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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44175 ***
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.              |
+  | Passages in bold are indicated by #bold#.                    |
+  | Superscript text is preceded by a caret, like N^o.           |
+  | Small-caps text has been converted to UPPERCASE.             |
+  | Changes in the text are listed at the end of the book.       |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SURVEYING STEAMER _FATHOMER_ IN MANILA BAY.
+
+  (_Frontispiece_)
+]
+
+
+
+
+                            NAUTICAL CHARTS
+
+                                  BY
+
+                          G. R. PUTNAM, M.S.
+
+           MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
+                 DIRECTOR OF COAST SURVEYS, PHILIPPINE
+                         ISLANDS, 1900 TO 1906
+
+                             _FIRST EDITION_
+                             FIRST THOUSAND
+
+                                NEW YORK
+                           JOHN WILEY & SONS
+                    LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
+                                  1908
+
+
+                             COPYRIGHT, 1908,
+                                   BY
+                              G. R. PUTNAM
+
+
+                             Stanhope Press
+
+                          F. H. GILSON COMPANY
+                             BOSTON, U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In preparing the material for a lecture on Charts for Columbia
+University, the writer was impressed with the fact that although
+nautical charts are mentioned or discussed in many publications, there
+was not found any one which covered the general subject of their origin,
+construction, and use. In the countries of the world more than a million
+copies of such charts are now issued annually. A considerable portion of
+the human race is interested directly or indirectly, whether as mariners
+or passengers or shippers, in navigation upon the sea. Aside from
+supplying a handbook for those who might have a general interest in the
+subject, it was thought that a discussion of charts might lead to
+further consideration of the principles governing their construction.
+
+This paper has intentionally been made as non-technical as seemed
+feasible in treating a somewhat technical subject. The writer is
+indebted to the Coast and Geodetic Survey for various illustrative
+material from its archives, and to a number of authors for facts or
+suggestions. A list is appended of books and papers which have been
+freely consulted, bearing on this and related subjects.
+
+  G. R. P.
+
+  WASHINGTON, D.C., _May 24, 1908_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                        PAGE
+
+  LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTICAL CHARTS
+  AND RELATED SUBJECTS                                   vii
+
+  CHARTS AND MAPS                                          1
+
+  COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS                    31
+
+  PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS                   67
+
+  PUBLICATION OF CHARTS                                   84
+
+  CORRECTION OF CHARTS                                    97
+
+  READING AND USING CHARTS                               112
+
+  USE OF CHARTS IN NAVIGATION                            124
+
+  PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL CHARTS             154
+
+  INDEX                                                  161
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTICAL CHARTS AND RELATED SUBJECTS
+
+
+    Periplus, an Essay on the Early History of Charts, and Sailing
+    Directions. A. E. Nordenskiöld, Stockholm, 1897.
+
+    Maps, their Uses and Construction. G. James Morrison, London,
+    1902.
+
+    Charts and Chart Making. Lieut. John E. Pillsbury, U.S.N., in
+    _Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute, 1884_.
+
+    Principal Facts relating to the Earth's Magnetism. L. A. Bauer, in
+    U. S. Magnetic Declination Tables, Coast and Geodetic Survey,
+    1903.
+
+    Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Coasts of the World. G. W.
+    Littlehales, in Report of the Eighth International Geographic
+    Congress, 1904.
+
+    Smithsonian Geographical Tables. R. S. Woodward, Washington, 1906.
+
+    Admiralty Charts, Abridged list of. Published by J. D. Potter,
+    London, 1907.
+
+    Military Topography. Capt. C. B. Hagadorn, U.S.A., West Point,
+    1907.
+
+    Service Hydrographique de la Marine, Paris, 1900.
+
+    A Manual of Conventional Symbols in Use on Official Charts. United
+    States Hydrographic Office, Gustave Herrle, 1903.
+
+    Hydrographical Surveying. Admiral W. J. L. Wharton, London, 1898.
+
+    On the Correction of Charts, Light Lists, and Sailing Directions.
+    Published by J. D. Potter, London, 1904.
+
+    Notes Relative to the Use of Charts. D. B. Wainwright, Coast and
+    Geodetic Survey, 1900.
+
+    The Law relating to Charts and Sailing Directions. H. Stuart
+    Moore, London, 1904.
+
+    Notes bearing on the Navigation of H. M. Ships. Hydrographic
+    Office, London, 1900.
+
+    The Relations of Harbors to Modern Shipping. W. H. Wheeler, in
+    _Engineering News_, September 6, 1906, New York.
+
+    Wrinkles in Practical Navigation. Capt. S. T. S. Lecky, London,
+    1899.
+
+    Navigation and Compass Deviations. Commander W. C. P. Muir,
+    U.S.N., Annapolis, 1906.
+
+    The Practice of Navigation. Henry Raper, London, 1898.
+
+    Lehrbuch der Navigation. Reichs-Marine-Amt, Berlin, 1906.
+
+    _The Nautical Magazine_, London.
+
+    Dangers and Ice in the North Atlantic Ocean. Bureau of Navigation,
+    U. S. Navy Department, 1868.
+
+    Reported Dangers in the North Pacific Ocean. U. S. Hydrographic
+    Office, 1871.
+
+    Pacific Islands, Vol. III, chapter on "Vigias." British
+    Hydrographic Office, London, 1900.
+
+    Harriman Alaska Expedition, Vol. II, Bogoslof, our Newest Volcano,
+    by C. Hart Merriam, New York, 1901.
+
+    Expedition to the Aleutian Islands, 1907. T. A. Jaggar, Jr., in
+    _The Technology Review_, 1907, Boston.
+
+    Recent Changes in Level in the Yakutat Bay Region, Alaska, by R.
+    S. Tarr and Lawrence Martin, in Bulletin of the American
+    Geological Society, 1906.
+
+    An Index to the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. W. T. Brigham,
+    Honolulu, 1900.
+
+    Geography, articles by C. R. Markham, A. R. Clarke, and H. R. Mill
+    in Encyclopædia Britannica.
+
+    Development in Dimensions of vessels, Elmer L. Corthell, Tenth
+    International Navigation Congress, 1905.
+
+
+
+
+NAUTICAL CHARTS
+
+
+
+
+CHARTS AND MAPS
+
+
+#Need of maps.# Maps are useful and necessary for many purposes. Only by
+means of a correct map or globe can a clear idea of the geography of a
+region be given. An attempt to convey the same information by a written
+description would in comparison be both cumbersome and obscure. Even by
+passing over an extensive region a man unaided by instruments will
+obtain only a rather crude notion of the relations, which he could
+clearly see on a good map. The importance among the human arts of the
+making of maps is indicated by the references to them in very early
+historical records, and by the skill in map drawing shown by some of
+the primitive peoples of to-day. This skill exists particularly among
+races whose mode of life gives them a wide horizon, as for instance the
+Eskimos. An interesting instance of this was the case of Joe, an Eskimo
+guide, who, in 1898, before the surveys of the Yukon delta were made,
+drew a map of the Yukon mouths with much more complete information than
+any previously available.
+
+Without attempting to enumerate in detail the special uses for maps, in
+the broader sense they may be said to be essential for commercial,
+engineering, military, scientific, educational, and political purposes.
+
+#Early geography and map making.# The oldest map known is a plan of gold
+mines in Nubia, drawn on a papyrus. This is of the thirteenth century
+B.C., and was found in Egypt.
+
+In the earliest historic times men believed the earth to be a flat
+surface of nearly circular outline, a natural inference for those with
+limited outlook and communication. Later the idea was introduced of the
+ocean as a river bounding the earth disk. The spherical theory of the
+earth was, however, early accepted by learned men, and was demonstrated
+by Aristotle (384 to 322 B.C.), who used as proofs the earth's shadow on
+the moon, and the change in the visibility of the stars in traveling
+north or south. Crates constructed a terrestrial globe in the second
+century B.C.
+
+There is no Greek or Latin map extant of earlier date than the time of
+Ptolemy, but there are references showing that maps were in use. One of
+the first of such passages in Greek literature is the interesting
+comment of Herodotus written in the fifth century B.C., "but I laugh
+when I see many who already have drawn the circuits of the earth,
+without any right understanding thereof. Thus they draw Oceanus flowing
+round the earth, which is circular, as though turned by a lathe, and
+they make Asia equal to Europe."
+
+A map of the world was drawn by Anaximander, 560 B.C. A hundred years
+later Democritus drew a map having an oblong shape, and taught that the
+width of the world from east to west was one and a half times its extent
+from north to south, a conclusion based on his travels eastward as far
+as India. This theory, which was for a time accepted, has left an
+enduring mark in the words _longitude_ and _latitude_, originally
+signifying the length and the breadth of the earth.
+
+The first application of astronomy to geography was made by Pytheas, who
+about 326 B.C. obtained the latitude of Marseilles by an observation of
+the altitude of the sun. Dicearchus in 310 B.C. determined the first
+parallel of latitude by noting places where on the same day the sun cast
+shadows of equal length from pillars of equal height. Eratosthenes (276
+to 196 B.C.) was the first to compute the circumference of the earth
+from observations of the altitude of the sun at Alexandria and at Syene
+in Upper Egypt and an estimation of the distance between these two
+places. Ptolemy, a Greek of Alexandria, in the years from 127 to 151
+A.D. wrote extensively on geographic subjects, and collected into
+systematic form all geographic knowledge then existing; he was the
+greatest geographer of early history.
+
+In the ten centuries which followed, part of the early advance in this
+science was obscured, and the theory that the earth was a flat disk
+surrounded by the sea again became prevalent. The voyages of discovery
+of the middle ages, however, led to a rapid development of geographic
+knowledge.
+
+The flattening of the spherical earth was not suspected until in 1672 a
+clock regulated to beat seconds at Paris, when taken to Cayenne near the
+equator was found to lose two and one-half minutes a day. Newton proved
+that this was due to the fact that the earth is an oblate spheroid. In
+1735 accurate measurements were undertaken to determine the size and
+shape of the earth. The equatorial diameter has been found to be 7926.6
+miles and the polar diameter 7899.6 miles, the difference, or 27
+statute miles, being the amount of the flattening at the poles.
+
+#The first sailing directions.# The early Greek and Roman writers do not
+allude to charts or maps intended especially for the use of seafarers.
+There are, however, extant several peripli or descriptions of the coast.
+Some of these appear certainly to have been intended for use as nautical
+guides, corresponding to the modern sailing directions. It is probable
+that they were explanatory of or accompanied by coast charts, now lost.
+They are of interest therefore as being probably the first compilations
+for the guidance of seamen. One of the earliest, written apparently in
+the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., is entitled "Scylax of Caryanda,
+his circumnavigation of the sea of the inhabited part of Europe and Asia
+and Libya." It contains a systematic description of the coasts of the
+Mediterranean, Black Sea, and part of the west coast of Africa. The
+following are some extracts which indicate the character of the work. It
+is to be noted that no bearings are given, and that distances are
+usually stated by day's sail: Africa is referred to as Libya.
+
+"Europe. I shall begin from the Pillars of Hercules in Europe and
+continue to the Pillars of Hercules in Libya, and as far as the land of
+the great Ethiopians. The Pillars of Hercules are opposite each other,
+and are distant from each other by one day's sail.... From Thonis the
+voyage to Pharos, a desert island (good harborage but no drinking
+water), is 150 stadia. In Pharos are many harbors. But ships water at
+the Marian mere, for it is drinkable.... From Chersonesus is one day's
+sail; but from Naustathmus to the harbor of Cyrene, 100 stadia. But from
+the harbor to Cyrene, 80 stadia; for Cyrene is inland. These harbors are
+always fit for putting into. And there are other refuges at little
+islands, and anchorages and many beaches, in the district between....
+After the isthmus is Carthage, a city of the Phœnicians, and a harbor.
+Sailing along from Hermæa it is half a day to Carthage. There are
+islands off the Hermæan cape, Pontia island and Cosyrus. From Hermæa to
+Cosyrus is a day's sail. Beyond the Hermæan cape, towards the rising
+sun, are three islands belonging to this shore, inhabited by
+Carthaginians; the city and harbor of Melite, the city of Gaulus, and
+Lampas; this has two or three towers.... The sailing along Libya from
+the Canopic mouth in Egypt to the Pillars of Hercules ... takes 74 days
+if one coast round the bays.... From the cape of Hermæa extend great
+reefs, that is, from Libya towards Europe, not rising above the sea; it
+washes over them at times.... From Thymiateria one sails to cape
+Soloes, which juts far into the sea. But all this district of Libya is
+very famous and very sacred.... This whole coasting from the Pillars of
+Hercules to Cerne Island takes twelve days. The parts beyond the isle of
+Cerne are no longer navigable because of shoals, mud, and sea-weed. This
+sea-weed has the width of a palm, and is sharp towards the points, so as
+to prick."
+
+That there were many other similar writings in the following centuries
+is shown by the following quotation from Marcianus, in a preface to
+sailing directions written in the fifth century A.D.: "This I write
+after having gone through many sailing directions, and spent much time
+on their examination. For it behooves all who are men of education, to
+scrutinise such attempts at learning in this subject, so as neither
+rashly to believe the things that are said, nor incredulously to set
+their private opinions against the careful decisions of others."
+
+The oldest extant sailing directions of the middle ages bear date 1306
+to 1320.
+
+#Development of chart making.# The application of the compass to
+nautical use in the twelfth century A.D. had a marked effect in
+encouraging voyages of exploration, and therefore indirectly on chart
+making. The following, written toward the close of the twelfth century,
+is the first known mention of the use of the compass in Europe: "The
+sailors, moreover, as they sail over the sea, when in cloudy weather
+they cannot longer profit by the light of the sun, or when the world is
+wrapped in the darkness of the shades of night, and they are ignorant to
+what part of the horizon the prow is directed, place the needle over the
+magnet, which is whirled round in a circle, until, when the motion
+ceases, the point of it (the needle) looks to the north." The nautical
+compass of that time appears to have consisted of a magnetized needle,
+floated in a vessel of water by a cork or reed, and having no index nor
+compass card. Peregrinus in 1269 made notable improvements in the
+compass, including a pivot suspension for the needle, a graduation, a
+lubber line, and an azimuth bar for sighting on the sun or other object.
+
+Nautical charts are known to have been in use since the thirteenth
+century A.D., but the earliest extant of which the date can be fixed is
+Vesconte's loxodromic chart of 1311.
+
+The loxodromic charts first appeared in Italy, and were so called from
+the fact that they were crossed by loxodromes (or rhumb lines) radiating
+from a number of crossing points distributed regularly over the map.
+Compass roses carefully drawn were later added at these crossing points,
+the first appearing on a chart of 1375. The earliest known mention
+of the variation of the compass from true north was on the first voyage
+of Columbus, who discovered this important fact in 1492, and as a
+consequence his "seamen were terrified and dismayed." Before that time
+it was assumed in Europe that the compass pointed "true to the north
+pole." The apparent failure to detect the variation earlier was
+doubtless to some extent due to its small amount at that time along the
+Mediterranean. The earlier charts showed both lines and compass roses
+apparently oriented with the true meridian, though there is some
+evidence to indicate that they were actually oriented with the magnetic
+meridian, the designer not recognizing any difference. The variation of
+the compass was first marked on a map in 1532 and on a printed chart in
+1595, but the placing of magnetic compasses on charts did not become
+customary until about fifty years ago. These early charts were drawn on
+parchment, using bright colors. They were copied by hand, one from
+another, with gradual variations. They had no projections, and the
+draftsmen evidently had no idea of the sphericity of the earth. Islands
+and points were usually exaggerated; shallows were indicated, but no
+soundings; no information was given as to the interior of the countries;
+a scale of distances was nearly always provided.
+
+Charts were first printed about 1477, and are known to have been
+engraved on copper by 1560.
+
+The maps of Ptolemy were ruled with degree lines, but no chart was so
+provided until 1427; by 1500, however, most charts were graduated.
+Before this date it is not known on what projection the charts were
+constructed. On the first graduated charts the degree lines were
+equidistant parallel straight lines cutting each other at right angles
+and thus dividing the chart into equal squares or rectangles. These were
+known as "plain charts." This square projection had little to commend it
+save simplicity of construction, as in higher latitudes it gave neither
+directions nor distances correctly. The difficulties of its use in
+navigation were early recognized, and nautical works contained chapters
+on "sailing by the plain chart, and the uncertainties thereof."
+
+The example of early chart making shown in Fig. 2 is of great interest
+as being the earliest extant chart which includes America. This chart
+was drawn on ox-hide in 1500 by Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied
+Columbus on his first voyage as master of his flagship, and on his
+second voyage as cartographer. The chart, of which only a portion is
+shown here, purports to cover the entire world; it joins Asia and
+America as one continent, the Pacific Ocean being then still unknown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN,]
+
+Gerhard Krämer, a Flemish map-maker, better known by his Latin name of
+Mercator, in 1569 published his famous Universal Map. In this map the
+meridians and parallels were still straight lines intersecting at right
+angles, but the distances between the parallels were increased with
+increasing latitude in such proportion that a rhumb line, or line
+cutting the meridians at a constant angle, would appear on the map as a
+straight line. Mercator never explained the construction of his chart,
+and as the above condition was not accurately carried out, it is thought
+that the chart was drawn by comparing a terrestrial globe with a "plain
+chart." After examination of a mercator chart in 1590, Edward Wright
+developed the correct principles on which such a chart should be
+constructed, and published in 1599 his treatise "The Correction of
+Certain Errors in Navigation." It took nearly a century to bring this
+chart into use, and even in the middle of the eighteenth century
+nautical writers complain that "some prefer the plain chart."
+
+[Illustration: BY JUAN DE LA COSA, 1500. EARLIEST EXTANT CHART SHOWING
+AMERICA.]
+
+The Arcano del Mare, 1646, was the first marine atlas in which all the
+maps were drawn on the mercator projection.
+
+In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries charts and
+sailing directions were often bound together in large volumes. These
+usually had quaint titles, not overburdened with modesty, of which the
+following is an example: "The Lightning Columne, or Sea-Mirrour,
+containing the Sea-Coasts of the Northern, Eastern, and Western
+Navigation. Setting forth in divers necessaire Sea-Cards, all the Ports,
+Rivers, Bayes, Roads, Depths, and Sands. Very curiously placed on its
+due Polus height furnished. With the Discoveries of the chief Countries
+and on what Cours and Distance they lay one from another. Never there to
+fore so Clearly laid open, and here and there very diligently bettered
+and augmented for the use of all Seamen. As also the situation of the
+Northerly Countries, as Islands, the Strate Davids, the Isle of Jan
+Mayen, Bears Island, Old Greenland, Spitsbergen and Nova Zembla.
+Adorneth with many Sea-Cards and Discoveries. Gathered out of the
+Experiences and practice of divers Pilots and Lovers of the famous Art
+of Navigation. Where unto is added a brief Instruction of the Art of
+Navigation, together with New Tables of the Sun's Declination, with a
+new Almanach. At Amsterdam. Printed by Casparus Loots-Man, Bookseller in
+the Loots-Man, upon the Water. Anno 1697. With Previlege for fiftheen
+years."
+
+In 1633 a cartographer was appointed to the States-General of Holland,
+and it was his duty to correct the charts from the ships' logs. The
+Dutch at an early date made important progress in publishing charts. In
+1720 there was established in Paris by order of the king, a central
+chart office ("dépôt des cartes et plans, journaux et mémoires
+concernant la navigation"), and in 1737 the first charts were published
+by this office. Detailed surveys of the coast of France were commenced
+in 1816.
+
+In 1740 "the commissioners for the discovery of longitude at sea" were
+authorized by Parliament to expend money on the survey of the coasts of
+Great Britain, this commission having been created in 1713. Various
+rewards were offered by this commission, including one of £10,000, for
+the discovery of a method of determining the longitude within 60 miles,
+an interesting side light on the uncertainties of navigation at that
+time. Compensated timepieces, which have been so important a factor in
+improving navigation, were invented by Harrison about 1761.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. LOXODROMIC CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN, 1565. A
+PLAIN CHART WITH LATITUDE DEGREES OF EQUAL LENGTH.]
+
+In 1795, by an Order in Council, a Hydrographical Office was established
+in London, "to take charge and custody of such plans and charts as then
+were, or should thereafter be, deposited in the Admiralty, and to select
+and compile such information as might appear to be requisite for the
+purpose of improving navigation." This office had at first one assistant
+and one draftsman. Before that time many charts of a private or
+semiofficial character had been published; the catalogue of the East
+India Company in 1786 included 347 charts.
+
+In 1807 the Congress of the United States authorized the President "to
+cause a survey to be taken of the coasts of the United States, in which
+shall be designated the islands and shoals, with the roads or places of
+anchorage, within twenty leagues of any part of the shores of the United
+States; and also the respective courses and distances between the
+principal capes, or headlands, together with such other matters as he
+may deem proper for completing an accurate chart of every part of the
+coasts within the extent aforesaid." This law was the origin of the
+present United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, now under the
+Department of Commerce and Labor.
+
+In 1841 a systematic survey of the Great Lakes was commenced; this is
+the Survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes, briefly known as the
+Lake Survey, conducted under the Corps of Engineers.
+
+In 1866 the United States Hydrographic Office was established under the
+Navy Department "for the improvement of the means for navigating safely
+the vessels of the Navy, and of the mercantile marine, by providing
+under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, accurate and cheap
+nautical charts, sailing directions, navigators, and manuals of
+instructions for the use of all vessels of the United States, and for
+the benefit and use of navigation generally."
+
+#Systematic surveying and chart making# date back little more than a
+century, and most of the information shown on modern charts has been
+gathered in that time. At present all the principal maritime nations of
+the world have made, or are extending, careful surveys of their own
+coasts.
+
+Several of the countries have added valuable contributions in the
+examination of other regions and oceanic areas beyond their borders. The
+maritime and colonial interests of Great Britain impelled that nation to
+carry on extensive surveys along coasts whose inhabitants were not
+prepared to do this work in the earlier days; the British have made
+surveys along the coasts of Asia and Africa and a part of South America,
+and the resulting charts have been a very important and not sufficiently
+known contribution to commercial intercourse among the nations, as well
+as to geography.
+
+The Dutch, French, Spanish, and other European governments have made
+nautical surveys in various parts of the world, largely in connection
+with their own colonies, and in recent years much useful work has been
+done by vessels of the German government. The United States has also
+beyond its own territory made valuable additions to hydrographic
+knowledge in the work of officers of the Navy in a number of oceanic
+exploring expeditions, and surveys on the coasts of Mexico and in the
+West Indies, and in the explorations of Fish Commission vessels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. EARLY CHART OF NEW YORK HARBOR, 1737.]
+
+#Extension of maritime surveys.# Of the total area of the earth's
+surface, 51,886,000 square miles is land and 145,054,000 square miles is
+sea. The oceans thus occupy nearly three-fourths of the whole surface,
+affording highways open to the nations. To conduct international
+commerce by water the ships of one country must enter the ports of
+another. Thus both on the open sea and in the harbors there is an
+interest, common to seamen of all nationalities, in the advance of
+marine surveys and in the publication of charts.
+
+To keep the coasts properly charted, as well as lighted and buoyed, is
+an obligation devolving on modern nations, not only for the benefit of
+their own commerce but for that of other countries.
+
+As shown below, only a small part of the coast line of the world is
+thoroughly surveyed. In the extensive ocean areas which are dotted with
+islands or reefs, a large amount of work is required for their
+sufficient charting, although many doubtful areas have been cleared up
+in recent years. Even the parts that are known to be of depths so great
+as to be free from navigational dangers should be sounded over
+sufficiently to develop the general configuration of the ocean bottom.
+
+Through international understanding a thorough exploration of all the
+water area of the globe and the coasts may in time be effected, and the
+many doubtful spots which still disfigure the charts may be either
+eliminated or definitely located.
+
+#Present state of progress of hydrographic surveys.# A comparatively
+small proportion of the coasts of the world can be considered as
+completely surveyed at the present time, and even such regions require
+much additional revision. In the class of more thoroughly surveyed
+coasts should be included the Atlantic and most of the Pacific coast of
+the United States, Porto Rico, nearly all the coasts of Europe, Algeria,
+and portions of the coasts of Japan, the Philippine Islands, and India.
+
+A large part of the world's coasts has been surveyed incompletely, but
+sufficiently well to permit the publication of navigational charts. This
+is the condition as respects most of southeastern Alaska and some other
+portions of the Alaskan coast, British Columbia, most of Mexico, Central
+America, the West Indies, Brazil and parts of Chile, the Hawaiian
+Islands, China, Malay Peninsula, Siam, the Dutch East Indies, Australia,
+New Zealand, Persia, Arabia, most of Africa, Iceland, northern
+Scandinavia, and Finland.
+
+Another considerable portion of the coasts has not been surveyed, but
+has been covered by explorations which have been embodied in nautical
+charts of varied degrees of incompleteness. In this class are the north
+coast and considerable portions of the south and west coasts of Alaska,
+the Aleutian Islands, Siberia, most of the oceanic groups in the
+Pacific, the northern coasts of Europe and North America, Greenland, the
+west coast of South America, Venezuela, and Argentina.
+
+Only a very small proportion of the total length of coasts is now
+entirely unexplored, and such portions are confined to the polar
+regions.
+
+#Chart publications of various nations.# There are about eighteen
+nations publishing navigational charts, and adding to the information on
+which charts are based. Many of these nations republish to some extent
+the charts prepared by the others. Great Britain has kept up a series of
+charts covering all parts of the world and practically including in some
+form all information published elsewhere. This series now (1908)
+includes 3725 different charts, of which the annual issue is about
+600,000 copies. France (1906) publishes 2948 different charts.
+
+In the United States, charts are published by the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey for the coasts and tidal waters of the main country and the
+insular possessions, by the Hydrographic Office for oceanic areas and
+foreign coasts, and by the Lake Survey for the Great Lakes. The total
+number of different charts issued by these bureaus is about 2300, and
+the total annual issue is about 225,000 copies.
+
+#Systems in use on various charts.#
+
+_Longitude._ The first chart of New York, published by the Coast Survey
+in 1844, was referred to the City Hall of New York as the initial
+longitude, and some years ago it was the prevailing custom for each
+nation to use a local initial longitude. While this satisfied local
+pride it led to much geographical and navigational confusion. Happily
+the charts of all countries are now referred to Greenwich, with the
+following exceptions:
+
+  France refers to Paris, which is 2° 20´ 15´´ E. of Greenwich.
+  Spain refers to San Fernando, which is 6° 12´ 20´´ W. of Greenwich.
+  Portugal refers to Lisbon, which is 9° 08´ 24´´ W. of Greenwich.
+
+_Units for depths._ The English fathom or foot is used for depths on the
+charts of Great Britain, the United States, and Japan. Russia uses the
+sajene of seven English feet. On the modern charts of practically all
+the other countries the meter is used, though on older charts various
+units are found.
