, just as Sir Charles Hyde +could be seen coming down before the rest, his rifle over his +shoulder. However he brought up, the moment I sang out to stop: both +the elephants were stalking off lower down into the hollow, and I +dropped behind the slab where Tom Wilkes had been roasting his bird, +when some fool of a cadet let drive at the bull-elephant from above, +hitting him fair on the front. You heard the rifle-bullet hit slap +against it as if on an anvil: the she-elephant made off at a fast +trot, but the big brute himself turned round on the moment, lifting +his trunk straight aloft with a sharp trumpeting scream through it, +and looked round till his small red eye lighted on the Judge, who +seemed quite out of breath from his sport. + +"The fire! that fire, for God's sake, Mr Westwood, else I am lost!" +called out Sir Charles, in a calm distinct key from where he stood +with his eye fixed on the elephant, and could see me, too,--a moment +or two before the huge round-backed lump of a brute came running +round into the track, stumbling heavily up the dead branches of +the fallen trees and the dry guinea-grass, with a savage roar +between his two white tusks--and I saw what the Judge meant, just +in time to throw over the whole heap of flaming cocoa-tree husk +among the withered grass and stuff a few yards before the monster, +as dry as tinder, while the light air coming down the gully of +the mountain, drove it spreading across his course up through the +twigs, and sweeping in one sudden gust of fire up to the very end +of his trunk. I saw it lift over the smoke like a black serpent, +then another scream from the brute, and away he was charging into +the hollow again, the flame licking up among the grass astern of +him, and darting from one bough to another towards the cane-brake +below. I had scarce drawn a long breath, and remembered the devil's +own thought that had come into my head when the Judge called to me, +ere he slapped me on the shoulder. "You did nobly there, my dear +boy," said Sir Charles; "managed it well! 'Gad, it was a crisis, +though, Mr Westwood!" "I'm afraid, however, sir," said I, eying the +crackling bushes, smoking and whitening to a dead smoulder in the +sunlight, then flashing farther down as the hill-breeze rustled off, +"I'm afraid we shall have the woods burning about our ears!" Down +we hurried accordingly, and hailed the cutter, where scarce had we +leisure to pass a few quick words and tumble in, before I heard a +shout beyond the other turn of the creek, through the end of the +lagoon; then something like the cheep of ropes through blocks, with +the bustle of men's feet on a deck, and next minute a perfect hubbub +of cries, whether Dutch, Portuguese, English, or all together, I +couldn't say,--only it wasn't likely the _last_ would kick up such +a bother for nothing. Four or five Kroomen came leaping round and +along the float of logs at the far end, their large straw hats +shining in the light over their jet faces, as they peered across +into the lagoon. The minute after they vanished, we saw the white +upper spars of a schooner slide above the farthest of the wood, and +her bowsprit shoved past the turn just enough to show her sharp +lead-coloured bow, with the mouth of a gun out of a port, and a +fellow blowing the red end of his match behind it. All at once the +chorus of shouts and cries ceased, and a single voice sang out along +the water, clear, stern, and startling, in bad Portuguese, "_Queren +sieté?_ who are you?" Still we gave no answer, quietly shoving off +as fast as we could, the flicker of the fire in the brake behind +the trees beginning to show itself through the black shade of the +lagoon. "_Queren siete?_" sang out the voice, louder than before, in +a threatening way, and the logs were knocking and plashing before +the schooner as the Kroomen hauled at them to make an opening. +"Amigos! Amigos!" hailed we in turn; "Ingleses, gentlemen!" shouted +the cadet who knew Portuguese, calling to them not to fire, for +heaven-sake, else they would do us some harm. With this, the hubbub +was worse than before; they plainly had some design on us, from the +confusion that got up; but by that time we were pulling hard into +the narrow of the river, and took the fair current of it as soon as +the boat was past the falling stream we had seen before, till we +were round into the next reach. + +In fact the rate we all bent our backs at this time, was pretty +different from coming up: the cadets seemed hardly to feel the heat, +fierce and close though it was, at thought of those that might be +in our wake, and nobody spoke a word at ease till at last, after an +hour's hard work, taking it in turns, we came full in sight of the +Indiaman at her anchor on the broad current. The ladies blessed the +very ropes hanging from her bowsprit, and we got safe aboard, where +we found the two other boats had come back long before; and every +one of us turned in directly after sundown, as tired as dogs. + +Well, I didn't suppose I had slept an hour, dreaming terribly wild +sort of dreams about Violet Hyde and elephants, then that I'd saved +her myself, and was stooping to kiss her rosy lips, when a sudden +noise on deck startled me,--I shoved myself into my clothes and +rushed on the quarterdeck. She had gone aground at her stern in +swinging, in the water the Portuguese rascal gave her, canted a +little over to starboard, away from the shore; and till morning +flood nothing could be done to haul her off. The fog was rolling +down with the land-breeze, and the jabber in the woods, again, +thickened the confusion; when all at once a dim flash off the shore +glimmered in the white fog, and a round-shot whistled just astern, +pretty well aimed for her bilge, which would have cost us some work +if it had hit. After that, however, there was no more of it, the +fellow probably having spent either all his powder or his balls. As +for his fort, I heard the chief officer swearing he would knock it +about his ears next day--a thing that couldn't have done him much +harm, certainly, unless mud were dear. + +No sooner had the men gone below, leaving the ordinary anchor-watch, +than Mr Finch, to my great surprise, walked up to me, and gave me a +strange suspicious look, hinting that he began to have a good guess +of what I really was, but if anything new of the kind turned up, +said he, he should know better what to say to me. "Mr Finch," said +I, starting, "this won't do, sir--you'll either speak your mind +before cabin and cuddy, or to-morrow morning, by Jove! you'll go +quietly ashore with me, sir--as I think, now you remind me of it, we +settled to do, already!" The mate's face whitened, and he eyed me +with a glare of malice, as I turned on my heel and began to walk the +quarterdeck till he went below. + +However, the thought of the thing stuck to me, and I kept walking in +the dark to get rid of it: the four or five men of the anchor-watch +shuffling lazily about, and all thick save ahead up the river, +where the land-breeze blew pretty strong, bringing now and then a +faint gleam out of the mist. I was leaning against the fore-chains, +listening to the ebb-tide, and thinking; when I saw one of the men +creeping in from the bowsprit, which you just saw, where it ran +up thick into the dusk, with scarce a glimpse of the jib-boom and +flying-jib-boom beyond. The sailor came up touching his hat to me, +and said he thought he saw something queer off the boom-end. "Well," +said I gruffly, "go and tell your mate, then." I didn't know the +fellow's voice, though it had a particular twang in it, and he +wasn't in Jacob's watch, I knew. "Why, your honour," he persisted, +"I knows pretty well what you air--asking your pardon, sir--but I +think you'd make more out of it nor any of the mates!--It's some'at +rather skeary, sir!" added he. Accordingly I took hold of the +man-ropes and swung myself up the bowsprit, and had my feet on the +foot-rope below the jib-boom, when I heard his breath, following +behind me. "Never you trouble yourself, my man," said I; "one at a +time!" and back he went in board again--for something curious in +his way struck me, but I wanted to see what he meant. I had just +got near the flying-jib, half-stowed in as it was on the boom, and +I fancied, with a creep of my blood in me, I made out a man's head +over the sail; but next moment a hand like a vice caught me by +the throat, and some one growled out--"Now ye infarnal man-o'-war +hound, I have ye--and down you goes for it!" The instant I _felt_ +it, my coolness came back; as for grappling, I couldn't, and the +ebb current ran below to her bows at a rate fit to carry one out +to sea in half an hour. I saw the whole plot in a twinkling, and +never moved; instead of that I gave a sort of laugh, and followed +the husky twang of the other man to a tee. "He won't come, Harry, my +lad!" said I, and my ugly friend let go before he had time to think +twice. "He be blowed!" said Harry, scornfully; "an' why won't he, +mate?" He had scarce the words out of his mouth, though, ere I took +him a twist that doubled him over the spar, and down he slipped, +hanging by a clutch of the sail. "I suppose, my fine fellow," +said I, "you forgot Fernando Po, and those nigger adventures of +yours--eh?"--and I went in without more ado. + +I hadn't been ten minutes on deck, however, when I heard both of +them swearing something or other to the first mate. A little after +Finch came forward to me, with a ship's-lantern, and three or four +of the men behind. "Mr Collins, or whatever's your name, sir," said +he aloud, "I believe you've been seen just now at the bowsprit-end, +making signals or something to the shore! You're in arrest at once, +sir, and no more about it!" "What the deuce!" said I, my blood up, +and pulling out a pair of pocket-pistols I had had in the boat, +"let me see the man to--" At the moment a blow of a handspike from +near the mast laid me senseless on the deck, and I knew nothing +more.----But I see 'tis too far gone in the night to carry out the +yarn, ladies! + + + + +BRITISH AGRICULTURE AND FOREIGN COMPETITION. + + +"I do say it is for the public advantage that I should say to +him, (the farmer,) continue your improvements: I cannot undertake +to guarantee to you, by legislation, a particular price; BUT +THIS I WILL SAY, THAT AS LONG AS CORN IS UNDER 51S., YOU SHALL +NOT BE EXPOSED TO THE IMPORTATION OF FOREIGN CORN." So spoke Sir +Robert Peel in February 1842, as the proposer of an excellent law +for the improved regulation of the corn trade. The pledge was a +distinct one; and the very homeliness of the language saves it +from equivocal construction. In the course of the same debate, Sir +Robert, with just and prudent caution, expressly abstained from +committing himself to the obviously fallacious doctrine of a fixed +remunerative price. He held, as we hold, that, according to varying +circumstances, that remunerating price must vary. He did not, and +could not, forget that, under war prices and war taxes, wheat could +not be cultivated with profit in this country, unless the quarter +sold for 80s.; neither was he blind to the fact, that we had seen +the average price so low in 1835 as 39s. 4d., notwithstanding +the operation of a highly protective law. But he also held that, +although it was impossible, with all the aids which agricultural +experiment and statistical science could bring, to fix an immutable +price for the quarter of wheat--as he had previously done in the +instance of the ounce of gold--still, from averages taken throughout +the country for a series of years, it was possible to frame some +general proximate conclusion, which the legislature was bound to +keep in mind, whilst considering any laws or alterations of rates +that might hereafter affect the interests of the British farmer. So +that, when Sir Robert Peel enunciated the following opinions, we +maintain that the principle which guided him was strictly correct; +and we accept these as embodying the main argument that led to the +conclusion, which we have placed above as the commencement and +the text of this article. "Now, with reference to the probable +remunerating price, I should say that, for the protection of the +agricultural interest, as far as I can possibly form a judgment, +if the price of wheat in this country, allowing for its natural +oscillations, could be limited to some such amount as between 54s. +and 58s., I do not believe that it is for the interest of the +agriculturist that it should be higher. Take the average of the last +ten years, excluding from some portion of the average the extreme +prices of the last three years, and 56s. would be found to be the +average; and so far as I can form an idea of what would constitute +a fair remunerating price, I, FOR ONE, SHOULD NEVER WISH TO SEE IT +VARY MORE THAN I HAVE SAID. I cannot say, on the other hand, that I +am able to see any great or permanent advantage to be derived from +the diminution of the price of corn _beyond the lowest amount I +have named_, if I look at the subject in connexion with the general +position of the country, the existing relations of landlord and +tenant, the burdens upon the land, and the habits of the country." + +These opinions are quite distinct, and from them we gather that Sir +Robert Peel, in 1842, considered that, on an average, 54s. was the +lowest price at which the British farmer could raise wheat for the +market--so long, at least, as he was liable to the same burdens as +formerly, occupied the same position in the country, and paid the +same rent to his landlord. Following out these views, Sir Robert +Peel introduced his sliding-scale of duties, and the result would +seem in a great measure to vindicate his sagacity. Let us take the +averages for the six years immediately following:-- + + _s._ _d._ + 1842, 57 3 + 1843, 50 1 + 1844, 51 3 + 1845, 50 10 + 1846, 54 8 + 1847, 69 9 + --------- + 6)333 10 + --------- + 55 7-2/3 + +It will thus be seen that the average price of wheat, during those +years, _was within fivepence_ of the calculation made by Sir Robert +as the fair and natural average for the preceding ten years, and +that it almost hit the precise medium between the two extremes which +he assumed. + +Now, we are not aware that Sir Robert Peel has ever _directly_ +retracted these opinions, although many passages might be +quoted from his speeches to show that he considered increased +cheapness--the necessary result of his free-trade measures--some +sort of compensation for the probable decline in the value of +agricultural produce. But the income-tax and increased public +burdens may fairly be set against any saving on the ground of +cheapness, and the question remains precisely where it was before. +The averages of sixteen years, excluding extraordinary impulses to +an unnatural rise or fall, entitle us to assume that the British +farmer cannot raise wheat profitably at lower prices than 56s. +per quarter; and Sir Robert Peel, whatever may be the effect of +his subsequent measures, once gave his solemn guarantee that, +when prices should fall below 51s., there should be no foreign +competition. + +We have no desire to rake up old matters of discussion, or to +reflect upon pledges which may either have lapsed or been broken. +Our present business with Sir Robert is simply to have his evidence +as to the remunerating prices of corn, and that evidence we have +stated above. We are, therefore, entitled to assume that any great +and permanent decline of prices, following upon increased foreign +imports, must have a most deleterious effect upon the agriculture +of the country, unless some remedy can be found which shall lessen +the cost of production. As usual, there is no lack of volunteers +to suggest remedies. Dr Buckland, of iguanodon and icthyosaurus +celebrity, discourses learnedly of subsoils and manures, and offers +to show how acres of wheat may be raised upon soils hitherto +yielding no other crop than rushes, ling, or heather. It is the +misfortune of scientific men that they live in a world of their +own; for, had the learned fossilist been aware of what has been +passing around for the last twenty years, he would have known that +no sane person ever questioned the truth of his assertions. With +the aid of draining, manure, and other artificial appliances, corn +may be grown almost anywhere within the compass of the British +islands. No man disputes that. The simple question is: Will the +corn, when grown, yield a fair return for the expenses attendant +upon its growth? Until the geologists and chemists have acquired +so much real practical knowledge as to be able to answer this +query satisfactorily, they will best consult the public interest +by confining themselves to their quarries and their laboratories. +That agriculturist who should deny the advantages which his own +science has derived from the aid of chemistry, would not only be +an ungrateful, but an exceedingly unreasonable man; nevertheless, +he cannot be charged with either ingratitude or folly if, after +calculating the cost of the productive agent, and the value of the +produce, he declines to expend his capital in forced improvements, +which at the end of the year, and with diminished prices, must leave +him a considerable loser. If high farming could be shown to be +productive, high farming would be the rule and not the exception. In +Scotland we have farmed so high, that we are quoted at all hands as +an example to the rest of the world. If we mistake not, Dr Buckland +himself, in some of his stimulating addresses, has referred to the +agricultural system of the Lothians as a specimen, or rather _the_ +specimen, of what may be achieved by science combined with energy. +We accept the compliment; and in the course of the following pages +we shall endeavour to show him, and his friends, how the pattern +farmer is likely to fare, and how he has fared already, under the +operation of the new code which modern liberalism has introduced for +the encouragement of British enterprise. + +Next to the chemists, and moving closely in their wake, come the +free-trading landlords who assented to the great experiment. If +we select Lords Ducie and Kinnaird as fair specimens of this +class in England and in Scotland, we shall do no more than give +that prominence to their names which is challenged by their +late assertions. Our occupancy of the Scottish field, from which +we are unwilling to depart, precludes us from entering into any +investigation of the views promulgated by the English earl. But we +have no scruple at all in dealing with the Scottish baron, who, +in the letter of advice addressed to his tenantry of the Carse +of Gowrie, has taken infinite pains to show that the superior +husbandry of Scotland has been stimulated, if not created, by the +exaction of high rents; and, by an easy corollary, that future +improvement depends mainly upon the maintenance of these rents, +irrespective altogether of the decline in the value of produce! +This, we are bound to admit, is a comfortable landlord's theory; +and, if the agricultural tenants who frequent the reading-room +at Inchture are convinced of its practical soundness, we should +be extremely sorry to utter a single word which might tend to +unsettle their faith. But we fear that Lord Kinnaird, like many +other inconsiderate individuals, has committed a serious mistake in +rushing precipitately into print. We agree with him, on the whole, +that rent is a desirable thing, which ought not, under ordinary +circumstances, to be violently diminished; still we must adhere to +our deliberate opinion, that, if a great organic change, affecting +the interests of agriculture to a serious degree, is consequent +upon any measures of the legislature, both landlord and tenant must +be prepared to suffer in a certain ratio. It is all very well to +recommend the aid of chemistry, provided, at the same time, that +adequate capital is forthcoming. Even with capital, to be drawn from +the tenant's, and not the landlord's pocket, it will require more +than mere assertion to persuade the former that, by an enormously +increased outlay in phosphate of lime, sulphuric acid, magnesia, +manganese, gypsum, guano, and what not, he may raise crops the +abundance of which shall compensate him for a direct loss of 16s. +or 20s. on the quarter of wheat, with a corresponding diminution in +the value of every other kind of agricultural produce. Some of those +who, according to Lord Kinnaird, have shown themselves "the best and +most successful farmers," men who have heretofore been engaged in +business--that is, commercial business--may be induced to try the +experiment; but if there be any truth in the reply which Mr Thomas +Ross of Wardheads, a farmer in the Carse of Gowrie, has made to his +lordship's pamphlet, the result of the trials hitherto attempted +by such enterprising persons, upon the Kinnaird estates and in the +immediate neighbourhood, may be best estimated by a perusal of the +_Gazette_, wherein the names of divers unfortunate speculators are +recorded. But, to speak plainly, the time has gone by for any such +absurd trifling. What we want are facts, not theories; least of all, +theories so palpably preposterous as to carry their refutation on +their face. + +We do not, by any means, intend to insinuate that Lord Kinnaird +is to be taken as a type of the Scottish or British landlords. +On the contrary, we believe that he forms one of a minority so +infinitesimally small, that the number of them would hardly be +worth the reckoning. The position of the landlord and the tenant +is, on the clearest of all grounds, inseparable; and it is in +vain to suppose that the one class can, by possibility, have a +distinct interest from the other. No doubt, during the currency +of existing leases, entered into before the rapid conversion of +the two great political rivals to the doctrines of free trade, +the landlord may insist upon having the full penalty of his bond, +and may wring the last farthing from the hand of the despairing +farmer. We are living in times when vested interests have lost +their character of sanctity: the legislature, while forcing down +prices, provided no remedy for the relief of those who were tied +up by bargains, reasonable when contracted, but ruinous under the +altered circumstances; and the tenant, though forced to struggle +against the might of foreign importation, has no legal claim on +the proprietor of the soil for a corresponding deduction from his +rent. But the good feeling which has always existed between the +landlords and the tenantry of this country, if we assume no higher +motive, will doubtless operate, in the majority of instances, to +temper the rigour of the bargain, should the pressure continue +to increase; and year after year, as leases expire, and as the +results of practical experience become more generally understood, +competition will disappear, and rents fall to a point exactly +corresponding to the expectation of future prices. It is a bad sign +of the times, though certainly an instructive one, when we find a +wealthy peer, in a letter addressed to his tenantry, expressing +his opinion that retired tradesmen and others--men who have never +handled a