+
+In the first group feet are ordinarily found only on large scale or
+local charts of areas with moderate depths, and the other charts are in
+fathoms, except that on the earlier charts of the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey feet were used on a sanded surface inside of the three-fathom
+curve and fathoms on the white surface outside of that curve. Heights
+are stated in feet on the charts of the first group.
+
+_Plane of reference._ As the depth of water varies with the tide, it is
+necessary for charting purposes to adopt some standard plane to which
+the soundings are referred. Practically all countries have adopted for
+this purpose a low stage of the tide, as this is obviously on the side
+of safety; in most cases an extreme low water is used, so that the
+actual depths will seldom, owing to the tide, be less than those shown
+on the chart. The definite reference planes used on the American charts
+will be mentioned later.
+
+On nearly all charts heights are referred to mean high water, doubtless
+owing to this being the visible limit of the land at high tide. On
+topographic maps of the interior, the heights are referred to mean sea
+level, which plane is of course lower than the preceding by one-half the
+range of tide.
+
+_Symbols on charts._ Fair uniformity as to general principles, with
+differences as to details in carrying them out, exists on the various
+series of charts regarding their general arrangement and the more
+important symbols, such as in the shading of land to distinguish from
+water, the use of depth curves, the representation of hills by shade or
+contour, the indication of shoals and dangers, and of lighthouses and
+buoys.
+
+#Desirability of uniformity in charts.# Ships engaged in international
+commerce must enter foreign ports. As the information is constantly
+changing and charts are being corrected or improved, it is sometimes
+desirable for the navigator to consult the local foreign charts, and it
+may often be necessary for him to carry in his chart room the charts of
+several different countries. There are therefore important advantages in
+international uniformity in chart publication.
+
+There should be a common initial longitude, and as the longitude of
+Greenwich has been so extensively adopted, it appears quite probable
+that its use may some day become universal.
+
+A common unit for soundings and heights would be very desirable, but the
+fact that a large group of nations has united on the metric system,
+while a small group with great commercial interests retains another
+system, makes the attainment of uniformity difficult.
+
+Substantial agreement as to the use of symbols on charts, particularly
+such as represent aids or dangers to navigation, would be desirable and
+doubtless feasible.
+
+#Privately published charts.# Many of the earlier charts were prepared
+and published by private enterprise, and such charts are still
+published, as, for instance, the so-called "blue-back" charts printed in
+London. These charts have usually differed from those published by the
+various governments either in representing the main features in a very
+bold manner with little detail or in including a considerable area with
+many plans on a single large sheet backed for permanency. An objection
+to the latter is that the durability together with the high price tends
+to keep an old chart in use long after it is out of date. It would be
+financially difficult for a private firm to give the service that a
+government does in the matter of correcting the charts and issuing new
+editions, and this is an important consideration in the selection of
+charts.
+
+#Purpose of charts.# The main purpose of charts is to furnish graphical
+guides to aid in taking a vessel safely from one port to another; they
+are maps for the use of navigators. An experienced mariner may be able
+to steer his vessel over a familiar course without charts, but this does
+not make their publication less necessary. Even such an expert pilot
+doubtless studied the charts in the first place; the uncertainties of
+the sea and the changes of information are such that his vessel's
+equipment should include the latest charts, and safety requires their
+examination. The passengers and the merchants who intrust their lives or
+their goods to the sea are largely dependent upon the correctness of the
+charts.
+
+Besides their main purpose charts fill many other needs, among which
+are; for preliminary planning of harbor improvements and various
+engineering works, for defensive works and other military uses, for the
+fishing interests, and for general information as to the coastal
+regions. Charts will furnish much of interest and instruction to the
+traveler by sea and the dweller near the coast, who will learn to read
+them. Passenger steamers should more often for the interest of their
+patrons display charts of the waters traversed. No written or verbal
+description can give as clear an idea of geographical features and
+relations as a good map or chart.
+
+As the charts are revised from time to time, a comparison of editions at
+different dates furnishes a record of the changes wrought by nature or
+man, and this is especially useful in studying the action in many harbor
+and river entrances, as well as for historical purposes.
+
+#Requirements for charts.# As charts are maps of the water areas,
+including the adjoining land, and intended primarily for the use of
+mariners, they differ in important respects from topographic maps or
+general maps, even such as include the water areas. The main
+requirements for charts are these; correct and complete information,
+early publication of new data, clear and intelligible representation of
+the information, convenient arrangement as navigational instruments, and
+high standard of publication.
+
+The special and sometimes difficult conditions under which charts must
+be used on shipboard call for good judgment throughout their
+preparation. Even the paper on which they are printed is of importance,
+in order that they may be sufficiently durable and suitable for
+plotting.
+
+#Information given on charts.# It is evident that it is impossible to
+represent on a chart of any practicable scale all the features that
+exist on the corresponding area of the earth's surface. It is
+essential, therefore, that a selection be made of the classes of facts
+that are to be shown, as well as of the detail that is to be used for
+each class. The practical utility of the chart depends largely on the
+good judgment used in this selection. In the information shown, charts
+differ from maps principally in representing by soundings and curves the
+configuration of the bottom of the water area, and in showing ordinarily
+the topographic features only in the vicinity of the coast line.
+
+The convenience of mariners should govern in the selection and
+arrangement of the information to be shown on charts, though they may be
+made useful for other purposes so long as this convenience is not
+lessened. The needs and preferences of navigators alone, however, differ
+so much that a reasonable chart must be somewhat of a compromise between
+conflicting views. For certain classes of navigation a boldly drawn
+chart showing only the dangers and a few other soundings and some
+landmarks might be useful. For other maritime purposes a more detailed
+chart would be valuable. The first, however, would fail to give facts
+often demanded in the navigational use of the chart, and the second if
+carried to an extreme would make a chart difficult to use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. STATE OF ADVANCEMENT OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF
+THE COASTS OF THE WORLD, 1904.
+
+  _By G. W. Littlehales._
+]
+
+Shoals and dangers are shown either by the least depth or by rock or
+reef symbols. The characteristic soundings are shown on the chart, with
+abbreviations indicating the nature of the bottom. Depth curves are
+drawn, joining together points of like depth, and inclosing areas of
+less depth, on the same principle that contours are used on land maps;
+usually also the shoaler spots are made more prominent by sanding or
+tinting the area within them. Lighthouses, buoys, and other artificial
+aids to navigation are represented, with descriptive abbreviations. The
+coast is shown by a bold solid line for high water and a dotted line for
+low water. The main topographic features are represented for a moderate
+distance from the coast, with such detail as is useful, depending on the
+scale of the chart. Elevations are given in figures for prominent
+summits, islands, and rocks; the general configuration of hills and
+mountains is represented by contours on large scale charts or by
+hachures or shading on small scale charts. Rivers, streams, lakes,
+marshes, towns, roads, prominent buildings, and other important
+topographic features are shown by appropriate symbols. It is important
+that objects which may be useful in navigation as landmarks, whether
+natural or artificial, be plainly shown and described, if necessary to
+their identification, and that they should not be obscured by details of
+lesser importance. On the larger scale charts only, vegetation features,
+particularly areas covered by trees, are represented by symbols. The
+land area is usually clearly distinguished from the water area by a tint
+or stipple. Latitude and longitude are given by the projection
+lines and the subdivided border, or sometimes on harbor plans by a note
+giving the position of some one point. Brief information as to the time
+and range of the tides is stated in a note. Data regarding currents,
+whether due to tidal or other causes, are given by current arrows placed
+on the chart, or by explanatory notes. Compasses are for convenience
+printed on the charts, and data given as to the magnetic variation and
+its rate of change. On large scale charts scales are provided for use in
+measuring distances. Ranges and channel lines are given when required.
+The ports are indicated where storm warning signals are displayed. The
+areas of forbidden anchorages are shown, and when important, the
+positions of submarine cables. The lines dividing the high seas from
+inland waters are sometimes stated on United States charts. Life saving
+stations are given, and time balls are usually noted. Views of important
+features are shown on some charts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE UNITED STATES COAST
+AND GEODETIC SURVEY.]
+
+The layman who looks at the printed chart probably does not appreciate
+the amount or the variety of information that must be gathered and
+sifted and put in proper shape for a single chart.
+
+
+
+
+COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS
+
+
+#Need of thorough surveys.# As has been stated, a good chart requires
+that a thorough and correct survey be first made of the region to be
+charted. It is said that men are very apt to accept as true anything
+they see on a map. As to the nautical chart the mariner is likely to be
+somewhat more critical, however, and it is well that he is. The
+difficulty of charting an invisible surface such as the bottom of the
+sea is great, and the proportion of the navigable waters surveyed in
+sufficient detail to be at all certain of the absence of uncharted
+dangers is small.
+
+The planning of surveys in a new region, such, for instance, as the
+Philippine Islands, presents many interesting problems, on the solution
+of which the effectiveness in chart results and the cost of the work
+materially depend. Many local conditions must be taken into account. The
+surveys are made on opposite coasts according to the seasonal winds and
+rainfall. In some parts fair-sized steamers are necessary; in others
+launches and small boats can do the work more economically. Shore
+parties with land transportation are used for portions of the work where
+the country permits. Natives are employed as far as practicable for the
+classes of work they can do; the Filipinos, for instance, make good
+sailors on the vessels and excellent penmen in the office.
+
+The following is a brief outline of the steps of a complete survey for
+charting purposes, according to the present practice of the United
+States Coast and Geodetic Survey. These are given in their logical
+order, though in actual work this order must often be departed from. In
+this Survey the methods of control have been of a high standard; that
+is, the main stations have been accurately determined and permanently
+marked and described, and this has proven an advantage in the
+joining together of the original surveys and resurveys.
+
+#Astronomical observations.# To locate on the surface of the earth the
+area to be charted, astronomical observations are required for the
+latitude and longitude of one or more points. In the best practice the
+longitude of a point is obtained by observing the transits of stars to
+get the local time, and sending time signals by telegraph to obtain the
+difference from the local time of some other place whose longitude is
+known. The latitude is observed by measuring the difference of zenith
+distance of pairs of stars crossing the meridian north and south of the
+zenith. The azimuth or true direction of some line is also obtained from
+star observations, usually by observations with a theodolite on a
+circumpolar star. Much existing chart work depends on positions
+determined by less accurate methods, as, for instance, longitudes
+obtained by transporting chronometers between the known station and that
+to be determined, or by observations of moon culminations, and latitudes
+obtained by direct observations of the altitudes of stars with
+theodolite or sextant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE BRITISH
+HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. TRIANGULATION OF A BAY, SHOWING LOCATION OF
+SURVEY SIGNALS AND LANDMARKS.]
+
+#Triangulation.# The main framework of the survey consists of a series
+of triangles connecting prominently located points which are permanently
+marked in the ground and the location described so that they can be
+found at a future time. At long intervals in the survey base lines are
+laid out and carefully measured with steel tape. Signals are erected
+over the points, including those at the ends of the base line, and
+angles are then measured at the various stations. From the measured
+length of the base and the angles the lengths of the sides of the
+triangles are computed, and from these lengths and the latitude and
+longitude of one point the latitudes and longitudes of all the other
+points are obtained. When several astronomically determined points are
+connected by such a triangulation a complication arises from what is
+known as "deflection of the plumb line," which is the angular amount by
+which the actual sea-level surface of the earth departs from the
+symmetrical figure of revolution, owing to the variations in the density
+of the earth's outer layers. The distance between two points as measured
+by triangulation thus differs from the distance computed from the
+astronomically determined positions. If this irregularity were not taken
+care of by adopting mean positions, the discrepancy in joining up
+different surveys would in extreme cases amount to about half a mile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. TRIANGULATION STATION AND SIGNAL, ON ALASKA
+COAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. MEASURING ANGLES WITH THEODOLITE AT
+TRIANGULATION STATION ON ALASKA COAST.]
+
+#Survey sheets# are next prepared, of suitable size and scale. On each
+sheet a projection is laid down, that is, the meridians and parallels
+are drawn, and all the points determined in the triangulation are
+plotted in their true relation. Usually separate sheets are prepared for
+the topography or shore survey and for the hydrography or survey of the
+water area.
+
+#Topography.# The topographic survey of the shore and as much of the
+adjacent area as is required is usually made with a plane table, on
+which the map is actually drawn in the field as the work progresses.
+Points are located on the plane table sheet either by direct reading of
+the distance on a stadia rod or by intersections from two or more
+stations. On the plane table sheet it is customary to locate the shore
+or high-water line, the low-water line, off-lying rocks, streams,
+rivers, roads, towns, lighthouses, and all prominent features near the
+coast. Elevations are measured with the plane table or obtained from the
+triangulation, and are represented on the sheet both by figures and by
+contours, which are lines joining together points of the same elevation.
+For instance, a 100-foot contour represents the line where a plane 100
+feet above sea level would cut the surface of the ground. It is
+particularly important in this topographic work to locate accurately
+objects which are good landmarks and likely to be of use to the mariner.
+In some regions auxiliary methods are used in filling in the topography,
+as, for instance, along a difficult coast each feature of importance may
+be located by sextant angles, or a traverse line may be run along the
+shore by the transit and stadia method.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY PARTY AT WORK WITH PLANE
+TABLE ON THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. SURVEY SIGNAL OF IRON PIPE ON THE BAR OFF THE
+MOUTH OF THE YUKON RIVER.]
+
+#The hydrography,# or the survey of the water area, is of prime
+importance for the chart, but in the order of prosecution of the work it
+is convenient but not essential that it come after sufficient points
+have been located by the triangulation and topography. A hydrographic
+sheet is prepared on which all the points are plotted which will be
+useful. A system of sounding lines is then run over the entire area to
+be surveyed, locating the position of the sounding boat at intervals by
+sextant angles on survey signals or by angles from the shore. The
+ordinary method of sounding is to cast a lead from a boat and read the
+depth when the lead touches bottom and the line is vertical, and make
+note of the nature of the bottom. There is a systematic spacing between
+the casts of the lead and between the lines passed over by the boat,
+depending on the depth of water and character of the bottom. For
+soundings in deeper water various forms of sounding machines are used,
+with weight attached to a wire. For very great depths a small steel wire
+is employed and the weight is detached and left on the bottom. The
+deepest sounding thus far made, 5269 fathoms, or nearly six miles, was
+obtained by this method in the Pacific Ocean near Guam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. HYDROGRAPHIC PARTY SOUNDING WITH LAUNCH IN
+BALTIMORE HARBOR.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. THE LUCAS AUTOMATIC SOUNDING MACHINE FOR DEPTHS
+TO 5000 FATHOMS, WITH ENGINE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. THE SIGSBEE SOUNDING MACHINE ON A SURVEYING
+VESSEL.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SURVEYING STEAMER
+_FATHOMER_, SHOWING GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS.]
+
+The offshore soundings are made from a surveying steamer; the inshore
+work is usually done by a launch or small boat.
+
+So far as the navigational use of charts is concerned it is important
+that the hydrography shall show the limiting depths and the freedom from
+dangers, of channels, entrances, harbors, and anchorages. It is also
+desirable that the soundings shall be carried off shore at least as far
+as the one-hundred-fathom curve, as with the modern forms of
+navigational sounding machines it is possible for vessels under way to
+obtain soundings to this depth, and such soundings may be of value in
+identifying the location of the vessel. For depths greater than one
+hundred fathoms the soundings have less direct value to navigation
+except as proving the absence of shoaler areas, but soundings throughout
+the oceanic regions are of great geographical interest as well as of
+direct practical value in the laying of cables.
+
+It is obvious that the plan of mapping the sea bottom by dropping a lead
+at intervals over its hidden surface is far from an ideal one. The lead
+gives the depth only at the point at which it touches the bottom, and no
+information as to the space between the casts except such as may be
+inferred from the relation of successive soundings. In numerous cases,
+after what was considered a very thorough survey of a region had been
+made, at some later day a pinnacle rock or other danger has been
+discovered. For instance, a very detailed hydrographic survey of
+Buzzards Bay was made in 1895; the sounding lines were run at intervals
+of 50 to 100 yards, and 91,000 soundings were made for a single sheet.
+Within this area the cruiser _Brooklyn_ in 1902 touched a rock which
+was found to have 18 feet over it. (Fig. 17.) The least depth in the
+vicinity developed in the original survey was 31 feet.
+
+For the satisfactory development of hydrographic work some invention is
+much needed which as it passes along the bottom will give a continuous
+depth curve. Several devices have successfully accomplished this in
+shoal water, but great credit awaits the inventor who designs something
+of more general application.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17. PORTION OF ORIGINAL HYDROGRAPHIC SHEET, BUZZARDS
+BAY, ON SCALE 1-10000, SHOWING AREA CLOSELY SOUNDED IN 1895, WHERE THE
+_BROOKLYN_ STRUCK IN 1902.]
+
+#Tides and currents.# Information must be obtained as to the movement of
+the water, both vertical and horizontal. The rise and fall of the tide
+are obtained by tide gauges, either automatic, which draw a continuous
+tidal curve on a roll of paper, or simple tide staffs, which must be
+read at intervals. The currents, whether due to the tides or other
+movements, are measured by noting the movement of partially submerged
+floats. Less accurate but useful information as to currents is obtained
+from the logs of vessels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18. DRAGGING FOR DANGERS WITH A LONG WIRE.]
+
+#Dragging for dangers# has long been resorted to for the investigation
+of isolated spots. A valuable and successful means has been employed
+recently of making sure that an area is free from shoals or rocks having
+less than a certain depth. This is done by dragging through the water a
+wire from 500 to 1400 feet long, and suspended at the required depth,
+with suitable buoys and weights, and kept taut by the angle of pull. If,
+for instance, the wire is set at a depth of 30 feet it will indicate the
+presence of any obstruction of less depth by catching on it and
+upsetting the buoys, and such spots are at once marked and investigated.
+Considerable work has been done with such drags in the last few years on
+the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and on the Great Lakes. This is of course a
+somewhat tedious process and gives no information as to depths greater
+than that for which the wire is set, but the experience already had
+indicates its great value. It will probably be found desirable in time
+to thus drag all water areas important to navigation where the depth is
+near the draft of vessels and the irregular nature of the bottom gives
+indication of dangers. In extensive dragging operations near Key West
+and in Jericho Bay, Maine, a number of shoals have been picked up which
+were not found in the original surveys.
+
+A remarkable instance of the value of the drag was the recent discovery
+of a rock in Blue Hill Bay on the coast of Maine. This rock has but 7
+feet of water over it, and is only 6 feet in diameter at the top. It is
+surrounded by depths of 78 feet, from which it rises nearly
+perpendicularly. The original survey gave no indication of a danger
+here, and its existence was not suspected until it was discovered with
+the wire drag.
+
+Another method of dragging that has been employed is by means of a pipe
+suspended beneath a ship's bottom.
+
+#Magnetic variation.# As the compass is a universal navigational
+instrument, information as to the magnetic variation is needed for the
+charts. The angle between the direction of the magnetic needle and the
+true north is measured at various points on both land and sea, and at
+some stations these observations are repeated after a number of years.
+From these results magnetic maps are made, from which both the variation
+and its annual change may be taken.
+
+#Reports of dangers.# Aside from the more systematic surveys as outlined
+above, much information has been placed on the charts from other
+sources. On the earlier charts and on those of more remote regions at
+the present day much of the work has been sketched rather than surveyed.
+Even in the better surveyed portions reports come in as to dangers or
+other matters not shown, and if of importance and the report appears to
+be reliable these are sometimes at once put on the chart pending further
+investigation, or in other cases an examination is first made.
+
+Shoals, rocks, and even islands have in numerous instances been shown on
+the charts which no one has been able to find again, and many of them
+after repeated searches have been removed. The same island or danger has
+sometimes been charted in two or more different positions as reported at
+various times. The treatment of such cases is one of the serious and
+interesting problems of the chart maker. It is generally less harmful to
+show a danger which does not exist than to omit one which does exist. On
+the other hand a non-existing danger shown on a chart may be the cause
+of actual expense and loss of time in compelling a vessel needlessly to
+go out of its course.
+
+It is surprising to note with what lack of care and of sufficient
+evidence reports of dangers at sea have sometimes been made, and how
+incomplete are many of the reports even when the existence of the danger
+is beyond question. It is unfortunately true that some of these reports
+are the result of effort to escape blame for accident by throwing the
+fault on the chart. Many such reports also result from various illusory
+appearances. A large tree covered with weeds, an overturned iceberg
+strewn with earth and stones, a floating ice-pan covered with earth, the
+swollen carcass of a dead whale, a whale with clinging barnacles and
+seaweed, reflections from the clouds, marine animalculæ, vegetable
+growth, scum, floating volcanic matter, and partially submerged wrecks
+covered with barnacles, have been mistaken for islands, shoals, or
+reefs. A school of jumping fish has given the appearance of breakers or
+caused a sound like surf, and tide rips have been mistaken for breakers.
+Raper very properly calls attention to the obligation upon every seaman
+of carefully investigating doubtful cases and making reliable reports.
+"Of the dangers to which navigation is exposed none is more formidable
+than a reef or a shoal in the open sea; not only from the almost certain
+fate of the ship and her crew that have the misfortune to strike upon
+it, but also from the anxiety with which the navigation of all vessels,
+within even a long distance, must be conducted, on account of the
+uncertainty to which their own reckonings are ever open. No commander of
+a vessel, therefore, who might meet unexpectedly with any such danger,
+could be excused, except by urgent circumstances, from taking the
+necessary steps both for ascertaining its true position, and for giving
+a description as complete as a prudent regard to his own safety
+allowed."
+
+As to the older doubtful dangers now shown on the oceanic charts, it is
+estimated that the positions may be considered as uncertain by 10 miles
+in latitude and 30 miles in longitude, and areas of this extent must be
+searched to determine definitely the question of their existence.
+
+The following are interesting or typical cases of reported dangers:
+
+The master of an Italian bark in September, 1874, reported sighting a
+large rock in latitude 40° N. and longitude 62° 18´ W. Fortunately for
+the charts there were two independent reports from other vessels in the
+same month of sighting a partially submerged wreck in this vicinity.
+
+The Spanish steamer _Carmen_ was wrecked in 1891 by running on a rock
+off the southwest coast of Leyte; the rock was reported to lie one mile
+off shore, a dangerous position for vessels using Canigao Channel. A
+survey made in 1903 showed 58 feet of water in this location, and
+that Carmen Rock on which the vessel struck was really within one-fourth
+mile of the beach. The rock had, however, for twelve years been shown on
+the charts in a position which made it an obstruction to navigation.
+
+The ship _Minerva_ in 1834 was reported to have struck a rock near the
+middle of the broad entrance to Balayan Bay; the fact that this occurred
+at 2 A.M. indicated a very doubtful position, but it was stated that an
+American ship had previously been wrecked on the same rock. It
+consequently appeared as a danger on the charts for seventy-one years,
+when a survey showed no depth of less than 190 fathoms in this vicinity,
+and it was removed from the charts.
+
+A British steamer was wrecked in San Bernardino Strait in 1905; the
+master reported that he was in a position where the chart showed 51
+fathoms, and that he was 1-1/2 miles distant from Calantas Rock, and on
+these grounds the finding of the official inquiry was that "no blame can
+be attached to the master, officers, or any of the crew for the
+casualty." Very shortly after the disaster, the surveying steamer
+_Pathfinder_ definitely located the wreck and made a survey of the
+vicinity. The previous chart of Calantas Reef was found to be fairly
+correct, and the stranding was determined to have occurred well within
+this reef in a position where the chart showed soundings of 3-3/4 to
+4-3/4 fathoms, and 1/2 mile from Calantas Rock, which rises 5 feet above
+high water.
+
+A transport entering San Bernardino Strait a few years ago ran on a rock
+and was damaged; the position was reported as about two miles southeast
+of San Bernardino Island and near the middle of the passage. The rock
+was not put on the charts, as prompt investigation showed 50 fathoms of
+water in this vicinity, and that in all probability the transport
+actually touched a small reef making out from the island.
+
+The master of the brig _Helen_ reported that his vessel was wrecked on a
+reef lying six miles from Rockall. When surveyed Helen Reef was found to
+be about one-third this distance from Rockall.
+
+An island has been reported in eight different positions, ranging in
+latitude from 30° 29´ to 30° 42´ N. and in longitude from 139° 37´ to
+140° 38´ E.
+
+There have been a number of reports of islands in the area from latitude
+40° 00´ to 40° 30´ N. and longitude 150° 30´ to 151° 00´ W. The master
+of the bark _Washington_ reported in 1867: "On my passage from the
+Sandwich Islands to the northwest coast of the United States, when in
+latitude 40° 00´ N., in a dense fog, I perceived the sea to be
+discolored. Soundings at first gave great depths, but diminished
+gradually to 9 fathoms, when through the mist an island was seen, along
+which I sailed 40 miles. It was covered with birds, and the sea swarmed
+with seal and sea elephants." A United States vessel searched in
+this vicinity without seeing any indication of land, and obtained
+soundings of 2600 fathoms. A British ship in 1858 searched for fourteen
+days over this area without finding anything. Searches were also made in
+1860 and 1867 without success, and the present charts show no islands in
+this part of the Pacific.
+
+In a number of cases erroneous positions have been due simply to
+blunders. Thus Lots Wife, first seen by Captain Meares in 1788, was
+shown on his chart in latitude 29° 50´ N., longitude 156° 00´ E., and
+stated in his book to be in latitude 29° 50´ N. and longitude 142° 23´
+E. Massachusetts Island by one report was in longitude 177° 05´ E. and
+by another in 167° 05´ E. The apparent blunder of 10° is now immaterial,
+as the island has disappeared from the charts altogether. The Knox
+Islands were placed by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition in latitude 5°
+59´ 15´´ N., longitude 172° 02´ 33´´ E. The old British charts showed
+islands of this name also in latitude 5° 59´ N., longitude 172° 03´ W.,
+the longitude being doubtless transposed. In the case of Starbuck
+Island, discovered south of the equator, the latitude was apparently
+transposed, as on old charts it was also shown in the position, latitude
+5° 40´ N., longitude 156° 55´ W.
+
+A pinnacle rock can sometimes be located only with great difficulty even
+when known to exist. Rodger Rock, on which the bark _Ellen_ struck and
+was damaged, lies in latitude 0° 41´ 15´´ N. and longitude 107° 31´ E.
+It has but three feet over it at low tide. The British surveying ship
+_Rifleman_ searched four days before finding it, although the plotted
+tracks showed that she and her boats had passed very close to it. This
+indicates that great caution must be used in removing a reported danger
+from the charts.
+
+The old charts of the Atlantic indicated a danger 30 to 45 miles to the
+southwest of Cape St. Vincent. This danger was omitted from the charts
+about 1786 owing to lack of confirmation. Later, in 1813 and 1821, it
+was reported that vessels were lost or damaged by striking this rock.
+Soundings of over a thousand fathoms are now shown on the chart in this
+vicinity and the rock no longer appears.
+
+A comparison of a Pacific Ocean chart of about forty years ago with one
+of the present time (Fig. 19) illustrates in a striking manner how many
+doubtful dangers, or vigias, have gotten on the charts and how after
+laborious search many of them have now been removed. This condition was
+especially true of the Pacific, owing to the numerous reports of an
+indefinite nature from whaling ships, among whose captains there was a
+saying "that they do not care where their ship is, so long as there are
+plenty of whales in sight."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19. PORTION OF CHARTS OF 1869 AND 1903, OF THE
+PACIFIC OCEAN WEST OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, TO ILLUSTRATE THE REMOVAL OF
+DOUBTFUL DANGERS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. PORTION OF CHART OF PONCE HARBOR, SCALE 1-20000,
+TO SHOW SELECTION OF SOUNDINGS FROM ORIGINAL SURVEY GIVEN BELOW.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY OF SAME PORTION OF PONCE
+HARBOR, REDUCED TO ONE-HALF SCALE OF ORIGINAL SHEET.]
+
+
+
+
+PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS.
+
+
+#Chart schemes.# Before commencing the preparation of a chart it is
+necessary to arrange a definite scheme for it, and the usefulness of the
+chart will depend materially on this preliminary plan, in which must be
+outlined its scale, size, limits, and features to be represented. New
+charts have sometimes been prepared simply to fit the surveys as they
+progressed or to fill immediate or local requirements. It is, however,
+desirable that general plans for series or groups of charts be made, and
+with changing needs, information, and conditions it is sometimes
+necessary that existing schemes be modified.
+
+#Compilation of information.# Considerable work must usually be done to
+get the field records in shape for the published chart. The soundings
+must be plotted and the characteristic depths selected. Only a part of
+the soundings that are made can be shown on the original sheet and only
+a small part of these are used on the final chart. A selection is made
+showing the least soundings on shoals and bars, the channel depths, and
+the characteristic soundings in anchorages and other areas. The original
+surveys are generally made on a considerably larger scale than that on
+which the chart is published, in order that the soundings may be more
+thoroughly plotted. The sheets must then be reduced to the scale of
+publication, and this can conveniently be done by means of photography
+or with a pantograph.
+
+The best judgment is required in selecting the important features
+to be shown on the chart and omitting the less important and not
+essential features which might tend to obscure the others. In charts of
+new regions where complete surveys are lacking, care must be exercised
+in weighing, combining, and adjusting information from various sources
+and which is, perhaps, more or less conflicting.
+
+#Projections.# The surface of the earth being curved, there is no
+possible system of projection by which it can be represented on a flat
+sheet of paper in an ideally satisfactory way. Numerous methods of
+projecting the earth's surface upon a plane have been proposed and many
+of them are actually used for various purposes. In general each
+projection has qualities which are valuable for certain uses, and
+deficiencies which make it less valuable in other ways. Only four of the
+different projections need be mentioned here as of special interest in
+chart construction.
+
+#Mercator projection.# This is a rectangular projection in which the
+meridians are straight lines spaced at equal intervals and the parallels
+are straight lines so spaced as to satisfy the condition that a rhumb
+line, or line on the earth cutting successive meridians at the same
+angle, shall appear on the developed projection as a straight line
+preserving the same angle with respect to the meridians.
+
+This projection may be considered as the unrolling upon a plane of the
+surface of a cylinder tangent to the earth along the equator, and upon
+which the various features of the earth's surface have been projected in
+such manner as to satisfy the above requirement.
+
+On this projection there is a constant distance between the meridians,
+whereas on the earth they actually converge toward the poles. The
+distance between the parallels increases in passing toward the poles,
+approximately in the proportion of the secant of the latitude. For each
+small portion of the map the relative proportions are maintained as on
+the earth.
+
+Some characteristics of the mercator projection are these: The meridians
+and parallels are all straight lines and perpendicular to each other;
+there is no convergence of the meridians; the minute of longitude is a
+constant distance on the map; the minute of latitude increases in length
+from the equator toward the poles but locally retains its true
+proportion to the minute of longitude; areas and distances increase in
+scale with the latitude so that a given scale is strictly correct only
+for one latitude; great circles and consequently lines of sight are
+curved lines excepting the meridians and the equator; rhumb lines or
+lines having a constant angle with the meridians are straight, and for
+the same angle are parallel in all parts of the chart. These qualities
+are all rigid and the projection can therefore be used for all areas,
+small or large, up to the extent of the earth's surface, except that it
+cannot be extended to the poles, as there the length of the minute of
+latitude would become infinite.
+
+An interesting fact regarding a rhumb line oblique to the meridians is
+that it is a spiral continually approaching but never reaching the pole;
+this spiral makes an infinite number of revolutions around the pole, and
+yet it has a finite length for the reason that the length of each
+revolution diminishes as the number of revolutions increases.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. MERCATOR PROJECTION OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN,
+SHOWING GREAT CIRCLE ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO
+HONOLULU AND THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.]
+
+The mercator projection has been extensively used for nautical charts,
+for which it presents important mechanical advantages, in that adjacent
+charts can be joined on all their edges while still oriented with the
+meridian; all charts are similar; the border may be conveniently
+subdivided, giving a longitude scale applicable to any part of the
+chart, but a latitude scale that may be used in the same latitude only;
+courses are laid down as straight lines and can be transferred with
+parallel rulers from one part of the chart to another without error. On
+a mercator chart an island in latitude 60° would appear four times as
+large as an island of the same actual area at the equator, but this
+distortion of areas, while it gives erroneous impressions on charts of
+great extent in latitude, does not seriously affect the use of the chart
+for nautical purposes. Areas may also be correctly measured on a
+mercator map by taking each projection quadrilateral separately,
+subdividing it if necessary, and using the published tables of areas of
+quadrilaterals in different latitudes. Although distance scales vary
+with the latitude, distances can be taken from this chart with fair
+correctness by the use of the latitude border scale for the middle
+latitude, subdividing the total distance if there is much range of
+latitude. The inability to take off the great circle or shortest course
+directly from the mercator chart is from a navigational point of view a
+defect, but the most convenient solution for this appears to be the
+supplementary use of a gnomonic chart as will be described. The fact
+that lines of sight are not straight lines on this projection is another
+defect, as by the plotting of bearings and angles on approaching the
+land the positions of vessels are located on the chart; fortunately,
+however, the error due to this cause usually falls within the other
+uncertainties involved in locating a ship; if need be it would be
+practicable to allow for this curvature. In the polar regions, however,
+the faults of the mercator projection become so much exaggerated that it
+is not used for navigational purposes, but because of the absence of
+commercial navigation there this is a minor matter in the general
+question of chart projection. For the plotting of original surveys the
+mercator projection is not suited and is not used, for the reasons above
+mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23. POLYCONIC PROJECTION OF PORTION OF NORTH PACIFIC
+OCEAN.]
+
+Tables of "meridional parts" are published which give the distance in
+terms of minutes of longitude from the equator to the various parallels;
+with these tables a mercator projection may readily be constructed.
+
+Airy proposed a graphical method of sweeping the arc of a great circle
+on to a mercator chart, and tables are published for this purpose. The
+method is only approximate and is limited in application, and the
+supplementary use of a gnomonic chart would appear to be preferable.
+
+#Polyconic projection.# In plotting the original surveys it is essential
+that a projection be used which will for the area included on a survey
+sheet show the points in their correct relation both as to direction and
+distance. These conditions are substantially fulfilled by several
+projections, of which the polyconic is used in the United States. If a
+hollow cone were placed so that it would either be tangent to the
+earth's surface along one of the parallels of latitude or cut it along
+two parallels, and the points projected on to this cone, and the cone
+then unrolled and laid out flat, the result would be a conical
+projection, of which there are several variations. If successive tangent
+cones be used and each parallel of latitude be developed as the
+circumference of the base of a right cone tangent to the spheroid along
+that parallel, the result is the polyconic projection, which has been
+used for field sheets and for the large scale charts, as well as for the
+topographic maps of the United States. This projection has valuable
+qualities for moderate areas of the earth's surface, within which the
+scale is approximately uniform, areas retain nearly their true
+proportions, and great circles and consequently all bearings and
+directions are approximately straight lines. The parallels of latitude
+are arcs of circles with radiuses increasing as we recede from the pole;
+therefore they are not truly parallel and the length of the degree of
+latitude increases either side from the central meridian. The meridians
+converge toward the poles and become slightly curved as we recede from
+the central one; the longitude scale is everywhere correct, but the
+latitude scale is strictly correct only on the central meridian. The
+angles of intersection of parallels and meridians are right angles or
+nearly so. The polyconic projection is not used for very extensive areas
+of the earth's surface, as for instance a hemisphere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24. GNOMONIC CHART OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN, SHOWING
+GREAT CIRCLE ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO HONOLULU
+AND THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.]
+
+#Gnomonic projection.# In this projection the eye is assumed to be at
+the center of the earth and the features are projected upon a plane
+tangent to some point on the earth's surface. It is practicable to use
+this projection for oceanic areas, and it has the very important quality
+that every straight line on it represents a great circle of the earth.
+To obtain the great circle or shortest course between two points it is
+therefore only necessary to draw a straight line between the points on a
+gnomonic chart. Because of the great distortion near the edges this
+projection is not otherwise adapted to navigational use, and it is
+employed only to mark out the general course, and sufficient points are
+then transferred to a mercator chart. The gnomonic chart is therefore
+useful in supplementing the mercator chart, supplying its deficiencies
+as to convenience in marking out great circle courses. The great circle
+course can be derived not only more easily and quickly from the gnomonic
+chart than by computation, but the chart is also to be preferred because
+the course marked out on it will show at once if any obstruction, as an
+island or danger, is met or too high a latitude is reached. A modified
+or composite course can readily be laid out on a gnomonic chart.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25. NORTH POLAR CHART ON ARBITRARY PROJECTION.]
+
+#Arbitrary projection.# The few charts published of the polar regions
+are sometimes on an arbitrary projection, in which the meridians are
+straight lines radiating from the pole and the parallels are equidistant
+circles with the pole as center. The latitude scale is uniform. At some
+distance from the pole the longitude scale becomes very much distorted,
+but the projection is a practicable and convenient one for the immediate
+polar regions. Gnomonic and conical projections are also used for the
+polar charts, differing little from the foregoing for moderate areas.
+
+#Scales.# Charts are published on a variety of scales to suit different
+needs of navigation, and the usual classification depends on scale. In
+addition to the ocean charts covering a single ocean in either one or
+several sheets and intended for navigation on the high seas,
+there are for our Atlantic coast the following series:
+
+Sailing charts, scale about 1/1200000, for general coastwise navigation.
+
+General coast charts, scale 1/400000, for local coastwise navigation.
+
+Coast charts, scale 1/80000, for approaching the coast at any point and
+for inside passages.
+
+Harbor and channel charts, of various large scales from 1/5000 to
+1/60000, for entering harbors and rivers and passing through channels.
+
+The expression of scales by miles to the inch or inches to the mile is
+the more familiar. The expression of scale in the manner used by the
+Coast Survey and by most of the European countries, by standard
+fractions as 1/80000, meaning that any distance on the chart is 1/80000
+of the actual distance on the earth, has some advantages. For instance,
+the relation of these fractions gives at a glance the relation of the
+scales of the charts. Thus a 1/80000 chart is on a scale five times as
+large as a 1/400000 chart.
+
+For the more important harbors charts have been published on several
+different scales to meet various needs. Thus New York Harbor is shown on
+charts of scales of 1/10000, 1/40000, 1/80000, 1/200000, 1/400000 and
+1/1200000, each of course including a different area.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26. NEW YORK HARBOR, PORTIONS OF CHARTS ON FOUR
+DIFFERENT SCALES.]
+
+The selection of suitable publication scales is of prime importance; a
+large scale permits of greater clearness and of showing more detail, but
+on the other hand restricts the area and the points that can be shown on
+a single sheet, or else makes a chart of excessive dimensions. In
+general in chart preparation the scale should be restricted to the
+minimum that can be used to fulfill the particular object and clearly
+represent what is desired. A chart of very large scale is not convenient
+for plotting, and a moving vessel may pass quickly beyond it or into
+range of objects beyond the limits of the chart.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATION OF CHARTS.
+
+
+#Methods of publication.# An ideal process of publication for nautical
+charts would include the following features; rapidity in getting out new
+charts, facility in reprinting and correcting existing charts, clearness
+and sharpness of print, durability of paper and print, and correctness
+of scale. It is difficult to fulfill all these requirements by any
+method as yet developed. In the Coast and Geodetic Survey several
+different processes are in use at present; charts are engraved on copper
+and printed directly from the copper plate, or they are transferred from
+the copper plate to stone and printed from the stone, or a finished
+drawing is made and transferred to stone by photolithography and printed
+from the stone, or an etching is made on copper from a finished drawing
+and printed from a transfer to stone. Charts in other countries are in
+large part printed from engraved plates, excepting some preliminary
+charts by lithography.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27. ENGRAVING A CHART ON A COPPER PLATE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28. ENGRAVING SOUNDINGS ON A COPPER PLATE WITH A
+MACHINE.]
+
+#Copper plate engraving and printing# have long been used in chart
+preparation. A drawing is prepared as a guide for the engraver; this
+must be correct as to all information to be shown but need not be a
+finished drawing. A true projection is ruled upon a copper plate. By
+photography a matrix is made from the drawing and a wax impression taken
+from this matrix. This is then laid down on the copper to fit the
+projection, and the impression is chemically fixed on to the copper. The
+work thus marked out is engraved by hand or by machine. A high degree of
+skill is required in the accuracy and finish necessary for chart
+engraving. Machines have been invented in recent years which can be used
+for portions of the work on copper plates, as for instance for cutting
+the sounding figures, the bottom characteristics, the border and
+projection lines, border divisions, compasses, line ruling, and stipple
+ruling. Stamps and dies have been successfully used for some symbols and
+notes, and roulettes for shading. By means of these various machines,
+many of which are American inventions, the process of chart publication
+from plates has been materially facilitated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29. ELECTROTYPING PLANT FOR ELECTROTYPING CHART
+PLATES.]
+
+When the plate is completed an alto, or raised copy, is made by
+depositing copper on to it in an electrotype vat, and from this alto
+another basso or sunken copy is made by the same process. This latter
+basso is used in printing. A copper plate may be used for about 3000
+impressions, after which it may become too much worn for satisfactory
+chart printing. By printing from a duplicate basso the original plate is
+preserved and additional copies can be made when needed. The use of the
+alto also greatly facilitates matters when a considerable correction to
+the chart is required. All the portions of the chart to be changed can
+be scraped off the alto, and when a new basso is electrotyped from this
+scraped alto all such areas will of course appear as smooth copper, on
+which the new work can be engraved. Numerous small corrections are
+called for on charts, and on copper plates where these are to replace
+old work the latter is removed either by hammering up the back of the
+plate or by scraping its face.
+
+Printing directly from plates is a laborious process. After the press
+bed has been carefully padded to take up inequalities in the plate, the
+surface of the latter is covered with ink and then carefully wiped off
+by hand, leaving the ink only in the engraved lines. The paper, first
+dampened, is laid on the plate, and passes with it beneath the cylinder
+of the press under considerable pressure. The prints are calendered by
+being placed in a hydraulic press under 600 tons pressure. The charts
+are beautifully clear and sharp, not equalled by other methods of
+printing. Owing to the wetting and drying of the paper, the finished
+print is, however, quite appreciably smaller in scale than the plate,
+and the shrinkage is greater in one direction than in the other. The
+average day's work for one press and two men is 75 prints. This is small
+compared with the output practicable with lithographic presses. On the
+other hand a plate can be prepared for printing more readily than a
+lithographic stone. For small editions the plate printing compares well
+in economy with lithographic printing, and the plate can also be printed
+on short notice. Because of changes in aids to navigation and other
+corrections, it is usually desirable to print at one time only a
+sufficient number of copies of a chart to meet current demands, and not
+to carry a large stock on hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30. PRINTING CHARTS FROM COPPER PLATES; FINAL
+CLEANING OF THE PLATE BY HAND; PLATE PRESS ON THE LEFT.]
+
+The copper plates, bassos, and altos make a very convenient and enduring
+means of preserving the chart ready for printing or for further
+correction. A large number of plates can be placed in a small space, and
+if properly cared for they may be stored indefinitely without
+deterioration.
+
+With plate printing it is not practicable to print more than one
+impression on the chart or to use more than one color, and plate-printed
+charts are therefore in black only.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. LITHOGRAPHING PRESSES FOR PRINTING CHARTS;
+LITHOGRAPH STONE ON TRANSFER PRESS.]
+
+#Engraving on stone.# On the United States Lake Survey the charts are
+first engraved on stone, and by a special process the work is then
+transferred to small copper plates, which are preserved. The final
+publication is by lithography, transferring again from the plates to
+stone.
+
+#Photolithography# is a quick method of publishing a chart. It would be
+practicable by this means to reproduce the original survey sheets, but
+ordinarily these are not suitable as to scale and legibility, and it is
+necessary to make a new drawing, usually on tracing vellum. This is
+photographed on to glass plates, on the scale of the proposed chart.
+From these glass negatives positive prints are made on sensitized
+lithographic paper. These prints are fitted together and then inked,
+taking the ink only where the lines appear. This transfer print is then
+laid face down on the lithographic stone and run through a press under
+pressure, the stone absorbing the ink from the paper. The stone is then
+treated so that the inked portion remains slightly raised, and from this
+stone an indefinite number of charts can be printed in a lithographic
+press at the rate of 1000 an hour. The paper is not moistened, and
+consequently there is little distortion or change of scale in prints
+from stone. If desired to shade the land or use another color for any
+other purpose, additional impressions can be made on the same charts
+from other stones. Because of the bulk of the stones, work cannot
+ordinarily be retained on them, but the chart is cleaned off and the
+stones repeatedly used until worn thin. The original drawing as well as
+the negatives is preserved, from which the chart can again be published.
+For republication, the process is, however, not entirely satisfactory;
+the negatives are not always permanent, the work must again be assembled
+and transferred to the stone, changes or corrections are not very
+conveniently made on either drawing or negative, and after repeated
+changes the drawing becomes difficult to use in photolithography.
+Whether the charts are actually printed from copper or stone, there are
+decided advantages therefore in the matter of correction work and future
+editions in having the charts engraved on copper. On the other hand, the
+advantages of the photolithographic process are the ability to publish
+new drawings promptly, to use more than one shade on a chart, to obtain
+prints with little change of scale or distortion, and to print large
+editions rapidly.
+
+#Lithographic printing by transfer from engraved plates.# An impression
+on transfer paper may be taken from an engraved plate and this laid down
+on the stone in a manner similar to that used in laying down the prints
+from the glass negatives in photolithography. Prints are then made from
+the stone the same as in photolithography, but with superior results as
+to clearness. This general process is extensively used in both map and
+chart publishing in this country, as it combines the advantages of the
+plate in preservation of the chart record and facility of correction,
+and the advantages of the lithographic printing in less distortion of
+the printed chart, ability to print more than one shade, and facility
+for large editions. As the transfer from the plate can be readily made
+it is also better applicable to small editions than is photolithography.
+It is, however, not as convenient in the latter respect as plate
+printing, and it does not give a resulting impression equal in clearness
+or durability to the impression directly from the plate.
+
+#Etching on copper# for chart publication has been recently developed in
+the Coast and Geodetic Survey. A finished tracing is made, the surface
+of a smooth copper plate is sensitized, and by exposure to the sun a
+print is made on the sensitized surface. It is essential to use an
+air-exhausted printing frame so as to get good contact between the
+vellum and the plate. The work is then etched into the copper and the
+plate cleaned and touched up, after which it may be used the same as a
+hand-engraved plate, either for transfer to stone or direct plate
+printing. The expense and time required in the etching process are much
+less than for hand engraving. The process has been successfully used for
+a number of harbor charts. The etching of course will be of the same
+scale as the vellum at the time of the print, and vellum varies somewhat
+in scale with weather conditions and age. Unless overcome by the
+substitution of some more invariable material in place of vellum, this
+might be an obstacle to the use of the process for general charts where
+a true scale on the copper plate is desirable because of future work to
+be done on the plate. It must also be taken into account that the
+etching requires a finished tracing in ink, which is not essential for
+the hand engraver; if, however, the chart is first published by
+photolithography, as is the usual practice in the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey, the same tracing is used for both processes.
+
+#Distribution of charts.# Charts published by the government are sold to
+the public at a small price, estimated to cover the cost of paper and
+printing. The charts may be obtained direct from the publishing office
+or from the chart agents who are to be found in all the principal
+seaports. Catalogues are published from time to time giving complete
+lists of the current charts and the main facts regarding them. Index
+maps show graphically the area covered by each chart. The notices to
+mariners contain announcement of new charts or new editions published
+and of charts or editions cancelled, as well as of all corrections.
+
+
+
+
+CORRECTION OF CHARTS.
+
+
+#Need for revision.# The making of the survey and the printing of the
+chart do not complete the problem of the chart maker. Both nature and
+man are constantly changing the facts the representation of which has
+been attempted on the charts, and also the needs of man are always
+varying. The original surveys are made to meet the reasonable
+requirements of the time, but breakwaters and jetties are built, and
+channels and harbors dredged and otherwise improved, and cities built,
+and new paths of commerce are opened which bring vessels into waters
+previously thought of minor importance.
+
+With the increase of commerce and speed of vessels more direct routes
+are demanded for reasons of economy. Inside routes not originally used
+are sometimes developed for defensive reasons. The average draft of the
+larger vessels has also increased remarkably since the modern
+hydrographic surveys were commenced, and surveys once made to insure
+safety for the deepest vessels of that time are now not adequate. The
+average loaded draft of the 20 largest steamships of the world has
+increased as follows: 1848, 19 feet; 1873, 24 feet; 1898, 29 feet;
+1903, 32 feet. The average length of these vessels was 230 feet in 1848,
+390 feet in 1873, 541 feet in 1898, and 640 feet in 1903. The number of
+vessels drawing as much as 26-1/4 feet rose from 36 in 1902 to 185 in
+1904. In 1906 there were 17 vessels afloat, drawing 32 feet and upwards.
+There are now two steamers on the Atlantic 790 feet long, 88 feet beam,
+and 37-1/2 feet draft when fully loaded, and larger vessels are already
+planned.
+
+Great natural agencies are also constantly at work effecting changes in
+features shown on the charts. The action of currents and waves is
+continually cutting away or building the shore, particularly on sandy
+coasts exposed to storms. When surveyed in 1849 Fishing Point on the
+east coast of Maryland was but a bend in the shore line. By 1887 it had
+built out about two miles in a southerly direction, and in 1902 about
+two-thirds of a mile further, curving to the westward. Altogether in
+about half a century this tongue of land has grown out nearly three
+miles.
+
+Rivers are bearing vast quantities of sediment and depositing these near
+their mouths, pushing out the coast line and filling in the bottom. The
+main mouths of the Mississippi are advancing into the Gulf, but at a
+comparatively slow rate. A break from the main river at Cubit's Gap
+just above the head of the passes, however, has done an enormous amount
+of land making, filling in an area of about 50 square miles between 1852
+and 1905.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. FISHING POINT, MARYLAND, FROM SURVEYS OF 1849
+AND 1902, ILLUSTRATING BUILDING OUT OF A POINT ON THE COAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33. GROWTH OF LAND AT CUBITS GAP, MISSISSIPPI DELTA,
+FROM 1852 to 1905.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34. COLUMBIA RIVER ENTRANCE, SHOWING MOVEMENT OF
+SAND ISLAND, SURVEYS OF 1851, 1870 AND 1905.]
+
+The mouth of the Columbia River in Oregon shows an interesting example
+of the movement of an island. The chart of 1851 shows the center of Sand
+Island 3-1/4 miles southeast of Cape Disappointment, the chart of 1870
+shows it 2-3/4 miles southeast, and the chart of 1905 shows it 1-1/4
+miles easterly. This island has thus moved 2 miles northwesterly
+directly across the middle of the river entrance, closing up the former
+north channel. The southern point of the entrance, Clatsop Spit, has
+built out about the same distance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35. CHANGES IN HAULOVER BREAK, NANTUCKET ISLAND,
+1890 TO 1903.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36. MAPS OF BOGOSLOF ISLAND, 1895 AND 1907, SHOWING
+CHANGES DUE TO VOLCANIC ACTION.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Photo by U. S. R. C. Service._
+
+FIG. 37. BOGOSLOF VOLCANO, BERING SEA.]
+
+Volcanic action in well authenticated cases has caused islands to rise
+or disappear. In the present location of Bogoslof Island in Bering Sea
+the early voyagers described a "sail rock." In this position in 1796
+there arose a high island. In 1883 another island appeared near it. In
+1906 a high cone arose between the two, and a continuous island was
+formed over 1-1/2 miles long and 500 feet high. The latest report
+(September, 1907) was that this central peak had suddenly collapsed and
+disappeared. Bogoslof is an active volcano, and the main changes have
+been the result of violent volcanic action. The history of this island
+for over a century past forms a remarkable record of violent
+transformations in the sea.
+
+Earthquakes sometimes cause sudden displacements, horizontal or
+vertical, of sufficient amount to affect the information shown on the
+charts. A careful investigation of the effects of the earthquake in
+Yakutat Bay, Alaska, in September, 1899, showed that the shore was
+raised in some parts with a maximum uplift of 47 feet and depressed in
+other parts, and that at least two reefs and four islets were raised in
+the water area where none appeared before. Undoubtedly there were
+changes in the water depths, but definite information is lacking because
+there had been no previous hydrographic survey. The San Francisco
+earthquake of 1906 caused little vertical displacement, but there were
+horizontal changes of relative position as much as 16 feet; so far as
+known this earthquake did not affect the practical accuracy of the
+charts. Related to earthquake phenomena are the gradual coast movements
+of elevation or subsidence which are taking place but at so slow a rate
+as not to sensibly affect the charts in ordinary intervals of time.
+
+Another agency at work is the coral polyp on the coral reefs; although
+the rate of growth appears to be very slow, the resulting reefs and keys
+are an important feature in tropical seas.
+
+Practically all of the land features shown on charts are likewise
+subject to changes, the more rapid of which are mainly due to the works
+of man.
+
+The changes of channels and of commercial needs cause many alterations
+to be made from time to time in the lights and buoys which are shown on
+the charts.
+
+#Methods of correction.# The problem of keeping a chart sufficiently up
+to date is one of much practical importance and one which must be taken
+into account in planning what should be shown on the chart in the first
+place so as to bring it within the range of practicable revision.