plough in their lives, and who are far better versed in +the mysteries of long-stitch than in those of draining--make much +better farmers than those who have been reared to agriculture from +their infancy. According to this view, the farmer is a mere booby +compared to the man whose intellects have been sharpened in the +shop, the counting-house, or the manufactory; and the experience +which he has gained positively unfits him for the actual exercise +of his profession! Such views must be corroborated by the testimony +of deeper sages than Lord Kinnaird, before they pass into general +acceptation; and we cannot help thinking that the noble author +would have used a wise discretion had he been less explicit in his +reasons for preferring the novice to the practised farmer. Besides +their habits of accurate accounting, and their total freedom from +prejudice, retired tradesmen appear valuable, in the eyes of Lord +Kinnaird, for two especial reasons:--"In the first place, that +they have capital; secondly, that they are not afraid to expend +it, knowing that thus alone can their land be made productive." To +such persons we would address a word of warning, cautioning them to +use their acquired powers of accounting rather before than after +they enter into any agricultural bargain; and in particular, we +would advise them to look narrowly to the figures of their noble +encourager, detailing the results of his own experience in the farm +of Mill-hill, brought down, with great show of accuracy, to the +close of 1847--_before_ protection ceased, or prices fell--_but +no later_. In the course of such investigations, they may light +upon an anomaly or so which no arithmetician can explain, and be +rather chary of receiving his lordship's dogmas, that remuneration +from farming is "_not dependent on high prices_," and that "no one +possessing capital need be afraid of investing it in a farm." + +The last champion of increased production as an antidote +against free trade, is not the type of a class, but a single +individual--whose testimony, however, being in some respects +practical, is worth more than that of all the chemical doctors and +interested landlords put together. We allude to Mr James Caird, +whose pamphlet, entitled "High Farming under Liberal Covenants, +the best Substitute for Protection," has already excited so much +attention, that, if rumour does not err, its author has been +deputed by government, at the recommendation of Sir Robert Peel, +to visit Ireland with the view of reporting upon the agricultural +capabilities of that country. We shall presently have occasion +to examine the details of that pamphlet, as minutely as their +importance deserves; at present we shall merely note, in passing, +that it does not profess to set forth the results of the author's +_own_ practical experience, although Mr Caird is well known to be +a farmer of great intelligence and ability; and, further, that it +directly points to _liberal covenants_ on the part of the landlord +as an indispensable basis of the arrangement. In fact, therefore, +we find that Lord Kinnaird and Mr Caird, though both writing on the +same side, entertain views widely differing from each other, as to +the future terms of adjustment between the two great agricultural +classes. Lord Kinnaird is for "high rents;" Mr Caird for "liberal +covenants." It is impossible that both of them can be right; and +were we to join issue solely upon the facts which each of them has +adduced, we should have no hesitation in deciding in favour of +the practical farmer. But we apprehend that, even with the aid of +liberal covenants, Mr Caird has failed in making out his case, as we +shall shortly prove, when we proceed to analyse his statements. + +We have already made an approximation to the price which, in +ordinary seasons, and under existing burdens and covenants, +grain ought to bear, in order to yield a fair remuneration to the +British grower. That price, as we have already said, has been +held to range from 54s. to 58s. per quarter. This we hold to be a +moderate computation; but if a further limit be desired, we shall +admit--though for argument's sake only--that with great retrenchment +and economy, curtailing his own comforts, but not materially +reducing the wages of the labourer, the farmer may continue to grow +wheat at an average of 50s., and nevertheless pay up his annual +rent as before. A glance at former averages will show that this is +a remarkably low figure; and, _being taken as an average_, it of +course implies the supposition that in some years the price will be +higher, in order to compensate for others in which it may be lower. +Our primary business, therefore, is to ascertain whether, under the +operation of the new system, prices can ever rise, supposing the +present breadth of land to remain in tillage, above this average +amount; or whether they must not permanently diminish so much as to +destroy the vestige of an independent average in this country, and +substitute foreign growing prices for our own. The question is a +very momentous one, for it involves the existence of our national +agriculture, and not only that, but the existence of the larger +portion of the home market for our manufactures, compared with which +our exports are comparatively as nothing. It is our earnest desire +to approach it with all candour, temper, and moderation; and we +shall not, if possible, allow ourselves to be betrayed into a single +angry word, or discourteous expression, towards those who have +differed from us hitherto in opinion. Neither shall we advance or +reiterate opinions upon grounds purely theoretical. Ever since this +contest began, we have taken a decided and consistent part, and have +not scrupled to expose, by argument, what we held to be the glaring +fallacies of free trade. That argument, necessarily inferential at +first, has since been borne out and corroborated by every fact which +has emerged; and, on that account alone, we think we are entitled +to demand a serious consideration of the matter which we now lay +before the public, as the result of an investigation, in the course +of which no pains or trouble have been spared, and which may help to +guide us all, be our politics what they may, to a true sense of the +danger which must immediately arrive, if we remain but a few months +longer in a state of fancied security. Our warning may be derided by +some, but the day of reckoning is at hand. + +The first point, therefore, to which we shall entreat attention +is, the prospect of future prices; regarding which we possess some +information that may possibly take the reader by surprise. + +The adoption of free-trade principles, as regards the trade in corn, +proceeded upon a false estimate of the precise quantities available +for the supply of this country. Those who, from various motives, +combined for the purpose of allowing the foreigner an unrestrained +competition in the British market, had no idea of the strength +of the power which they had thus evoked; while the fearful and +doubting protectionist, who yielded too soon to the clamour, was +little aware of the extent of the evils which his supineness was +to bring upon him. The statistics of the question were altogether +overlooked--at least no proper means were taken to obtain them in +a faithful manner. The returns made by the foreign consuls, and +the evidence collected as to the ordinary available supplies at +foreign ports, were, in nearly every instance, the mere reflex of +the views of interested parties, furnished to men unable, from their +habits or education, to judge of their approach to accuracy. The +voluminous report of Mr Jacob, which might have been of use as a +warning, at any rate, that cheap food does not always make a happy +and comfortable people, seems to have been forgotten in these latter +days. Hence the theories of those who had some experience in trade, +and whose published opinions on mercantile matters had obtained +credit and celebrity, came to be mainly relied upon. Among these, +the ideas of Mr Tooke, whose authority stands pre-eminently high in +such matters, as to prices, and the quantity of foreign grain which +might, in the event of free trade, find its way to our shores, were +much insisted on. But how far these are erroneous and delusive has +been sadly proved by our experience of the effects of free trade in +corn since 1846. + +Mr Tooke says, in the third volume of his work on the _History of +Prices_, in the section entitled, "Conjectures as to the Prices at +which Wheat would range, in the event of Free Trade"--which, under +ordinary circumstances, he assumes to be 45s. per quarter,--"The +quantity which we might look to import, at an average of the price +I have named, might approach to from 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 of +quarters." He goes on to say, "If there were to be a fixed duty of +8s. the quarter, I very much doubt whether the annual importation +would reach that quantity;" and afterwards adds, "Before quitting +this point, however, I must observe that my estimate of the price at +which a foreign supply might be expected, of the extent supposed, +may be considered by some of the opponents of the corn laws as +strengthening the ground for the supporters of them, inasmuch as +such statements may be made to work upon the minds of the farmers, +in frightening them with the prospect of cheap foreign corn." + +What wonder, then, if the panic has materially increased, since +the history of free trade, for the last three years, has revealed +such a fearful addition to this estimate: for how stands the fact? +In place of 2,000,000 quarters of wheat annually, from the passing +of the Corn-Law Repeal Act (26th June 1846) until the 5th November +1847, a period of little more than sixteen months, we imported +7,229,916 quarters of wheat--while the total of all kinds of grain +entered for consumption amounted to 16,331,282 quarters! Some idea +may be formed of the effects of such an augmented importation, if we +bear in mind that, from 5th July 1828 to 1st Jan. 1841, a period of +nearly thirteen years, the whole quantity of foreign wheat and flour +entered for home consumption was 13,475,000 quarters. + +But lest it should be argued that this was a supply produced by +extraordinary circumstances, and which could only be furnished +from accumulations of former seasons--as was, indeed, said at the +time--the further history of the trade has shown us that our foreign +supplies continue to pour in at precisely the same rate. The total +of all kinds of grain and flour entered for consumption in the last +nine months, ending 5th September 1849, as exhibited by the Board of +Trade returns, shows an amount of 9,870,823 quarters, the quantity +of wheat being for this period 3,821,292 quarters; and of wheaten +flour--besides frightening the farmers, bearing ruin to our own +millers--3,236,993 cwt.--together equivalent to quarters of wheat, +4,746,147. And all this, be it observed, has been imported while the +average price per quarter has been _one sixpence only_ above that +named as likely to exclude the approach of more than 1,500,000 or +2,000,000 quarters from our shores! Formerly--in the first years of +the century, up to 1842--the farmer had to contend against a foreign +supply of grain amounting to little more than 1,000,000 quarters +_per annum_--now, in some cases, under obligations contracted on the +faith of protection to native industry, he is called upon to make +the vain struggle against an inundation of foreign corn amounting to +upwards of 1,000,000 quarters _per month_! He cannot, it is evident, +maintain the contest long. + +Such were the facts assumed as the basis of our legislation, and +already they stand forth to the public eye as gross and palpable +blunders. The British agriculturist has, beyond all question, been +injured to an extent infinitely greater than was anticipated by any +one--an extent so vast, that, could it have been predicted as a +certainty, the rashest theorist would have recoiled from the danger +of such an experiment. + +But we have by no means, as yet, attained the lowest point of +depression. At the close of the year 1849, we take the general +average price of wheat as at 40s. per quarter, and we shall probably +have a breathing time of two or three months, until the Continental +ports are again available for navigation. We shall hereafter +consider whether, under any circumstances, the price which we have +just quoted can remunerate the farmer: in the mean time, let us +see whether it is likely that, in future, even this price can be +maintained. + +It is no easy matter to ascertain the rates at which corn may be +grown on the Continent. The current prices at foreign ports, such +as Hamburg, have, in reality, little bearing upon this most vital +point, though they have been eagerly assumed by the free-traders +as a sure index of future prices. Very little consideration will +show every one that the true way towards forming a fair conclusion +on the subject, is to ascertain, as nearly as may be, the cost +of grain, _not at the ports from whence it issues_, but in the +inland countries where the greater proportion of it is grown. The +reason for this is obvious. Under the old system, when protective +duties were the rule, the demand for foreign corn was exceedingly +fluctuating and uncertain. We never dealt directly with the foreign +grower; but, between him and the British consumer, at least three +profits intervened. There were middlemen, principally Jews, who made +it their regular business to purchase up the superfluity of the +Polish crops on speculation, and to sell it to the Dantzic dealers. +Then came the profit of the latter, and also that of the British +corn-merchant; and, as the trade was notoriously a precarious one, +these profits were of considerable amount. The demand, however, +may now be considered as fixed and steady. Henceforward, under the +operation of free trade, the two considerations of quality and +cheapness must alone regulate the market. Not only the superfluity +of Continental harvests will be available, but new land, of which +there are immense tracts of the finest description, hitherto +untilled, will be put under cultivation, and the produce regularly +transmitted to this country, where a ready market can at all times +be found. The first symptom of this new regular trade will be the +disappearance of one of the intermediate profits. This is not +subject of prophecy; it has already taken place. The foreigners +have now taken the whole of the foreign grain trade exclusively +into their own hands. We are informed by the first corn-merchants +of Leith, that there is not a single order sent for grain from this +country. "The finest Dantzic wheat, free on board," writes one of +our correspondents, "will not be sold to a British merchant for less +than 38s. the quarter; and as no more than 40s. or 41s. could be got +for it here, there is no margin for a profit, and the risk is not +run. But the foreigner will send it on his own account, and sell it +_here_ at 38s. and realise a profit. You thus see that the entire +trade is out of British hands, for the prices of our own grain must +entirely be ruled by those of the foreigner; and the consequence is, +that every bushel sent to this country is on consignment and not to +order." + +There still remains another profit, that of the middleman, to be +reduced. The creation of a constant and steady demand from the +foreign ports--which demand cannot be otherwise unless a protective +law is reimposed--will naturally excite the dealers to purchase +directly from the Polish grower. In this way they will have double +profits, without enhancing materially, if at all, the original cost +of the grain; for, in other Continental corn-growing countries, +untilled land may be had to any extent for next to nothing, and no +farming capital, as we understand the word, is required. Here a +remark or two, founded upon past history, may be useful. About a +century and a half ago, or rather about the time of the Revolution +of 1688, the average price of wheat, as stated by Adam Smith, +amounted to 28s. in England. Public burdens were at that time +moderate, and so were poor-rates; still they were of such an amount +as to be felt by the farmer. The wages of the agricultural labourer +were at least seven shillings per week, equal to about 10s. 6d. of +our present money, and the rent of arable land might be estimated +over-head at 5s. 6d. per acre. All these items are enormously +above the rates at present known in the Continental corn-growing +countries, and some of them have no existence there. It is difficult +to get at Polish charges, especially since the late change in our +policy, for we have invariably found that foreign proprietors are +most jealous of disclosing their true domestic position. Nor can +we wonder at this, for the truth, were it broadly told, might tend +materially to check that liberal sympathy, which of late years has +been so abundantly shown to the insurgents of central Europe. We +are, however, fortunately enabled to throw some useful light upon +this matter. Our informant is a Scottish agriculturist, who, some +years ago, was engaged as land-steward on the estates of a Polish +nobleman in Gallicia, and who, therefore, had ample opportunity of +witnessing the foreign system. If the reader glances at the map of +Europe, tracing the course of the Vistula from Dantzic, and then +following the upward line of its tributary, the Bug, he will find +laid down in close proximity the extensive districts of Volhynia, +Podolia, Kiow, Gallicia, and others, formerly Palatinates, which +together constitute the largest, richest, and most productive +corn-field of Europe. Here there are no farmers, and--what is more +strange to us--no free labourers who receive a weekly wage. The land +is tilled for the profit of the owner; a superintendant presides +over it as taskmaster; and the workers of the soil are serfs in the +actual position of slaves, who toil late and early without other +remuneration than the coarse rye bread, and similar fare, which +is necessary to support existence. The manufactures of Manchester +and Sheffield have not found their way into this region, and never +will; because the population, being utterly without means, could +not purchase them, and probably would not were the means within +their power. Their dress is of the most primitive kind, and differs +in no respect from that of tribes utterly barbarous--being chiefly +constructed of the skins of animals. They are hardy, docile, +and exceedingly sensitive to kindness, but as far removed from +civilisation as the tribes of Tartary; and their owners--for that +is the proper term--take especial care that no doctrine shall reach +them which in any way may interfere with the exercise of despotic +rule. In short, they are like so many cattle cultivating the land +for their masters at the bare expense of their keep. To demonstrate +more clearly the difference of the value of labour, we may here +state, on the best authority, that in that district where the finest +wheat, distinctively known as "high-mixed Dantzic," is grown, the +ordinary price of a quarter of wheat will defray the expense of +from forty to forty-five days' work, whilst here it can procure +only from twenty to twenty-five days. The climate is excellent, and +the yield of the soil considerable. Wheat may be grown for several +years successively without manure, and always with comparatively +little work. The produce is floated down the numerous rivers which +intersect the district, to Dantzic and other coast towns on the +Baltic, where it is stored; and these will in future form the +great depots of the grain furnished by central Europe for British +consumption. Contrast this state of matters in modern Poland with +that of England in 1688, when land yielded a considerable rent, when +poor-rates and public burdens were levied, and when the labouring +man received a reasonable wage; and we must arrive at the conclusion +that the remunerating price of wheat in the former country must be +something greatly lower than 28s. per quarter. We are almost afraid +to state our conviction, lest it should appear exaggerated; but +we do not doubt that Polish wheat could be delivered at Dantzic +at 16s., and yet leave a considerable profit to the grower. We +must also note that the variableness of our climate, and the +comparative poorness of our soil, places us at a vast disadvantage +in point of quality, as compared with the southern grower. It can +be established, by consulting the prices-current of Mark Lane +for a series of years, that it would require a differential duty +of 6s. per quarter on wheat, on this account alone, to put the +British farmer on a fair footing with the great bulk of his foreign +competitors. Last season, the difference between the best foreign +and English wheat throughout the year, as proved by the same +authority, was upwards of 10s. per quarter. + +We beg it will be distinctly understood, that, in estimating the +remunerative prices of foreign grain, we do not profess to arrive +at more than general conclusions. It matters nothing for or against +our argument whether wheat can be delivered at Dantzic a little +cheaper, or a little dearer, than the above sum. We leave room on +either side for a considerable margin. This much, however, we know +for a fact, that an eminent corn-merchant in Leith has, in former +years, purchased fine wheat, free on board, at Dantzic for 18s., +with the offer of a constant supply, and that no circumstances have +since then emerged to enhance the cost of production. Besides this, +as Mr Sandars well remarks in one of his published letters, we have +had plain and evident experience of foreign production under the +working of the corn law of 1842. We had a fixed duty of 20s. per +quarter in actual operation for four years; and in 1844 and 1845, +such duty was paid, week after week, and in the latter year for +six months consecutively, at a time when our general averages were +only 46s. to 47s. a quarter. Was the foreigner at that time selling +at a loss? His price, then, adapting itself to ours, was 26s. and +27s., deducting the duty, and at that time, be it remembered, _he +was unprepared for competition_. So that, from experience not five +years old, we may gather what kind of future competition awaits +us, and also what we are annually sacrificing in revenue, by madly +abandoning protection. Does any one believe that, in 1845, had there +been no duty on foreign corn, wheat would have fallen to 26s., +or the foreigner have sold his crop at that price? The remitted +duty goes into the pocket of the foreigner, who is selling in the +dearest market, and underselling our farmers, as he will be able to +do--for he has tested that ability already--down to a point which +must extinguish British agriculture. We know also from Mr Meek's +report, quoted by Sir Robert Peel in 1842, that "the prices of corn +in Denmark have, during the last twenty-five years, averaged, for +wheat, 28s. 10d., rye, 19s. 9d., barley, 14s., and oats, 10s. 6d. +per quarter," and it is obviously ridiculous to suppose that the +cost