+
+Certain features are corrected at once on the charts as soon as the
+information is received, such as dangers reported, and changes in lights
+and buoys. Where harbor works are in progress the periodic surveys made
+in this country by the Corps of Engineers furnish data which are applied
+promptly to the charts. Reported dangers in channels and bars are
+investigated by special surveys and the information is put on the
+charts. Examinations are made from time to time for the revision of the
+features along the coast line. Complete resurveys have been made, at
+long intervals, of some important portions of the coast where there has
+been evidence of change, and these, when they become available, are
+applied to the charts. All parts of the coast where the exposed portions
+are not of very permanent material will require resurveys at intervals,
+depending on their importance and the rate of change.
+
+Notwithstanding the great progress made in hydrographic surveys, a
+considerable number of rocks and shoals dangerous to navigation and not
+previously shown on the charts are reported, averaging nearly 400 each
+year for the last six years, according to the British reports. Of the
+367 reported in 1906, 11 were discovered by vessels striking them.
+
+Immediate information in the form of _Notices to Mariners_ is published,
+of the more important corrections to charts which can be made by hand.
+These corrections show what charts are affected, and give sufficient
+data for plotting.
+
+In the case of extensive corrections or new surveys a new edition of the
+chart is printed and all existing copies of the previous edition are
+canceled.
+
+It is important that the user of the chart shall make certain that he
+has the latest edition and that all corrections from its date of issue
+have been applied from the _Notices to Mariners_.
+
+It is unfortunately true that owing to failure to take proper account of
+the notices, or to economy, old editions or unconnected charts are
+sometimes used, and in a number of cases the loss of vessels has been
+directly due to this cause. Those responsible for the safe navigation of
+vessels should insist that the latest editions of charts are provided
+and that all charts to be used are inspected and corrected to date.
+
+
+
+
+READING AND USING CHARTS.
+
+
+#Reading charts.# A chart is a representation on paper of hydrographic
+and topographic information by means of various conventional methods and
+symbols. It is evidently important for those making use of charts to
+understand the system and conventions used, and to be able to interpret
+readily the various parts of the chart. The ability to read a chart must
+include an understanding of all its features, such as scale, projection,
+geographic position, directions, depths, plane of reference, aids to
+navigation, tides, currents, elevations, topography, and date of survey
+and publication.
+
+#Scale.# For American and British charts the scale is usually expressed
+by the inches or fractions of an inch to the minute or degree of
+latitude, or by the fractional proportion of a distance on the map to
+the corresponding distance on the earth. These fractions are sometimes
+stated on the British charts, and nearly always on those of the United
+States Coast Survey. The chart catalogues give the scale in one or the
+other form. A familiarity with the meaning of scales is of value in
+selecting the most suitable chart, in judging of the relative uses of
+charts, and in estimating distances. Where the fractional scales are
+stated they furnish a simple means of comparing charts, as, for
+instance, a chart on 1/50000 scale will show all distances just twice as
+long as a chart on 1/100000 scale.
+
+The following are scale equivalents:
+
+  Scale   1/10000 is equivalent to 7.30 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/20000 is equivalent to 3.65 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/40000 is equivalent to 1.82 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/50000 is equivalent to 1.46 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/80000 is equivalent to 0.91 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/100000 is equivalent to 0.73 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/200000 is equivalent to 0.36 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/400000 is equivalent to 0.18 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale 1/1000000 is equivalent to 0.07 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale 1/1200000 is equivalent to 0.06 inch   to one nautical mile.
+
+For use in measuring distances on large scale charts the length of one
+or more nautical miles is usually drawn on the chart, and sometimes
+scales are also given in other units. On British charts the nautical
+mile scale is divided into tenths (that is, cables of 100 fathoms or 600
+feet length); on the American charts into quarters and eighths. Where
+the scale covers more than one mile the fractional divisions are shown
+only for the left-hand mile and the zero of the scale is placed between
+this and the full mile scale, so that with dividers the full miles and
+fraction may readily be taken off. The nautical mile in the United
+States is taken to be the length of a minute of arc of a great circle on
+a sphere whose surface equals that of the earth; this definition makes
+the nautical mile equal 6080.27 feet. Lecky adopts 6080 feet as the
+nautical mile. The length of the actual minute of latitude on the
+earth's surface increases from 6046 feet at the equator to 6108 feet at
+the poles, an increase of about one per cent. It is, however, this
+somewhat variable unit of length which is ordinarily used in scaling
+distances on the sailing charts.
+
+On small scale charts there is usually a border scale entirely around
+the chart, conveniently subdivided; this serves the double purpose of
+facilitating the plotting or reading of positions by latitude and
+longitude and of furnishing a scale of minutes of latitude for use in
+measuring distances. On a mercator chart this scale of course varies
+with the latitude and it must be referred to in the mean latitude of the
+distance to be measured. In general practice the minute of latitude is
+taken as equal to the nautical mile.
+
+#Projection.# On only a few charts is there a statement of the
+projection used. Practically all general sailing charts are on the
+mercator projection, which can be readily recognized by the rectangular
+network of meridians and parallels and the increase with latitude of the
+distance between the parallels. On large scale local and harbor charts
+the kind of projection used is not of importance to navigation, as for
+such limited areas the difference between projections would not affect
+the use of the chart. On certain small scale charts of the United States
+Coast Survey which are on the polyconic projection this fact is stated
+on the chart, and can also be readily recognized by the convergence of
+the meridians and curvature of the parallels. Gnomonic charts intended
+for taking off great circle courses are always described in their titles
+and are also easily recognized by the increased scale and distortion
+toward all the borders. Charts of the polar regions are published on
+several different projections, which are distinguished from the mercator
+by their circular or curved parallels.
+
+#Geographic position.# For large scale and harbor charts the latitude
+and longitude of some point marked on the chart are sometimes stated on
+the face of the chart. For others of these, however, and for smaller
+scale and general charts, positions are obtained by reference to the
+border scale. There is a latitude scale down either side of the chart,
+and a longitude scale across the top and bottom. These scales are
+conveniently subdivided into degrees, minutes, or fractions of a minute.
+The minute is divided into tenths (6´´), sixths (10´´), quarters (15´´),
+or halves (30´´) on various charts.
+
+#Directions# are indicated on charts both by the projection lines and by
+compass roses. Nearly all charts are now oriented with the meridian,
+that is, north is the top of the chart, and on a mercator chart the east
+and west border lines are parallel with the meridians and the north and
+south border lines with the parallels. Formerly many charts were not so
+oriented. Some of these are still in use and can readily be recognized
+by the diagonal or inclined direction of the projection lines with
+respect to the border of the chart. Of course directions must not be
+referred to the border lines of these diagonal charts, and scales along
+such border lines must not be used. Directions with respect to true
+north may always be referred to the projection lines of the chart, but
+on a polyconic or polar chart a direction must not be carried so far
+from any projection line as to introduce error on account of
+convergence of the meridians. Compass roses are placed on charts to
+facilitate the taking off or laying down of directions, though in some
+respects their use is less accurate and convenient than the use of
+protractors, referring to the projection lines. The British charts and
+many of those of the United States Coast Survey have only magnetic
+compasses, with degrees outside and points inside, the former graduated
+to 90°. These are engraved on the chart with the magnetic variation for
+the date of publication, or for a few years in advance, and give the
+annual change in the variation. Because of expense of engraving they can
+be changed on the charts only at intervals of some years, and until this
+is done allowance for the change in variation is to be made if
+important. The German charts and those of the United States Hydrographic
+Office now have a threefold compass, the outer one degrees true, the
+middle degrees magnetic and the inner points magnetic; the degrees in
+both cases are graduated to 360°, reading from north through east,
+south, and west; thus northwest would be stated as 315° instead of N.
+45° W. Small scale charts covering extensive areas have no magnetic
+compasses. They sometimes have true compasses, and usually have the
+isogonic lines, or lines of equal magnetic variation, marked on them,
+from which the variation at any intermediate point can be estimated.
+
+#Depths.# The unit used for depths is always stated plainly on the
+chart, and it is important to note this carefully, as the British,
+American, and Japanese charts use fathoms for some charts and feet for
+others, and most other countries use meters. Some of the earlier charts
+of the United States coast have the depths inside of the 18-foot curve
+in feet and outside of that curve in fathoms.
+
+Depth curves are shown on charts in order to bring clearly to the eye
+the different depth areas and the limits for navigation of vessels of
+various drafts. The shoaler areas are usually indicated by sanding the
+outer limit or the entire area within the depth curve. For the curves
+of greater depths various standard symbols are used which vary slightly
+in the different series but which may readily be recognized by the
+soundings on either side of them. On the British charts the 1 and 3
+fathom curves are usually indicated by sanding the outer edge of the
+areas of these depths respectively; beyond these the standard curves
+shown on these charts are the 5, 10, 20, and 100 fathom curves. Similar
+curves are used on the United States charts. The German charts show the
+2, 4, 6, 10, and 20 meter and various deeper curves, and the French the
+2, 5, 10, and 20 meter and deeper curves. On the United States Lake
+Survey charts the areas included within the 6, 12, and 18 foot curves
+are shaded with a blue tint, heavy along the outer edge, which brings
+out strongly the shoal areas.
+
+Depth curves if clearly shown are a great aid in interpreting the
+hydrography and making plain the shoals and passages. The system of
+curves should always be understood when using a chart, and it may
+sometimes aid the navigator to trace out with a pencil an additional
+curve, if needed, beyond the draft of his vessel. The abbreviations used
+for the bottom characteristics are explained either on the chart or on
+the sheet of chart symbols, and give information which is useful in
+anchoring, and may be helpful in identifying a position by soundings.
+When a sounding is made without the lead reaching bottom, the depth
+obtained is sometimes shown on the chart by a short line and zero above
+the figure, indicating that at the depth stated, bottom was not obtained
+(no bottom). There are a few important symbols shown in the water area
+of charts. The sunken rock symbol indicates a dangerous area, or a
+danger having a moderate depth of water over it, or a rock the least
+water over which is not known; ordinarily on the United States charts
+the least depth will be stated when known, and the symbol omitted. The
+rock awash symbol indicates a rock awash at some stage of the tide,
+unless more definitely stated. The position of a wreck is indicated by a
+special symbol. P. D. (position doubtful) and E. D. (existence doubtful)
+are placed after soundings or rocks or other features which depend on
+some doubtful report not yet verified.
+
+The following are the relations between depth units found on various
+charts:
+
+  1 meter               = 3.281 English feet = 0.547 English fathoms.
+  1 sajene (Russian)    = 7     English feet = 1.167 English fathoms.
+  1 braza (old Spanish) = 5.484 English feet = 0.914 English fathom.
+  1.829 meters          = 6     English feet = 1.000 English fathom.
+
+#Aids to navigation.# Each series of charts has a definite system of
+representing the aids to navigation; these are similar in principle but
+differ as to detail. The characteristics of the lights, light-vessels,
+buoys, and beacons are usually explained by abbreviations placed by the
+side of each, and the entire system of representation is given on the
+explanatory sheet for the charts. Various methods of coloring lights and
+sectors and buoys are in use on different charts. It is evidently of
+importance that the user of the chart should readily understand the
+significance of the navigational aids as shown. For details regarding
+lights it is of course desirable to refer to the light lists; for the
+coasts of the United States detailed buoy lists are also published.
+Range and channel lines when shown are represented by distinctive
+symbols with bearings indicated. Danger ranges for the avoidance of
+shoals are sometimes shown. On the British charts bearings as stated on
+range and channel lines are magnetic; the custom varies on other charts
+and must be carefully noted in each case.
+
+#Plane of reference.# The soundings given on the chart express the depth
+of water when the tide is at the height adopted for the plane of
+reference; this same plane is used in the tide tables, which thus will
+indicate the amount to be added to the soundings when the tide is above
+the plane, or to be subtracted when it is below. In order to be on the
+safe side the plane of reference adopted is always some low stage of the
+tide, so that there is usually more water than shown on the chart.
+
+On the British and German charts the soundings are reduced to the mean
+low water of ordinary spring tides, unless otherwise stated. On the
+charts of the Coast and Geodetic Survey the following are the planes of
+reference: for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the mean of the low
+waters; for the Pacific coast, Alaska, and the Philippines, the mean of
+the lower low waters, except for Puget Sound and Wrangell Narrows, where
+planes two and three feet lower respectively have been adopted.
+According to the Tide Tables for 1908, at New York (Sandy Hook) the tide
+will fall below the plane of reference on 135 days during the year, but
+the extreme low tide will be only one foot below the plane. At Portland,
+Maine, in 1908, the extreme low water is 2.1 feet below the plane, and
+at San Francisco 1.5 feet. Of course when the tide is below the plane of
+reference the amount must be subtracted from the depths shown on the
+chart.
+
+Strong winds and unusual barometric pressure may have a marked effect on
+the height of tide, so that it may differ appreciably from the predicted
+height, which is of course based on normal conditions. At Baltimore and
+at Willets Point observation shows that a heavy wind may reduce the tide
+four feet below the predicted heights.
+
+#Tides.# Information regarding tides is given on all large scale charts,
+and additional information and predictions may be found in the Tide
+Tables. On the charts of the United States coast there is a small tide
+table giving for the high and low waters the time relations to the
+moon's transit and the height relations to the plane of reference. On
+the British charts there is a brief statement as to the tides either
+at the port on the chart or in the general notes; this ordinarily
+gives the interval in hours and minutes between the moon's meridian
+passage and the time of high water for the periods of full and new moon,
+and also the amount in feet that the spring and neap tides rise above
+the plane of reference, and the range of the neap tide. The following is
+an example of such a tide note: "H. W. F. and C. Campbellton IV^h 0^m.
+Springs rise 10 feet, Neaps 7 feet."
+
+At some important ports information as to the state of the tide is given
+to vessels, either by means of signal balls, or by automatic tidal
+indicators, as at the Narrows in New York Harbor, where a large dial
+shows to passing vessels the height of the tide, and an arrow indicates
+whether it is rising or falling.
+
+The tidal information becomes important and must be considered in
+navigation or in anchoring in waters where the available depth at low
+water approximates the draft of the vessel. In the general use of coast
+charts it is also important to observe the effect of the stage of tide
+on the appearance of many features. Rocks rising some feet above low
+water may be entirely submerged at high water. In some areas the aspect
+may be radically changed between high and low water by the baring of
+extensive shoals or reefs.
+
+#Currents.# Information, when available, as to currents is given either
+by a note or by current arrows placed on the chart at the position of
+observation. Additional information as to certain regions is given in
+the United States Tide Tables. Tidal currents, flood and ebb, and
+currents not due to tidal action are distinguished by symbols, and the
+velocity is given in knots, and on some charts is indicated by the
+lengths of the arrows.
+
+Complete and systematic current observations have been made in
+comparatively few localities because of the time and expense necessary
+to get the full information as to the variations of the currents with
+the tides and seasons. Ordinarily therefore the current arrows shown on
+charts indicate only the average direction and velocity, or possibly
+only the conditions existing at the season when the survey was made.
+Oceanic and coast currents are probably much less uniform than might be
+inferred from the current streams drawn on maps and charts. A more
+systematic investigation of ocean currents is required to fulfill the
+needs of navigation.
+
+The tidal currents seldom turn with the tides, and there may be an
+interval of as much as three hours between the time of high tide or
+low tide and slack water. This leads to the apparent anomaly that in
+cases the current may be running with its greatest velocity at the time
+of high or low water, and may be running into a channel for several
+hours after the tide commences to fall. It is therefore, evidently, not
+safe to draw inferences as to currents solely from the tidal heights.
+
+There are passages where the tidal currents become of the greatest
+importance to navigation, as, for instance, in Seymour Narrows on the
+inside route to Alaska, where the current velocity reaches 12 knots and
+the interval of apparent slack water lasts but a few minutes.
+
+#Elevations.# The unit used for elevations is also stated on the face of
+the chart, as also the plane to which elevations are referred. On the
+United States charts this is generally mean high water and on British
+charts the high water of ordinary spring tides. Rocks and islets usually
+have figures shown beside them, either in brackets or underscored, which
+indicate the height above high water. Rocks which are bare at low water
+sometimes have a note "dries" or "bares" so many feet, indicating their
+height above low tide, although they are covered at high tide. The
+British charts in some regions where there is a large range of tide have
+underlined figures in the area between high water and low water
+indicating the heights above low water, or the depths of water over the
+bank at high water, as explained in each case.
+
+#Topography.# The land area on most charts is distinguished from the
+water area by a stipple or tint; on some charts the topographic features
+have, however, been depended upon to bring out the land from the water.
+The solid shore line is the high-water line, and should be clear on the
+chart; the area between high and low water is sanded or otherwise shaded
+on all charts. The relief of the land is represented by hill shading or
+by contour lines which are the successive curves of elevation on the
+land. Topographic symbols are used for some of the more important
+features, such as cliffs, rocky ledges, buildings, bridges, trees,
+roads, etc. It is important for the navigator to understand the
+significance of the hill representation and the symbols, as they will
+aid him in recognizing a coast or island, and in identifying landmarks.
+
+#Date of survey and publication.# There is usually an authority note on
+each chart showing the source of information or date of survey; if on a
+coast subject to change, the latter is important. On the United States
+Coast Survey charts the date of publication of the edition is given,
+and on British and other charts the date of both large and small
+corrections. The chart catalogues give the dates of the last editions,
+or the dates of extensive corrections, and this affords a means of
+seeing whether the copy of the chart in use is the latest edition
+available.
+
+
+
+
+USE OF CHARTS IN NAVIGATION.
+
+
+#Chart working.# In crossing the open and deep portions of the ocean,
+where the only data given may be the projection lines and soundings far
+deeper than can be reached with navigational sounding machines, the
+chart is used to lay out in advance the general course to be followed
+and to plot the positions of the vessel at intervals either as
+determined by observations or, lacking these, by dead reckoning. When
+necessary the courses of the vessel are modified as the plotted
+positions are found to fall one side or the other of the proposed
+general track.
+
+The principal operations on a chart are plotting or taking off positions
+by latitude and longitude, laying down or taking off bearings,
+directions, and courses, plotting or measuring distances, and laying
+down or taking off angles.
+
+To plot a position by its latitude and longitude on a mercator chart,
+set a parallel ruler on the adjacent parallel and then move it to the
+required latitude as shown by the border scale at either side; then with
+a pair of dividers at the upper or lower longitude border scale take the
+distance from the nearest meridian and lay this distance off along the
+edge of the parallel ruler. The latitude and longitude of a point are
+taken from the chart by reversing this process, or with the dividers
+only. A direction is laid down on the chart or read from the chart
+preferably by using some form of protractor and measuring the angle from
+the projection lines. In this country it is more commonly done by
+carrying the direction with a parallel ruler either from or to a compass
+rose printed on the chart. Distances are measured or laid down on a
+mercator chart by using the latitude border scale for the middle
+latitude. On polyconic and other larger scale charts distances are
+measured from the scales printed on the chart. It should be remarked
+that in general where special accuracy is required distances should be
+computed and not scaled from any chart, because of the error due to the
+distortion of paper in printing.
+
+The use of protractors on charts in plotting by angles in the
+three-point problem will be referred to later.
+
+The course to be steered to allow for a set due to current or wind may
+be obtained by a graphical solution on the chart, though it will be
+preferable to do this on other paper, using a larger scale. (Fig. 38.)
+The direction and velocity of the set and the course and speed of the
+ship may be considered as two sides of a parallelogram of forces, of
+which the diagonal is the distance and course made good. To obtain the
+course to steer to reach a given point with a given current and speed of
+vessel, lay down the direction of the destination; from the starting
+point lay off the direction of set and the amount in one hour; from the
+extremity of this describe an arc with radius equal to the speed of the
+vessel in one hour. A line drawn from the extremity of the direction of
+set to the point of intersection of the arc and the course to be made
+good will give the direction of the course to be steered, and the point
+of intersection will also be the estimated position of the vessel at the
+end of the hour's run.
+
+#Methods of locating a vessel.# The principal methods used for locating
+the position of a vessel are by astronomical observations, by dead
+reckoning, by compass bearings, by ranges, by horizontal angles, by
+soundings, by vertical angles, and by sound. The full discussion of
+these methods pertains to navigation and pilotage, and they will be only
+briefly referred to here as to their graphical application to charts.
+
+#Astronomical methods.# There are a number of methods of obtaining the
+position of a vessel by astronomical observations. When the position is
+computed the chart enters into these only in the plotting of the final
+result, so that with one exception these methods will not be referred to
+further here.
+
+The elegant method discovered by an American seaman, Captain Sumner, in
+1843, is in part graphical, to be worked out upon the chart. This method
+is based on the obvious fact that at any instant there is a point on the
+earth having the sun in its zenith and which is the center of circles on
+the earth's surface along the circumference of any one of which the
+sun's altitude is the same at all points. A short portion of such a
+circle may be considered as a straight line and can be determined by
+locating one point and its direction, or two points in it. This is known
+as a Sumner line. (Fig. 39.)
+
+From an observation of the sun's altitude and azimuth and an assumed
+latitude a position is computed and plotted and a line drawn on the
+chart through this position at right angles to the azimuth of the sun as
+taken from the azimuth tables and laid off from a meridian. Another
+method is to compute positions with two assumed latitudes and plot the
+two resulting positions and draw a line through them. The vessel must be
+somewhere on the resulting Sumner line. A good determination may be
+obtained by the intersection of two Sumner lines obtained from two
+observations of the sun with sufficient interval so that there will be a
+change of azimuth of as much as 30 degrees to give a fair intersection.
+Allowance must be made for the movement of the vessel between the two
+observations by drawing a line parallel to the first and at a distance
+equal to the distance made good. An excellent intersection may be
+obtained by observation of the sun, and before or after it of a star in
+the twilight at a different azimuth.
+
+[Illustration: COURSE TO ALLOW FOR SET, GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
+
+FIG. 38.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY INTERSECTION OF SUMNER LINES
+
+FIG. 39.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY COMPASS BEARINGS
+
+FIG. 40.]
+
+Even a single Sumner line, however, furnishes valuable information, as
+it may be combined with other sources of information to obtain an
+approximation to the position. The vessel must be somewhere on this
+line, and this gives a good check on the position by dead reckoning, or
+an intersection may be obtained with a line or bearing of a distant land
+object, or a line of soundings may be compared on the chart with the
+Sumner line.
+
+If an observation is taken when the observed heavenly body is bearing
+abeam, it is evident that the resulting Sumner line will be the
+direction of the course of the vessel, and this fact may be useful in
+shaping the course when nearing the land or a danger.
+
+#Dead reckoning.# When impossible to obtain the position by any other
+means, it is computed or plotted from the last determined position,
+using the courses and distances run as shown by compass and log and
+allowing for effect of current and wind. Because of uncertainties in all
+these elements, positions so obtained may be from five to twenty miles
+in error in a two-hundred-mile run, depending of course to some extent
+on the speed of the vessel.
+
+#Compass bearings.# A compass bearing of a single object, as a
+lighthouse or a tangent to a point of land, laid down on the chart,
+shows that the vessel is somewhere on that line, and when combined with
+other information, as with a Sumner line or the course by dead reckoning
+or the distance by a vertical angle, will give a position whose
+correctness of course depends on the accuracy of the data used. Bearings
+of two objects not in the same direction give two lines on the chart
+whose intersection is the position. This will be very weak if the angle
+of intersection is acute, and will become stronger as it approaches a
+right angle. A bearing of a third object should be taken when
+practicable, as it affords a valuable check in that the three lines
+should intersect in the same point; if they do not do so when plotted
+the error is either in the observations, or the compass, or the
+plotting, or the chart. (Fig. 40). All compass bearings are of course
+dependent upon the accuracy of the compass and the knowledge of its
+errors due to the local magnetic effect of the ship, and also upon the
+correctness with which the magnetic variation from true north is known.
+Bearings of near objects should therefore always be preferred, and those
+of distant objects considered as giving only approximate positions. An
+error of one degree in the bearing of an object 30 miles away will
+deflect the plotted line about one-half mile. Because of the facility
+with which they may be taken compass bearings are much used for inshore
+navigation, but in point of reliability they are inferior to some of the
+other methods.
+
+A single or "danger" bearing of an object is often a valuable guide in
+avoiding a danger. For example, a reef may lie to the westward of a line
+drawn South 10° East from a lighthouse; in approaching a vessel will
+pass safely to the eastward of the reef if the lighthouse is not allowed
+to bear any to the northward of North 10° West. (Fig. 41.)
+
+Two successive bearings of a single object, as, for instance, a
+lighthouse, noting the distance run in the interval, afford a convenient
+and much used means of locating the position with respect to that
+object. Such bearings are drawn on the chart in reversed direction from
+the object. The distance run between the bearings, as read by the log
+and corrected for current if practicable, is scaled off with dividers
+and the course of the vessel is set off with parallel ruler; the latter
+is then moved across the two plotted directions until the distance
+intercepted between them equals that scaled with the dividers, and the
+edge of the ruler then represents the track of the vessel. (Fig. 42.) If
+the angle from the bow, or from the course of the vessel, for the second
+bearing is double that for the first bearing, the distance from the
+object at the second bearing is equal to that run by the vessel in the
+interval, and the use of this simple relation is designated as "doubling
+the angle on the bow." If the angles between the course and the object
+are respectively 45° and 90° when the two bearings are taken on an
+object on the shore, the distance that the ship passes offshore when the
+object is abeam is equal to the distance run between the two bearings;
+this is a much used navigational device, known as the "bow and beam
+bearing" or the "four-point bearing." There is an advantage, however, in
+using bearings at two and four points (or 22.5° and 45°), as these give
+the probable distance that the object will be passed before it is abeam.
+
+#Ranges.# A valuable line of position is obtained by noting when two
+well-situated objects are in range, that is, one back of the other in
+the line of sight from the vessel, as, for instance, a church spire
+appearing behind a lighthouse or a rock in line with a prominent point.
+Such ranges are of course entirely free from compass errors, and should
+be noted whenever there is favorable opportunity. The value of the range
+in plotting will increase with the distance between the objects, and if
+the two are close in proportion to the distance to the vessel the
+direction will be weak owing to the uncertainty in drawing a direction
+through close points. Artificial ranges are often erected as aids to
+navigation, usually to indicate the course to be followed in passing
+through a channel. Ranges afford a valuable guide in avoiding dangers,
+as for example an inspection of the chart may show that if a certain
+lighthouse is kept in line with or open from an islet a dangerous shoal
+will be given a good berth; on coasts not well buoyed such danger ranges
+are sometimes marked on the charts. (Fig. 43.)
+
+[Illustration: DANGER BEARING
+
+FIG. 41.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY SUCCESSIVE BEARINGS TWO AND FOUR POINT
+BEARINGS
+
+FIG. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: RANGE TO AVOID DANGER
+
+FIG. 43.]
+
+#Horizontal sextant angles.# The location of a position by the
+three-point problem, using sextant angles, is much more exact than by
+bearings, but is less used because not so well known and also because
+additional instruments are required and the conditions are not always
+favorable. It is so valuable a method, however, that it should be used,
+when necessary, on every well-equipped vessel. A single horizontal angle
+taken with a sextant between objects, as two lighthouses, defines the
+position of the vessel as somewhere on the circumference of a circle
+passing through the two objects and the vessel. A protractor laid on the
+chart with two of its arms set at the observed angle and passing through
+the two objects, will permit of locating two or more points of this
+circle on the chart. This furnishes a line of position which may be
+combined with other information to locate the vessel. With a compass
+bearing of one of the objects the position may be plotted directly from
+the single angle. Two sextant angles measured at the same instant
+between three objects furnish one of the most accurate means of locating
+the position of a vessel, this being the same method that is ordinarily
+used in hydrographic surveying, known as the three-point problem. (Fig.
+44.) The two angles are conveniently set off on a three-arm protractor,
+which is shifted on the chart until the three arms touch the three
+points, when the position of the center is plotted. A third angle to a
+fourth point furnishes a valuable check in case of doubt. Two angles may
+also be taken to four objects without any common point, and in this case
+portions of the two circles of position are plotted and their
+intersection will be the ship's position.
+
+The value of this method depends largely on the selection of favorably
+located objects, and it is quite important that the principles of the
+three-point problem be understood. If the ship is on or near the
+circumference of a circle which passes through the three objects the
+position will be very weak, and the same is true if the distance between
+any two of the objects is small as compared with the distance from them
+to the vessel. A useful general rule is that the position will be strong
+if the middle one of the three objects is the nearest to the vessel,
+provided that no two of the objects are close together in comparison
+with the distance to the vessel.
+
+A single sextant angle furnishes a means of avoiding a known danger by
+using what is known as the horizontal "danger angle." (Fig. 45.) Note
+two well-defined objects on the coast either side of the danger to be
+avoided and describe a circle through them and passing sufficiently
+outside of the reef to give it a safe berth. With a protractor on the
+chart note the angle between the objects at any point on the outer part
+of this circle. If in passing, the angle at the ship between the two
+objects is not allowed to become greater than this "danger angle" the
+danger will be given a sufficient berth. This method as well as any use
+of sextant angles or bearings depends of course on the accuracy of the
+chart, and caution must be used where it is not certain that the chart
+depends upon an accurate survey.
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY SEXTANT ANGLES THREE POINT PROBLEM
+
+FIG. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: HORIZONTAL DANGER ANGLE
+
+FIG. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: DISTANCE BY VERTICAL ANGLE]
+
+[Illustration: VERTICAL DANGER ANGLE
+
+FIG. 46.]
+
+#Soundings.# Even if objects cannot be seen, due to distance or thick
+weather, the chart furnishes a valuable aid when a vessel has approached
+within the limits where it is practicable to obtain soundings. Modern
+navigational sounding machines permit of obtaining soundings to depths
+of nearly one hundred fathoms without stopping the vessel. A rough check
+is at once obtained by comparing such soundings with those given on the
+chart for the position carried forward by dead reckoning. If a number of
+soundings are taken and plotted on a piece of tracing paper, spaced by
+the log readings to the scale of the chart, and this tracing paper is
+laid over the chart and shifted in the vicinity of the probable position
+until the soundings best agree with those on the chart, a valuable
+verification of position may be obtained. This is particularly the case
+if the area has been well surveyed, and the soundings taken on the
+vessel are accurate, and the configuration of the bottom has marked
+characteristics. For instance, in approaching New York the crossing of
+the 30, 20, and 10 fathom curves will give a fair warning of the
+distance off the Long Island and New Jersey coasts, and soundings across
+such a feature as the submerged Hudson gorge extending to the
+southeastward of Sandy Hook will give a valuable indication of position.
+The taking of soundings should be resorted to even in favorable
+conditions, in approaching shoal water, as a check on other means of
+locating the vessel. Many marine disasters are attributed to failure to
+make sufficient use of the lead, the simplest of navigational aids.
+
+#Vertical angles.# The vertical angle of elevation of an object whose
+height is known will give the distance, and combined with a bearing or
+other information this permits of locating a vessel where better means
+cannot be used. Distance tables are published for this method. (Fig.
+46.) The vertical angle is measured with a sextant and must be the angle
+at the ship between the top of the object and the sea level vertically
+beneath it; for a hill or mountain, therefore, the eye of the observer
+should be near the water. The object should not be so distant that
+curvature becomes appreciable. The "vertical danger angle" is a means of
+avoiding a known danger, on a principle similar to that of the
+horizontal danger angle; that is, the angle of elevation of a known
+object is not permitted to become greater than a fixed amount depending
+on the distance from the object to the danger to be avoided.
+
+#Positions by sound.# In thick weather sound affords a valuable aid to
+the navigator. In narrow passages noting the echo of the whistle from a
+cliff is a method resorted to, as for instance in Puget Sound and along
+the Alaska coast. Fog whistles and bell buoys are maintained at many
+places. Submarine bells have recently been introduced at a number of
+points along the Atlantic coast, and vessels may be equipped to receive
+these submarine signals transmitted through the water, which indicate
+also the general direction from which the sound comes.
+
+#Need of vigilance.# Too great importance cannot be attached to frequent
+verification of positions by the best available means, particularly when
+approaching the land. Neglect of this or overconfidence has caused many
+disasters. A notable instance was the loss of one of the largest Pacific
+steamers on the coast of Japan in March, 1907. In the afternoon of a
+clear day this vessel ran on to a well-known reef about a mile from a
+lighthouse, resulting in the total loss of vessel and cargo valued at
+three and a half million dollars. The captain was so confident of his
+position and that he was giving the reef a sufficient berth that he laid
+down no bearings on the chart and took no soundings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47. FIELD'S PROTRACTOR AND PARALLEL RULER IN USE ON
+A CHART, PLOTTING BEARING OF A LIGHTHOUSE.]
+
+#Instruments.# The principal instruments needed for use with charts are;
+dividers for taking off distances and latitudes and longitudes, parallel
+ruler for transferring directions to or from a compass rose and for
+taking off or plotting the latitude on a mercator chart, protractor of
+180 degrees for reading the angle with the meridian of any direction or
+for laying off on the chart any given angle with the meridian, and
+three-arm or other full-circle protractor for plotting a position by the
+three-point problem.
+
+Parallel rulers on the principle of Field's are strongly recommended for
+chart work, as they combine in a single instrument the advantages of a
+parallel ruler and a 180-degree protractor. Any direction can be read or
+laid off by simply moving the parallel ruler to the nearest projection
+line, which is a process not only more convenient than referring to the
+compass rose printed on the chart but also more accurate because of the
+longer radius. These instruments can also be used the same as a plain
+parallel ruler. Field's parallel rulers are made in two forms, one
+rolling and the other sliding. The former is a single ruler with edge
+graduated 90 degrees either way, and mounted on rollers; it is the most
+rapid instrument for reading or laying off a direction, but it requires
+a smooth surface. The latter is an ordinary two-bar parallel ruler with
+edge when closed graduated 90 degrees either way; it is a very
+serviceable instrument and probably more to be depended upon for
+ordinary use than the rolling form. Some form of combined protractor and
+parallel ruler should be in every navigational equipment, and it is
+unfortunate that these instruments are not better known in this country.
+There are other forms of half-circle protractors which are used on the
+same principle, that is, of bringing the center on to a projection line
+and reading where the line cuts the border graduation of the protractor.
+Thus a semicircular protractor is used with a separate straight edge,
+along which it is slid to the nearest meridian; another form is the
+simple circular protractor with a thread fastened at the center. All
+these forms of protractors, it will be noted, are intended to work from
+the true meridian, and they are usually graduated in degrees only; the
+use of degrees instead of points is becoming much more general in
+navigational work, and reference to the true meridian is also more
+common than formerly.
+
+The standard three-arm protractor, or station pointer, as it is known to
+the English, should be a part of every navigational outfit because of
+its value in locating a position by the three-point problem. A recent
+American invention, Court's three-arm protractor, is an instrument made
+of celluloid for the same purpose. It should not be considered as a
+substitute for the standard metal instrument, but it is a simple, cheap,
+and handy supplement to it, as it may be readily used for small angles
+and short distances where there are mechanical difficulties in working
+with the metal three-arm protractor. Other protractors can be used for
+the three-point problem, as, for instance, Cust's protractor on
+celluloid, on which the angles are drawn in pencil and erased, and the
+tracing-paper protractor.
+
+#Degree of reliance on charts.# The value of a chart must not be judged
+alone from its general appearance, as skill in preparation and
+publication may give a handsome appearance to an incomplete survey. On
+the other hand a thorough survey might through poor preparation result
+in a chart defective either in information or in utility.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48. THREE-ARM PROTRACTOR IN USE ON A CHART, PLOTTING
+POSITION FROM TWO ANGLES.]
+
+The degree of completeness of the soundings, the character of the
+region, and the date of the survey should be taken into account in
+deciding as to the amount of reliance to be placed on the chart. Areas
+where the soundings are not distributed with fair uniformity may be
+assumed not to have been completely surveyed. Caution should be used in
+navigating on charts where the survey is not complete, and even where
+careful surveys exist care must be taken if the bottom is of very
+irregular nature with lumps near the navigable depth, as for instance on
+some of the coral reef coasts. Isolated soundings shoaler than the
+surrounding depths should be avoided, as there may be less water than
+shown. In such a region, unless the whole area is dragged, it is
+impossible to make it entirely certain that all obstructions are
+charted.
+
+While an immense amount of faithful work has been put into the
+preparation of many charts, the user must constantly exercise his own
+judgment as to the reliance to be placed on them. A coast is not to be
+considered as clear unless it is shown to be; buoys may get adrift and
+be in a different position or be gone altogether; fog signals vary in
+distinctness owing to atmospheric conditions; extreme or unusual tides
+may fall below the plane of reference; owing to strong winds the actual
+tide may differ from the predicted tide. Errors sometimes creep in from
+various sources, such as those due to different reference longitudes or
+the use of a corrected longitude for a portion of the chart without
+changing other positions to which the same correction is applicable;
+clerical and printing errors may occur; there are sometimes omissions in
+surveys; a feature may get plotted in two different positions; tide rips
+are reported as breakers and floating objects as rocks or islands, and
+thus many dangers have gotten on the charts which cannot be found again,
+and false reports are sometimes made to shield some one from blame. Most
+of these classes of errors and uncertainties, however, disappear in the
+use of charts of a thoroughly surveyed coast.
+
+#Use the latest editions of charts.# The latest edition of a chart
+should always be used and should be corrected for all notices since its
+issue. Carelessness or false economy in not providing the largest scale
+or the latest chart has been the cause of more than one marine disaster.
+
+The British Board of Trade issue the following official notice to
+shipowners and agents: "The attention of the Board of Trade has
+frequently been called to cases in which British vessels have been
+endangered or wrecked through the masters' attempting to navigate them
+by means of antiquated or otherwise defective charts. The Board of Trade
+desires, therefore, to direct the especial attention of shipowners and
+their agents to the necessity of seeing that the charts taken or sent on
+board their ships are corrected to the time of sailing. Neglect to
+supply a ship with proper charts will be brought prominently before the
+Court of Inquiry in the event of a wreck occurring from that cause."
+
+The following is a translation of a notice in the preface to the
+catalogue of charts published by the German government: "Owners and
+masters of vessels are apprised that cases of marine accidents in which
+the casualty was due to antiquated or erroneous charts, have frequently
+been before the admiralty courts. In consequence of this, the
+'Instructions for the prevention of accidents to steamers and sailing
+vessels,' issued by the Seeberufsgenossenschaft have been amended by the
+following additional paragraph: 'It is obligatory upon every master,
+except when engaged in local coastwise navigation, to keep the Notices
+to Mariners regularly, and with the aid of them to carefully keep his
+charts up to date.'"
+
+The British shipping laws provide that a ship may not be sent to sea in
+such an unseaworthy state that the life of any person is thereby
+endangered, and the House of Lords has defined the term "seaworthy" to
+mean "in a fit state as to repairs, equipment, and crew, and in all
+other respects, to encounter the ordinary perils of the voyage." Proper
+charts and sailing directions are a necessary part of the equipment of a
+vessel, and the courts have frequently inquired into this.
+
+The records of the British courts, however, show that even in recent
+years many ships have been damaged or lost owing directly or indirectly
+to failure to have the latest information on board. The following are
+instances from these records.
+
+In 1890 the steamer _Dunluce_ was lost owing to the use of an old
+edition of the Admiralty chart which showed a depth of 4-1/2 fathoms on
+the Wikesgrund, whereas the later chart showed much less water. In this
+case the master had requested his ship chandler to send him the latest
+chart.
+
+In 1891 the steamer _St. Donats_ got ashore on a patch which was not
+shown on the chart in use, which was privately published in 1881; the
+danger was, however, shown on the Admiralty chart corrected to 1889.
+
+Also in 1891 the steamer _Trent_ was lost on the Missipezza Rock in the
+Adriatic. The ship was navigated by a private chart published in 1890
+which did not show this rock, and by sailing directions published in
+1866.
+
+The steamer _Aboraca_, stranded in the Gulf of Bothnia in 1894, was
+being navigated by a chart corrected to 1881 which did not show that the
+Storkallagrund light-vessel had been moved eight miles.
+
+The steamer _Ravenspur_ was lost on Bilbao Breakwater owing to the use
+of a chart not up to date which did not show the breakwater. In 1898 the
+steamer _Cromarty_ was lost in attempting to enter Ponta Delgada harbor,
+and in 1901 the steamer "Dinnington" was lost by steaming on to the new
+breakwater in Portland harbor; both of these disasters were likewise due
+to the use of old charts which did not show the breakwaters. In these
+three cases the masters of the vessels had authority to obtain the
+necessary charts at the owners' expense.
+
+Not so, however, in the following case from the finding of a British
+marine court in 1877: "The primary cause of the ship's getting on shore
+was due to the master's being guided in his navigation by an obsolete
+Admiralty chart dated September 1, 1852, and corrected to April, 1862,
+and on which no lights are shown to exist either in ... or ... and to
+his not being supplied with the latest sailing directions. The Court,
+considering that the master was obliged to furnish himself with
+chronometer, barometer, sextant, charts, sailing directions, and
+everything necessary for the navigation of his vessel out of his private
+resources, which, under very favorable circumstances, might perhaps
+reach £150 a year, find themselves unable in this instance to pass a
+heavier censure upon him than that he be severely reprimanded."
+
+The loss of the German steamer _Baker_ on the coast of Cuba on January
+31, 1908, was declared by the marine court at Hamburg to be due in part
+to the use of an unofficial chart which did not show the latest surveys
+on that coast.
+
+#Use the largest scale charts.# The largest scale chart available should
+be employed when entering channels, bays, or harbors, as it gives
+information with more clearness and detail, positions may be more
+accurately plotted, and sometimes it is the first corrected for new
+information.
+
+The records of the courts of inquiry also show cases where vessels have
+been wrecked owing to the use of charts of too small scale.
+
+In 1890 the steamer _Lady Ailsa_ was lost on the Plateau du Four. The
+only chart on board for this locality was a general chart of the Bay of
+Biscay, and the stranding was due to the master's mistaking one buoy for
+another. The court found that the chart, although a proper one for
+general use, was not sufficient for the navigation of a vessel in such
+narrow waters and on such a dangerous coast.
+
+The _Zenobia_ was stranded on the San Thomé Bank in 1891. On this vessel
+the owners were to furnish the chronometers and the master the charts
+and sailing directions. The master was, however, apparently satisfied
+with only a general chart of the South Atlantic for navigation on the
+coast of Brazil, and had no sailing directions at all.
+
+#The depth curves# on charts furnish a valuable guide, and if the curves
+are lacking or broken in some parts it is usually a sign that the
+information is incomplete. The 100-fathom curve is a general warning of
+approach to the coast. The 10-fathom curve on rocky coasts should be
+considered as a danger curve, and caution used after crossing it. The
+5-fathom curve is the most important for modern vessels of medium draft,
+as it indicates for them the practical limit of navigation. The 3, 2,
+and 1-fathom curves are a guide to smaller vessels, but have less
+significance than formerly because of the increase of draft of vessels.
+
+#The shrinkage of paper#, especially in plate printing, has been
+referred to. This introduces two possible sources of error: first, the
+shrinkage being different in the two directions, any scale printed on
+the chart will be accurate only when used in a direction parallel to
+itself; second, for the same reason, angles and directions will be
+somewhat distorted. Fortunately these errors are not serious in the
+ordinary navigational use of a chart, but they should not be overlooked
+when accurate plotting or measuring of distances is attempted on a
+plate-printed chart.
+
+The actual shrinkage measured on charts printed from plates varies from
+1/3 inch to 1 inch in a length of chart of 36 inches. On British and
+American plate printed charts the shrinkage is usually from two to
+nearly three times as much in one direction as it is in the other.
+
+#Care of charts.# In order that they may be properly used charts should
+be filed flat and not rolled. They should be systematically arranged so
+that the desired chart can be instantly found. They should be cared for
+and when in bad condition replaced by new copies. They can be most
+conveniently filed in shallow drawers, thus avoiding the placing of many
+charts in a single drawer. The latter is a common fault; it not only
+increases the labor of handling the charts but adds to the liability of
+their injury.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL CHARTS.
+
+
+There are several publications in book and in chart form which are
+either necessary or convenient for use in connection with nautical
+charts. These comprise the coast pilots, notices to mariners, tide
+tables, light and buoy lists, and various special charts.
+
+#Coast pilots#, or sailing directions, are books giving descriptions of
+the main features, as far as of interest to seamen, of the coast and
+adjacent waters, with directions for navigation. They contain much
+miscellaneous information of value to the mariner, especially the
+stranger. Although they contain additional facts which cannot be shown
+on the charts, they are not at all intended to supersede the latter; the
+mariner should in general rely on the charts. The sailing directions can
+be less readily corrected than the charts, and in all cases where they
+differ the charts are to be taken as the guide.
+
+The most extensive series of sailing directions is that published by the
+British Admiralty, comprising fifty-six volumes and including all the
+navigable regions of the world. In the United States the Coast and
+Geodetic Survey publishes ten volumes of coast pilots for the Atlantic,
+Gulf, and Pacific coasts, Porto Rico, and southeastern Alaska, and eight
+volumes of sailing directions for Alaska and the Philippine Islands. The
+United States Hydrographic Office publishes sixteen volumes of sailing
+directions for various parts of the world.
+
+#Notices to Mariners# are published at frequent intervals, giving all
+important corrections, which should be at once applied by hand to the
+charts, such as rocks or shoals discovered and lights and buoys
+established or moved. New charts, new editions, and canceled charts are
+also announced.
+
+These notices should be carefully examined and the necessary corrections
+made on all charts of the sets in use on the vessel. A chart should be
+considered as a growing rather than a finished instrument, and constant
+watchfulness is required to see that it is kept up to date. Neglect of
+this may cause shipwreck, as the following instance shows. Report came
+to Manila in 1904 that there was a low sand islet lying off the very
+poorly charted northeast coast of Samar; this information was promptly
+published in the local Notice to Mariners. About a month later a small
+steamer was sent to land some native constabulary on that coast. The
+captain failed to obtain or observe this notice, and approached the
+coast before daylight on a course which led directly across the sand
+islet. The vessel was driven far up on the sand, where it still lies.
+
+In the United States, weekly Notices to Mariners are published by the
+Department of Commerce and Labor for the coasts under the jurisdiction
+of the United States, and by the Navy Department for all regions. These
+notices are distributed free and can be obtained from chart agents and
+consular officers. In Great Britain the notices are published at
+frequent intervals by the Hydrographic Office, and practically all
+countries issuing charts also issue such notices. Information as to
+important changes in lights and other announcements of navigational
+interest are also sometimes printed in the marine columns of newspapers
+and in nautical periodicals.
+
+#Tide Tables.# Brief information as to the time and height of the tide
+is usually for convenience given on the face of the chart. More complete
+information is published in the Tide Tables, with which every navigator
+should be provided. "The Tide Tables for United States and foreign
+ports," published annually in advance by the United States Coast and
+Geodetic Survey, give complete predictions of the time and height of
+high and low water for each day of the year for 70 of the principal
+ports of the world, and the tidal differences from some principal port
+for 3000 subordinate ports. The other leading nations also publish
+annual tide tables; those of the British government are entitled "Tide
+Tables for British and Irish ports, and also the times of high water for
+the principal places on the globe."
+
+#Light and buoy lists.# Brief information as to all artificial aids to
+navigation is shown on the charts. Every vessel should also have on
+board the latest official light and buoy lists, which give a more
+detailed description than can be placed on the charts.
+
+Light and buoy lists for the coasts of the United States are published
+annually by the Light-House Board. The United States Hydrographic Office
+publishes a "List of Lights of the World" (excepting the United States),
+in three volumes.
+
+The British Hydrographic Office publishes eight volumes of Lists of
+Lights, and these are corrected annually.
+
+#Chart catalogues# are published in connection with all series of
+charts. They give the particulars and price of each chart published, and
+are usually arranged in geographical order, with both alphabetical and
+numerical indexes, for convenience in finding charts either by position,
+name, or number.
+
+#Charts for special purposes.# There are various special charts
+published for the benefit of mariners, although not intended for direct
+use in plotting the course of a vessel or in locating its position. Some
+of the more important of these are mentioned below.
+
+#Gnomonic charts# are intended solely for laying down the great circle
+or shortest practicable courses between points, for which purpose they
+are very convenient. Their use has already been described. The United
+States Hydrographic Office publishes six such charts, for the North
+Atlantic, South Atlantic, Pacific, North Pacific, South Pacific, and
+Indian Oceans.
+
+#Current charts# are published by the British Hydrographic Office for
+the various oceans; these usually show the average ocean currents, but
+for the Atlantic there are monthly and for the Pacific quarterly current
+charts.
+
+#Magnetic variation charts# are published by both the United States and
+British governments. They show on a mercator chart of the world the
+isogonic lines, or lines along which the variation of the needle from
+true north is the same. The lines are drawn for each degree of
+variation. The annual change in the variation is also indicated.
+
+Other magnetic charts are published showing the lines of equal magnetic
+dip, horizontal magnetic force, and vertical magnetic force.
+
+#Meteorological ocean charts# are published by several governments,
+including the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, and give the
+average weather conditions, winds, fogs, currents, ice, tracks of
+storms, and other information. "Pilot charts" of the North Atlantic and
+North Pacific Oceans are issued by the United States Hydrographic Office
+about the first of each month, and give "a forecast of the weather for
+the ensuing and a review of that for the preceding month, together with
+all obtainable information as to the most available sailing and steam
+routes, dangers to navigation, ice, fog, derelicts, etc., and any
+additional information that may be received of value to navigation."
+Mariners in all parts of the world have joined in contributing the
+information which has been used in compiling these pilot charts.
+
+#Track charts# are published by the British and United States
+governments. That of the latter is entitled "Track and distance chart of
+the world, showing the routes traversed by full-powered steamers between
+the principal ports of the world, and the corresponding distances."
+
+#Telegraph charts# are published showing the "telegraphic connections
+afforded by the submarine cables and the principal overland telegraph
+lines."
+
+#Index charts# are outline plans showing the area covered by each chart
+of a series, and furnish a convenient means of finding a chart of any
+desired region or of selecting the most suitable chart for any purpose.
+These index charts are published either in sets, showing all the charts
+of a series, or are bound into the chart catalogues.
+
+#Star charts# are included in navigational series, and are conveniently
+arranged for use on shipboard in identifying the brighter stars. The
+United States Hydrographic Office publishes two, constellations of the
+northern and of the southern hemispheres.
+
+#Explanatory sheets# are published in connection with various series of
+charts, giving explanations of the symbols and abbreviations used and of
+other important features. In the United States the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey has issued a small pamphlet, "Notes on the use of charts," which
+contains explanations of its chart symbols, and the Hydrographic Office
+has published "A manual of conventional symbols and abbreviations in use
+on the official charts of the principal maritime nations."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                     PAGE
+
+  Aids to navigation, 118
+
+  Arbitrary projection, 79
+
+  Astronomical observations, 32
+
+  Astronomical positions, 126
+
+
+  Bearings, position by, 130
+
+  Board of Trade notice, 148
+
+
+  Care of charts, 153
+
+  Catalogues of charts, 157
+
+  Changes in the coast, 98
+
+  Chart making, development of, 6
+
+  Chart publications of various nations, 18
+
+  Charts, earliest nautical, 6
+
+  Charts, loxodromic, 7
+
+  Charts, plain, 8
+
+  Chart schemes, 67
+
+  Chart working, 124
+
+  Coast and Geodetic Survey, United States, 13
+
+  Coast pilots, 154
+
+  Compass bearings, 130
+
+  Compass, nautical use of, 6
+
+  Compass, variation of, 7
+
+  Compilation of information, 67
+
+  Correction of charts, method of, 110
+
+  Cosa, Juan de la, 8
+
+  Current charts, 157
+
+  Currents, 50, 121
+
+
+  Danger angle, horizontal, 136
+
+  Danger bearing, 131
+
+  Danger range, 132
+
+  Dangers, reports of, 56
+
+  Dates on charts, 123
+
+  Dead reckoning, 129
+
+  Depth curves, 116, 152
+
+  Depths, unit for, 19, 116
+
+  Depth units, relation of, 118
+
+  Directions on charts, 115
+
+  Distances, measured on chart, 125
+
+  Distribution of charts, 96
+
+  Doubling angle on bow, 131
+
+  Draft of vessels, 97
+
+  Dragging for dangers, 55
+
+
+  Earthquakes, 109
+
+  Electrotyping plates, 89
+
+  Elevations, 122
+
+  Engraving machines, 89
+
+  Engraving on copper, 84
+
+  Engraving on stone, 93
+
+  Eskimo map, 1
+
+  Etching on copper, 95
+
+  Explanatory sheets, 159
+
+
+  Flattening of the earth, 3
+
+  France, establishment of chart office, 10
+
+
+  Geographic position on charts, 115
+
+  Geography, early, 2
+
+  Germany, contributions to hydrography, 14
+
+  Gnomonic charts, 79, 157
+
+  Gnomonic projection, 74
+
+  Great Britain, contributions to geography, 14
+
+
+  Holland, development of chart making, 10
+
+  Hydrographic Office, British, 13
+
+  Hydrographic Office, United States, 13
+
+  Hydrography, 40
+
+
+  Index charts, 158
+
+  Information on charts, 23
+
+  Instruments used on charts, 141
+
+
+  Lake Survey, United States, 13
+
+  Largest scale chart, 151
+
+  Latest editions of charts, 148
+
+  Light and buoy lists, 156
+
+  Lithographic printing, 94
+
+  Locating a vessel, 126
+
+  Longitude, initial, 19
+
+  Longitude, uncertainties in, 10
+
+
+  Magnetic charts, 157
+
+  Magnetic variation, 56
+
+  Map, earliest, 2
+
+  Map making, development of, 2
+
+  Maps, need of, 1
+
+  Maritime surveys, extension of, 17
+
+  Mercator chart, history, 8
+
+  Mercator projection, 68
+
+  Meteorological charts (pilot charts), 158
+
+
+  Navigation, use of charts in, 124
+
+  Notices to mariners, 111, 155
+
+
+  Paper, shrinkage of, 152
+
+  Parallel rulers, Field's, 141
+
+  Photolithography, 93
+
+  Plane of reference, 20, 119
+
+  Plotting positions, 124
+
+  Polyconic projection, 73
+
+  Printing, plate, 84, 90
+
+  Privately published charts, 21
+
+  Progress of hydrographic surveys, 17
+
+  Projection, explanation of, 114
+
+  Projections, 68, 114
+
+  Protractor, three-arm, 144
+
+  Ptolemy, 3
+
+  Publication of charts, methods, 84
+
+  Purpose of charts, 22
+
+
+  Ranges, 132
+
+  Reading charts, 112
+
+  Reliance on charts, 144
+
+  Reports of dangers, erroneous, 57
+
+  Requirements for charts, 23
+
+  Revision of charts, need of, 97
+
+  Rock, Brooklyn, 50
+
+
+  Sailing directions, early, 4
+
+  Sailing directions, 154
+
+  Scale equivalents, 113
+
+  Scales of charts, 79, 112
+
+  Set, graphical allowance for, 125
+
+  Sextant angles, 132
+
+  Sheets for surveys, 39
+
+  Shrinkage of paper, 152
+
+  Sound, position by, 140
+
+  Sounding machines, 49
+
+  Soundings, position by, 136
+
+  Star charts, 159
+
+  Station pointer, 144
+
+  Steamer for surveying, 49
+
+  Sumner's method, 126
+
+  Supplementary publications, 154
+
+  Surveys on foreign coasts, 14
+
+  Surveys, need of thorough, 31
+
+  Symbols on charts, 20
+
+
+  Telegraph charts, 158
+
+  Three-point problem, 132, 135
+
+  Tides, 50, 120
+
+  Tide tables, 156
+
+  Topography, 39
+
+  Topography on charts, 123
+
+  Track charts, 158
+
+  Triangulation, 32
+
+
+  Uniformity in charts, 21
+
+  Use of charts in navigation, 124
+
+
+  Vertical angles, 139
+
+  Vigias, removal of, 62
+
+  Vigilance, need of, 140
+
+  Volcanic action, 109
+
+
+  Wrecks due to deficient charts, 149
+
+
+
+
+  SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE
+  OF THE
+  PUBLICATIONS
+  OF
+  JOHN WILEY & SONS,
+  NEW YORK.