of production in Poland is nearly so high as in Denmark and +Schleswig-Holstein. Last year Denmark sent us upwards of a million +quarters of grain. These are facts which have distinctly emerged, +and they are all-important at the present time, when the tenantry +are urged to expend further capital on the chance of future rise +of prices. It is now perfectly clear that the returns, which were +assumed as the basis for the great experiment, are worthy of no +confidence. On the other hand, we do not wish that our opinions, +which point to a totally different result, should influence any one +in his future line of conduct; but, beyond our opinions, there are +certain facts, which we have just stated, and the import of which +cannot be misunderstood, and these may serve as warnings for the +future. Of the capability of the foreigner to supply us with any +given amount of grain, we think no reasonable man can doubt. There +is a breadth of soil open sufficient to supply more than twenty +times the most exorbitant demand. It is his power to undersell us, +and the extent of that power, which have been questioned; and on +the solution of that question depends the utility of high farming, +in this country, on a grand and comprehensive scale. We shall show +that, at present prices, high farming is so far from remunerative, +that those who practise it are actually incurring an immense loss; +and that, unless rents come down to zero, or at least to a point +which would utterly ruin the landlords, high farming cannot be +proceeded with. We have shown that, within the last five years, we +have been supplied, and that regularly, from abroad, when wheat +was at 46s. per quarter, and a duty of 20s. existed; and, at such +rates, it is quite evident that all attempt at competition would +be hopeless. Wheat could not be grown remuneratively at 26s. or +27s. in England before a single shilling of the national debt was +incurred; and no man is mad enough to insist upon its possibility +now. When, therefore, the Free-traders tell us that the present is a +mere temporary depreciation, we ask them--and we demand a distinct +reply--for an explanation of the imports in 1845. How was it that, +for a long period, foreign corn came in plentifully, paying the +duty of 20s., when our home averages were at 46s. and 47s.? Can +they assign any special reason for it? If not, the conclusion is +plain, that the foreign growers can and will undersell us down to +that point, if we possibly could compete with them so far, and all +the while add to their profit, while they also abstract from our +revenue. + +Our belief, as we have said already, is, that the foreigner could +afford to go much lower, and that he could furnish us with wheat +at little more than 18s. We have stated above an instance of this +kind, and, if necessary, we could furnish more. Nor will the +statement appear exaggerated to those who will take the trouble +of comparing English prices and English burdens, as they existed +before the Revolution of 1688, with the prices and rates of the +great corn-growing countries of central Europe at the present +moment, making due allowance for climate and the difference of +social institutions. At the same time, let it be understood that +we do not aver, that all the foreign grain which way find its way +here can be grown at such low prices. Pomeranian and Bohemian wheat +is more expensive in culture than that of Poland; and we know that +there is some difference between Hamburg and Dantzic prices. Still +our conviction is most decided, that henceforward the foreigner has +the game entirely in his hands; that he may prescribe what price +he pleases to this country; and that every year, in spite of all +efforts, all home harvests, all variety of seasons, prices must +inevitably decline. If it were possible that, by high farming, or +any other means, we could produce wheat remuneratively at 30s., +or 25s., the foreigner would be ready to sell in competition at +25s. or 18s., even supposing he received hardly any profit. His +business is _to get hold of the British market_, and that once +accomplished, he may elevate or depress prices as he pleases. The +declension will be gradual, but it will be perfectly steady. This +year wheat has been brought down to 40s., not in consequence of an +exuberant harvest, as in 1835, but through competition. A million +of quarters per month have been poured in to sink prices, and we +are now debating at home whether British agriculture can go on +under such circumstances. Tenants are mourning over their losses; +labourers are feeling the pinch of lowered wages; some landlords, in +apprehension of diminished rents, are exhorting to further outlay of +capital; statesmen are consulting with chemists; and agitators, who +have made all the ruin, are shouting for financial reductions. In +the mean time, the winter is crawling on apace. The price of grain +in Britain has been beat down by competition _with a poor foreign +crop_, for such unquestionably was the yield of 1848. That of 1849 +was a splendid one, and, the moment the ports are opened in spring, +its influence will be felt. The question will not then be of 40s, +but of a price still lower; and we apprehend that, in that event, +the argument will be nearly closed. We do not, however, anticipate +that the reduction will be rapid. The dealers at the different +foreign ports will best consult their own interest by keeping, as +nearly as possible, just below the quotations current in the British +market. In this way large profits will be secured during the whole +maintenance of the struggle, which must end by the British farmer, +overloaded with rent, taxes, and public burdens, giving way to +his competitors, who, with no such impediments, and with a better +climate and richer soil, will monopolise his proper function. We +shall then experience in corn, what our West Indian colonists, under +the same kind of legislation, have experienced in sugar. The greater +part of the soil of Britain will be diverted from cereal growth; +and, as the earth does not yield her produce without long wooing, we +shall be at the mercy of the foreigner for our supplies of food, at +any rates which he may choose to impose. + +As to the matter of freights, about which so much was at one time +said and written, we need not complicate the question by entering +into minute details. From information upon which we can rely, we +learn that, at this moment, steamers are constructing for the sole +purpose of effecting rapid and continual transit between foreign +and British ports, for the conveyance of grain--a circumstance +which speaks volumes as to the anticipations of the Continental +traders. We may also observe that ordinary freights form no bar +to importation, since they are now hardly greater from the Baltic +to this country than from Ross-shire to Leith, or from many parts +of England to London. One fact, communicated by a correspondent +connected with the shipping trade, has peculiarly impressed us. We +give it in his own words: "I enclose you a price-current, which will +give you the prices of all grain. Grain from America has lately come +home, both in American and British ships, at 4d. per bushel freight, +and flour at 6d. per barrel--but much more frequently shipped on the +condition _that, if it leaves a profit, the one half goes to the +shipper, and the other half to the owner of the ship for freight_." +He adds, "The freights from Quebec and Montreal are higher--say 2s. +6d. or 3s. for flour; but as British shipping ceases being protected +after 1st January, they will be equally low there." So much for +pulling down one interest by way of compensation to another! + +The reader--or rather the critical economist--may treat the +foregoing remarks as speculative or not, according to the colour +of his opinions. All the discussion upon free-trade has been +speculative, and so was the legislation also. We take credit for +having anticipated what we now see realised; but beyond that, and +beyond the facts which the experience of former years has given us, +and which we have just laid before our readers, we are, as a matter +of course, open to objection, and also liable to error. We have not +been arguing, however, without sound data--such as, we suspect, +never were brought fully under the eye of our statesmen--and they +all tend manifestly and clearly to the same conclusion. That +conclusion is, that, without the reimposition of a protective duty, +prices cannot rise above the present level. Our argument goes +further; for we hold it to be clear that, without some extraordinary +combination of circumstances which we cannot conceive, prices must +decline, and decline greatly. We look for nothing else; but having +had our say as to the future, and pointed out the prospect before +us, we shall now confine ourselves to present circumstances, and +endeavour to ascertain whether, with a continuance of _present +prices_, and under existing burdens, agriculture can be carried on +in Britain at a reasonable profit to the farmer. + +Mr Caird's pamphlet, though it has attracted a good deal of +attention, contains no hints or information which are new to the +practical farmer. Its high-sounding title would lead us to suppose +that he had discovered some improved system of agriculture, which +might be applicable throughout the kingdom. We read the pamphlet; +and we find that it contains nothing beyond the description of a +very low-rented and peculiarly-situated farm, the occupant of which +appears to have realised considerable profits from an extensive +cultivation of the potato. It is not necessary that we should +do more than allude to the general tone of the pamphlet, which +seems to us rather more arrogant than the occasion demanded. Mr +Caird, we doubt not, is a good practical farmer; but we should +very much have preferred a distinct and detailed statement of +his own experiences at Baldoon, to an incomplete and unattested +account of his neighbour's doings at Auchness. A man is fairly +entitled to lecture to his class when he can show that, in his own +person, he is a thorough master of his subject. A farmer who has +devised improvements, tested them, and found them to answer his +expectations, and to repay him, has a right to take high ground, +and to twit his brother tenants with their want of skill or energy. +But Mr Caird is not in this position. He is occupier of a farm of +considerable extent, but he does not venture to give us the results +of his own experience. It is possible that he may himself pursue +the system which he advocates, but he does not tell us so; he +points to Mr M'Culloch as the model. This is at best but secondary +evidence; howbeit we shall take it as it comes; and as this is +strictly a farmer's question, it may be best to allow one practical +agriculturist to reply to the views of another. We might, indeed, +have abstained altogether from doing so, for Mr Monro of Allan, +in a very able pamphlet, entitled _Landlords' Rents and Tenants' +Profits_, has distinctly and unanswerably exposed the fallacies of +Mr Caird. Still, lest it should be said that we are disposed to +reject, too lightly, any evidence which has been adduced on the +opposite side, we have requested Mr Stephens, author of _The Book of +the Farm_, to favour us with his views as to Auchness cultivation. +We subjoin them, for the benefit of all concerned. + +"On perusing Mr Caird's pamphlet, every practical man must be struck +with astonishment at the inordinate quantity of potatoes cultivated +at Auchness. + +"The entire thirty acres of dried moss, (p. 7,) and twenty-five +acres of lea, (p. 15,) were in potatoes in 1848; and the county Down +farmer, whose statement is reprinted at the close of Lord Kinnaird's +pamphlet, reports that the number of acres occupied by potatoes in +1849 was ninety. This is more than one-third of the whole area of +the land. I have considered attentively the calculation made by the +farmer; and I think that, in order to meet present prices, it should +be modified as below. You will also observe that, in my opinion, the +outlay on the farm has been too highly estimated.[21] + + + "90 acres potatoes, at 7-1/2 tons each, £2 per ton, £1350 0 0 + 60 acres wheat, at 36 bushels each, £2 per quarter, 540 0 0 + Profit on 130 cattle, at £6 each, 780 0 0 + Profit on 150 sheep, at 10s. each, 75 0 0 + Profit of 5 milk cows, at £12 each, 60 0 0 + -------- £2805 0 0 + + _Deduct_-- + Rent, £262 0 0 + Labour, 40s. per acre, 520 0 0 + Manure purchased, (p. 23, Caird,) 256 0 0 + Food for cattle purchased, (do.,) 270 0 0 + Seed potatoes, 108 tons, at £2, for 90 acres, 216 0 0 + Seed wheat, 120 bushels, at 5s., 30 0 0 + Tradesmen's bills, at £7 per pair horses each half-year, 70 0 0 + Incidental expenses, 50 0 0 + Interest on £2000 capital, at 10 per cent, 200 0 0 + -------- 1874 0 0 + -------- + £931 0 0 + [21] It will be seen, by referring to the statement in question, + that Mr Stephens' calculation is more favourable to the tenant than + the other. According to him, the excess of produce over expenditure + would be £931. The county Down farmer estimates it at £888. + +"This balance sheet shows a profit of £931; but as the potatoes +are worth £1350, which is no less than £419 more than all the +profit, it is evident that it is the potato _alone_ that affords +any profit under this instance of high farming. Indeed Mr Caird +admits as much when he says, 'The _great_ value of a sound potato +crop induces the tenant to adopt such means as will not interfere +with the _continued_ cultivation of this root.' The admission is, +that the profit rests entirely on the precarious potato. The potato +has hitherto been safe in the moss of Auchness, and it is safe +there in no other class of soil. In Ireland, even the moss does +not save it. There is no high farming in the matter, in so far as +manures are concerned, for as much and richer manure is used in +the neighbourhood of large towns; and as on the moss at Auchness +too much manure may be applied, at least after a certain time, so +there may be on other soils; and thus high farming, in reference to +soils, just means heavy manuring. Mr Caird says, 'The potato has +been grown on the moss land successively, year after year; but the +entire reclaimed portions, _from being so frequently manured_, are +becoming too rich, and the crop beginning to show signs of disease, +and a tendency to grow to tops rather than roots, which makes it +necessary to adopt some plan of reducing its fertility.' It is known +to every farmer, that it is quite possible to overmanure any crop, +and the effects of overmanuring are, the breaking down of the straw +of the grain crops, and the hollowing of the core of the tubers +and bulbs of the green crops. The inference then is, that a profit +which depends entirely on potatoes is uncertain in any year; and +the particular case of Auchness, in which that profit is derived +from moss, is not generally applicable to the country, and cannot, +therefore, be held up as an example to farmers. + +"The farm of Auchness contains nothing remarkable: for although the +peculiar culture of the potato in moss is generally inapplicable, +there are many farms in Scotland which have moss attached to them. +The sea-ware may also be got on most farms on the coast, and where +this is the case, it is commonly used. The soil is not good, and is +certainly below the average quality; but I cannot understand what +is meant by Mr Caird, when he asserts, on p. 7, that the '125 acres +of light sandy soil is better adapted for _wheat_ than for barley +or oats when in a high state of cultivation,' for, in other parts +of the country, such a soil would be eminently suited for barley. +The steading is large for the size of the farm, but every steading +ought to be made conformable to the farm by the landlord. The system +of farming followed by Mr M'Culloch, of having 'no fixed rotation +of crops,' is highly objectionable, and Mr Caird, with great +propriety, does not commend it; since the farmer who manages so, has +no dependence on the amount of crop he may receive any year, and +must work according to circumstances, and not on principle, as the +unhappy Irish hitherto have done. In this respect, also, Auchness is +no example for the country; and, were a regular rotation followed on +it, so many potatoes could not be grown, and the profits would be +proportionally reduced. + +"On the whole, then, I would say that Auchness farming is not +generally applicable; and therefore it is useless to proclaim it as +an antidote to free competition. For although it is probably true, +as Mr Caird says, 'that _green_ crops are likely henceforth to be +the main stay of the agriculturists of this country,' yet he must be +conscious that he is wrong in recommending, as an example, and as a +substitute for protection, the _enlarged_ cultivation of _potatoes_ +as a green crop, seeing that their growth has, of late years, been +attended with great uncertainty. Is it not a mockery, then, to tell +us that our main stay against foreign competition should depend upon +a peculiarly uncertain crop? Will his pointing to a moss of 30 acres +in Wigtonshire, convince the farmers of this great kingdom, that +their future safety, as a class, must entirely depend upon their +cultivating such a root on such a soil, in preference to wheat on +the fertile loams of glorious old England? I apprehend that such a +result is beyond the power of argument." + +The non-agricultural reader must pardon us for the insertion of +these details. They are necessary for our case, because, if high +farming can be made an efficient substitute for protection, we are +bound to adopt it, and we should owe a deep debt of gratitude to any +one who could point out the way. We are fully alive to the necessity +of agricultural enterprise; and, if we thought that our farmers +were standing beside their mired waggon, clamorously invoking the +assistance of Jupiter, when they should be clapping their own +shoulders to the wheel, we would be the first to remonstrate on +the heinous folly of their conduct. It is because _no amount_ of +personal exertion has been spared, that we seek to enforce their +claim according to the utmost of our ability; and, in doing so, we +are bound to prove, that no ordinary means which have been suggested +for their extrication can be of the smallest avail. Mr Caird has +come forward in the character of adviser, and we have stated the +opinion of practical men as to the feasibility of his scheme. We +have yet more to state, for nature has already denounced his plan +far more effectually than opinion. When the county Down farmer +visited Auchness in July last, he found more than one-third of the +whole farm under potato culture. Upon that crop depended not only +the whole profits, but a great deal more. Without the potatoes, +there would have been a loss, at a more favourable calculation than +his, of £419, on a farm paying only £262 of rent. _Since then_, +we are informed on the best authority, _that disease has attacked +the potatoes_. The highly-manured moss could not preserve from +decay, if it did not accelerate it, the uncertain and precarious +root. Mr Caird must not quarrel with the penalty he has incurred +for having totally misunderstood the nature of the question which +is now agitating the public mind. Whilst all others were directing +their attention to cereal produce, he kept his eyes obstinately +fixed on a little patch of ground which seemed to give unusual +facilities for the growth of the doubtful potato. He never attempted +to show that, without potatoes, and an exorbitant growth of that +vegetable, high farming could pay at Auchness, even with the +important elements of very low rent, and singular liberality on +the part of an enthusiastic landlord. He perilled his whole case +upon the probable returns of a root which every farmer views with +suspicion; and--more than that--his statistics, which he wished to +be inferred were of universal application, were only applicable to +a few remote and isolated spots in Scotland. The result is, that, +with all these advantages, the experiment has failed; and that all +the liquid manures, economy of dung, guano stimulants, and so forth, +as practised at Auchness, cannot, at present prices of produce, +force up so much grain, or feed so much stock, as will nearly pay +for the required and inevitable expenses. We pass over all possible +mistakes. It may have been matter of delicacy for Mr Caird to have +exposed the balance-sheet of his neighbour, or he may have assumed, +rather hastily, statistics for which he had meagre warrant. We can +allow him a large margin. _Without_ potatoes, and such an extent of +potato as would be plainly ludicrous if adopted as a general rule, +Auchness never could have paid. _With_ potatoes, it has failed +in the very year wherein Mr Caird has chosen to exhibit it as a +universal model. + +So much for the only instance of high farming which has been +adduced, as an example of its efficacy in superseding the protective +system. In justice to Mr M'Culloch, whom we believe to be a most +intelligent farmer, let it not be thought that we presume to call +it empirical. On the contrary, we are convinced that that gentleman +has acted with great judgment, suiting his management to the nature +of the ground with which he had to deal; and that he has made as +much of it as any man could do under similar circumstances. He was +compelled to deal with a precarious crop, and few men could have +dealt with it better: still, his method is no example to others +differently situated, nor are his results to be taken by them either +as matter of warning or of triumph. It is sufficient for us that +Auchness farming, successful or not, is peculiar, and cannot be +dragged in as a rule or example for the English or the Scottish +farmer. We have enough of high farming statistics to lay before our +readers, and, therefore, without any further apology, we dismiss the +matter of Auchness, as totally inapplicable to the great question at +issue. + +In order to arrive as nearly as possible at the true state of the +case, in so far as Scottish farming is concerned, we put ourselves +into communication with two gentlemen, of the highest eminence in +their profession. We need scarcely tell our countrymen on this side +of the Border, that it would be difficult to find better testimony +on such a subject than that of Messrs Watson of Keillor, and +Dudgeon of Spylaw; and we apprehend, moreover, that many English +agriculturists are fully acquainted with their character and high +reputation. Through their kindness we have been furnished with the +statistics of farms situated in the fertile grain-growing districts +of Forfar and Roxburgh; and the calculations as to the yield, +prices, and expenses, were made from their own books. The rent set +down is that which is usual in the district for land of the best +description, and the tenant's capital is named at an amount which +might enable him to develop the full capabilities of the soil. The +estimates have been most carefully framed, with the view of avoiding +every kind of exaggeration; and they have been gone over by Mr +Stephens, who attests their general accuracy. They are as follows:-- + + +No. I. + + RETURNS of PRODUCE from a 500 acre farm in Strathmore, county + of Forfar, on a five-shift rotation of crops, with an improved + stock of cattle and sheep, on an average of years previous to + free trade in corn, cattle, &c.; and + + COMPARATIVE STATEMENT of what may be calculated upon as the + returns from the same farm under the present legislative + measures affecting British agriculture. + + Rent of the farm, as fixed for 19 years, assuming former average + price of corn and cattle, &c., £800 0 0 + Invested capital of £6 per acre at entry, £3000. Interest upon + this sum, at rate of 10 per cent, 300 0 0 + Floating capital of £4 per acre, £2000. Interest thereon, 5 per cent, 100 0 0 + Expenses of management, wages, tradesmen's accounts, insurances, + grass seeds, &c., at the rate of 20s. per acre per annum, 500 0 0 + Annual loss by casualties on live stock by disease and accidents, 100 0 0 + Public burdens leviable upon the farmer, including poor-rates, 50 0 0 + --------- + Sum chargeable against the farm annually, £1850 0 0 + + To meet this sum there is the produce of 200 acres of corn crop, + and the profits on live stock, (the whole grass and green crop + being consumed on the farm.) + + Bushels. + 100 acres of oats, producing 48 bushels per acre, 4800 + Off for servants, horses, seed, &c. 2400 + ---- + Leaves disposable oats, 2400 at 3s.£360 0 0 + + 40 acres of spring wheat, producing 32 bushels + per acre, 1280 + Off for seed, 160 + ---- + Disposable wheat, 1120 at 7s. 392 0 0 + + 60 acres of barley, producing 42 bush. per acre, 2520 + Off for seed and horses, &c., 500 + ---- + Disposable barley, 2020 at 4s. 404 0 0 + --------- + £1156 0 0 + + Profits from live stock, fed upon 200 acres grass, + and 100 acres green crop, 800 0 0 + --------- + Total returns, £1956 0 0 + 1956 0 0 + --------- + Leaving annually to the farmer, for his skill and industry, over + interest of capital employed, a sum of £106 0 0 + + Convert the above disposable produce into money, at the present + prices, or rather at what may be fairly calculated upon for + future seasons, under a system of free trade, and the following + is the result:-- + + 2400 bushels of oats, at 2s. per bushel, £240 0 0 + 1120 bushels of wheat, at 5s. per ditto, 280 0 0 + 2020 bushels of barley, at 2s. 9d. per ditto, 277 15 0 + --------- + £797 15 0 + + Live stock, (as above, £800,) less 20 per cent on + former prices, leaves 640 0 0 + --------- + Net return, £1437 15 0 + Sum chargeable as above against the farm, 1850 0 0 + -------- + Leaving the farmer _minus_, for rent, capital, + and expenses of management, £412 5 0 + 412 5 0 + -------- + Total loss annually incurred by difference in + price occasioned by free trade, £518 5 0 + -------- + + HUGH WATSON, + KEILLOR, _1st December 1849_. + + +No. II. + + STATEMENT of the average PRODUCE of a farm in a full state of + productiveness, managed agreeably to the five-shift course, as + usually adopted in the south-eastern Borders of Scotland, where + the returns of stock form a very considerable means of + remuneration, and the price of which, of course, is a material + element in the calculation as to the rent to be given. + + Thus, then, assuming the rent of 500 acres of useful land for this + purpose--upon the estimate of the price of grain and stock, as + warranted by their value previous to the introduction of the new + corn law and tariff--to be, £800 0 0 + + This farm has been put into good productive condition by means + of the tenant's capital, at a cost in draining and lime, (sunk,) of + £2500. It is well known that nearly twice this amount has in many + instances been thus expended; but we assume this as a fair average + on a farm so rented. + + Interest upon which sum, to enable him to recover the same during + an ordinary lease of from nineteen to twenty-one + years, at 10 per cent, £250 0 0 + + Interest on capital invested in stock, &c., yielding an + annual return of £1500, at 5 per cent, 75 0 0 + + Expenses of management--wages, tradesmen's accounts, + extra manures, &c., 550 0 0 + + Casualties, loss on stock, &c., 50 0 0 + + Public and Parish Burdens, 45 0 0 + -------- £970 0 0 + --------- + £1770 0 0 + + To meet this sum, there is the produce of 200 acres of grain, in each + year, distributed as follows:-- + + Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. + 100 Oats, at 48 per acre--4800. Off seed, horses, and servants, 2420 + 60 Wheat, 33 1980. Off seed, 180 + 40 Barley, 40 1600. Off seed, servants, 210 + + Remain disposable, at the prices on which his calculations were + founded and warranted by the rates, as is proved, under protection:-- + + Bushels. + 2380 Oats, at 3s., £357 0 0 + 1800 Wheat, at 7s., 630 0 0 + 1390 Barley, at 4s., 278 0 0 + -------- £1265 0 0 + + Returns upon stock estimated, at prices then current, + to yield, 750 0 0 + -------- £2015 0 0 + --------- + Profit--remuneration for tenant's industry and skill, £245 0 0 + + The above grain produce yields, at the highest average I feel warranted + in assuming, under free trade-- + + Bushels. + 2380 Oats, at 2s., £238 0 0 + 1800 Wheat, at 5s., 450 0 0 + 1390 Barley, at 2s. 9d., 191 0 0 + -------- + £879 0 0 + In place of, as above, 1265 0 0 + -------- £386 0 0 + + Thus the difference of proceeds of _grain crop alone_, more than absorbs + all the tenant's remuneration, by £141 0 0 + + JOHN DUDGEON, SPYLAW, _3d December 1849_.[22] + + [22] Since the above statement was drawn up and submitted by us to + the consideration of various farmers throughout the country, Mr + Dudgeon has requested us to state, that after consultation with + several of these gentlemen in his own neighbourhood, (who, he was + gratified to find, entirely concurred in the essential particulars + of the statement,) he is of opinion that he had deducted rather + too small a quantity of oats and barley for seed, according to the + average usual in the district. Any alteration which this involves + would be a deduction from the tenant's original profit, and an + addition to the amount of loss already brought out. + + Mr Dudgeon also says--"I omit at present adding to this deficit + the depreciation which it may be further estimated will result + permanently from the open trade in live stock and cured provisions. + But it may be stated that the recent depression in the value of + stock from that of late seasons, amounting to _at least_ 15 per + cent, shows a farther present loss on the calculated profits of this + farm to the extent of £112, 10s." + +We addressed the following circular letter to some of the most +eminent agriculturists in Scotland, enclosing copies of the above +statements:-- + + "EDINBURGH, _8th December 1849_. + + "SIR,--Wishing to publish in our Magazine as accurate a + statement as we could obtain of the real condition and prospects + of agriculture in Scotland at present, we have for some time + been engaged in correspondence on the subject with various + gentlemen connected with agricultural pursuits. + + "The enclosed statements of the working of a farm, and the + quantity and value at present prices of the produce, have been + drawn out by Mr Watson, Keillor, Forfarshire, and Mr Dudgeon, + Spylaw, near Kelso, assisted by Mr Stephens, author of the "Book + of the Farm." + + "At the suggestion of Mr ---- we write to ask whether you will + consent to allow us to affix your name to these statements, + as attesting their accuracy, to the best of your experience, + in farming. If it strikes you that in any of these statements + the profits are either over or under estimated, we shall feel + greatly obliged by your pointing out where you think the error + lies. Any correction you may make we shall submit to the + consideration of one or all of the above-mentioned gentlemen, + with whose names, as competent judges of the working of a farm, + you are probably acquainted. + + "We shall feel further obliged by your making any remarks that + may occur to you, and stating any facts that have come within + your own observation, our only wish being to get as near the + truth as may be. The article in the Magazine, into which this + attested statement will be introduced, is founded upon the facts + that we have been able to gather in the course of somewhat + extended inquiries by ourselves, or rather by friends on whose + knowledge of agriculture we could safely rely. + + "Will you be so good as to send any answer you may think proper + to this application, within a week from this date, or sooner + if you can, as we have very little time to get everything into + order for publication in the January number of our Magazine.--We + are," &c. + +The following gentlemen have given us permission to use their names, +as attesting the accuracy of these statements, to the best of their +experience, in farming:-- + + _Mid-Lothian_--[23] + + THOMAS SADLER, Norton Mains, Ratho. + + _East-Lothian_-- + + JOHN BRODIE, Abbey Mains, Haddington. + ANDREW HOWDEN, Lawhead, Prestonkirk. + PETER RONALDSON, Moreham Mains, Haddington. + WM. TOD, Elphinstone Tower, Prestonkirk. + + _Berwickshire_-- + + ROBT. HUNTER, Swinton Quarter, Coldstream. + WM. DOVE, Wark, Coldstream, attests Mr Dudgeon's only. + ROBT. NISBET, Lambden, Greenlaw. + + _Roxburghshire_-- + + R. B. BOYD, of Cherrytrees, Yetholm. + NICOL MILNE, Faldonside. + WM. BROAD, Clifton Hill, Kelso. + FRED. L. ROY, of Nenthorn, Kelso. + JAMES ROBERTON, Ladyrig, Kelso. + + _Fifeshire_-- + + JAMES B. FERNIE, of Kilmux. + JOHN THOMSON, Craigie, Leuchars. + + _Forfarshire_-- + + ALEXANDER GEEKIE, Baldowrie, Coupar-Angus. + DAVID HOOD, Hatton, Glammis. + JAMES ADAMSON, Middle Drums, Brechin. + WM. RUXTON, Farnell, Brechin. + + _Aberdeenshire_-- + + ROBERT WALKER, Portleithen Mains, Aberdeen. + JOHN HUTCHISON, Monyruy, Peterhead. + ROBT. SIMPSON, Cobairdy, Huntly. + WILLIAM HAY, Tillydesk, Ellon. + WILLIAM M'COMBIE, Tillyfour, Aberdeen. + + _Elginshire_-- + + PETER BROWN, Linkwood, Elgin. + + _Kincardineshire_-- + + J. GARLAND, Cairnton. + R. BARCLAY ALLARDYCE, of Ury, Stonehaven. + JAMES FALCONER, Balnakettle, Fettercairn. + + [23] The statistics of Mid-Lothian appear in another page. They are + attested by several of the first farmers in the county. + +We further subjoin extracts from the letters of several of these +gentlemen, containing remarks or suggestions about the statements:-- + + "I was favoured with your letter and enclosure of the 8th inst. + I have gone carefully over the statements of the working of a + farm, and the quantity and value, at present prices, of the + produce--all of which appear to me to be fairly stated. I have + drawn up a statement of the returns of produce of a 400 acre + farm in Mid-Lothian, which, if it meets your approval, you are + at liberty to publish along with the others. The prices of the + grain which I have assumed are in some instances higher than + those of Messrs Dudgeon and Watson; but I think this can be + explained, by the farm being situated in the neighbourhood of + the best market."--(THOMAS SADLER, Norton Mains, Ratho.) + + "I am in receipt of your letter of the 8th current, inclosing + statements by various eminent agriculturists, showing the + difference between times past and to come for farmers. I + perfectly coincide with these gentlemen; and consider their + valuation of produce and price to be average and just: although + we are not at present realising the prices quoted, yet it is + fair that an allowance should be made this year for the full + crop wheat."--(ANDREW HOWDEN, Lawhead, Prestonkirk.) + + "On looking over the statements you handed me of the comparative + value of farm produce, under protection and free-trade prices, + as drawn up by Messrs Watson and Dudgeon, my first impression + was, that they had fixed the protection price of grain too + high; but on taking the average prices of my own sales of the + different kinds of grain, as entered in my corn-book, from crop + 1827 to that of 1845, I find they are not beyond what I have + actually received during that period. The only points in which I + differ from these gentlemen's statements are in the rents fixed + by them for land yielding the crops they mention, which in my + opinion should not be less than 35s. per acre, and £1000 might + be taken from the sum put down as necessary for floating capital + by Mr Watson; and I think, upon an average of years, that £50 + should cover the loss of live stock. These alterations I have + suggested would make no material change in the calculations, + which, in the main particulars, I hold to be perfectly + correct."--(ROBERT NISBET, Lambden, Greenlaw.) + + "I have to acknowledge the receipt of your agricultural + statements, and have carefully examined them, especially Mr + Dudgeon's, as being the one with which I am best acquainted. I + have tested its various items, and have found them generally + correct, and in agreement with my own practical experience. + There is one, however, which I consider too low--viz., the + allowance of barley for seed and servants. Mr Dudgeon, I + believe, uses a drill-sowing machine, and, by that means, will + save about one bushel of seed per acre; but as this mode of + sowing has not come into general use, the following is what is + commonly found necessary-- + + Bushels. + 40 acres, at 3 bushels, 120 + 7 servants, at 18 bushels, 126 + ----246 + + From the general accuracy of the statement, I have no hesitation + in consenting to the use of my name in connexion with + it."--(WILLIAM BROAD, Clifton Hill, Kelso.) + + "Having for several years farmed land in the vicinity of Kelso, + and of a description somewhat similar to that described by Mr + Dudgeon, Spylaw, I beg to say that I agree essentially with the + statement subscribed by him. It exhibits, in my opinion, a fair + estimate of the returns of such a farm when in good condition, + and of the necessary expenses attending the working and keeping + it in good order. In many cases, a much larger sum has been + expended in improvements, but that would probably make no great + difference in the result; for while the occupier would have a + larger sunk capital to draw out of the land, he would probably + have a smaller rent to pay. I may remark, that even where land + has been thoroughly drained, or does not require it, there is + usually a large sum sunk at the commencement of a lease in + liming, for I consider that almost all land in this district + would require to be limed during the currency of a lease, in + order to yield full crops."--(FRED. L. ROY, Nenthorn, Kelso.) + + "I think Mr Dudgeon makes too little allowance for stock and + insurance, (£50.) Mr Watson's allows double, (£100,) which is + low enough. Some of my neighbours here have lost from £200 to + £300 by pleuro-pneumonia upon cattle alone, independent of other + stock. I also think they are both wrong in the average quantity + of grain grown. It may be done upon a farm of good land, in + high condition, but--I mean taking a whole county--it is, I + think, above the mark. For example, 1836, 1837, 1838, 1839, + 1840, 1841, being six years running, with as fine appearance of + wheat as I ever grew, I did not average twenty-six bushels per + acre, weighing 64 lb. to 65 lb. per imperial bushel, in these + six years. I considered my loss equal to 2000 bolls wheat below + a fair crop, all in consequence of the fly."--(JOHN THOMPSON, + Craigie, Leuchars.) + + "I have carefully looked over Mr Watson's statement, and I think + that his calculations are very correct, and agree entirely with + my experience, except in regard to the profits upon stock, + which I think he has rather overrated, as the price of stock is + falling every week. I do not think it necessary, however, to + make out a separate statement."--(DAVID HOOD, Hatton, Glammis.) + + "In reply to yours of the 8th instant, requesting my opinion as + to the accuracy of the statements in your enclosed proof-sheet, + I have to state that, after mature consideration, I generally + concur with the statement drawn by Mr Watson as to the results; + though, I think, that as a deduction of £20 per cent on the + profits of livestock has been made in the free-trade account, a + like percentage should be deducted from the amount stated for + casualties in the charge, thus making the loss under free trade + £20 less. It also appears to me, that both the capital invested, + and the amount received for crop and stock, are considerably + beyond the average of farming capital and proceeds in Strathmore + and the eastern district of Forfarshire; but as the statement is + headed as "under the improved system of agriculture," of course + the amounts must be different, and therefore are acceded to. + + "It may be remarked, that the depreciation of £20 per cent on + the value of livestock, which has taken place this year, ought + only to be deducted from the average of the last ten or twelve + years, as the present prices might be considered equal to what + we had been receiving previously to the opening up the southern + markets. + + "In my own case, the rent is considerably lower than that + assumed, as I occupy a large proportion of unequal, inferior + soil, which I have drained at my own expense; and, in order + to raise the same quantity of grain per acre as mentioned in + the statement, I have hitherto had to pay at least £100 more + for manure than what seems to be allowed for under the title + 'expenses of management.'"--(WILLIAM RUXTON, Farnell, Brechin.) + + "I received yours of the 8th, with the enclosed statements + regarding the prospects of agriculture, and as this was a + ploughing-match day, (the Buchan district,) I deferred writing + you until I should also show it to several experienced farmers + for their opinions, and we all consider the statements as near + as may be correct."--(JOHN HUTCHISON, Monyruy, Peterhead.) + + "I have examined minutely the statements drawn up by Messrs + Watson and Dudgeon, and have compared them with some + calculations that I had previously made myself, and have + no hesitation in allowing my name to be affixed to them as + attesting their accuracy, in so far as my knowledge of the + localities in which they are drawn up leads me to be a judge. + Had I had time, I should have liked to have furnished you with + a similar comparative statement of the difference likely to + be made by free trade in our more northern climate, where we + cannot raise the same quality of grain, and where little or no + wheat is grown, _and I am much afraid it would not have been + so favourable to farmers_ as Messrs Watson and Dudgeon's are. + The average price of what has been sold of this year's crop, + in the counties of Aberdeen and Banff, is not more, I am sure, + than 1s. 8d. per bushel for oats, and 2s. 6d. for bear or + barley."--(ROBERT SIMPSON, Cobairdy, Huntly.) + + "As to the statements of Messrs Watson and Dudgeon, the items + appear to me, on the whole, to be fairly put. My only difficulty + is in regard to the £3000 put down in Mr Watson's statement + as invested capital. I presume, however, he includes in this + draining and lime sunk, machinery, implements, horses, &c.; + and, considering the valuable breed of cattle and sheep on the + Keillor Farm, I would not regard £5000 as at all too large an + estimate for capital of both kinds. As to the considerable + difference in profits shown in Nos. I. and II., that might + be accounted for in many ways. In 500-acre farms, with equal + management and a like rent, greater differences will be induced + by variations in the soil and climate alone. + + "On the presumption above stated, as to what Mr Watson means + by invested capital, I have no difficulty in allowing you to + affix my name, as attesting, to the best of my knowledge, the + substantial accuracy of statements Nos. I. and II."--(WILLIAM + M'COMBIE, Tillyfour, Aberdeen.) + + "I have gone over the respective statements with much care + and anxiety, and have compared the different items entered to + the debit and credit of the farm by both gentlemen with my + own experience in such matters, and, on the whole, I have no + hesitation in pronouncing them as nearly correct as, under + the circumstances, they could be framed. Were I to draw up a + statement of a farm of the like extent in this county, I believe + the result would be still _less favourable_ for the farmer, + because if we have such returns as are stated by Messrs Watson + and Dudgeon, we obtain them by the application to our land of a + larger quantity of foreign manure than those gentlemen seem to + use."--(PETER BROWN, Linkwood, Elgin.) + +Some of the gentlemen to whom we wrote, whilst entirely concurring +in the estimates of Messrs Watson and Dudgeon, have not authorised +us to affix their names. Only three gentlemen, out of nearly fifty, +have refused their assent on the ground of difference of opinion. +The most important objection specified by any of them was, that the +prices of grain assumed in No. II., as having been received before +protection was withdrawn, were _higher_ than those warranted by +the fiars' prices of the county. Such were, however, the actual +prices received in those years by Mr Dudgeon; and the reader is +requested to refer to the extract from Mr Nisbet of Lambden's letter +for a corroboration as to that point. That there should be some +difference of opinion is only natural, when the variations of soil, +climate, and locality are considered; but we think it will generally +be admitted, that the ordeal to which these estimates have been +exposed, without exciting more challenge than we have just noticed, +is a tolerably convincing proof of their general accuracy. + +The receipt of these statements has induced several gentlemen, in +different parts of the country, to draw up further estimates of the +working of farms in their own districts, and these documents we now +proceed to lay before our readers-- + + No. III. + + STATEMENT of INCOME and EXPENDITURE on an Aberdeenshire farm of the + ordinary description, taking the value of produce at an average of + a series of years--say 19--previously to the late alteration of the + law in relation to the importation of corn and cattle.