+  LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED.
+
+  ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS.
+
+
+Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk
+(*) are sold at _net_ prices only. All books are bound in cloth unless
+otherwise stated.
+
+
+AGRICULTURE.
+
+  Armsby's Manual of Cattle-feeding.                            12mo, $1 75
+      Principles of Animal Nutrition.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual:
+      Part I. Propagation, Culture, and Improvement.            12mo,  1 50
+      Part II. Systematic Pomology.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.                      12mo,  1 50
+      Practical Farm Drainage.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  Graves's Forest Mensuration.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  Green's Principles of American Forestry.                      12mo,  1 50
+  Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)     12mo,  2 00
+  Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)         8vo,  5 00
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration.  12mo,  1 50
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of
+        Butter-making.                                           8vo,  1 50
+  Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops.                12mo,  1 50
+  * Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.                                 8vo,  2 50
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Woll's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen.                     16mo,  1 50
+
+
+ARCHITECTURE.
+
+  Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.                      12mo,  1 00
+  Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.         4to,  5 00
+  Birkmire's Planning and Construction of American Theatres.     8vo,  3 00
+      Architectural Iron and Steel.                              8vo,  3 50
+      Compound Rivetée Girders as Applied in Buildings.          8vo,  2 00
+      Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings.        8vo,  3 50
+      Skeleton Construction in Buildings.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Brigg's Modern American School Buildings.                      8vo,  4 00
+  Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings.              8vo,  4 00
+  Freitag's Architectural Engineering.                           8vo,  3 50
+      Fireproofing of Steel Buildings.                           8vo,  2 50
+  French and Ives's Stereotomy.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.                 16mo,  1 00
+      Sanitation of Public Buildings.                           12mo,  1 50
+      Theatre Fires and Panics.                                 12mo,  1 50
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Holly's Carpenters' and Joiners' Handbook.                    18mo,    75
+  Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.            8vo,  2 00
+  Kellaway's How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds.               8vo,  2 00
+  Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket-book.
+        Rewritten Edition.                                16mo, mor.,  5 00
+  Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.                  8vo,  5 00
+      Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses.          8vo,  4 00
+  Monckton's Stair-building.                                     4to,  4 00
+  Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Peabody's Naval Architecture.                                  8vo,  7 50
+  Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.                             8vo,  2 00
+  Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.  16mo, mor.,  4 00
+      * Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Book:
+          * Carpenters' and Woodworkers' Edition.      16mo, morocco,  1 50
+          * Cementworkers and Plasterer's Edition. (In Press.)
+          * Stone- and Brick-mason's Edition.             12mo, mor.,  1 50
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints
+        and Varnish.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.         8vo,  1 50
+  Snow's Principal Species of Wood.                              8vo,  3 50
+  Sondericker's Graphic Statics with Applications to Trusses,
+        Beams, and Arches.                                       8vo,  2 00
+  Towne's Locks and Builders' Hardware.                18mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete
+        Construction.                                            8vo,  3 00
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Air Conditioning, (In Press.)
+  Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron
+        and Steel.                                               8vo,  4 00
+  Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals, Establishment and
+        Maintenance, Suggestions for Hospital Architecture,
+        with Plans for a Small Hospital.                        12mo,  1 25
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                Large 4to,  1 00
+
+
+ARMY AND NAVY.
+
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder, Nitro-cellulose, and the Theory
+        of the Cellulose Molecule.                              12mo,  2 50
+  Chase's Screw Propellers and Marine Propulsion.                8vo,  3 00
+  Cloke's Gunner's Examiner.                                     8vo,  1 50
+  Craig's Azimuth.                                               4to,  3 50
+  Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.             8vo,  3 00
+  * Davis's Elements of Law.                                     8vo,  2 50
+  *   Treatise on the Military Law of United States.             8vo,  7 00
+                                                               Sheep,  7 50
+  De Brack's Cavalry Outposts Duties. (Carr.)          24mo, morocco,  2 00
+  Dietz's Soldier's First Aid Handbook.                16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of
+        Courts-martial.                                   Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Durand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships.                   8vo,  5 00
+  * Dyer's Handbook of Light Artillery.                         12mo,  3 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  * Fiebeger's Text-book on Field Fortification.           Small 8vo,  2 00
+  Hamilton's The Gunner's Catechism.                            18mo,  1 00
+  * Hoff's Elementary Naval Tactics.                             8vo,  1 50
+  Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire.                 8vo,  4 00
+  * Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery.                               8vo,  6 00
+  * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena.
+        Vols. I. and II.                                   8vo, each,  6 00
+  * Mahan's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.)    8vo, half morocco,  7 50
+  Manual for Courts-martial.                           16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Mercur's Attack of Fortified Places.                        12mo,  2 00
+  *   Elements of the Art of War.                                8vo,  4 00
+  Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures--And the Administration
+        of Workshops.                                            8vo,  5 00
+  *   Ordnance and Gunnery. 2 vols.                             12mo,  5 00
+  Murray's Infantry Drill Regulations.                   18mo, paper,    10
+  Nixon's Adjutants' Manual.                                    24mo,  1 00
+  Peabody's Naval Architecture.                                  8vo,  7 50
+  * Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying.                         8vo,  2 50
+  Powell's Army Officer's Examiner.                             12mo,  4 00
+  Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War.            18mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Tupes and Poole's Manual of Bayonet Exercises and
+        Musketry Fencing.                              24mo, leather,    50
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wheeler's Siege Operations and Military Mining.                8vo,  2 00
+  Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+  Young's Simple Elements of Navigation.               16mo, morocco,  2 00
+
+
+ASSAYING.
+
+  Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative
+        Assaying with the Blowpipe.                    12mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory
+        Experiments.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Low's Technical Methods of Ore Analysis.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Miller's Manual of Assaying.                                  12mo,  1 00
+      Cyanide Process.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+
+
+ASTRONOMY.
+
+  Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.                      8vo,  2 50
+  Craig's Azimuth.                                               4to,  3 50
+  Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.             8vo,  3 00
+  Doolittle's Treatise on Practical Astronomy.                   8vo,  4 00
+  Gore's Elements of Geodesy.                                    8vo,  2 50
+  Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.          8vo,  2 50
+  * Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  * White's Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy.  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+BOTANY.
+
+  Davenport's Statistical Methods, with Special
+        Reference to Biological Variation.             16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  Thomé and Bennett's Structural and Physiological Botany.      16mo,  2 25
+  Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider.)       8vo,  2 00
+
+
+CHEMISTRY.
+
+  * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)    12mo,  1 25
+  Adriance's Laboratory Calculations and Specific Gravity
+        Tables.                                                 12mo,  1 25
+  Alexeyeff's General Principles of Organic Synthesis.
+        (Matthews.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel.)              Small 8vo,  3 50
+  Austen's Notes for Chemical Students.                         12mo,  1 50
+  Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder.--Nitro-cellulose, and Theory
+        of the Cellulose Molecule.                              12mo,  2 50
+  Bolduan's Immune Sera.                                        12mo,  1 50
+  * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.               8vo,  1 50
+  Brush and Penfield's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy.       8vo,  4 00
+  * Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)         8vo,  3 00
+  Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis.
+        (Boltwood.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers.                            12mo,  2 00
+      Tests and Reagents.                                        8vo,  3 00
+  Crafts's Short Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis.
+        (Schaeffer.)                                            12mo,  1 50
+  * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)                      12mo,  1 25
+  Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery).
+        (Von Ende.)                                             12mo,  2 50
+  Drechsel's Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.)                     12mo,  1 25
+  Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)               8vo,  4 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)          8vo,  3 00
+  Erdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.)    12mo,  1 25
+  * Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.                 Large 12mo,  2 00
+  Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative
+        Assaying with the Blowpipe.                    12mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.                               12mo,  2 00
+  Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.)  8vo,  5 00
+      Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I.
+        Descriptive. (Wells.)                                    8vo,  3 00
+      Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) 2 vols.            8vo, 12 50
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.                         8vo,  3 00
+  * Getman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry.                   12mo,  2 00
+  Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.                   12mo,  1 25
+  * Gooch and Browning's Outlines of Qualitative Chemical
+        Analysis.                                          Small 8vo,  1 25
+  Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)     12mo,  2 00
+  Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography. (Marshall.) 12mo,  1 25
+  Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)   8vo,  4 00
+  Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)         8vo,  5 00
+  * Haskin's and MacLeod's Organic Chemistry.                   12mo,  2 00
+  Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan.)        12mo,  1 50
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors.)
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Hind's Inorganic Chemistry.                                    8vo,  3 00
+  *   Laboratory Manual for Students.                           12mo,  1 00
+  Holleman's Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.)         8vo,  2 50
+      Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.)         8vo,  2 50
+  *   Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry. (Walker.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments,
+        and Varnishes. (In Press.)
+  Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Iddings's Rock Minerals.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological
+        Chemistry.                                               8vo,  1 25
+  Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals
+        in Thin Sections. (In Press.)
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Ladd's Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis.              12mo,  1 00
+  Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)                        8vo,  3 00
+  * Langworthy and Austen. The Occurrence of Aluminium in
+        Vegetable Products, Animal Products, and Natural Waters. 8vo,  2 00
+  Lassar-Cohn's Application of Some General Reactions to
+        Investigations in Organic Chemistry. (Tingle.)          12mo,  1 00
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                              8vo,  7 50
+  Löb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)         8vo,  3 00
+  Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory
+        Experiments.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Low's Technical Method of Ore Analysis.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Lunge's Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.)                      12mo  1 00
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making. 8vo,  1 50
+  Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)
+  Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory.                12mo,  1 50
+  * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with
+        the Blowpipe.                                           12mo,    60
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.) 3d Edition, Rewritten.                      8vo,  4 00
+      Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)     12mo,  1 25
+  Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.          8vo,  4 00
+  Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds.
+        (Tingle.)                                               12mo,  1 00
+  Miller's Manual of Assaying.                                  12mo,  1 00
+      Cyanide Process.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry.                   12mo,  1 50
+  Morgan's An Outline of the Theory of Solutions and its
+        Results.                                                12mo,  1 00
+      Elements of Physical Chemistry.                           12mo,  3 00
+  *   Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers.              12mo,  5 00
+  Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.   16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Muir's History of Chemical Theories and Laws.                8vo,  4 00
+  Mulliken's General Method for the Identification of Pure
+        Organic Compounds. Vol. I.                         Large 8vo,  5 00
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Ostwald's Conversations on Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey.)     12mo,  1 50
+      "           "       "      "      Part Two. (Turnbull.)   12mo,  2 00
+  * Palmer's Practical Test Book of Chemistry.                  12mo,  1 00
+  * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine.
+        (Fischer.)                                              12mo,  1 25
+  * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and
+        Record of Mineral Tests.                          8vo, paper,    50
+  Pictet's The Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution.
+        (Biddle.)                                                8vo,  5 00
+  Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry. (Austen.)         12mo,  1 50
+  Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with
+        Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.           12mo,  1 25
+  * Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.                              8vo, 25 00
+  Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.                                              8vo,  2 00
+  Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.      8vo,  4 00
+      Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.                 8vo,  4 00
+  Riggs's Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory.         8vo,  1 25
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions.                 8vo,  2 00
+  *   Whys in Pharmacy.                                         12mo,  1 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.
+        (Orndorff.)                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Schimpf's Text-book of Volumetric Analysis.                   12mo,  2 50
+      Essentials of Volumetric Analysis.                        12mo,  1 25
+  *   Qualitative Chemical Analysis.                             8vo,  1 25
+  Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students.        8vo,  2 50
+  Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.           16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.                                 8vo,  2 50
+  * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.                        8vo,  1 50
+  *   Descriptive General Chemistry.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis. (Hall.)                      8vo,  3 00
+      Quantitative Analysis. (Hall.)                             8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.)  12mo,  1 50
+  * Walke's Lectures on Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+    "        "           "       "     "      Vol. II.     Small 8vo,  5 00
+  Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks.         8vo,  2 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-Water.    8vo,  4 00
+  Wells's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis.     8vo,  1 50
+      Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis
+        for Engineering Students.                               12mo,  1 50
+      Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic.                         12mo,  1 25
+  Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic, Pharmaceutical,
+        and Medical Chemistry.                                  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+CIVIL ENGINEERING.
+
+
+BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. RAILWAY
+ENGINEERING.
+
+  Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments.                     12mo,  3 00
+  Bixby's Graphical Computing Table.    Paper 19-1/2 × 24-1/4 inches,    25
+  Breed and Hosmer's Principles and Practice of Surveying.       8vo,  3 00
+  * Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.                      8vo,  2 50
+  * Corthell's Allowable Pressures on Deep Foundations.         12mo,  1 25
+  Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.             8vo,  3 00
+  Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables.                           8vo,  1 00
+  Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.                      12mo,  1 50
+      Practical Farm Drainage.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  * Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Flemer's Phototopographic Methods and Instruments.             8vo,  5 00
+  Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.)               8vo,  3 00
+  Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 2d Edition, Rewritten.    8vo,  3 50
+  French and Ives's Stereotomy.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Goodhue's Municipal Improvements.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Gore's Elements of Geodesy.                                    8vo,  2 50
+  * Hauch and Rice's Tables of Quantities for Preliminary
+        Estimates.                                              12mo,  1 25
+  Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth.                             12mo,  1 25
+  Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge.                             8vo,  2 00
+  * Ives's Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level.
+                                                           16mo, Bds.    25
+  Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying.              16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.    8vo,  2 00
+  Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities.
+        (Truscott and Emory.)                                   12mo,  2 00
+  Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.)         8vo,  5 00
+  *   Descriptive Geometry.                                      8vo,  1 50
+  Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.          8vo,  2 50
+  Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors.        16mo, morocco,  2 00
+  Nugent's Plane Surveying.                                      8vo,  3 50
+  Ogden's Sewer Design.                                         12mo,  2 00
+  Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse.                        8vo,  2 00
+  Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering.           8vo half leather,  7 50
+  Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.                    4to,  5 00
+  Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.      8vo,  4 00
+  Riemer's Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions.
+        (Corning and Peele.)                                     8vo,  3 00
+  Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.         8vo,  1 50
+  Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)           8vo,  2 50
+  Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to
+        Trusses, Beams, and Arches.                              8vo,  2 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Tracy's Plane Surveying.                             16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  * Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book.          16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Venable's Garbage Crematories in America.                      8vo,  2 00
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Warren's Stereotomy--Problems in Stone-cutting.                8vo,  2 50
+  Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of
+        Engineering Instruments.                       16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  Wilson's Topographic Surveying.                                8vo,  3 50
+
+
+BRIDGES AND ROOFS.
+
+  Boller's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron
+        Highway Bridges.                                         8vo,  2 00
+  Burr and Falk's Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof
+        Computations.                                            8vo,  3 00
+      Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges.               8vo,  5 00
+  Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering.  Vol. II.            Small 4to, 10 00
+  Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges.                   4to,  5 00
+  Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Greene's Roof Trusses.                                         8vo,  1 25
+      Bridge Trusses.                                            8vo,  2 50
+      Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses. (In Press.)
+  Howe's Treatise on Arches.                                     8vo,  4 00
+      Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel.           8vo,  2 00
+      Symmetrical Masonry Arches.                                8vo,  2 50
+  Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in
+        the Designing of Modern Framed Structures.         Small 4to, 10 00
+  Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges:
+      Part I.  Stresses in Simple Trusses.                       8vo,  2 50
+      Part II.  Graphic Statics.                                 8vo,  2 50
+      Part III. Bridge Design.                                   8vo,  2 50
+      Part IV. Higher Structures.                                8vo,  2 50
+  Morison's Memphis Bridge.                                      4to, 10 00
+  Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge
+        Engineers.                                     16mo, morocco,  2 00
+  *   Specifications for Steel Bridges.                         12mo,    50
+  Wright's Designing of Draw-spans. Two parts in one volume.     8vo,  3 50
+
+
+HYDRAULICS.
+
+  Barnes's Ice Formation.                                        8vo,  3 00
+  Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein
+        Issuing from an Orifice. (Trautwine.)                    8vo,  2 00
+  Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics.                                8vo,  5 00
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+      Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels.     paper,  1 50
+      Hydraulic Motors.                                          8vo,  2 00
+  Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems.   16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+  Folwell's Water-supply Engineering.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Frizell's Water-power.                                         8vo,  5 00
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+      Water-filtration Works.                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform
+        Flow of Water in Rivers and Other Channels.
+        (Hering and Trautwine.)                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It.                  Large 12mo,  1 50
+      Filtration of Public Water-supply.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works.                 8vo,  2 50
+  Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of
+        Large, Riveted, Metal Conduits.                          8vo,  2 00
+  * Hubbard and Kiersted's Water-works Management and
+        Maintenance.                                             8vo,  4 00
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a
+        Sanitary Standpoint.)                                    8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics.                             8vo,  5 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                   8vo,  4 00
+  Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and
+        Domestic Water-supply                              Large 8vo,  5 00
+  * Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers.                     4to,  6 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 5th Edition,
+        enlarged.                                                4to,  6 00
+      Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895.    4to, 10 00
+  Whipple's Value of Pure Water.                          Large 12mo,  1 00
+  Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables.                         8vo,  1 50
+  Wilson's Irrigation Engineering.                         Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Turbines.                                               8vo,  2 50
+      Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                          8vo,  3 00
+
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
+
+  Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction.                      8vo,  5 00
+      Roads and Pavements.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Black's United States Public Works.                     Oblong 4to,  5 00
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of
+        Engineering.                                             8vo,  7 50
+  Byrne's Highway Construction.                                  8vo,  5 00
+      Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed
+        in Construction.                                        16mo,  3 00
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+  Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.              Small 4to,  7 50
+  * Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.                        8vo,  6 00
+  Johnson's Materials of Construction.                     Large 8vo,  6 00
+  Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Graves's Forest Mensuration.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols.    8vo,  7 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.                  8vo,  5 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Strength of Materials.                                    12mo,  1 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Patron's Practical Treatise on Foundations.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.  16mo, mor.,  4 00
+  * Ries's Clays; Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.        8vo,  5 00
+  Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France.                     12mo,  1 25
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  * Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Snow's Principal Species of Wood.                              8vo,  3 50
+  Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.                                  12mo,  2 00
+  Text-book on Roads and Pavements.                             12mo,  2 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts.                  8vo,  8 00
+      Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and
+        Metallurgy.                                              8vo,  2 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other
+        Alloys and their Constituents.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials.               8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete
+        Construction.                                            8vo,  3 00
+  Waddell's De Pontibus. (A Pocket-book for Bridge
+        Engineers.)                                       16mo, mor.,  2 00
+  *   Specifications for Steel Bridges.                         12mo,    50
+  Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and
+        an Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.               8vo,  2 00
+  Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics.               8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis
+        of Iron and Steel.                                       8vo,  4 00
+
+
+RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
+
+  Andrew's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers.
+                                                 3x5 inches, morocco,  1 25
+  Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.         4to,  5 00
+  Brook's Handbook of Street Railroad Location.        16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Butt's Civil Engineer's Field-book.                  16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Crandall's Transition Curve.                         16mo, morocco,  1 50
+      Railway and Other Earthwork Tables.                        8vo,  1 50
+  Crookett's Methods for Earthwork Computations. (In Press)
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                   16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879).       Paper,  5 00
+  Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards.                           Cardboard,    25
+  Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers'
+        Guide.                                            16mo, mor.,  2 50
+  Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of
+        Excavations and Embankments.                             8vo,  1 00
+  Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers.            16mo,  1 00
+  Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers.         16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers.              16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Raymond's Elements of Railroad Engineering. (In Press.)
+  Searles's Field Engineering.                         16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Railroad Spiral.                                 16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Taylor's Prismoidal Formulæ and Earthwork.                     8vo,  1 50
+  * Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cube Contents
+        of Excavations and Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams.   8vo,  2 00
+      The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves
+        for Railroads.                                 12mo, morocco,  2 50
+      Cross-section Sheet.                                     Paper,    25
+  Webb's Railroad Construction.                        16mo, morocco,  5 00
+      Economics of Railroad Construction.                 Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways.
+                                                           Small 8vo,  5 00
+
+
+DRAWING.
+
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  3 00
+  *     "          "         "     Abridged Ed.                  8vo,  1 50
+  Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.                           8vo, paper,  1 00
+  Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting
+        for Mechanical Engineers.                         Oblong 4to,  2 50
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its
+        Applications.                                            8vo,  2 50
+  Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective.       8vo,  2 00
+  Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.                      8vo,  2 50
+      Advanced Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  2 00
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry.                    8vo,  3 00
+      Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                       8vo,  5 00
+      Mechanical Drawing.                                        4to,  4 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  MacLeod's Descriptive Geometry.                          Small 8vo,  1 50
+  * Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting.              8vo,  1 50
+      Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)                            8vo,  3 50
+  Moyer's Descriptive Geometry.                                  8vo,  2 00
+  Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.                    4to,  5 00
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)   8vo,  2 50
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  * Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.           Oblong 8vo,  1 25
+  Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical
+        Drawing.                                                12mo,  1 00
+      Drafting Instruments and Operations.                      12mo,  1 25
+      Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing.                  12mo,  1 50
+      Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective
+        of Form and Shadow.                                     12mo,  1 00
+      Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry.                    12mo,  1 25
+      Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 50
+      General Problems of Shades and Shadows.                    8vo,  3 00
+      Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.              8vo,  7 50
+      Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry.  8vo,  2 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Herrmann
+        and Klein.)                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Art of Letter
+        Engraving.                                              12mo,  2 00
+  Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Perspective.                        8vo,  2 50
+  Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering.                          8vo,  1 00
+  Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry.       Large 8vo,  3 00
+
+
+ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.
+
+  * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)    12mo,  1 25
+  Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.)    Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical
+        Measurements.                                           12mo,  1 00
+  Benjamin's History of Electricity.                             8vo,  3 00
+      Voltaic Cell.                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis. (In Press.)
+  Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis.
+        (Boltwood.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  * Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy.                    12mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.             8vo,  3 00
+  * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)                      12mo,  1 25
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                   16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage
+        Battery). (Von Ende.)                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)               8vo,  4 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+  Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.)                              8vo,  2 50
+  Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained.                    12mo,  1 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)
+  Holman's Precision of Measurements.                            8vo,  2 00
+      Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments,
+        and Tests.                                         Large 8vo,    75
+  Karapetoff's Experimental Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)
+  Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines.          8vo,  2 00
+  Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)                        8vo,  3 00
+  Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements.
+        (Boudouard--Burgess.)                                   12mo,  3 00
+  Löb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)         8vo,  3 00
+  * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena.
+        Vols. I. and II.                                   8vo, each,  6 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to
+        Sound and Light.                                         8vo,  4 00
+  Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries.
+        (Fishback.)                                             12mo,  2 50
+  Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)
+  * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design. 4to, half morocco, 12 50
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  * Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering.
+        (Haldane Gee--Kinzbrunner.)                              8vo,  2 00
+  Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.        8vo,  2 50
+  Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines.                           8vo,  2 50
+  * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.                        8vo,  1 50
+  Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics.         Small 8vo,  2 00
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+
+
+LAW.
+
+  * Davis's Elements of Law.                                     8vo,  2 50
+  *   Treatise on the Military Law of United States.             8vo,  7 00
+  *                                                            Sheep,  7 50
+  * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure
+        of Courts-martial.                                Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Manual for Courts-martial.                           16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.                        12mo,  2 50
+
+
+MANUFACTURES.
+
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder--Nitro-cellulose and Theory of
+        the Cellulose Molecule.                                 12mo,  2 50
+  Bolland's Iron Founder.                                       12mo,  2 50
+      "The Iron Founder," Supplement.                           12mo,  2 50
+      Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms
+        Used in the Practice of Moulding.                       12mo,  3 00
+  * Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)         8vo,  3 00
+  * Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.                        8vo,  6 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)          8vo,  3 00
+  Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.                       18mo,  1 00
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments,
+        and Varnishes. (In Press.)
+  Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                        Large 8vo,  7 50
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making. 8vo,  1 50
+  Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)
+  Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.          8vo,  4 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures--And the Administration
+        of Workshops.                                            8vo,  5 00
+  Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.                        4to, 10 00
+  Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.   16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.                              8vo, 25 00
+  Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.                             8vo,  2 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's Press-working of Metals.                               8vo,  3 00
+  Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.                                  12mo,  2 00
+  Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.           16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Thurston's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs,
+        Construction and Operation.                              8vo,  5 00
+  Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+   "          "         "         "     "     Vol. II.           8vo,  5 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  West's American Foundry Practice.                             12mo,  2 50
+      Moulder's Text-book.                                      12mo,  2 50
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of
+        Iron and Steel.                                          8vo,  4 00
+
+
+MATHEMATICS.