--Extent, + 250 acres. + + ANNUAL EXPENDITURE. + + Rent of a farm of 250 acres imperial, at £1, 1s. per acre, £262 10 0 + Invested capital, £1000--interest at 10 per cent, 100 0 0 + Floating capital, in stock, &c., £1800--interest at 5 per cent, 90 0 0 + Servants' wages, per annum, 129 0 0 + Day-labourers' wages, &c., 15 0 0 + Rye-grass and clover seeds, 20 0 0 + Tradesmen's accounts, 50 0 0 + Public burdens, 15 0 0 + Casual losses of stock, and partial insurance, 40 0 0 + Expenses in driving grain and extraneous manures, in the shape of + tolls, &c., with necessary expenses at markets, 20 0 0 + _________ + Total expenditure, £741 10 0 + + ANNUAL INCOME. + + 250 acres, on the five-course rotation:-- + In oats--80 acres, at 6 qrs. per acre, 480 qrs. + Deduct for seed, 60 qrs. + Do. for horses, meal, &c., 120 " + _______ 180 " + + Oats to be disposed of, 300 qrs. at 21s. = £315 0 0 + + In barley--20 acres, at 5-1/2 qrs. per acre, 110 qrs. + Deduct for seed, malt, &c., 15 " + + Barley to be disposed of, 95 qrs. at 29s. = 137 15 0 + + Realised from cattle fed on 100 acres of grass and + 50 acres of turnips, 400 0 0 + + Total income, ______ 852 15 0 + _________ + Profit--or return for labour, skill, and risk of capital, £111 5 0 + ========= + + INCOME UNDER FREE-TRADE PRICES. + + Oats, 300 quarters, at 14s. per quarter, £210 0 0 + Barley, 95 quarters, at 20s. per quarter, 95 0 0 + And--on the supposition that no reduction of the price of fat cattle + is to take place on account of the free importation of foreign + animals--let us take the receipts from cattle fed on the grass and + turnips as above, viz., 400 0 0 + ________ + Total income under free-trade prices of grain, £705 0 0 + + Brought forward, £705 0 0 + + Expenditure as above, viz., 741 10 0 + + Loss per annum, £36 10 0 + Or, adding former profit, viz. as above, 111 5 0 + + Total loss, on _grain alone_, by free trade, £147 15 0 + ========= + +I consider the above a fair statement of the expenditure and income +on a farm in the lower district of Aberdeenshire, under former and +under present circumstances. It will be observed that no wheat is +grown; but the soil is well adapted for the rearing and feeding +of cattle, and from this source the Aberdeenshire farmer expects +to derive a large proportion of his returns. In the comparison, +reference is had solely to the fall in the price of the kinds of +grain cultivated. Whatever decline in the price of fat cattle may +arise from free trade, will fall heavily on the farmers of this +district; and the reduction of income thus occasioned will, of +course, add to the amount of loss shown above. + + JAMES HAY, + LITTLE YTHSIE, _13th December 1849._ + +Having lately had an opportunity of examining a number of _actual_ +accounts of income and expenditure on various farms, I can confirm +the substantial accuracy and fairness of the above statements, Nos. +I. and II. Mr Hay's statement above, referring to the system of +agriculture with which, in this part of the country, we are most +conversant, may, in my humble opinion, be regarded as fair and just, +and as near the average that a comparison of a number of individual +cases would indicate, as it can be made. + +I am sensible that, in many cases of calculations--more especially +in those in which certain assumptions have to be made--it is quite +possible, even with a show of fairness, to bring out by means of +figures almost any result that may be desired; but it is to be +observed that, in the above statements, the _same_ assumptions +(if they can be regarded as such) are made on both sides of the +comparison, with the exception of the prices at which agricultural +produce is taken; and it is submitted with confidence that these are +neither made higher in the one case, nor lower in the other, than +experience warrants. + + W. HAY, + TILLYDESK, _14th December 1849_. + + No. IV. + + ESTIMATED VALUE, of the produce upon a farm in Roxburghshire of 500 acres, + managed according to the five-shift rotation, thus:-- + + 200 acres of corn crop. + 200 " of grass. + 100 " of turnips. + ____ + 500 + +It is here assumed that there are no local advantages, the whole +green crops being consumed upon the farm by sheep and cattle. + + I. PRODUCE OF CORN CROPS. + Bush. Bush. Bush. + + Oats, 100 acres, at 48, = 4800, off 2400, leaves for sale, 2400 + Wheat, 60 " at 38, = 1980, off 180, " 1800 + Barley, 40 " at 42, = 1680, off 340, " 1340 + + _Average Value during the ten years preceding Crop 1848._ + + 2400 bushels of oats, at 3s., £360 + 1800 " of wheat, at 7s., 630 + 1340 " of barley, at 4s., 268 + ________ 1258 0 0 + + Value of grass and turnips, 800 0 0 + ________ + Total amount of produce sold, £2058 0 0 + + Brought forward, 2058 0 0 + + _Expenses and Rent--_ + Annual charges for wages and tradesmen's bills, &c., £400 0 0 + Public and parish burdens, 45 0 0 + Annual outlay for extra manures, 150 0 0 + £595 0 0 + + Capital sunk upon improvements, £2500, at 10 per cent, 250 0 0 + Value of stock and crop, forming a floating capital of £2000, + at 5 per cent per annum, 100 0 0 + + Insurance of stock against deaths and other casualties, 50 0 0 + ________ 995 0 0 + £1063 0 0 + + Rent, 800 0 0 + ________ + Tenant's profit, £263 0 0 + ======== + + ESTIMATED VALUE of the same amount of produce at the present rate of + prices:-- + + + 2400 bushels of oats, at 2s., £240 0 0 + 1800 " of wheat, at 5s., 450 0 0 + 1340 " of barley, at 2s. 9d., 214 5 0 + ________ £904 5 0 + + Value of grass and turnips, 700 0 0 + ________ + Total amount of produce, £1604 5 0 + Amount of expenses, as above, 995 0 0 + ________ + £609 5 0 + + Rent, 300 0 0 + ________ + Tenant's loss £191 15 0 + ======== + Value of produce by 1st estimate, £2118 0 0 + Do. by 2d do, 1615 10 0 + ________ + Difference, £502 10 0 + ======== + +The total amount of capital invested is £4500, of which £2500 is +sunk upon improvements. According to the first estimate, the annual +return, exclusive of 5 per cent per annum for repayment of the +sum sunk, would be £548, or at the rate of about 12-1/5 per cent. +According to the second estimate, the annual return would be £45, +10s., or at the rate of about 1 per cent per annum upon the same sum. + +I shall be glad to allow my name to be affixed to Mr Dudgeon's +statement, as attesting, in so far as my experience goes, the +accuracy of it. + +My estimates and his very nearly correspond; but as every one has +his own method of making up such statements, I take the liberty of +handing along with it this detail of my own. + +In all, excepting in regard to the value of live stock, or produce +of grass and turnips, we nearly agree; and this difference may be +accounted for, because no part of farm produce varies so much in its +return as that of the live stock. Upon such a farm as that which is +taken as an example, sheep and cattle are not wholly reared upon the +farm, but part are bought in to fatten; hence the returns depend +upon three circumstances,--1st, upon the crops of turnips and grass +being less or more abundant; 2d, upon the price of lean stock; and, +3d, upon the price of fat. While, therefore, the butcher market may +be very high, the feeder may not necessarily be well paid,--and +hence, in making up returns under this head, a correct average is +not easily ascertained; and as there must always be a difference of +opinion among practical men upon this part of the subject, I think, +for publication, Mr Dudgeon's method of stating the returns _in one +sum_ is preferable to giving them in detail. + + JAS. ROBERTON, + LADYRIG, _13th Dec. 1849_. + + No. V. + + STATEMENT of the ANNUAL CHARGE against, and RETURNS from, a 400 imperial + acre Farm in Mid-Lothian--on an average of ten years previous to free + trade in corn and cattle;--with a comparative statement of the Returns + of Produce from the same farm under the present free-trade measures + affecting agriculture. The farm alluded to is managed on the four-course + shift--the whole straw, turnips, and clover being consumed on it, and an + average number of stock fattened. + + Rent of farm, 400 acres at 45s. per acre, £900 0 0 + Interest on sunk and floating capital, 240 0 0 + Expenses of management, wages, tradesmen's accounts, extra + manures, grass and clover seeds, and miscellaneous expenses, 817 0 0 + Casualties in stock, and fire insurance, 40 0 0 + Public and parish burdens, 40 0 0 + __________ + Total yearly charge, £2037 0 0 + + To meet this sum there is the produce of 230 acres corn crop, + 10 acres potatoes, and the profits from live stock as follows:-- + + 100 acres oats, at 48 bushels per imperial acre, 4800 + Less for seed, servants' meal, and horses, 2004 + ____ + Leaving for sale, 2796 at 3s. 3d., £454 7 0 + ____ + + 70 acres wheat, at 32 bushels per acre, 2240 + Less for seed, 220 + ____ + Leaving for sale, 2020 at 7s., 707 0 0 + + 30 acres barley, at 48 bushels per acre, 1440 + ____ + Less for seed, 100 + Leaving for sale, 1340 at 4s., 268 0 0 + ____ + 30 acres beans, at 40 bushels per acre, 1200 + Less for seed, 110 + ____ + Leaving for sale, 1090 at 4s. 6d., 245 5 0 + ____ + + Produce of 10 acres potatoes, after deducting seed, 100 0 0 + Profits from live stock fed upon 60 acres turnips and + 100 acres grass, 550 0 0 + __________ + Total return, £2324 12 0 + _________ 2324 12 0 + Profit, £287 12 0 + + The like quantities of disposable grain, taken at the present prices, + fetch as follows:-- + + 2796 bushels oats, @ 2s. 4d., £326 4 0 + 2020 " wheat, @ 4s. 9d., 479 15 0 + 1340 " barley, @ 3s. 0d., 201 0 0 + 1090 " beans, @ 3s. 3d, 177 12 6 + 10 acres potatoes, 100 0 0 + Add profits from live stock, 550 0 0 + __________ + Total returns £1834 11 6 + + Sum chargeable as above against the farm, £2037 0 0 + __________ + 202 8 6 + + Leaving the farmer short, for rent, capital, and expenses + of management, + 202 8 6 + _________ + Total loss annually incurred, £490 0 6 + ========== + + THOs. SADLER, + NOTRON MAINS, _14th December 1849._ + + No. VI. + +VALUATION of PRODUCE, and EXPENSE of MANAGEMENT of a Farm of + 320 Scots acres, situated within five miles of Edinburgh, on an + average of seven years previous to potato failure in 1846, and + farmed according to the four-shift rotation, the straw being sold + in Edinburgh, and dung bought. The produce is a fair average of + the best-managed farms within five miles of Edinburgh, during the + period from which the average is taken. The prices noted are what + were realised, being about 3s. 6d. per qr. above the average prices + of the county, and the expense of management charged is what was + actually paid. + + Acres. £ _s._ _d._ + + 50 Potatoes, at £17 per acre, 850 0 0 + 30 Turnip, at £16 per do., 480 0 0 + 50 Wheat, 5 qrs. per acre, at 58s. + per qr., 725 0 0 + 30 Barley, 7 do. do., at 34s. do., 357 0 0 + 50 Pasture, let at £4 per Scots + acre, 200 0 0 + 30 Hay, at £7 per do., 210 0 0 + 80 Oats, 7-1/2 qrs. per acre, + at 26s. per qr., 780 0 0 + ___ + 320 + + Produce of straw sold, 450 0 0 + Manure made on the farm from + horses, &c., 80 0 0 + _________ + Value of produce, 4132 0 0 + Expense of management, 4025 17 6 + __________ + Profit, £106 2 6 + _________ + +[We ought, perhaps, to explain that this case is peculiar. It is +that of a first-class farm in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, +attested by men of the same standing as its tenant, and similarly +situated; the average of the produce is very high, and the rent +corresponding. Mr Gibson, the tenant farmer, has taken the details +of the following statement from his books; so that it becomes of +much value, as showing the statistics of farming in the immediate +vicinity of the metropolis of Scotland. In estimating the +productiveness of this farm by the extent of the yield, our English +readers must bear in mind, that it is divided by the Scots and +not the imperial acre as in the other estimates, the former being +one-fifth larger. It will be allowed, on all hands, that the yield +of this farm is extraordinary.] + + Acres. £ _s._ _d._ + + S + e {50 Potatoes, at £2 per Scots acre, 100 0 0 + e {30 Turnip, at 4s. per do, 6 0 0 + d {50 Wheat, 23 qrs. at 60s., 69 0 0 + {30 Barley, 14 qrs. at 35s., 24 10 0 + f {50 Pasture, at 17s. per acre, 42 10 0 + o {30 Hay, at 15s. per do., 22 10 0 + r {80 Oats, at 40 qrs. at 28s., 56 0 0 + ____ + 320 + + 50 acres potatoes, 34 tons per + acre, horse and cow manure + driven from Edinburgh, at + 6s. per ton, 510 0 0 + 30 acres turnip, 30 tons do., at + 4s. per ton, 180 0 0 + Keep of 15 horses, at £28 per + annum, 420 0 0 + Do. of 1 riding horse, do., 28 0 0 + Wages of farm overseer, per + annum, 32 0 0 + Do. 8 ploughmen, at £27 + per do., 216 0 0 + Do. 2 labourers at 10s., + and 1 boy at 5s. per week, 65 0 0 + Outdoor women-workers per + annum, 165 0 0 + Reaping 160 acres corn crop, + at 12s. per acre, 96 0 0 + Wages of extra men securing + crop, 13 0 0 + Cutting 30 acres hay, at 3s. 9d., 5 12 6 + Cutting hedges, and keeping + fences, gates, and houses in + repair, 10 0 0 + Smith work, per annum, 35 0 0 + Carpenter work, do., 22 0 0 + Veterinary surgeon, do., 7 0 0 + Saddler work, do., 17 0 0 + Millwright, engineer, mason, + and slater's accounts, 10 0 0 + Coals for steam-engine, and + steaming and bruising horse + food, 12 0 0 + Annual loss on live and dead + stock, from death and tear + and wear, 90 0 0 + Tolls, custom, and marketing + expenses, 25 0 0 + Insurance, 6 0 0 + Poor-rates and statute-labour, + previous to passing of New + Poor Law, 30 17 0 + Assessed taxes and income tax, 19 18 0 + Interest on £1500 capital, sunk + in permanent improvements, + at 10 per cent, 150 0 0 + Interest on floating capital of + £2000, at 5 per cent, 100 0 0 + Rent of 320 Scots acres, at + £4 10s. per acre, 1440 0 0 + ____ _____ + Expense of management, £4025 17 6 + +VALUATION of PRODUCE and EXPENSES of MANAGEMENT of the same Farm, + for Crop 1849: as the Wheat crop is considered to be the best we + have had in the district since 1835, every allowance is made for + this in estimating the produce. The Oat, Barley, and Bean crops are + under an average, but are charged at average quantities; the prices + noted are what are being realised. In the expense of management full + allowance is made in every item affected by present prices, except + the seed, which is charged as paid for at seed time: had it been + charged at present prices, there would fall to be deducted from + expense of management a sum of £28. + + Acres. + 25 Potatoes, supposing them to + be sound, at £20, 500 0 0 + 35 Turnips, at £14, 490 0 0 + 20 Beans, 5 qrs. per acre, at 26s. + per qr., 130 0 0 + 45 Wheat, 6 qrs. per acre, at 38s. + per qr. 513 0 0 + 35 Barley, 7 qrs. per acre, at 23s. + per qr., 281 15 0 + 50 Pasture, let at £4 per acre, 200 0 0 + 30 Hay, at £5, 10s. per acre, 165 0 0 + 80 Oats, 7-1/2 qrs. per acre, at 18s. + ___ per qr., 540 0 0 + 320 + + Produce of straw, sold, at present + prices, 400 0 0 + Manure made on the Farm, 70 0 0 + _________ + Value of Produce, £3,289 15 0 + Expense of Management, 3,786 14 0 + _________ + Loss, £496 19 0 + Annual Profit previous + to 1846, £106 2 6 + _________ + Loss incurred by difference + of price under free-trade, £603 1 6 + _________ + + + + Acres.[**The prices were not in image so taken from Google books version] + + Seed for + 25 | Potatoes, at £4 per Scots acre, 100 0 0 + 35 | Turnips, at 5s. per acre, 8 15 0 + 20 | Beans, 12-1/2 qrs., at 34s., per qr., price, + | at seed time, 21 5 0 + 45 | Wheat, 20 qrs., at 62s., do., 62 0 0 + 35 | Barley, 17-1/2 qrs., at 33s., do., 28 17 6 + 50 | Pasture, at 14s. per acre, do., 35 0 0 + 30 | Hay, at 12s. do., do., 18 0 0 + 80 | Oats, 40 qrs., at 22s. per qr., do., 44 0 0 + ___ + 320 + + 25 acres potatoes, 30 tons per acre, + horse and cow manure, driven from + Edinburgh, at 5s. per ton, 187 10 0 + 20 acres beans, 20 tons manure per + acre, at 5s. per ton, 100 0 0 + 35 acres turnips, 25 tons do., at 3s. 6d. + per ton, 153 2 6 + Guano and other extra manures applied + to turnip, potato, and other crops, 125 0 0 + Keep of 15 horses, at £22 per annum, 330 0 0 + Keep of 1 riding horse, do., 22 0 0 + Wages of farm overseer, per annum, 30 0 0 + Do. 8 ploughmen, at £25 per do., 200 0 0 + Do. 2 labourers, at 9s. each, and + 1 boy 5s. per week, 59 16 0 + Outdoor women workers, per annum, 165 0 0 + Reaping 160 acres corn crop, at 10s. 6d. + per acre, 84 0 0 + Wages of extra men securing crop, 12 0 0 + Cutting 30 acres hay, at 3s. per acre, 4 10 0 + Cutting hedges, and keeping fences, + gates, and houses in repair, 10 0 0 + Smith work, per annum, 35 0 0 + Carpenter's work, do., 22 0 0 + Veterinary surgeon, do., 7 0 0 + Saddler work, do., 17 0 0 + Millwright, engineer, mason, and + slater's accounts, 10 0 0 + Coals for steam engine, and steaming + and bruising horses' food, 10 0 0 + Annual loss on live and dead stock, + from death and tear and wear, 90 0 0 + Tolls, custom, and marketing expenses, 25 0 0 + Insurance, 6 0 0 + Poor rates and statute labour under + New Poor Law, 54 0 0 + Assessed taxes and income tax, 19 18 0 + Interest on £1500 capital, sunk in + permanent improvements, at 10 per + cent, 150 0 0 + Interest on floating capital of £2000, + at 5 per cent, 100 0 0 + Rent of 320 acres, at £4, 10s. per + acre, 1,440 0 0 + _________ + Expenses of Management, £3,786 14 0 + _________ + + + JOHN GIBSON, + WOOLMET, _18th December 1849._ + + {JOHN FINNIE, Swanston. + Attested by {GEORGE WATSON, Libberton Mains. + {ALEXANDER SCOTT, Craiglockhart. + +Let those who believe that, by high farming, the soil can be +stimulated so as to produce enormously augmented crops, at a large +additional profit, consider the above statistics well. THEY ARE THE +STATISTICS OF THE VERY HIGHEST FARMING IN SCOTLAND. The English +agriculturist has been taunted for his backwardness in not adopting +the improvements of his northern neighbour, who, with a worse +climate, has made the most of the soil. Such has been the language +used by some of the advocates and apologists of free trade, who +are now urging the farmer to lay out more capital in draining and +manures--assuring him that, by doing so, the returns will far exceed +the interest of the outlay. With a fine disregard for the elements +of arithmetic, they insist that low prices can in no way interfere +with his success, and that only exertion and enterprise are wanting +to raise him above the reach of foreign competition. The above +tables exhibit the experiment, worked out to its highest point. In +these cases capital has been liberally expended, energy tasked to +the utmost, and every means, which science can devise or experience +suggest, called into active operation. The farmers of Mid-Lothian, +Berwickshire and Forfarshire may fairly challenge the world in point +of professional attainments. They have done all that man can do, and +here is the reward of their toil. + +Supposing, then, that hereafter the permanent price of wheat +were to be 40s. a quarter; that other cereal produce remained +at corresponding rates; and that the value of live stock did +not diminish--points, upon all of which we are truly more than +sceptical--it will follow that high farming, such as is at present +practised in the best agricultural districts of Scotland, cannot +by possibility be carried on. No possible reduction of rent would +suffice to enable the farmer to continue his competition. Such a +fall must necessarily have the effect of annihilating one of the two +classes; for the landlord, burdened as he is, would cease to draw +the means of maintenance from his estate, and it is questionable +whether the residue would suffice to pay the interest of the +mortgages and preferable burdens. To the people of Scotland this is +the most vital question that has engaged their attention since the +Union. Our national prosperity does not depend upon manufactures +to the same degree as that of England. By far the greater portion +of our wealth arises directly from the soil: by far the larger +number of our population depend upon that for their subsistence. +Even if Manchester statistics were applicable to England, the case +is different here. If the prices of agricultural produce should +continue as low as at present--and we cannot see what chance exists +of their rising, in the face of such a tremendous import--the effect +upon this country must be disastrous. Such prices would reduce +Scotland, at one fell swoop, to the condition of Ireland: paralyse +the home market for manufactures; throw hundreds of thousands out of +employment; lower the revenue; augment the poor-rates; and utterly +disorganise society. And yet what help for it? The farmer cannot +be expected to pay for the privilege of losing several hundreds +per annum by cultivation. Let Mr Watson's statement be examined, +and it will appear that the enterprising and skilful tenant of a +farm of five hundred acres, in the best corn district of Forfar, +cannot clear his expenses unless the rent of the land is reduced +by one-half, and, even if that were done, he could only realise a +profit of sixpence per acre! Such a result, we fairly allow, would +appear, at first sight, to be incredible; yet there it is--vouched +for by men of name, character, and high reputation. This is the +extreme case; but, if we pass to Berwickshire, we shall find that a +reduction of half the rent would barely place the tenant in the same +position which he occupied previous to the withdrawal of protection. +Look at No. IV., and the result will appear worse. Even were one +half of the rent remitted, the profits of the tenants, at present +prices, would be less by £100 than they were at the former rates +of corn. Very nearly the same results will be brought out, if we +calculate the necessary reductions on the rents of the Mid-Lothian +farms. Lord Kinnaird may see in those tables the fate which is +in store for him; and he cannot hope to escape it long, even by +inserting, in his new leases, the most stringent stipulations as +to money payments which legal ingenuity can devise. It is just +possible that "men of business habits," retired shopkeepers, and +others of that class, may be coaxed and persuaded into trying +their hands at a trade of which they know literally nothing. They +may be incautious enough to put their names to covenants, not +conceived according to Mr Caird's liberal principle, and so pledge +their capital for the fulfilment of a bargain which common sense +declares, and experience proves, to be preposterous. The necessary +consequence will be, that the rent must be paid out of capital, +a process which cannot last long; and the unhappy speculator, as +he finds his earnings disappearing, will curse the hour when he +yielded to the delusion, that high farming must be profitable in +spite of the variations of price. The poor seamstress, who weekly +turns out of hand her augmented number of improved shirts--and who +lately, though on exceedingly erroneous principles, has found a +warm advocate in the kind-hearted Mr Sydney Herbert--has, in her +own way, tested the value of the experiment. There is more cotton +to be shaped, and more work to be done, but the prices continue to +fall. She makes two additional shirts, but she receives nothing for +the additional labour, because the remuneration for each is beaten +down. The free-trade tariffs are the cause of her distress, but the +unfortunate creature is not learned in statistics, and therefore +does not understand the source of her present misery. No more, +probably, do the female population of the Orkney islands, whom Sir +Robert Peel reduced to penury some years ago, by a single stroke of +his pen, through the article of straw-plait. From Lerwick to the +Scilly Isles, the poor industrious classes were made the earliest +victims. The tiller of the land is liable to the operation of the +same rules. By the outlay of capital, he forces an additional crop, +but, the value of produce having fallen, his returns, estimated in +money, are just the same as before. If the maintenance of rents +throughout the United Kingdom depends simply upon the supply of +dupes, we are afraid that the Whig landlords will speedily find +themselves in a sorry case. + +We by no means wish to treat this question as if Scotland alone were +concerned. The English agriculturist, who knows that strict economy +is the rule in northern farming, will readily acknowledge that