+
+  Baker's Elliptic Functions.                                    8vo,  1 50
+  Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry.                 12mo,  1 00
+  Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. (In Press.)
+  Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations.                 12mo,  1 50
+  Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra.                  8vo,  1 50
+  * Dickson's College Algebra.                            Large 12mo,  1 50
+  *   Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations.  Large 12mo,  1 25
+  Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its
+        Applications.                                            8vo,  2 50
+  Halsted's Elements of Geometry.                                8vo,  1 75
+      Elementary Synthetic Geometry.                             8vo,  1 50
+  *   Rational Geometry.                                        12mo,  1 50
+  * Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables:
+                                              Vest-pocket size paper,    15
+                                                       100 copies for  5 00
+  *                        Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 × 10 inches,    25
+                                                        10 copies for  2 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on Differential
+        Calculus.                                          Small 8vo,  3 00
+      Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus.        Small 8vo,  1 50
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates.    12mo,  1 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Treatise on Ordinary and Partial
+        Differential Equations.                            Small 8vo,  3 50
+  Johnson's Treatise on the Integral Calculus.             Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Theory of Errors and the Method of
+        Least Squares.                                          12mo,  1 50
+  * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.                    12mo,  3 00
+  Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities.
+        (Truscott and Emory.)                                   12mo,  2 00
+  * Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic
+        and Other Tables.                                        8vo,  3 00
+      Trigonometry and Tables published separately.             Each,  2 00
+  * Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables.               8vo,  1 00
+  Manning's Irrational Numbers and their Representation by
+        Sequences and Series                                    12mo,  1 25
+  Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman
+        and Robert S. Woodward.                          Octavo, each  1 00
+
+    No. 1. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith. No.
+    2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted. No. 3.
+    Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyperbolic Functions,
+    by James McMahon. No. 5. Harmonic Functions, by William E. Byerly.
+    No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis, by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7.
+    Probability and Theory of Errors, by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8.
+    Vector Analysis and Quaternions, by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9.
+    Differential Equations, by William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The
+    Solution of Equations, by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of
+    a Complex Variable, by Thomas S. Fiske.
+
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Method of Least Squares.                            8vo,  2 00
+  Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the
+        Differential Calculus.                               Sm. 8vo,  3 00
+      Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols. in one.  Small 8vo,  3 50
+  * Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real
+        Infinitesimal Analysis of One Variable.                  8vo,  2 00
+  Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry.                       8vo,  2 00
+      Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical.           12mo,  1 00
+
+
+MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
+
+  Bacon's Forge Practice.                                       12mo,  1 50
+  Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  3 00
+  *     "          "         "     Abridged Ed.                  8vo,  1 50
+  Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes.                              12mo,  2 00
+  Carpenter's Experimental Engineering.                          8vo,  6 00
+      Heating and Ventilating Buildings.                         8vo,  4 00
+  Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine.                              Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.                           8vo, paper,  1 00
+  Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting
+        for Mechanical Engineers.                         Oblong 4to,  2 50
+  Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.                       12mo,  1 50
+      Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power.          12mo,  3 00
+      Rope Driving.                                             12mo,  2 00
+  Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Hall's Car Lubrication.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Hutton's The Gas Engine.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Jamison's Mechanical Drawing.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book.            16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.                    8vo,  4 00
+  * Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven,
+        and Dean.)                                               8vo,  4 00
+  MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                 8vo,  5 00
+      Mechanical Drawing.                                        4to,  4 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases.             8vo,  1 50
+  Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)                        8vo,  3 50
+  Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Richards's Compressed Air.                                    12mo,  1 50
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery
+        and Mill Work.                                           8vo,  3 00
+      Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of
+        Energetics.                                             12mo,  1 00
+  Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.                     16mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.         8vo,  7 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission.
+        (Herrmann--Klein.)                                       8vo,  5 00
+      Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann--Klein.)
+                                                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Turbines.                                               8vo,  2 50
+
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
+
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of
+        Engineering. 6th Edition. Reset.                         8vo,  7 50
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Johnson's Materials of Construction.                           8vo,  6 00
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.)            8vo,  7 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Strength of Materials                                     12mo,  1 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering.                  3 vols., 8vo,  8 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other
+        Alloys and their Constituents.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an
+        Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.                  8vo,  2 00
+      Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis
+        of Iron and Steel.                                       8vo,  4 00
+
+
+STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
+
+  Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram.                          12mo,  1 25
+  Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.) 12mo,  1 50
+  Creighton's Steam-engine and other Heat-motors.                8vo,  5 00
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                      16mo, mor.,  5 00
+  Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.                       18mo,  1 00
+  Goss's Locomotive Sparks.                                      8vo,  2 00
+      Locomotive Performance.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy.       12mo,  2 00
+  Hutton's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants.               8vo,  5 00
+      Heat and Heat-engines.                                     8vo,  5 00
+  Kent's Steam boiler Economy.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector.                  8vo,  1 50
+  MacCord's Slide-valves.                                        8vo,  2 00
+  Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.                        4to, 10 00
+  Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator.               12mo,  1 50
+      Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other
+        Vapors.                                                  8vo,  1 00
+      Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines. 8vo,  5 00
+      Valve-gears for Steam-engines.                             8vo,  2 50
+  Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator.                  Large 8vo,  2 50
+  Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and
+        Saturated Vapors. (Osterberg.)                          12mo,  1 25
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management.          12mo,  2 00
+  Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice.          12mo,  2 50
+  Snow's Steam-boiler Practice.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Spangler's Valve-gears.                                        8vo,  2 50
+      Notes on Thermodynamics.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of
+        Steam-engineering.                                       8vo,  3 00
+  Thomas's Steam-turbines.                                       8vo,  3 50
+  Thurston's Handy Tables.                                       8vo,  1 50
+      Manual of the Steam-engine.                       2 vols., 8vo, 10 00
+      Part I. History, Structure, and Theory.                    8vo,  6 00
+      Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation.              8vo,  6 00
+      Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the
+        Indicator and the Prony Brake.                           8vo,  5 00
+      Stationary Steam-engines.                                  8vo,  2 50
+      Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice.        12mo,  1 50
+      Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and
+        Operation.                                               8vo,  5 00
+  Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water.
+        (Patterson.)                                             8vo,  4 00
+  Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.)          8vo,  5 00
+  Whitham's Steam-engine Design.                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines.
+                                                                 8vo,  4 00
+
+
+MECHANICS AND MACHINERY.
+
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Chase's The Art of Pattern-making.                            12mo,  2 50
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+      Notes and Examples in Mechanics.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working.                     12mo,  1 50
+  Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe.                      12mo,  1 50
+  Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.                       12mo,  1 50
+      Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and
+        Schools.                                                12mo,  1 50
+  Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making.                            12mo,  2 00
+  Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of
+        the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.  4to, half morocco,  5 00
+  Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics:
+      Vol. I. Kinematics.                                        8vo,  3 50
+      Vol. II. Statics.                                          8vo,  4 00
+      Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.                    Small 4to,  7 50
+                                Vol. II.                   Small 4to, 10 00
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.                                16mo,  1 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+      Rope Driving.                                             12mo,  2 00
+  Goss's Locomotive Sparks.                                      8vo,  2 00
+      Locomotive Performance.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Hall's Car Lubrication.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)
+  Holly's Art of Saw Filing.                                    18mo,    75
+  James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics
+        of a Particle.                                     Small 8vo,  2 00
+  * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.                    12mo,  3 00
+  Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods.    8vo,  2 00
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.                    8vo,  4 00
+  * Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven,
+        and Dean.)                                               8vo,  4 00
+  MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                 8vo,  5 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  * Martin's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. 1, Statics.           12mo,  1 25
+  *                                  Vol. 2, Kinematics and
+        Kinetics.                                               12mo,  1 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Elements of Mechanics.                                    12mo,  1 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                   8vo,  4 00
+  * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design. 4to, half morocco, 12 50
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Richards's Compressed Air.                                    12mo,  1 50
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.        8vo,  2 50
+  Sanborn's Mechanics: Problems.                          Large 12mo,  1 50
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management.          12mo,  2 00
+  Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (A. W.) Materials of Machines.                        12mo,  1 00
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Sorel's Carbureting and Combustion of Alcohol Engines.
+        (Woodward and Preston.)                            Large 8vo,  3 00
+  Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and
+        Mill Work.                                               8vo,  3 00
+      Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of
+        Energetics.                                             12mo,  1 00
+  Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.                     16mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.         8vo,  7 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission.
+        (Herrmann--Klein.)                                       8vo,  5 00
+      Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann--Klein.)
+                                                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                       8vo,  3 00
+      Principles of Elementary Mechanics.                       12mo,  1 25
+      Turbines.                                                  8vo,  2 50
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                      4to,  1 00
+
+
+MEDICAL.
+
+  * Bolduan's Immune Sera.                                      12mo,  1 50
+  De Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and
+        Collins.)                                         Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.)            8vo,  6 00
+  * Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.          Large 12mo, cloth,  2 00
+  Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)   8vo,  4 00
+  Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.)           12mo,  1 00
+  * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine.
+        (Fischer.)                                              12mo,  1 25
+  * Pozzi-Escot's The Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies.
+        (Cohn.)                                                 12mo,  1 00
+  Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.)                        12mo,  1 00
+  Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.
+        (Orndorff.)                                              8vo,  2 50
+  * Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog.                   8vo,  3 50
+  Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+      * Personal Hygiene.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Wulling's An Elementary Course in Inorganic Pharmaceutical
+        and Medical Chemistry.                                  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+METALLURGY.
+
+  Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis. (In Press.)
+  Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury.
+      Vol. I.  Silver.                                           8vo,  7 50
+      Vol. II. Gold and Mercury.                                 8vo,  7 50
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.          16mo, mor.  3 00
+  * Iles's Lead-smelting.                                       12mo,  2 50
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.                 8vo,  1 50
+  Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements.
+        (Boudouard--Burgess.)                                   12mo,  3 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Miller's Cyanide Process.                                     12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts.           8vo,  8 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys
+        and their Constituents.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+
+
+MINERALOGY.
+
+  Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial
+        Value.                                       Oblong, morocco,  2 50
+  Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Boyd's Map of Southwest Virginia.                 Pocket-book form.  2 00
+  * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.               8vo,  1 50
+  Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.)        8vo,  4 00
+  Chester's Catalogue of Minerals.                        8vo, paper,  1 00
+                                                               Cloth,  1 25
+      Dictionary of the Names of Minerals.                       8vo,  3 50
+  Dana's System of Mineralogy.               Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50
+      First Appendix to Dana's New "System of Mineralogy." Large 8vo,  1 00
+      Text-book of Mineralogy.                                   8vo,  4 00
+      Minerals and How to Study Them.                           12mo,  1 50
+      Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals.        Large 8vo,  1 00
+      Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography.                     12mo,  2 00
+  Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.        12mo,  1 00
+  Eakle's Mineral Tables.                                        8vo,  1 25
+  Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms.                 8vo,  2 50
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.         16mo, mor.,  3 00
+  Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall.)  12mo,  1 25
+  Iddings's Rock Minerals.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals
+        in Thin Sections. (In Press.)
+  * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the
+        Blowpipe.                                               12mo,    60
+  Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals. Their Occurrence and Uses.    8vo,  4 00
+      Stones for Building and Decoration.                        8vo,  5 00
+  * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and
+        Record of Mineral Tests.                          8vo, paper,    50
+      Tables of Minerals.                                        8vo,  1 00
+  * Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters          12mo, morocco,  1 25
+  * Ries's Clays. Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.        8vo,  5 00
+  Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making
+        Minerals. (Iddings.)                                     8vo,  5 00
+  * Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks.         8vo,  2 00
+
+
+MINING.
+
+  Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)
+  Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.                        8vo,  3 00
+      Map of Southwest Virginia.                    Pocket-book form,  2 00
+  Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.        12mo,  1 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals; A Reference Book.         16mo, mor.,  3 00
+  Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the
+        United States.                                          12mo,  2 50
+  Ihlseng's Manual of Mining.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  * Iles's Lead-smelting.                                       12mo,  2 50
+  Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.                 8vo,  1 50
+  Miller's Cyanide Process.                                     12mo,  1 00
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+      Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten.       12mo,  2 50
+      Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation.   12mo,  1 25
+
+
+SANITARY SCIENCE.
+
+  Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.                      12mo,  1 00
+  *   Outlines of Practical Sanitation.                         12mo,  1 25
+  Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.)
+                                                                 8vo,  3 00
+      Water-supply Engineering.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.                               12mo,  2 00
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+      Water-filtration Works.                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.                 16mo,  1 00
+      Sanitation of Public Buildings.                           12mo,  1 50
+  Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                              8vo,  7 50
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint)                                              8vo,  4 00
+      Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)     12mo,  1 25
+  * Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering.                 8vo,  2 00
+  Ogden's Sewer Design.                                         12mo,  2 00
+  Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with
+        Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.           12mo,  1 25
+  * Price's Handbook on Sanitation.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries.                12mo,  1 00
+      Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science.           12mo,  1 00
+      Cost of Shelter.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Richards and Woodman's Air. Water, and Food from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.                                              8vo,  2 00
+  * Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer.                8vo,  1 50
+  Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage.          8vo,  4 00
+      Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.                 8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's Air Conditioning.  (In Press.)
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+  *   Personal Hygiene.                                         12mo,  1 00
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+  Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments
+        (Interstate Pure Food Commission):
+          Tenth Annual Convention Held at Hartford,
+            July 17-20, 1906.                                    8vo,  3 00
+          Eleventh Annual Convention, Held at Jamestown
+            Tri-Centennial Exposition, July 16-19, 1907. (In Press.)
+  Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion
+        of the International Congress of Geologists.       Large 8vo,  1 50
+  Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds.                        8vo,  4 00
+  Gannett's Statistical Abstract of the World.                  24mo,    75
+  Gerhard's The Modern Bath and Bath-houses. (In Press.)
+  Haines's American Railway Management.                         12mo,  2 50
+  Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
+        1824-1894.                                         Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament.                    Large 8vo,  2 00
+  Standage's Decorative Treatment of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc. (In Press.)
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                      4to,  1 00
+  Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy.                     12mo,  1 50
+
+
+HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.
+
+  Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar.                            12mo,  1 25
+  Hebrew Chrestomathy.                                           8vo,  2 00
+  Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament
+        Scriptures. (Tregelles.)             Small 4to, half morocco,  5 00
+  Letteris's Hebrew Bible.                                       8vo,  2 25
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | The following inconsistencies were kept:                     |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Aluminum -- Aluminium                                        |
+  | canceled -- cancelled                                        |
+  | Cubit's Gap -- CUBITS GAP                                    |
+  | Encyclopædia -- Encyclopedia                                 |
+  | Feed-water -- Feed-Water                                     |
+  | Light-House -- lighthouse                                    |
+  | sea-weed -- seaweed                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Punctuation has been corrected without explicit notice.      |
+  | The following changes have been made (c. = catalogue page):  |
+  |                                                              |
+  | p. vii "Nordenskiold" changed to "Nordenskiöld"              |
+  | p.   9 "alsoo" changed to "also".                            |
+  | p. 114 "United States Court Survey" changed to               |
+  |        "United States Coast Survey".                         |
+  | p. 132 "22°.5" changed to "22.5°".                           |
+  | c.   1 "Riveteé" changed to "Rivetée".                       |
+  | c.   3 "Metcalf's" changed to "Metcalfe's".                  |
+  | c.   5 "Matthew's" changed to "Matthews's".                  |
+  | c.  10 "Hermann" changed to "Herrmann".                      |
+  | c.  12 "Maunal" changed to "Manual".                         |
+  | c.  14 "Richard's" changed to "Richards's".                  |
+  | c.  15 "Wehrenfenning's" changed to "Wehrenfennig's".        |
+  | c.  18 "Virignia" changed to "Virginia".                     |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nautical Charts, by G. R. Putnam
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44175 ***
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Nautical Charts, by G. R. Putnam.
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+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44175 ***</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="600" height="369" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">SURVEYING STEAMER <i>FATHOMER</i> IN MANILA BAY.
+
+(<i>Frontispiece</i>)
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+
+
+<h1>NAUTICAL CHARTS</h1>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br /><br /><br />BY</p>
+
+<p class="center"><big><big>G. R. PUTNAM, M.S.</big></big></p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS<br />
+DIRECTOR OF COAST SURVEYS, PHILIPPINE<br />
+ISLANDS, 1900 TO 1906</small></p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br /><br /><br /><i>FIRST EDITION</i><br />
+<small>FIRST THOUSAND</small></p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br /><br /><br />NEW YORK<br />
+<big>JOHN WILEY &amp; SONS</big><br />
+<span class="smcap">London</span>: CHAPMAN &amp; HALL, <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br />
+1908
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Copyright, 1908,<br />
+by</span><br />
+G. R. PUTNAM</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Stanhope Press</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small><em class="gesperrt">F. H. GILSON COMPANY<br />
+BOSTON, U.S.A.</em></small>
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>In preparing the material for a lecture on Charts for
+Columbia University, the writer was impressed with the
+fact that although nautical charts are mentioned or discussed
+in many publications, there was not found any one
+which covered the general subject of their origin, construction,
+and use. In the countries of the world more
+than a million copies of such charts are now issued
+annually. A considerable portion of the human race is
+interested directly or indirectly, whether as mariners
+or passengers or shippers, in navigation upon the sea.
+Aside from supplying a handbook for those who might
+have a general interest in the subject, it was thought
+that a discussion of charts might lead to further consideration
+of the principles governing their construction.</p>
+
+<p>This paper has intentionally been made as non-technical
+as seemed feasible in treating a somewhat
+technical subject. The writer is indebted to the Coast
+and Geodetic Survey for various illustrative material
+from its archives, and to a number of authors for facts
+or suggestions. A list is appended of books and papers
+which have been freely consulted, bearing on this and
+related subjects.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+<big>G. R. P.</big></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Washington, D.C.</span>, <i>May 24, 1908</i>.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv-v]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a></h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">List of Books or Papers bearing on Nautical Charts and related Subjects</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Charts and Maps</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Collection of Information for Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Preparation of Information for Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Publication of Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Correction of Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Reading and Using Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Use of Charts in Navigation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Publications Supplementing Nautical Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vi-vii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_BOOKS_OR_PAPERS_BEARING_ON_NAUTICAL" id="LIST_OF_BOOKS_OR_PAPERS_BEARING_ON_NAUTICAL">LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTICAL
+CHARTS AND RELATED SUBJECTS</a></h2>
+
+
+<p class="booklist">Periplus, an Essay on the Early History of Charts, and Sailing
+Directions. A. E. Nordenskiöld, Stockholm, 1897.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Maps, their Uses and Construction. G. James Morrison, London,
+1902.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Charts and Chart Making. Lieut. John E. Pillsbury, U.S.N., in
+<i>Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute, 1884</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Principal Facts relating to the Earth's Magnetism. L. A. Bauer,
+in U. S. Magnetic Declination Tables, Coast and Geodetic
+Survey, 1903.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Coasts of the World. G. W.
+Littlehales, in Report of the Eighth International Geographic
+Congress, 1904.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Smithsonian Geographical Tables. R. S. Woodward, Washington,
+1906.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Admiralty Charts, Abridged list of. Published by J. D. Potter,
+London, 1907.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Military Topography. Capt. C. B. Hagadorn, U.S.A., West Point,
+1907.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Service Hydrographique de la Marine, Paris, 1900.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">A Manual of Conventional Symbols in Use on Official Charts.
+United States Hydrographic Office, Gustave Herrle, 1903.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Hydrographical Surveying. Admiral W. J. L. Wharton, London,
+1898.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">On the Correction of Charts, Light Lists, and Sailing Directions.
+Published by J. D. Potter, London, 1904.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Notes Relative to the Use of Charts. D. B. Wainwright, Coast
+and Geodetic Survey, 1900.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p>
+<p class="booklist">The Law relating to Charts and Sailing Directions. H. Stuart
+Moore, London, 1904.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Notes bearing on the Navigation of H. M. Ships. Hydrographic
+Office, London, 1900.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">The Relations of Harbors to Modern Shipping. W. H. Wheeler,
+in <i>Engineering News</i>, September 6, 1906, New York.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Wrinkles in Practical Navigation. Capt. S. T. S. Lecky, London,
+1899.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Navigation and Compass Deviations. Commander W. C. P. Muir,
+U.S.N., Annapolis, 1906.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">The Practice of Navigation. Henry Raper, London, 1898.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Lehrbuch der Navigation. Reichs-Marine-Amt, Berlin, 1906.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist"><i>The Nautical Magazine</i>, London.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Dangers and Ice in the North Atlantic Ocean. Bureau of Navigation,
+U. S. Navy Department, 1868.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Reported Dangers in the North Pacific Ocean. U. S. Hydrographic
+Office, 1871.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Pacific Islands, Vol. III, chapter on "Vigias." British Hydrographic
+Office, London, 1900.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Harriman Alaska Expedition, Vol. II, Bogoslof, our Newest Volcano,
+by C. Hart Merriam, New York, 1901.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Expedition to the Aleutian Islands, 1907. T. A. Jaggar, Jr., in
+<i>The Technology Review</i>, 1907, Boston.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Recent Changes in Level in the Yakutat Bay Region, Alaska, by
+R. S. Tarr and Lawrence Martin, in Bulletin of the American
+Geological Society, 1906.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">An Index to the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. W. T. Brigham,
+Honolulu, 1900.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Geography, articles by C. R. Markham, A. R. Clarke, and H. R.
+Mill in Encyclopædia Britannica.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Development in Dimensions of vessels, Elmer L. Corthell,
+Tenth International Navigation Congress, 1905.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="likeh1"><a name="NAUTICAL_CHARTS" id="NAUTICAL_CHARTS">NAUTICAL CHARTS</a></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHARTS_AND_MAPS" id="CHARTS_AND_MAPS">CHARTS AND MAPS</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Need of maps.</b> Maps are useful and necessary for
+many purposes. Only by means of a correct map
+or globe can a clear idea of the geography of a region
+be given. An attempt to convey the same information
+by a written description would in comparison be both
+cumbersome and obscure. Even by passing over an
+extensive region a man unaided by instruments will
+obtain only a rather crude notion of the relations, which
+he could clearly see on a good map. The importance
+among the human arts of the making of maps is indicated
+by the references to them in very early historical
+records, and by the skill in map drawing shown by
+some of the primitive peoples of to-day. This skill
+exists particularly among races whose mode of life
+gives them a wide horizon, as for instance the Eskimos.
+An interesting instance of this was the case of Joe, an
+Eskimo guide, who, in 1898, before the surveys of the
+Yukon delta were made, drew a map of the Yukon
+mouths with much more complete information than any
+previously available.</p>
+
+<p>Without attempting to enumerate in detail the special
+uses for maps, in the broader sense they may be said
+to be essential for commercial, engineering, military,
+scientific, educational, and political purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Early geography and map making.</b> The oldest map
+known is a plan of gold mines in Nubia, drawn on a
+papyrus. This is of the thirteenth century <small>B.C.</small>, and
+was found in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest historic times men believed the earth
+to be a flat surface of nearly circular outline, a natural
+inference for those with limited outlook and communication.
+Later the idea was introduced of the ocean as
+a river bounding the earth disk. The spherical theory
+of the earth was, however, early accepted by learned
+men, and was demonstrated by Aristotle (384 to
+322 <small>B.C.</small>), who used as proofs the earth's shadow on the
+moon, and the change in the visibility of the stars in
+traveling north or south. Crates constructed a terrestrial
+globe in the second century <small>B.C.</small></p>
+
+<p>There is no Greek or Latin map extant of earlier
+date than the time of Ptolemy, but there are references
+showing that maps were in use. One of the first of
+such passages in Greek literature is the interesting
+comment of Herodotus written in the fifth century <small>B.C.</small>,
+"but I laugh when I see many who already have drawn
+the circuits of the earth, without any right understanding
+thereof. Thus they draw Oceanus flowing round the
+earth, which is circular, as though turned by a lathe,
+and they make Asia equal to Europe."</p>
+
+<p>A map of the world was drawn by Anaximander,
+560 <small>B.C.</small> A hundred years later Democritus drew a
+map having an oblong shape, and taught that the width
+of the world from east to west was one and a half times
+its extent from north to south, a conclusion based on
+his travels eastward as far as India. This theory,
+which was for a time accepted, has left an enduring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+mark in the words <i>longitude</i> and <i>latitude</i>, originally
+signifying the length and the breadth of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The first application of astronomy to geography was
+made by Pytheas, who about 326 <small>B.C.</small> obtained the latitude
+of Marseilles by an observation of the altitude of the
+sun. Dicearchus in 310 <small>B.C.</small> determined the first parallel
+of latitude by noting places where on the same day the
+sun cast shadows of equal length from pillars of equal
+height. Eratosthenes (276 to 196 <small>B.C.</small>) was the first
+to compute the circumference of the earth from observations
+of the altitude of the sun at Alexandria and at
+Syene in Upper Egypt and an estimation of the distance
+between these two places. Ptolemy, a Greek of Alexandria,
+in the years from 127 to 151 <small>A.D.</small> wrote extensively
+on geographic subjects, and collected into systematic
+form all geographic knowledge then existing; he was
+the greatest geographer of early history.</p>
+
+<p>In the ten centuries which followed, part of the early
+advance in this science was obscured, and the theory
+that the earth was a flat disk surrounded by the sea
+again became prevalent. The voyages of discovery
+of the middle ages, however, led to a rapid development
+of geographic knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>The flattening of the spherical earth was not suspected
+until in 1672 a clock regulated to beat seconds
+at Paris, when taken to Cayenne near the equator was
+found to lose two and one-half minutes a day. Newton
+proved that this was due to the fact that the earth
+is an oblate spheroid. In 1735 accurate measurements
+were undertaken to determine the size and shape of
+the earth. The equatorial diameter has been found
+to be 7926.6 miles and the polar diameter 7899.6 miles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+the difference, or 27 statute miles, being the amount of
+the flattening at the poles.</p>
+
+<p><b>The first sailing directions.</b> The early Greek and
+Roman writers do not allude to charts or maps intended
+especially for the use of seafarers. There are, however,
+extant several peripli or descriptions of the coast. Some
+of these appear certainly to have been intended for use
+as nautical guides, corresponding to the modern sailing
+directions. It is probable that they were explanatory
+of or accompanied by coast charts, now lost.
+They are of interest therefore as being probably the first
+compilations for the guidance of seamen. One of the
+earliest, written apparently in the fifth and fourth
+centuries <small>B.C.</small>, is entitled "Scylax of Caryanda, his
+circumnavigation of the sea of the inhabited part of
+Europe and Asia and Libya." It contains a systematic
+description of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black
+Sea, and part of the west coast of Africa. The following
+are some extracts which indicate the character
+of the work. It is to be noted that no bearings are
+given, and that distances are usually stated by day's
+sail: Africa is referred to as Libya.</p>
+
+<p>"Europe. I shall begin from the Pillars of Hercules
+in Europe and continue to the Pillars of Hercules in
+Libya, and as far as the land of the great Ethiopians.