our +observations have even greater force when applied to his own case. +It would have been presumption in us, had we passed beyond the +limits of our own field of illustration, which, however, will bear +comparison with any other. On the whole, we think it will hardly be +questioned, that, if high farming in the Lothians or on the Border +is a losing trade, it cannot be made profitable elsewhere within the +boundaries of Britain. + +We are told that this is a landlord's question; and we find Messrs +Bright and Cobden, with more than their usual malignity, chuckling +over the prospects of the downfall of a class which they honour +with their rancorous hatred. They do not affect to disguise the +pleasure which they derive from knowing that, at this moment, +the rents are being paid from the farmer's capital; and, so far, +they bear important testimony to the truth of the calculations we +have submitted. It is not our business at present to diverge into +ethics, else we might be tempted to hazard a few observations on +the brutal and un-British spirit which pervades the whole of their +late harangues. All that we shall do now is to remark that they are +trying, by every means in their power, to persuade the tenantry of +Britain that this is a mere landlords' question; and we are bound +to confess, that such writers as Lord Kinnaird have materially +contributed towards fostering this delusion. A very little +consideration, however, will show the utter fallacy of such an +opinion; and we feel convinced that the good sense of the tenantry +of Scotland will interfere to prevent them from being led astray by +the devices of their inveterate enemies. + +So far as we can gather from the opinions enunciated by the leaders +of the Manchester school, at their late gatherings, their view +resolves itself into this. Abolish the rents, and agriculture will +go on as before. Little argument is necessary to show, that the +proposition, even were it admitted, is by no means in favour of the +farmer. + +Our excellent contemporary, _The Standard_, has already disposed of +it in a single sentence:--_Wipe off the rents, and you wipe away the +class which heretofore has paid the rents._ Mr Bright would fain +attempt to persuade the farmers that they are altogether independent +of the landlords, and that no suffering can reach them. Have then +the landlords, in most instances, expended nothing on the soil? +Their outlay does not appear in balance sheets, however large may be +its amount; but, were that outlay added to the farmer's expenditure +of capital, there can be no doubt that, even without rent, at +present prices, farming would be otherwise than profitable. But did +it never strike Mr Bright that, failing rents, the landlords must +necessarily take their farms into their own hands, as indeed has +occurred already in several districts of the country? We presume he +does not contemplate a quiet confiscation of estates--if he does, +confiscation will not stop there. We suppose the owner must still +have the option of keeping his property; and if so, as he will +derive no profit from it in the shape of rent, he must either farm +it himself, or act as labourer on wages under a farmer. We apprehend +there can be little doubt as to the course he will take, when +driven to such an extremity. As a body, tenant-farmers will cease +to exist. They may go to Poland if they please, and employ their +practical skill, and such remnant of capital as they can save from +the wreck of their fortunes, in the patriotic task of growing wheat +cheaper than before, for the British manufacturing market; but in +this country there will be no longer any room for them. We shall be +thankful to know if any course more feasible can be suggested; but +indeed ingenuity seems to be at fault, and the Free-traders hardly +affect to conceal their conviction that such must be the result. +The following extract from a leading article in the _Times_ of 6th +December, will show the views entertained by that very influential +journal. + + "If any landowners or tenants are thoroughly persuaded that, + under the operation of free trade, land will yield no rent to + the owner, or no profit to the farmer, let them dispose of their + land or their farms. The whole world lies before them. The + funds, the share-market, trades and manufactures innumerable + and new ones every day, the colonies, the United States, the + Antipodes, Europe, and literally the whole surface of the globe, + is open to the enterprise of wealthy or ingenious men. Those + who regard an English landlord or yeoman as an animal to be + kept in a hothouse will think this very cruel advice, but it is + advice which nine-tenths of our fellow-subjects have to follow, + at least once in their lives. The law of change is impressed on + the whole face of society. Man improves by being transplanted + to new soils, and grafted on new stocks. Why should not the + heroic qualities of our gentry be employed in the improvement + of the world, and in the spread of civilisation, religion, and + manners? Why should not the skill of our farmers be turned to + account in making the whole earth bring forth its full produce? + As it happens, there are no classes actually concerned in the + material and operations of industry who can change their place + with so little difficulty or cost as the owners and cultivators + of the soil. The landowner can sell his estate, and buy another, + or invest the money in the funds, any day he pleases. The tenant + can dispose of his lease and his stock without much sacrifice. + Can an attorney, a physician or surgeon, a beneficed clergyman, + a merchant, a retail shopkeeper, or, indeed, any commercial + or professional person, change his locality ten miles without + sacrificing at least 30 or 50 per cent of his present income? + Yet many such are obliged to migrate, and resign present + income, besides all the other losses involved in a move, in the + mere hope of ultimately improving their condition. As for our + agricultural labourers, who, we are often told, are the staple + of our population, for many years the whole force and pressure + of our social institutions has been applied to compel their + migration. Landlord, tenant, parson, overseer, and even a man's + own fellow-labourers, are all in a conspiracy to elbow him out + of the crowd, and the sooner he yields to that pressure the + better. Why, then, should it be thought a hard thing to give the + same advice to the landowner and the farmer?" + +So write the Free-traders, and we wish them joy of their argument. +Henceforth, then, we ought to abandon all foolish scruples connected +with home, and kindred, and country--all national considerations, +all the ties and common feelings that hitherto have held Englishmen +together! Truly, the cause which requires such advocacy as this must +be in a desperate condition. Such language however, extravagant and +puerile as it is, has some extrinsic value; for it shows us the +utter selfishness and entire disregard of the Free-traders for every +other interest in Britain except their own. + +We shall probably be told that we are alarmists. It is no new charge +against us. The same thing was said when we denounced the policy +of government towards the West Indian interest, and also when we +foreshadowed the commercial crisis which overtook us in 1847. One +exception may be taken to our agricultural views, on the ground +that farms have been let in Scotland without any diminution of +rent. We allow that such is the case. We admit that, even during +the bygone year, there has been considerable competition for farms; +and we know very well that this circumstance has tended to allay +the fears of many. But, after all, what does it prove? Nothing +more, we apprehend, than that the farmer is most reluctant to +abandon the profession to which he has been bred, and in which his +capital is invested; and that, in times of notoriously unsettled +and vacillating legislation, he may be, perhaps, too sanguine as +to the possibility of another change. The fact that some farms, +in various parts of the country, have, of late, brought full and +even higher rents, is not enough to warrant the idea that present +engagements can be met. It does not follow that these will continue +to be paid; nor do the parties themselves, we presume, expect to be +able to fulfil their engagements, if future prices are such as we +have felt constrained to reckon them. We have seen of late, in other +matters, how easily people are deceived by sanguine anticipations; +and it has recently been lamentably proved, that it is often long +before disastrous events produce their due effect in indicating true +value. If, in the less intricate matter of railway speculations, +we have seen men who boasted of their superior information, +involving themselves in the downward course of these unfortunate +concerns, under the idea that the turning-point of depression had +been attained, and that golden profits might be realised, is it +marvellous if the farmer should be deceived in a matter which has +been so much mystified, and which his predilections and peculiar +position, in most instances, will not admit of his viewing calmly +and dispassionately, even if he possessed the means of correct +information? His education and habits compel him to endeavour to +continue his occupation at all hazards. If once he abandon his +calling, he is out of a situation as well as a home. It often +happens, besides, and now it is peculiarly the case, that, to +dispose of his stocking--a necessity incumbent upon the loss of his +farm--is to make a sacrifice of his property. At present, live stock +is from 15 to 20 per cent under what he has been in the habit of +receiving for the last few years. Hence, upon such a vexed question +as the effects of the corn laws, modified and free, have become, it +is only natural that, in his doubt, and darkness, and perplexity, +he should stretch a point to keep possession of his occupation; +trusting that, if matters continue to be adverse, his landlord will +have the like commiseration for him which it is his duty to testify +for his neighbour, who, under other circumstances, is also writhing +beneath the pressure. In such a case, rent becomes altogether a +question of chance, left to be modified and controlled by after +circumstances. + +In this view it is not difficult to understand why farms falling +out of lease have been taken at rates absurdly disproportioned to +the present prices of agricultural produce. Ask any intelligent +farmer, who has placed himself in this position, and he will +frankly confess that he does not expect to be able to pay his rent, +unless some very material change in the value of produce shall take +place. How should he think otherwise? In the better districts of +Scotland, farming has been carried so high that there is hardly any +margin left for improvement. Up to a certain point, the soil may be +artificially stimulated; but, that point once reached, any further +appliances become positively hurtful, and defeat the intentions of +the grower. The flower of our tenantry--the men whose exertions +have made the land what it is--can go but a little way further. +Nor can the severest moralist tax them with a breach of probity +if they should enter into bargains which, under the operation of +the present laws, they cannot possibly fulfil. The legislature +took no account of them when it abolished protection. Parliament +dealt with them more tyrannically than any irresponsible monarch +would have dared to deal with a people far less intelligent and far +less cognisant of their rights. The laws have ceased to be, in the +estimation of the multitude, final. We now consider them, and most +justly, as mere make-shifts which cannot stand against the pressure +of a well-organised agitation; and men speculate on the probability +of their changes, just as gamblers make adventures on the probable +fluctuations of the funds. No man can deny that such is the case. +Free trade is in the ascendant to-day: to-morrow, protection may be +uppermost. A sad state of things truly; but such as must necessarily +occur, when statesmen, whose heads have grown hoary in office, +desert principle to adopt expediency, and repudiate the professions +of a whole lifetime, for the sake of outwitting their political +opponents. Our steadfast conviction is, that unsettled legislation +has tended more than anything else to prevent an immediate +depreciation in the rents. Foster gambling, and you create gamblers. +Farms are now taken on speculation, with the view, not to increased +production of the land, but to further changes in the experimental +policy of the nation. + +But in reality we apprehend that such cases are the exception, +and not the rule. We have heard it trumpeted abroad that certain +farms in East Lothian were let during the course of last year at +an advance. We have taken pains to investigate this matter; and we +find on inquiry that, in some cases, such farms have been taken +by new men of little agricultural experience. Lord Kinnaird may +be glad to hear this, but we cannot view it in the light of an +encouraging symptom. Others, no doubt, have been retaken, probably +under the influence of such considerations as we have just stated. +Again, we find that some farms in the south of Scotland are very +differently situated now, than they were before. The extension of +the railway system has given to such of them as are near stations, +advantages which were enjoyed heretofore by such farms only as were +in the immediate vicinity of large towns; and in this way their +value has been increased. But it is quite evident, that, unless +some extraordinary fallacy lurks in the tables which we have given +above--unless the leading practical agriculturists of Scotland +are either possessed by some monstrous arithmetical delusion, or +banded in some organised conspiracy to mislead the public mind--no +exceptional case can be admitted as of any weight whatever in +determining the general question. On the part of ourselves, and of +our correspondents, we not only invite, but we broadly challenge +investigation. We desire that the truth may be made known, because +any delusion on either side must tend to the public detriment. + +If our statistics should be admitted as correct, we think it must +be clear to demonstration that British agriculture cannot maintain +itself longer against the competition of the foreign grower. We +believe it impossible for any man who has attended to the minute +statements given above, to arrive at an opposite conclusion. No +appliances, no energy, no high farming, can avail in this ruinous +struggle. To expect that more capital will be embarked in so losing +a trade, is perfectly idle. Even if tenants had the wish to do so, +they would fail for the want of means. It will be seen from the +preceding tables what amount of capital is usually perilled on +Scottish farms, and what amount of loss, at present prices, the +farmer must necessarily sustain. Even in better times, few men could +afford to do as much as has already been done by the agriculturists +of the Lothians and Berwickshire; and, under existing circumstances, +the great body of the tenantry cannot find the means to continue +their ordinary operations. With capital exhausted and credit denied +to him, what is the farmer to do? The question is one which we +would fain see answered, and that immediately, by those who have +brought us to the present pass. It cannot remain long unanswered, +without such an augmentation of distress as must render all remedy +ineffectual. + +So far we have spoken for the tenant, who, as an old contracting +party, has been utterly sacrificed by free-trade legislation. As a +new contractor, we have shown that he is placed under circumstances +of peculiar disadvantage, arising from ignorance as to his real +position, his past exertions, and his future prospects. Had we +spoken rashly on this matter, we should have been liable to the +utmost blame; but we have not put forward any one position which +is not based upon facts, laboriously ascertained, and closely +scrutinised; and all these are open to challenge, if any assailant +has the mind, or the power, to refute us. We state nothing which is +not founded on evidence of the clearest kind, and we shall be glad +if our statements can be met in a precisely similar manner. + +We observe that Mr William Ewart Gladstone, in an address delivered +at the late meeting of the Fettercairn Farmers' Club, has taken a +different line of argument; and if his views should prove to be +correct, we must necessarily admit that the British agriculturist +has no ground for complaint at all. We are, it seems, making a vast +deal of noise without anything to justify it. We are clamouring +about an imaginary evil, when we ought to be deeply grateful for +natural benefits vouchsafed to us. So thinks Mr Gladstone, or at +least so he speaks; and as his undeniable talents, and the high +official position which he formerly occupied, entitle him to an +attentive hearing, we shall briefly recapitulate his views. These +are not new, for, if we recollect right, they were enunciated +so early as last spring by the Hon. Sydney Herbert, a gentleman +belonging to the same political section as Mr Gladstone, and they +were then triumphantly refuted by Mr John Ellman, in his letter +addressed to the Duke of Bedford. Since that time, however, another +harvest has intervened, and Mr Gladstone now takes up the argument +of his friend under better auspices, and with a greater show of +plausibility. + +Foreign competition, according to Mr Gladstone, is not the cause +of low prices. "This is not," says he, "the first time that we +have had difficulties. We have had many periods when low prices +prevailed. Certainly, at present, prices are extremely low; but, in +many parts of the country, there is a sort of compensation for these +low prices arising from great abundance--the result of improved +processes of growing the crop, and, of consequence, an improved +yield. With regard to the cause of declining prices, I cannot adopt +the line of argument of those who look only to importations as the +chief cause. I do not pretend to speak so accurately of Scotland, +but, as to England, _the wheat crop this year was the largest ever +known_. Upon one single acre of land, of average quality, no less +than sixty-eight bushels of wheat have been taken from the crop of +this year. I must also point out the fact to you, that, although the +crop is the largest, the prices are by no means the lowest we have +seen--for instance, in the year 1835, when the sliding-scale was in +full operation, we had wheat at 35s. per quarter, _and this not only +for a short time, but for the whole year_. If it be true, therefore, +that, at the present time, we have prices 5s. per quarter higher +than they were in 1835, with a corn-law prohibitory till wheat rose +to 70s. per quarter, then I cannot see that we have any such great +cause for alarm as many imagine." + +The first remark that we shall make with reference to this +statement, is, that it is _utterly incorrect_. We do not know from +what source Mr Gladstone ordinarily draws his figures, but if any +one will consult the official tables of returns for the year 1835, +he will find that the average of wheat was 39s. 4d., and not 35s., +as Mr Gladstone has unwarrantably asserted. We have gone over the +weekly averages for the whole of that year, and we find that wheat +was _never once quoted_ so low as 35s. In a matter of this kind, +accuracy is a cardinal virtue, and we cannot allow such a statement +as this to pass unnoticed. The following are _the lowest_ weekly +and aggregate averages for the whole year, taken from the official +tables, and we have purposely selected these in order that Mr +Gladstone may have the full benefit of the nearest approximation to +his figures. + + LOWEST WEEKLY AND AGGREGATE AVERAGES + THROUGHOUT THE YEAR 1835. + + 1835. Weekly Aggregate + average. average. + _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ + January, 40 1 40 7 + February, 40 4 40 10 + March, 39 8 40 0 + April, 39 3 39 1 + May, 38 6 38 11 + June, 39 8 39 5 + July, 40 5 40 1 + August, 40 4 42 5 + September, 37 7 39 2 + October, 36 11 37 3 + November, 36 7 36 9 + December, 36 0 36 8 + +What, then, are we to think of Mr Gladstone's averment, that, in +1835, we had wheat at 35s., "and this not only for a short time, +but for the whole year?" Not even for the week have we a vestige of +any such quotation! This is blunder the first, and it is so serious +a one, that, on his own showing, it is enough to invalidate the +whole of his argument. IT IS NOT A FACT "that, at the present time, +we have prices 5s. per quarter higher than they were in 1835." The +difference is a fractional part of a shilling; and if Mr. Gladstone +wishes to find a time when the prices were five shillings lower than +at present, he must go back to the year 1779; and, in travelling +towards that period, he will meet with some startling facts in +the financial history of the country, which are well worthy of +observation. In 1779, he will find wheat at 33s. 8d., the produce +of such a harvest that the export of grain exceeded the import by +217,222 quarters. But he will also find that the national debt, at +that period, was just one-fourth of what it now is; and that the +poor-rates of England, instead of touching eight millions, were +considerably short of two. + +Secondly, it is not true that the last wheat crop was the largest +ever known in England. This is a wild and utterly extravagant +assertion. The bygone crop was a good one, less on account of +quality than of gift; but every agriculturist knows that, within +the experience of the present generation, we have had far finer +crops. That of 1815 was enormous in its yield--so great that we +did not import a single quarter of grain, and the average price of +wheat for that year was 63s. 8d. The crop of 1822 was not very much +inferior. These are notorious instances; but in order to ascertain, +with as much precision as possible, the relative quality of the +bygone crop, we submitted the statement of Mr. Gladstone to one of +the most extensive corn-dealers in Leith, and the following is his +reply. "Mr. Gladstone's statement is certainly very unlike that of a +person of his high authority; though I conceive it as calculated to +do much mischief in the present depressed state of the corn-trade, +as many people will judge of it from Mr. Gladstone's high standing. +In my opinion, however, nothing can be more absurd than estimating +a crop by a _yard_ in any field, or by a single acre. We hear now +a great deal of the land being more productive, by draining and +other improvements; and it was to be expected that, when a good +wheat season occurred, we should have more wheat than in previous +years; but, from all the confirmation we have yet obtained, I am by +no means disposed to believe that the last crop is a great one, far +less that it is greater than ever known. The present generation, I +have no doubt, have seen larger crops of wheat than our forefathers; +but I think 1814, 1815, 1822, 1825, 1831, 1832, 1833, 1834, 1835, +1841, and 1842, were better seasons than the last. Essex, and +several other English counties which had bad crops in 1848, have +much greater crops in 1849; but Lincolnshire, and several other very +important counties, have very deficient crops on certain varieties +of soil. All that can be said of the present crop is, that it is +a full one, generally speaking. More of it, I am sure, will yield +under 40 bushels an acre than over 40; and very little, indeed, 60 +or 68, as Mr. Gladstone says a _single_ acre has produced." So much +for the general yield; let us now revert to the seasons which Mr. +Gladstone has selected for comparison. + +The crop of 1835 was not only larger than that of 1849, but it came +to us under circumstances which entirely preclude a comparison +of the years, if prices are to be taken as a criterion. THE CROP +OF 1835 WAS THE LAST OF A SERIES OF FINE ONES. We subjoin the +statistics from 1830, which was a bad season, to 1836, when the +harvest was again unfavourable:-- + + Year. Quarters imported. Average price. + _s._ _d._ + 1830, 1,701,889, 64 3 + 1831, 1,491,631, 66 4 + 1832, 325,435, 58 8 + 1833, 82,346, 52 11 + 1834, 64,653, 46 2 + 1835, 28,483, 39 4 + 1836, 24,826, 48 6 + +It will thus be seen that it was a succession of good harvests +which brought down the prices gradually from 66s. 4d. in 1831, to +39s. 4d. in 1835. Last year we had one good harvest following a +remarkably bad one, and yet Mr Gladstone would attempt to persuade +us that the present reduction of price arises solely from excessive +plenty, as in 1835! If it were so, where would be the room for that +importation, which, during the first eight months of the bygone +year, has more than doubled that of 1848, for the corresponding +period? For his own sake, we are sorry to find Mr Gladstone +resorting to fallacies so exceedingly flimsy and transparent. Surely +he must be aware that the extreme depreciation of price, which is +the cause of agricultural distress, could not by any possibility be +the result of the late harvest--for this unanswerable reason, that, +in the earlier parts of the year, before the corn had shot in the +fields, prices were rapidly dwindling. The deficient crop of 1848 +could not have put prices down--we presume that even Mr Gladstone +will not maintain _that_--and yet, for the week ending April 7, 1849 +we find the averages of England as follows:-- + + AVERAGE PRICES OF GRAIN FOR WEEK ENDING APRIL 7, 1849. + + Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans. Pease + 44s. 5d. 28s. 9d. 16s. 9d. 26s. 5d. 28s. 1d. 29s. 6d. + +So then, after a poor crop in 1848, we find prices lower than they +were in 1834, after a series of fine crops, and we are calmly asked +to adopt the conclusion that a single good crop in 1849 has done +all the mischief! Mr Gladstone might just as well tell us that our +present prices are affected by the crop of 1850, which is now lying +in embryo in the seed. + +But we have not yet done with Mr Gladstone, who goes on to assert +that low prices have nothing to do with importations from abroad. +This position he tries to fortify by rather an ingenious process, as +will be seen from the following extract from his speech:-- + + "Let me point out also that I had the curiosity to obtain an + account of the last month's importations into this country, and, + on comparing the same with those of 1848, the decrease this year + is very remarkable; and, besides, with diminished importations + this year, must be taken into account the fact, that from the + condition of the crop this year, as compared with the last, the + value of our grain is at least 5s. superior to the mere nominal + price. In October, last year, you had good prices for wheat; + in this year, bad. I ask, was this owing to importations from + abroad, or was it not? I give you the result in figures, which + I think will convince you what is the reason of the low prices. + In October 1848, the importation of wheat to this country was + no less than 506,000 quarters; in 1849, it is only 154,000 + quarters. How are we to account for this, but simply from the + great abundance of wheat at home this year, while in 1848 the + supply was somewhat short; and, so far as regards the English + farmer, I consider he is better off this year, with his large + crop and low prices, than he was last, with his small crop and + high prices." + +If anything could make us lose our patience, while dealing with +so momentous a subject, it would be the sight of such statements +as these. Observe how the matter stands. Mr Gladstone is arguing +that importations from abroad do not affect prices here, and, by +way of proof, he gives us the statistics of a single month. He +says--Last October you had good prices and large importations: this +October you have bad prices and diminished importation. _Ergo_, +importations have nothing to do with prices! Is Mr Gladstone +ignorant of the fact, that, for the first eight months of the year +1849, the quantity of grain imported was more than double that of +the preceding season, and that almost every warehouse in our ports +is filled almost to bursting with foreign grain? Is he aware that +this diminished import for October, if extended over the year, would +give an amount greater than was brought in during any famine year +previous to 1839? Let us see how this matter stands, adopting his +very favourable calculations. + + IMPORTS OF WHEAT AND WHEAT FLOUR + IN BAD SEASONS. + + Quarters. + 1810, 1,491,341 + 1817, 1,020,949 + 1818, 1,593,518 + 1829, 1,364,200 + 1830, 1,701,889 + 1838, 1,834,452 + +The October imports, which Mr Gladstone considers as being reduced +in consequence of the good harvest at home, would, if spread over +the year, amount to 1,848,000 quarters--being very little less than +the average amount imported from 1836 to 1840, when we had five +bad or indifferent seasons in succession. Mr Gladstone, however, +we apprehend, leaps too rapidly at his conclusions. He should have +waited until the frost set in, and then, perhaps, he might have been +able to point to a materially diminished importation. We should +like to know how he will dispose of the ascertained statistics for +November. They are as follows:-- + + IMPORTS OF FOREIGN GRAIN INTO UNITED + KINGDOM, FOR NOVEMBER 1849. + + Quarters. + Wheat and wheat flour, 215,134 + Barley and barley meal, 90,304 + Oats and oat meal, 114,311 + Rye and rye meal, 6,201 + Beans, 19,061 + Pease, 22,269 + Indian corn, 46,306 + Buckwheat, 30 + +being equal to 513,615 quarters of all kinds of grain for the month! +These are the diminished importations! But we shall come down +even later, and inquire what sort of proportion the arrivals of +foreign grain bear to those of British growth in the London market, +according to the last accounts. We copy from the _Times_ of December +11:-- + + "CORN EXCHANGE, Monday, _Dec. 10._--Throughout the past week, + there have been good arrivals of wheat, barley, and oats into + this market from abroad, although of wheat the quantity reported + has been less than of other grain. Of English corn of any kind, + (if we except barley,) the total reports are insignificant, and + but a few cargoes of oats from Ireland. The state of the trade, + on the several market days, was languid, and even at lower + prices for barley and oats, buyers were indisposed to get into + stock." + +The following is a statement of the arrivals of grain at London +from the 3d to the 8th of December, which may serve to indicate the +sources from which the population of our vast metropolis is fed; and +we leave Mr Gladstone to reconcile it, as he best can, with his new +theory of importations:-- + + British Foreign + Qrs. Qrs. + Wheat, 4601 19,617 + Barley, 6144 19,842 + Oats, 7370 21,718 + Rye, 514 + Beans, 962 337 + Pease, 1077 6,713 + ____ ____ + 20,154 68,741 + +So then, after the harvesting of "the largest wheat crop ever known +in England," and at the dead season of the year, when the navigation +of the Elbe is closed, the importation of foreign wheat into the +London market exceeds the arrival of English wheat by a ratio of +nearly five to one! And, with such facts before us, we are forbidden +to believe that imports affect prices! We hope, when we next meet Mr +Gladstone, to find him in a more logical humour, and better prepared +with his facts. + +It is not surprising if, in a controversy of this kind, we should +find the Free-traders openly contradicting each other, and very +often themselves, in the advice which they gratuitously offer to the +agriculturist. One section recommends further outlay on the land, +more extended and elaborate tillage, and prophesies in return an +augmented cereal crop. Another totally repudiates this view, but +advises that the loss should be made good by green crops, wider +pastures, and an infinite multiplication of cattle. The former +philanthropists want more grain; the latter insist upon an extended +consumption of butcher meat. The tendency of late legislation has +been in favour of the latter view, and the consequence has been a +depreciation in the value of cattle throughout the kingdom, of at +least from 15 to 20 per cent. The consumer has not yet got the full +benefit of it, but the farmer has incurred the loss; and we know +instances of pasturings on which, for the last two years, not a +single shilling of profit has been realised. The cattle when sent to +market, after being fattened, have brought the same price which was +given for them in their lean and hungry condition. The Free-traders +are very bold about cattle, alleging that, in this respect, there +is nothing to fear from the effects of foreign competition. And +undoubtedly, to a casual observer, this would appear to be one +of the least objectionable parts of their scheme. Still there +is something mysterious in the fact of the great depreciation. +The prices of cattle have fallen, until profit has been nearly +extinguished; and if we exclude altogether the idea of foreign +competition, the necessary conclusion will be, that the supply has +vastly exceeded the demand. This is but poor comfort to those who +are told to look to green crops for their remuneration. But we +think that the subject requires a closer examination than it has +yet received. We are convinced that the depreciation of live stock +is intimately connected with importation, and the result of our +inquiries will show whether we are right or wrong. But first let us +glance at the ascertained effects of importation under the relaxed +tariff. + +The first fruit of the unrestricted trade in live stock--which +exhibited a number that mounted up, for the first five years, at a +rate increasing annually fourfold, until the number of "oxen and +bulls" reached from 1385 in 1843, to 27,831 in 1848--was no doubt +sufficiently alarming. But, judging from the trade of the year +ending 1848, and of the present season, this influx would appear +to have reached its full. Assuming this to be the case--as the +entire number would not, on a rough calculation, furnish more than +a week or ten days' supply of beef to the whole country--perhaps +there is not much reason to apprehend any great depression in +home prices from the influence of the importation of foreign +_live_ stock. Besides, from the tendency of recent improvements in +agriculture--should these fortunately continue in operation--to +increase materially the supplies of beef and mutton, it is possible +that these necessaries could, in future, be afforded at such a +price as to exclude the probability of any great accession to our +importations for many years. + +We believe that the only considerable harm which has resulted from +the importation of live stock, has been the importation of two +very fatal diseases, which have, since then, carried off numbers +of cattle and sheep, and which, like most epidemics, will in all +human probability become permanent. The mortality was so serious, +that Parliament has already passed an act establishing a sort of +conditional quarantine; and it has been calculated by those who are +skilled in such matters, that the number of animals that have died +in consequence, is considerably greater than the whole amount of +the importation. In this way it is easy to reckon the amount of our +losses and our gains. + +But there is a farther importation of butchers' meat in another +shape, which is far more difficult to contend against--namely, that +of "cured beef, bacon, and pork." The importation of these articles +has increased so rapidly and enormously, since the introduction of +free trade--the two latter to upwards of sixfold since 1847--that +the whole together, it may be reckoned, now afford a quantity of +food exceeding in weight four times that of the "oxen and bulls" +imported during the last year. This is a mere beginning, but already +the effects of it have been widely and calamitously felt. It is +not only affecting the graziers, but it is displacing a large and +hitherto flourishing trade, both in Britain and in Ireland; and, if +carried out further, as it clearly will be, not one single rallying +point or chance of escape will be left to the British agriculturist. + +The following is the statement of a Liverpool correspondent, dated +6th December last:-- + +"I enclose you a price-current, with the latest quotations of +American provisions, which are the prices to the wholesale dealers. +In the best qualities of beef and pork, the trade generally get 5s. +to 10s. a package profit, and on an _ordinary_ article a much larger +margin is allowed. + +"American beef is far superior to Irish, and brings more money. The +import of the latter is about 1000 tierces--of the former, 20,000 +tierces. Irish pork stands higher than American, and the finest +quality eastern will sell within 5s. per barrel of Irish. The import +of Irish is about 3000 barrels--of American, 35,000 barrels." + +The following table will show the comparative prices of Irish and +American produce:-- + + +_Comparative Table of Prices of Irish and American Provisions at +Liverpool, in December 1849._ + + Irish. American. + Prime mess beef, per _s._ _s._ _s._ _d._ _s._ + tierce, 304 lbs., 80 to 85 67 6 to 81 + Prime mess pork, per + barrel, 200 lbs., 62 to 66 34 0 to 60 + Mess do., per do., 54 to 60 45 0 to 50 + Bacon, per cwt., 45 to 48 30 0 to 32 + Lard, per do., 38 to -- 33 6 to 34 + +These are figures which may well astound the boldest Free-trader; +for they show that the provision trade is altogether passing from +our hands. To those who regard the welfare of Great Britain, they +furnish additional proof of the headlong rate of our decline. But +we have yet other statements to make, for which, we are certain, no +one was prepared, though the facts they disclose are the necessary +consequence of such comparative prices as we have just given. _We +believe that the British navy, which is victualled by contract, is +at this moment supplied from foreign, and not British produce!_ + +We crave the special attention of the reader to the following letter +from a gentleman residing in Dundee, who stands nearly at the head +of the meat-curing business in Scotland. We have authority to give +his name, if that should be considered necessary. His letter bears +date 12th November 1849:-- + +"In reply to the queries put to me by you, as to the value, &c. +of foreign provisions, I beg leave to hand you a statement of the +difference of price of Scotch and American beef, calculating the +Scotch beef at the present low price of 40s. per cwt., and the +present price of my American prime mess beef at 87s. 6d. per tierce +of 304 lbs., the quality of which is not inferior to the best Scotch +beef. + + Present price of Scotch beef, from + butcher, 40s. per cwt., or for 304 + lbs., £5 8 6 + Price of tierce, 5s. 6d.--expense of + curing, 4s., 0 9 6 + In leakage of weight. 0 7 6 + Allowance of value between necks, + shanks, and prime beef, 0 2 6 + ________ + Present price of one tierce + Scotch beef, £6 8 0 + Present price of my prime + mess American beef, 4 7 6 + ________ + Difference, £2 0 6 + +"By this statement you will see that there is a difference of £2, +Os. 6d. per tierce, or 14s. 9d. per cwt., in favour of the American; +besides, I allow 2-1/2 per cent off for cash, which I hardly think +the butcher does at the above price. Neither am I the importer of +this beef, but purchase at the sales in Liverpool, though a broker; +neither am I an underseller, 87s. 6d., (2-1/2 per cent off,) being +about the general price for such an article in various markets. +Owing to the low price and excellent quality of American beef, +almost every ship from this port, going to the south, takes it in +preference to our home beef; and when in England, last month, we +found there was nothing else used by the English vessels, with the +exception of a little fresh beef, which they take with them when +they go out; and one house in London informed me that they had +supplied the navy with 3080 tierces of American beef. + +"American pork can be purchased at a very low price, but as yet I +have seen none fine, and there are but few of our shipowners that +would take it. There is, however, hardly anything else than American +hams and flitch bacons sold in this and other manufacturing towns; +and although the quality is not fine, still the price is low, and +purchasers are to be found on that account. + +"Hamburg beef and pork are both of a good quality, and sell +generally about 10s. per cwt. below the price of Scotch. I had, +however, an offer of 500 barrels from one of the largest houses in +Hamburg fully 15 per cent below what I can afford to cure Scotch; +it, however, being last year's cure, I did not accept of the offer. + +"There are several houses opened lately in Hamburg, who are curing +a first-rate article in a first-rate style for the London market; +and one of my London correspondents, writing lately, informs me +of a house in London (to which I have sent a great quantity of +pickled pork for the last twenty years,) having opened a curing +establishment in Hamburg for the cure of pickled pork on the Scotch +system. It was doing up nicely, and affecting the market for Scotch +greatly; he adds that, from the price and quality of the article, +it would be a death-blow to the Scotch curers. I may also say that +it looks very like it. Some years ago I was curing about seven tons +a-week for the London market alone, and found plenty of demand; now, +at the present day, I can hardly get clear of two tons a-week, and +that at very low prices--so low, indeed, that we are compelled to +look for other markets in other places; and I am confining myself +principally to prime mess pork among the shipping of this and other +ports. These are facts which I can authenticate, as I have had many +years' experience in the curing both of beef and pork for home and +foreign markets; and you are at perfect liberty to make any use of +this information which you may think proper." + +From this, and other statements of a similar nature which have +reached us, and which we refrain from inserting, solely on account +of the unusual space which our remarks must otherwise occupy, +we entertain no doubt whatever that in the article of meat the +competition is as formidable as in that of grain; and that there is +no limit to the extent of competition, save the ultimate inability +of the burdened British agriculturist to hold his ground against the +untaxed and unreciprocating foreigner. In a very short time, if the +system is not perfected at present, we may expect to see the rations +of the army, the stores of the navy, and the contracts for all large +establishments, supplied from foreign produce. The displacement of +home industry, and the extinguishment of important trades indicated +in the foregoing letter, are perhaps matters of minor importance in +such a revolution as this: nevertheless, they are too serious to be +contemplated without the greatest alarm. + +So stands the agricultural interest at this moment--an interest, be +it observed, in which the prosperity of wellnigh three-fourths of +the population of this mighty empire is concerned. We might say, +with perfect truth, the interest of the whole population; but as +those of the Manchester school deny their identity with the rest of +us, we must exclude them; and they cannot think us ungracious or +illiberal if we assign to them a number of adherents far greater +than we believe they actually possess. These are the effects of +what they call free trade; BUT FREE TRADE IT IS NOT, being simply +the most shameful species of one-sided and partial legislation. The +Manchester men dare not, for their souls, carry out the principle +to its full extent. The agriculturist has a right to demand that +this shall be done; that, exposed as he is to the competition of +the world, and burdened, as he must remain, with debts contracted +ages ago to the profit of the capitalist, and burdens swollen to +their present amount by manufacturing pauperism, no other class +shall be protected from a similar free competition. No plea for +revenue duties to be raised upon customs can be held valid in equity +now. Why should there still exist a protective duty of from ten +to fifteen per cent against foreign manufactures? Why is any one +portion of our consumption to be taxed, whilst another is allowed +to go free? Are we not entitled to demand that the same measure +which has been dealt to us, shall be meted out to every man in Great +Britain and Ireland, let his trade or occupation be what it may? +Are we not entitled to say this much to the manufacturers, who were +foremost in the late movement--You have compelled us to compete +with Poland for grain on equal terms: you therefore must in future +compete with the foreign manufacturer on a similar condition of +equality? Why are we to pay fifteen per cent duty for foreign silk +manufactures; for velvets, gauzes, satins, and suchlike? Why ten +per cent for more than a hundred articles of consumption, including +cotton, woollen, and hair manufactures, lace, gauze, brass, brocade, +stoneware, steel, &c.? Why should we be prohibited from growing, if +we can do it, our own tobacco? Why are Messrs Cobden and Bright, +and their confederates, to nestle under the wing of protection, +whilst the agriculturalist is left utterly bare? Apart from policy, +and simply on the ground of justice, we denounce such infamous +partiality. If, without even the shadow of a coming reciprocity on +the part of foreign nations, we are desired to face competition, let +there be no exceptions whatever. There can be, and there is, no just +medium between entire free trade and equitable protection for all. +The voice of the whole nation will ere long declare that no such +medium shall exist. What enormous amount of benefit have Manchester +manufacturers conferred upon the community at large, that they are +to be bolstered up by customs' duties, whilst the agriculturist is +trodden under foot? What fractional portion of the greatness of this +country has been achieved by the professors of the spinning-jenny +and the billy-roller, who now, in defiance of history and of fact, +would fain persuade us that THEY, forsooth, are the flower of +Britain, the oracles of its wisdom, the regulators of its policy, +the masters of the destiny of mankind? + +It has been the fashion of late, for those gentlemen, to talk as if +the British farmers were infinitely behind the rest of the world in +activity and intelligence. It has been insinuated, that they are +unworthy occupants of an exceedingly fertile soil, the capabilities +of which they have not tested, through indolence and prejudice. Some +such accusation is implied, in all the late stimulating exhortations +to increased exertion; and Lord Kinnaird does not hesitate to +tell us so, almost in as many words. These are, no doubt, recent +discoveries, for it is not long since we were told, by the very +same parties, that the superior agricultural skill of our farmers +was such as to set foreign competition at defiance! That was one of +the principal arguments employed for effecting the repeal of the +corn laws; but now, when the results have proved totally contrary +to anticipation, it is convenient to turn round, and accuse the +farmer of a total want of those very qualities which were assigned +as reasons for the change. The obvious fallacy in the first +proposition, does not make the inconsistency of the second a whit +less monstrous. No wonder if the insult should be bitterly felt by +the agriculturist. + +We are perhaps too apt, at the present moment, to allow the former +promises of the Free-traders to slip out of memory. If we were to +search through the abandoned rubbish of the League, we should find +ample evidence of the gross fraud which was passed upon the country +by the leaders of that nefarious faction. On the 19th December last, +we find Mr Cobden, at Leeds, speaking as follows:--"I have always +contemplated a transition state in this country, when there would +be pinching and suffering in the agricultural class in passing +from a vicious system to a sound one; for you cannot be restored +from bad health to good without going through a process of languor +and suffering. I have always looked forward to that time." If this +statement be true--if Mr Cobden did "always contemplate" such a +state of matters--it would not be difficult to convict him of +something worse than hypocrisy. Three days later, at the memorable +meeting held at Huntingdon, Mr G. Day, one of the speakers, made +the following pithy remarks:--"He would refer, however, to the +magnificent promises which had been held out by Mr Cobden as certain +to be realised by free trade, and to do so he was free to refer to +his letters. 'First, with regard to the landlord, I do not mean to +say that the landlords will not get as good rents with free trade +as they have now with monopoly: No doubt they will get on a great +deal better with free trade. The landlord has nothing to fear.' +Again, he said, 'The landlords will have the same rents with free +trade as they have at present.' In speaking of the tenant-farmers +he said, 'The tenant-farmer will under free trade be an independent +man. I say that the farmer has nothing to fear from competition.' +With regard to the poor, what did this gentleman say? 'There +would be no complaining poor in our streets, no income-tax, no +property-tax, no poor-rates, but all classes would be benefited by +the adoption of free trade.' These were the promises made to them by +a free-trader--the leader of them; and in the _Bread-Tax Circular_, +No. 146, page 255, they would find what he had read to them--Mr +Cobden's own words." + +Does Mr Cobden admit that he wrote this circular? If he does, +perhaps he will be good enough to explain how he reconciles the +views contained in it with his new assertion that he always +contemplated a transition state of suffering for the agricultural +class? We recommend him, for his own sake, to clear this matter up. +Rash averments may be pardoned; but deliberate double-dealing, never. + +"It is cruel," writes one of our correspondents, a practical +farmer of great experience, "that the advocates of the measure, in +their exultation, should pretend not to see that the facts of the +case have revealed a much more alarming aspect to their opponents +than they anticipated; and that even the danger to themselves, +from this cause, does not bring conviction of the falsity of +their views. They affect to blame the farmer for ignorance, want +of skill and enterprise--forgetting that, not long since, he +was wont to be held up as a pattern of all that was superior in +agricultural advancement, and that our island stands conspicuous +among foreigners for its garden cultivation. Still, we are told, +it is want of energy, and of a free application of capital, which +prevents the British farmers from successfully competing with +the Continent: as if overwhelming supplies of foreign corn, and, +consequently, a greatly reduced price, were not sufficient reasons +to oblige the agriculturist to modify the enterprise, and curtail +the expenditure for which he had hitherto been so distinguished. +Such unjust reflections may serve to raise up and maintain a feeling +of prejudice against the farmer, and to bring him into obnoxious +comparison with other arts, where science has fortunately been more +successfully applied; but it is not to be expected, that a hopeless +rivalry, and a low price, are to have the effect of stimulating to +efforts and outlay, beyond what was induced by protection and a +remunerating return. + +"It has been customary to bring the farmer's position into +contrast with that of the manufacturer, who is said to fear no +foreign competition. But is the comparison a just one? The British +manufacturer possesses every advantage and appliance to render his +productions superior, and, consequently, also cheaper. Britain +is the great mart of all the chief staples of new produce. Her +machinery is the best--her fuel is the cheapest. On the other +hand, the farmer here is deficient in _raw material_. He labours +an obstinate soil, for the use of which he pays high; while his +climate--the main element to give security and save expense--is far +inferior to that of his rival." + +Our friend might have gone further; for, if we enter into the +comparison, we shall find that the British farmer has taken more +advantage of his natural position than the British manufacturer. The +true way of arriving at a just conclusion upon this point is, by +contrasting, in the first instance, the natural advantages enjoyed +by either class. + +The motive power of the British manufacturer is derived from coal, +of which he has an unlimited supply: the motive power of the British +farmer is, except to a very small extent, dependent upon animals, +which is infinitely more expensive and tedious; requiring more work +with less command of power. The manufacturer can try any experiment +he pleases, either in the construction of his machinery or in the +texture of his fabric, in the course of a few days or weeks, and +adopt or reject it as best suits his purpose: the farmer cannot +attempt any experiment upon his crops without waiting a whole +year for the result; nor any upon his live stock in less than two +or three years. In the mean time, his expenses and rent go on as +usual. The British manufacturer is not dependent on the climate: +the British farmer is altogether so dependent; the climate of this +country being proverbially uncertain and changeable, and very often +ungenial. We apprehend, therefore, that, as to natural advantages, +the home manufacturer stands on a far more advantageous footing +than the home agriculturist. + +Let us next contrast the state of the two classes abroad. The +foreign manufacturer has few natural advantages. He does not possess +the command of coal for his motive power, but is compelled to erect +his factory on the bank of some stream, without regard, otherwise, +to the convenience of the locality. Iron for machinery is far +more expensive abroad than here; in fact, most of the Continental +machinery is directly exported from Britain. On the other hand, the +foreign farmer has all the advantages of an equable, rich soil, and +of a good and steady climate. + +Now, then, let us see how far the British manufacturer, with all +his natural advantages, has surpassed his foreign rival. Does +he make a _better_ article than the foreigner? Can he beat the +German linen, the Russian duck, the Swiss calico, the Saxon or +Austrian broad-cloth, the porcelains of Dresden and Sèvres, or +the silks, stained papers, and prints of France? If not, where +is his superiority? As to _designs_, it is notorious that he is +infinitely behind the Continent. No doubt he sends ship-loads of +flimsy textures, with flaring colours and incongruous patterns, +to semi-barbarous countries; and he can deluge the markets of the +world with cheap goods, so furbished and tricked out that they sell +from appearance only. But what hold has he of the Continent? He +cannot compete with the manufacturers there in point of _quality_: +if he could make a better article, no Zollvereins or combinations +would be able to keep him out. These remarks apply to the bulk of +our manufactures, which are made for foreign export; and these, +in point of quality, are precisely what we have described them. +There are undoubtedly high class manufacturers here, especially +in the woollen and linen trades, who supply the home market with +high class goods. But how do they stand? _They are protected from +foreign competition._ It is in their favour that the highest import +duties remain; and, were those restrictions removed to-morrow, they +would be undersold in the British market. If any one thinks we are +wrong in this matter, we shall be glad to hear him explain why the +duties remain? It cannot be for _revenue_, since, if the British +manufacturer can beat his foreign rival, without reciprocity, in +the foreign market, it would be an absurdity to suppose the tables +turned, and the foreign manufacturer paying duty solely for the +sake of offering us a worse article in Britain. If not for revenue, +why are the duties continued by statesmen who have declared for +free trade? The answer is clear. _These are protective duties_; +and they are continued for this reason, that, with all his natural +advantages, the British manufacturer is not able to set Continental +competition at defiance. + +Lastly, let us look to the British farmer, in so far as energy +and enterprise are concerned, in contrast with _his_ rival. Here +no detailed statement is necessary. In spite of all natural +disadvantages, the soil of Britain is better tilled than that of +any other country. We ask with a natural pride, greater perhaps +on account of adverse circumstances, whether the husbandry of the +Lothians or of the Border counties can be matched anywhere out of +Britain? Where, on the surface of the globe, are the agriculturists +who have approached our tenantry in the free outlay of capital, +ready intelligence, persevering enterprise, and high professional +skill? And yet these men, admittedly at the head of their craft, are +to be told, forsooth, that they have been indolent and ignorant; and +that retired tradesmen and shopkeepers would make far better farmers +than they! + +Judging from results, then, which of the two classes has best done +its duty to the state? Which of the two has availed itself most of +the advantages which lay within its reach, and done most to overcome +the power of natural disadvantages? We apprehend that, in all +respects, the efforts of the agriculturist have been greater than +those of the manufacturer. If the former is to fall a sacrifice, +let it not at least be said that his indolence provoked his fate. +Out of agriculture manufactures arose; and it is now, we presume, +the intention of our rulers, that the one shall decay, and the +other survive: that the former shall fall unprotected, and the +latter struggle on with the whole monopoly of protection. If so, +the results are clear enough. The manufacturer who the other day +accosted Mr Muntz in the following terms:--"We have eaten up the +West Indian planters, we have eaten the Irish landlords, we have +finished the colonies, and now we are at the farmers; and I don't +know that we won't be eaten ourselves,"--saw plainly the effect of +our legislation. Mr Cobden sees its effect as well; but now, at the +eleventh hour, when the tide is turning against him, he is straining +every nerve to maintain his false position. It is the misfortune of +demagogues, but a great blessing to the rest of mankind, that they +invariably become intoxicated with the first draught of success, +and seldom recover their reason. So is it with Cobden now. His +late rabid harangue at Leeds, in which he ransacked the vocabulary +for terms of abuse to heap upon the landed gentry, was perhaps the +most insolent speech ever uttered in a free nation. Surrounded by +his fetid chimneys, and his squalid dupes, he assumes the tone of +a dictator, holds out threats of annihilation to all who dare to +question his policy, and actually throws the gauntlet of defiance +to the constituencies of the United Kingdom! There is no mistake +at all about the force and significance of his SHALL. Right or +wrong, every man in this empire must walk as Cobden directs him, +else some nondescript vial of unutterable wrath and retribution is +to be poured on his devoted head. These are not the arguments of +a reasonable man, but the ravings of a positive maniac. They will +delude no one, whilst they serve to show the base nature of the +man who utters them. The gladiator of old, blowing sulphur flames +through a hollow nut, and passing himself off for a god, was not +a more rank impostor than this seven times baffled prophet. Is +it not something unparalleled in the annals of assurance to find +this person, himself protected, declaiming against all protection, +save that of his immediate class, and avowing his deliberate +determination to overthrow every institution of the country, if we +shall cease from enriching the Polish magnates at the expense of +the British labourer? Let us see what this man is doing. He, whose +fortunes were notoriously redeemed by the questionable wages of +agitation, is now publicly announcing his intention, if thwarted, +of pursuing a line of conduct which would necessarily result in +the abolition of the monarchy, and the establishment of a republic +in Britain. There is no mistaking the tendency of the hints which +are thrown out by him and his fellows. They abstain, indeed, and +certainly wisely for themselves, from broadly proclaiming their +ends in such language as would bring them within the immediate +grasp of the law. They say nothing about the Crown, for that would +be dangerous; but they resolutely avow their determination, if +possible, to pull down the aristocracy; and they point to the +abolition of the House of Peers as a measure which, at some future +period, may engage their serious attention. Add to this their +perpetual laudation of American institutions, as preferable to +our own--their open and avowed sympathy with the insurgents of +democratic Europe--their bitter and malignant abuse of every one who +has been instrumental in putting down insurrection--their scheme for +abandoning the colonies as worthless appendages, and so breaking up +the integrity of the empire--their proposals, so violently urged +and reiterated, of such a reduction in the army and navy, as would +render both arms of the service utterly inefficient--add all these, +and we shall be at no loss to discover the real aim of this foul and +scandalous confederacy. We are aware that it is somewhat difficult +to define the limits of sedition; still Mr Cobden had better have +a care of his language whilst indulging in such revelations as he +has of late chosen to set forth. It will be no child's-play if he +actually should attempt to put the smallest of his threats into +practice. + +Setting Mr Cobden aside, we have still an observation to make. It +is not a little edifying to contrast the tone assumed at present by +the disciples of the Manchester school with that which they adopted +after the passing of the disastrous measures of 1846. We were then +entreated, in Parliament and out of it, to give the experiment a +fair trial. It was admitted that divers extraordinary occurrences +had intervened to postpone the great advantages to the nation which +must flow from the opening of the ports, yet still we were asked +to believe that the calculations of Mr M'Gregor were perfectly +sound, and that in a little time all would be well. We have +waited, patiently enough, until the last fragment of agricultural +protection has been removed--until it is obvious to every one, save +an exporting and protected manufacturer, that nothing short of +protection can save the landed interest of Great Britain from total +ruin--and until ruin, in its worst shape, has already overtaken +Ireland. And what was it that we waited for? RECIPROCITY; the sole +thing which, by the acknowledgment of the Peel party, could justify +the experiment. RECIPROCITY, which Mr Cobden promised us if we would +only show the example. Now that reciprocity is out of the question, +our antagonists turn round, revile us as fools for adhering to our +original opinions--though the experience of each succeeding year +has attested their accuracy and soundness--and, in the contemptible +cant of the day, denominate their free-trade policy "an accomplished +fact." + +They are right in one sense. It is a fact that this great nation +has suffered itself to be misled by the machinations of a selfish +and unscrupulous faction. It is also a fact, that for a time these +machinations have been successful. But the great fact which now +concerns us is, that the British nation is fully alive to the +imposture; and that being the case, we entertain not the slightest +doubt as to the ultimate issue. + +One word in conclusion to our friends. It is the policy of those +who are against us--and indeed their last desperate chance--to +promote disunion among the ranks of those who draw their subsistence +from the land, and whose welfare depends upon the agricultural +prosperity of Britain. They are trying to set the tenant against +the landlord, the labourer against the farmer; and their efforts +have been assisted, to no inconsiderable extent, by the folly of +weak men, who, in their terror, are attempting, by all the means in +their power, to shelter themselves from the consequences which they +thoroughly foresee. Our policy, as well as our duty, is to maintain +a firm and united front. It would be madness to suppose that among +the three great agricultural classes, there can be any disunion of +interest. Landlord and farmer depend upon each other; the one class +cannot be prostrated without the other falling a victim. And both +of them have a duty to perform to the labourer, which must not be +disregarded. He, as the lowest in the scale, is often the first to +suffer; but woe to our land if the labourer should be trodden under +foot! + +We repeat that we have no fear for the future. We see on all hands +the unmistakeable signs of a mighty reaction, which cannot but +defeat the designs of that grasping faction for whose benefit alone +this ominous experiment has been made. Deeply as we deplore the +misery which has overtaken us, we must regard it as the penalty +incurred for having swerved from the old path by which Britain +attained her greatness--for having listened too readily to the +suggestions of selfish and incompetent men. The experience of +each succeeding month shows the error of the course we have been +pursuing, and demonstrates the necessity of a return. Why should +we fear? England--that noble country which stands pre-eminent +among the nations of the world for its loyalty, enterprise, and +independence--for its regard to sterling worth in the lowest, +as well as the highest sphere--has awakened from its momentary +trance. The voice of the people, before which that of faction must +be silenced, is proclaiming, in clear and articulate language, +that the virtual possession of its free and unviolated soil shall +not be yielded, through fraud, to the foreigner, who never could +have taken possession of it by force of arms; and that the English +yeomanry will not submit to be sacrificed or annihilated for the +wretched interest of a handful of manufacturers, whose gains are +dependent upon the extension of a foreign market. We rejoice to see +that the men of England are up and doing. Their energy, if rightly +directed, nothing can withstand. Cobden may bluster, as demagogues +always do; and Bright may insinuate revolutions which he has +neither the courage nor the power to attempt; but the day for such +trashy vapouring has gone by, and England will no longer allow her +greatness to be perilled at the bidding of such miserable upstarts. +The issue of the late elections, and the triumphant meetings which +are everywhere held in England, for the maintenance of her national +and agricultural prosperity, should excite us to similar efforts. If +our statements of what is occurring here can strengthen the hands of +our brethren in the south, we shall be more than amply repaid for +the pains we have expended in a close and laborious investigation. +England may not require support; but support is ready for her. +Ireland, from the depths of present misery, sees the hand which +is striving to keep her down, and prepares herself for another +struggle. Scotland will not remain inactive. Her interest is so +clear, that it would be almost wasting words to attempt to explain +it further. Let but this experiment go on for a few years longer, +and all that we have gained, by more than a century of unremitting +toil, will be lost to us: our improvements will be annihilated, and +our people pauperised. Deprived of her yeomanry, as noble a body +of men as exists upon the face of the earth, the nationality of +Scotland is gone. We trust, then, that in every part of the country +the appeal will be energetically answered. Scotsmen are slow to +move; but being moved, they have a will and resolution that can +bear down any obstacle whatever. There never was a time when the +old national spirit was more imperatively required to show itself +than now. Let us then speak out boldly in defence of our country, +and tell those Manchester conspirators, in answer to their insolent +challenge, that--beyond that circle of smoking factories, which they +falsely imagine to be the heart of Britain--there exists a majority +of loyal British subjects, who despise their dictation, detest their +hypocrisy, and utterly defy their power. + + +_Printed by William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh._ + + * * * * * + +Transcriber's note: + +The transcriber has inserted missing anchors for the following: + + Footnote 5: AMERICAN ADVENTURE.[5] + + Footnote 9: HOWARD.[9] + + Footnote 17: Cospatrick's stronghold of Dunbar[17] + +Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. +Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as +printed. + +Mismatched quotes are not fixed if it's not sufficiently clear where +the missing quote should be placed. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, Volume +67, No. 411, January 1850, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44332 *** |