+The Pillars of Hercules are opposite each other, and are
+distant from each other by one day's sail.... From
+Thonis the voyage to Pharos, a desert island (good
+harborage but no drinking water), is 150 stadia. In
+Pharos are many harbors. But ships water at the
+Marian mere, for it is drinkable.... From Chersonesus
+is one day's sail; but from Naustathmus to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+the harbor of Cyrene, 100 stadia. But from the harbor
+to Cyrene, 80 stadia; for Cyrene is inland. These
+harbors are always fit for putting into. And there are
+other refuges at little islands, and anchorages and many
+beaches, in the district between.... After the isthmus
+is Carthage, a city of the Ph&#339;nicians, and a harbor.
+Sailing along from Hermæa it is half a day to Carthage.
+There are islands off the Hermæan cape, Pontia island
+and Cosyrus. From Hermæa to Cosyrus is a day's
+sail. Beyond the Hermæan cape, towards the rising
+sun, are three islands belonging to this shore, inhabited
+by Carthaginians; the city and harbor of Melite, the
+city of Gaulus, and Lampas; this has two or three
+towers.... The sailing along Libya from the Canopic
+mouth in Egypt to the Pillars of Hercules ... takes
+74 days if one coast round the bays.... From the
+cape of Hermæa extend great reefs, that is, from Libya
+towards Europe, not rising above the sea; it washes
+over them at times.... From Thymiateria one sails
+to cape Soloes, which juts far into the sea. But all
+this district of Libya is very famous and very sacred....
+This whole coasting from the Pillars of Hercules to
+Cerne Island takes twelve days. The parts beyond the
+isle of Cerne are no longer navigable because of shoals,
+mud, and sea-weed. This sea-weed has the width of
+a palm, and is sharp towards the points, so as to prick."</p>
+
+<p>That there were many other similar writings in the
+following centuries is shown by the following quotation
+from Marcianus, in a preface to sailing directions
+written in the fifth century <small>A.D.</small>: "This I write after
+having gone through many sailing directions, and spent
+much time on their examination. For it behooves all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+who are men of education, to scrutinise such attempts
+at learning in this subject, so as neither rashly to believe
+the things that are said, nor incredulously to set their
+private opinions against the careful decisions of others."</p>
+
+<p>The oldest extant sailing directions of the middle
+ages bear date 1306 to 1320.</p>
+
+<p><b>Development of chart making.</b> The application of
+the compass to nautical use in the twelfth century
+<small>A.D.</small> had a marked effect in encouraging voyages of
+exploration, and therefore indirectly on chart making.
+The following, written toward the close of the twelfth
+century, is the first known mention of the use of the
+compass in Europe: "The sailors, moreover, as they sail
+over the sea, when in cloudy weather they cannot longer
+profit by the light of the sun, or when the world is
+wrapped in the darkness of the shades of night, and
+they are ignorant to what part of the horizon the prow
+is directed, place the needle over the magnet, which
+is whirled round in a circle, until, when the motion
+ceases, the point of it (the needle) looks to the north."
+The nautical compass of that time appears to have
+consisted of a magnetized needle, floated in a vessel
+of water by a cork or reed, and having no index
+nor compass card. Peregrinus in 1269 made notable
+improvements in the compass, including a pivot suspension
+for the needle, a graduation, a lubber line,
+and an azimuth bar for sighting on the sun or other
+object.</p>
+
+<p>Nautical charts are known to have been in use since
+the thirteenth century <small>A.D.</small>, but the earliest extant of
+which the date can be fixed is Vesconte's loxodromic
+chart of 1311.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The loxodromic charts first appeared in Italy, and
+were so called from the fact that they were crossed by
+loxodromes (or rhumb lines) radiating from a number
+of crossing points distributed regularly over the map.
+Compass roses carefully drawn were later added at these
+crossing points, the first appearing on a chart of 1375.
+The earliest known mention of the variation of the
+compass from true north was on the first voyage of
+Columbus, who discovered this important fact in 1492,
+and as a consequence his "seamen were terrified and
+dismayed." Before that time it was assumed in Europe
+that the compass pointed "true to the north pole."
+The apparent failure to detect the variation earlier was
+doubtless to some extent due to its small amount at
+that time along the Mediterranean. The earlier charts
+showed both lines and compass roses apparently
+oriented with the true meridian, though there is some
+evidence to indicate that they were actually oriented
+with the magnetic meridian, the designer not recognizing
+any difference. The variation of the compass was first
+marked on a map in 1532 and on a printed chart in
+1595, but the placing of magnetic compasses on charts
+did not become customary until about fifty years ago.
+These early charts were drawn on parchment, using
+bright colors. They were copied by hand, one from
+another, with gradual variations. They had no projections,
+and the draftsmen evidently had no idea of
+the sphericity of the earth. Islands and points were
+usually exaggerated; shallows were indicated, but no
+soundings; no information was given as to the interior
+of the countries; a scale of distances was nearly always
+provided.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Charts were first printed about 1477, and are known
+to have been engraved on copper by 1560.</p>
+
+<p>The maps of Ptolemy were ruled with degree lines,
+but no chart was so provided until 1427; by 1500,
+however, most charts were graduated. Before this
+date it is not known on what projection the charts
+were constructed. On the first graduated charts the
+degree lines were equidistant parallel straight lines
+cutting each other at right angles and thus dividing
+the chart into equal squares or rectangles. These
+were known as "plain charts." This square projection
+had little to commend it save simplicity of construction,
+as in higher latitudes it gave neither directions nor
+distances correctly. The difficulties of its use in navigation
+were early recognized, and nautical works contained
+chapters on "sailing by the plain chart, and the
+uncertainties thereof."</p>
+
+<p>The example of early chart making shown in <a href="#Fig2">Fig. 2</a>
+is of great interest as being the earliest extant chart
+which includes America. This chart was drawn on
+ox-hide in 1500 by Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied
+Columbus on his first voyage as master of his flagship,
+and on his second voyage as cartographer. The chart,
+of which only a portion is shown here, purports to
+cover the entire world; it joins Asia and America as one
+continent, the Pacific Ocean being then still unknown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig2" id="Fig2"></a>
+<img src="images/fig02.jpg" width="600" height="477" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 2. CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN, BY JUAN DE LA COSA, 1500. EARLIEST EXTANT CHART SHOWING AMERICA.</p>
+<p class="largeimg"><a href="images/fig02_1500.jpg">Fig. 2 enlarged</a> (652 kB)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gerhard Krämer, a Flemish map-maker, better
+known by his Latin name of Mercator, in 1569 published
+his famous Universal Map. In this map the
+meridians and parallels were still straight lines intersecting
+at right angles, but the distances between the
+parallels were increased with increasing latitude in
+such proportion that a rhumb line, or line cutting the
+meridians at a constant angle, would appear on the
+map as a straight line. Mercator never explained
+the construction of his chart, and as the above condition
+was not accurately carried out, it is thought that the
+chart was drawn by comparing a terrestrial globe
+with a "plain chart." After examination of a mercator
+chart in 1590, Edward Wright developed the correct
+principles on which such a chart should be
+constructed, and published in 1599 his treatise "The
+Correction of Certain Errors in Navigation." It took
+nearly a century to bring this chart into use, and even
+in the middle of the eighteenth century nautical writers
+complain that "some prefer the plain chart."</p>
+
+<p>The Arcano del Mare, 1646, was the first marine
+atlas in which all the maps were drawn on the mercator
+projection.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
+charts and sailing directions were often bound together
+in large volumes. These usually had quaint titles, not
+overburdened with modesty, of which the following is
+an example: "The Lightning Columne, or Sea-Mirrour,
+containing the Sea-Coasts of the Northern, Eastern,
+and Western Navigation. Setting forth in divers
+necessaire Sea-Cards, all the Ports, Rivers, Bayes,
+Roads, Depths, and Sands. Very curiously placed on
+its due Polus height furnished. With the Discoveries
+of the chief Countries and on what Cours and Distance
+they lay one from another. Never there to fore
+so Clearly laid open, and here and there very diligently
+bettered and augmented for the use of all Seamen.
+As also the situation of the Northerly Countries, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 9-10]</a></span>
+Islands, the Strate Davids, the Isle of Jan Mayen,
+Bears Island, Old Greenland, Spitsbergen and Nova
+Zembla. Adorneth with many Sea-Cards and Discoveries.
+Gathered out of the Experiences and practice
+of divers Pilots and Lovers of the famous Art of
+Navigation. Where unto is added a brief Instruction
+of the Art of Navigation, together with New Tables
+of the Sun's Declination, with a new Almanach. At
+Amsterdam. Printed by Casparus Loots-Man, Bookseller
+in the Loots-Man, upon the Water. Anno 1697.
+With Previlege for fiftheen years."</p>
+
+<p>In 1633 a cartographer was appointed to the States-General
+of Holland, and it was his duty to correct the
+charts from the ships' logs. The Dutch at an early
+date made important progress in publishing charts.
+In 1720 there was established in Paris by order of the
+king, a central chart office ("dépôt des cartes et plans,
+journaux et mémoires concernant la navigation"), and
+in 1737 the first charts were published by this office.
+Detailed surveys of the coast of France were commenced
+in 1816.</p>
+
+<p>In 1740 "the commissioners for the discovery of
+longitude at sea" were authorized by Parliament to
+expend money on the survey of the coasts of Great
+Britain, this commission having been created in 1713.
+Various rewards were offered by this commission,
+including one of £10,000, for the discovery of a method
+of determining the longitude within 60 miles, an interesting
+side light on the uncertainties of navigation at
+that time. Compensated timepieces, which have been
+so important a factor in improving navigation, were
+invented by Harrison about 1761.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig03.jpg" width="600" height="397" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 3. LOXODROMIC CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN, 1565. A PLAIN CHART WITH LATITUDE DEGREES OF EQUAL LENGTH.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 12-13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1795, by an Order in Council, a Hydrographical
+Office was established in London, "to take charge and
+custody of such plans and charts as then were, or should
+thereafter be, deposited in the Admiralty, and to select
+and compile such information as might appear to be
+requisite for the purpose of improving navigation."
+This office had at first one assistant and one draftsman.
+Before that time many charts of a private or semiofficial
+character had been published; the catalogue of
+the East India Company in 1786 included 347 charts.</p>
+
+<p>In 1807 the Congress of the United States authorized
+the President "to cause a survey to be taken of the
+coasts of the United States, in which shall be designated
+the islands and shoals, with the roads or places of
+anchorage, within twenty leagues of any part of the
+shores of the United States; and also the respective
+courses and distances between the principal capes, or
+headlands, together with such other matters as he may
+deem proper for completing an accurate chart of every
+part of the coasts within the extent aforesaid." This
+law was the origin of the present United States Coast
+and Geodetic Survey, now under the Department of
+Commerce and Labor.</p>
+
+<p>In 1841 a systematic survey of the Great Lakes was
+commenced; this is the Survey of the Northern and
+Northwestern Lakes, briefly known as the Lake Survey,
+conducted under the Corps of Engineers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1866 the United States Hydrographic Office was
+established under the Navy Department "for the
+improvement of the means for navigating safely the
+vessels of the Navy, and of the mercantile marine, by
+providing under the authority of the Secretary of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+the Navy, accurate and cheap nautical charts, sailing
+directions, navigators, and manuals of instructions for
+the use of all vessels of the United States, and for the
+benefit and use of navigation generally."</p>
+
+<p><b>Systematic surveying and chart making</b> date back
+little more than a century, and most of the information
+shown on modern charts has been gathered in that
+time. At present all the principal maritime nations of
+the world have made, or are extending, careful surveys
+of their own coasts.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the countries have added valuable contributions
+in the examination of other regions and oceanic
+areas beyond their borders. The maritime and colonial
+interests of Great Britain impelled that nation to carry
+on extensive surveys along coasts whose inhabitants
+were not prepared to do this work in the earlier days;
+the British have made surveys along the coasts of Asia
+and Africa and a part of South America, and the resulting
+charts have been a very important and not sufficiently
+known contribution to commercial intercourse
+among the nations, as well as to geography.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch, French, Spanish, and other European
+governments have made nautical surveys in various
+parts of the world, largely in connection with their own
+colonies, and in recent years much useful work has
+been done by vessels of the German government. The
+United States has also beyond its own territory made
+valuable additions to hydrographic knowledge in the
+work of officers of the Navy in a number of oceanic
+exploring expeditions, and surveys on the coasts of
+Mexico and in the West Indies, and in the explorations
+of Fish Commission vessels.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig04.png" width="600" height="482" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 4. EARLY CHART OF NEW YORK HARBOR, 1737.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 16-17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Extension of maritime surveys.</b> Of the total area of
+the earth's surface, 51,886,000 square miles is land and
+145,054,000 square miles is sea. The oceans thus
+occupy nearly three-fourths of the whole surface, affording
+highways open to the nations. To conduct international
+commerce by water the ships of one country
+must enter the ports of another. Thus both on the
+open sea and in the harbors there is an interest, common
+to seamen of all nationalities, in the advance of marine
+surveys and in the publication of charts.</p>
+
+<p>To keep the coasts properly charted, as well as lighted
+and buoyed, is an obligation devolving on modern
+nations, not only for the benefit of their own commerce
+but for that of other countries.</p>
+
+<p>As shown below, only a small part of the coast line
+of the world is thoroughly surveyed. In the extensive
+ocean areas which are dotted with islands or reefs, a large
+amount of work is required for their sufficient charting,
+although many doubtful areas have been cleared up in
+recent years. Even the parts that are known to be of
+depths so great as to be free from navigational dangers
+should be sounded over sufficiently to develop the general
+configuration of the ocean bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Through international understanding a thorough
+exploration of all the water area of the globe and the
+coasts may in time be effected, and the many doubtful
+spots which still disfigure the charts may be either
+eliminated or definitely located.</p>
+
+<p><b>Present state of progress of hydrographic surveys.</b> A
+comparatively small proportion of the coasts of the
+world can be considered as completely surveyed at the
+present time, and even such regions require much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+additional revision. In the class of more thoroughly
+surveyed coasts should be included the Atlantic and
+most of the Pacific coast of the United States, Porto
+Rico, nearly all the coasts of Europe, Algeria, and
+portions of the coasts of Japan, the Philippine Islands,
+and India.</p>
+
+<p>A large part of the world's coasts has been surveyed
+incompletely, but sufficiently well to permit the publication
+of navigational charts. This is the condition as
+respects most of southeastern Alaska and some other
+portions of the Alaskan coast, British Columbia, most
+of Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, Brazil
+and parts of Chile, the Hawaiian Islands, China, Malay
+Peninsula, Siam, the Dutch East Indies, Australia,
+New Zealand, Persia, Arabia, most of Africa, Iceland,
+northern Scandinavia, and Finland.</p>
+
+<p>Another considerable portion of the coasts has not
+been surveyed, but has been covered by explorations
+which have been embodied in nautical charts of varied
+degrees of incompleteness. In this class are the north
+coast and considerable portions of the south and west
+coasts of Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, Siberia, most of
+the oceanic groups in the Pacific, the northern coasts
+of Europe and North America, Greenland, the west
+coast of South America, Venezuela, and Argentina.</p>
+
+<p>Only a very small proportion of the total length of
+coasts is now entirely unexplored, and such portions
+are confined to the polar regions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chart publications of various nations.</b> There are
+about eighteen nations publishing navigational charts,
+and adding to the information on which charts are
+based. Many of these nations republish to some extent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+the charts prepared by the others. Great Britain has
+kept up a series of charts covering all parts of the world
+and practically including in some form all information
+published elsewhere. This series now (1908) includes
+3725 different charts, of which the annual issue is
+about 600,000 copies. France (1906) publishes 2948
+different charts.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States, charts are published by the
+Coast and Geodetic Survey for the coasts and tidal
+waters of the main country and the insular possessions,
+by the Hydrographic Office for oceanic areas and foreign
+coasts, and by the Lake Survey for the Great Lakes.
+The total number of different charts issued by these
+bureaus is about 2300, and the total annual issue is
+about 225,000 copies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Systems in use on various charts.</b></p>
+
+<p><i>Longitude.</i> The first chart of New York, published
+by the Coast Survey in 1844, was referred to the City
+Hall of New York as the initial longitude, and some
+years ago it was the prevailing custom for each nation
+to use a local initial longitude. While this satisfied
+local pride it led to much geographical and navigational
+confusion. Happily the charts of all countries
+are now referred to Greenwich, with the following
+exceptions:</p>
+
+<p class="exeptlist">
+France refers to Paris, which is 2° 20´ 15´´ E. of Greenwich.<br />
+Spain refers to San Fernando, which is 6° 12´ 20´´ W. of Greenwich.<br />
+Portugal refers to Lisbon, which is 9° 08´ 24´´ W. of Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p><i>Units for depths.</i> The English fathom or foot is used
+for depths on the charts of Great Britain, the United
+States, and Japan. Russia uses the sajene of seven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+English feet. On the modern charts of practically all
+the other countries the meter is used, though on older
+charts various units are found.</p>
+
+<p>In the first group feet are ordinarily found only on
+large scale or local charts of areas with moderate
+depths, and the other charts are in fathoms, except
+that on the earlier charts of the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey feet were used on a sanded surface inside of the
+three-fathom curve and fathoms on the white surface
+outside of that curve. Heights are stated in feet on
+the charts of the first group.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plane of reference.</i> As the depth of water varies
+with the tide, it is necessary for charting purposes to
+adopt some standard plane to which the soundings are
+referred. Practically all countries have adopted for
+this purpose a low stage of the tide, as this is obviously
+on the side of safety; in most cases an extreme low
+water is used, so that the actual depths will seldom,
+owing to the tide, be less than those shown on the chart.
+The definite reference planes used on the American
+charts will be mentioned later.</p>
+
+<p>On nearly all charts heights are referred to mean high
+water, doubtless owing to this being the visible limit of
+the land at high tide. On topographic maps of the
+interior, the heights are referred to mean sea level,
+which plane is of course lower than the preceding by
+one-half the range of tide.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symbols on charts.</i> Fair uniformity as to general
+principles, with differences as to details in carrying
+them out, exists on the various series of charts regarding
+their general arrangement and the more important
+symbols, such as in the shading of land to distinguish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+from water, the use of depth curves, the representation
+of hills by shade or contour, the indication of shoals
+and dangers, and of lighthouses and buoys.</p>
+
+<p><b>Desirability of uniformity in charts.</b> Ships engaged
+in international commerce must enter foreign ports.
+As the information is constantly changing and charts
+are being corrected or improved, it is sometimes
+desirable for the navigator to consult the local foreign
+charts, and it may often be necessary for him to carry
+in his chart room the charts of several different countries.
+There are therefore important advantages in
+international uniformity in chart publication.</p>
+
+<p>There should be a common initial longitude, and as
+the longitude of Greenwich has been so extensively
+adopted, it appears quite probable that its use may
+some day become universal.</p>
+
+<p>A common unit for soundings and heights would be
+very desirable, but the fact that a large group of nations
+has united on the metric system, while a small group
+with great commercial interests retains another system,
+makes the attainment of uniformity difficult.</p>
+
+<p>Substantial agreement as to the use of symbols on
+charts, particularly such as represent aids or dangers
+to navigation, would be desirable and doubtless feasible.</p>
+
+<p><b>Privately published charts.</b> Many of the earlier charts
+were prepared and published by private enterprise, and
+such charts are still published, as, for instance, the so-called
+"blue-back" charts printed in London. These
+charts have usually differed from those published by
+the various governments either in representing the main
+features in a very bold manner with little detail or in
+including a considerable area with many plans on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+single large sheet backed for permanency. An objection
+to the latter is that the durability together with the
+high price tends to keep an old chart in use long after
+it is out of date. It would be financially difficult for
+a private firm to give the service that a government does
+in the matter of correcting the charts and issuing new
+editions, and this is an important consideration in the
+selection of charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Purpose of charts.</b> The main purpose of charts is to
+furnish graphical guides to aid in taking a vessel safely
+from one port to another; they are maps for the use of
+navigators. An experienced mariner may be able to
+steer his vessel over a familiar course without charts,
+but this does not make their publication less necessary.
+Even such an expert pilot doubtless studied the charts
+in the first place; the uncertainties of the sea and
+the changes of information are such that his vessel's
+equipment should include the latest charts, and safety
+requires their examination. The passengers and the
+merchants who intrust their lives or their goods to the
+sea are largely dependent upon the correctness of
+the charts.</p>
+
+<p>Besides their main purpose charts fill many other
+needs, among which are; for preliminary planning of
+harbor improvements and various engineering works,
+for defensive works and other military uses, for the
+fishing interests, and for general information as to the
+coastal regions. Charts will furnish much of interest
+and instruction to the traveler by sea and the dweller
+near the coast, who will learn to read them. Passenger
+steamers should more often for the interest of their
+patrons display charts of the waters traversed. No<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+written or verbal description can give as clear an idea
+of geographical features and relations as a good map
+or chart.</p>
+
+<p>As the charts are revised from time to time, a comparison
+of editions at different dates furnishes a record
+of the changes wrought by nature or man, and this is
+especially useful in studying the action in many harbor
+and river entrances, as well as for historical purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Requirements for charts.</b> As charts are maps of the
+water areas, including the adjoining land, and intended
+primarily for the use of mariners, they differ in important
+respects from topographic maps or general maps,
+even such as include the water areas. The main
+requirements for charts are these; correct and complete
+information, early publication of new data, clear and
+intelligible representation of the information, convenient
+arrangement as navigational instruments, and high
+standard of publication.</p>
+
+<p>The special and sometimes difficult conditions under
+which charts must be used on shipboard call for good
+judgment throughout their preparation. Even the
+paper on which they are printed is of importance, in
+order that they may be sufficiently durable and suitable
+for plotting.</p>
+
+<p><b>Information given on charts.</b> It is evident that it is
+impossible to represent on a chart of any practicable
+scale all the features that exist on the corresponding
+area of the earth's surface. It is essential, therefore,
+that a selection be made of the classes of facts that are
+to be shown, as well as of the detail that is to be used for
+each class. The practical utility of the chart depends
+largely on the good judgment used in this selection. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+the information shown, charts differ from maps principally
+in representing by soundings and curves the
+configuration of the bottom of the water area, and in
+showing ordinarily the topographic features only in the
+vicinity of the coast line.</p>
+
+<p>The convenience of mariners should govern in the selection
+and arrangement of the information to be shown
+on charts, though they may be made useful for other
+purposes so long as this convenience is not lessened.
+The needs and preferences of navigators alone, however,
+differ so much that a reasonable chart must be
+somewhat of a compromise between conflicting views.
+For certain classes of navigation a boldly drawn chart
+showing only the dangers and a few other soundings
+and some landmarks might be useful. For other
+maritime purposes a more detailed chart would be
+valuable. The first, however, would fail to give facts
+often demanded in the navigational use of the chart,
+and the second if carried to an extreme would make a
+chart difficult to use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig05.png" width="600" height="374" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 5. STATE OF ADVANCEMENT OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF THE COASTS OF THE WORLD, 1904.
+
+<i>By G. W. Littlehales.</i>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Shoals and dangers are shown either by the least
+depth or by rock or reef symbols. The characteristic
+soundings are shown on the chart, with abbreviations
+indicating the nature of the bottom. Depth curves
+are drawn, joining together points of like depth, and
+inclosing areas of less depth, on the same principle
+that contours are used on land maps; usually also the
+shoaler spots are made more prominent by sanding
+or tinting the area within them. Lighthouses, buoys,
+and other artificial aids to navigation are represented,
+with descriptive abbreviations. The coast is shown
+by a bold solid line for high water and a dotted line<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 25-29]</a></span>
+for low water. The main topographic features are
+represented for a moderate distance from the coast,
+with such detail as is useful, depending on the scale of
+the chart. Elevations are given in figures for prominent
+summits, islands, and rocks; the general configuration
+of hills and mountains is represented by contours
+on large scale charts or by hachures or shading on
+small scale charts. Rivers, streams, lakes, marshes,
+towns, roads, prominent buildings, and other important
+topographic features are shown by appropriate symbols.
+It is important that objects which may be useful in
+navigation as landmarks, whether natural or artificial,
+be plainly shown and described, if necessary to their
+identification, and that they should not be obscured
+by details of lesser importance. On the larger scale
+charts only, vegetation features, particularly areas
+covered by trees, are represented by symbols. The
+land area is usually clearly distinguished from the
+water area by a tint or stipple. Latitude and longitude
+are given by the projection lines and the subdivided
+border, or sometimes on harbor plans by a note giving
+the position of some one point. Brief information as
+to the time and range of the tides is stated in a note.
+Data regarding currents, whether due to tidal or other
+causes, are given by current arrows placed on the chart,
+or by explanatory notes. Compasses are for convenience
+printed on the charts, and data given as to the
+magnetic variation and its rate of change. On large
+scale charts scales are provided for use in measuring
+distances. Ranges and channel lines are given when
+required. The ports are indicated where storm warning
+signals are displayed. The areas of forbidden anchor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>ages
+are shown, and when important, the positions of
+submarine cables. The lines dividing the high seas
+from inland waters are sometimes stated on United
+States charts. Life saving stations are given, and time
+balls are usually noted. Views of important features
+are shown on some charts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 371px;">
+<img src="images/fig06.jpg" width="371" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 6. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE UNITED STATES COAST AND
+GEODETIC SURVEY.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The layman who looks at the printed chart probably
+does not appreciate the amount or the variety of
+information that must be gathered and sifted and put
+in proper shape for a single chart.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="COLLECTION_OF_INFORMATION_FOR_CHARTS" id="COLLECTION_OF_INFORMATION_FOR_CHARTS">COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Need of thorough surveys.</b> As has been stated, a
+good chart requires that a thorough and correct survey
+be first made of the region to be charted. It is said
+that men are very apt to accept as true anything they
+see on a map. As to the nautical chart the mariner
+is likely to be somewhat more critical, however, and
+it is well that he is. The difficulty of charting an
+invisible surface such as the bottom of the sea is great,
+and the proportion of the navigable waters surveyed
+in sufficient detail to be at all certain of the absence of
+uncharted dangers is small.</p>
+
+<p>The planning of surveys in a new region, such, for
+instance, as the Philippine Islands, presents many
+interesting problems, on the solution of which the
+effectiveness in chart results and the cost of the work
+materially depend. Many local conditions must be
+taken into account. The surveys are made on opposite
+coasts according to the seasonal winds and rainfall.
+In some parts fair-sized steamers are necessary; in
+others launches and small boats can do the work
+more economically. Shore parties with land transportation
+are used for portions of the work where the
+country permits. Natives are employed as far as
+practicable for the classes of work they can do; the
+Filipinos, for instance, make good sailors on the vessels
+and excellent penmen in the office.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a brief outline of the steps of a com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>plete
+survey for charting purposes, according to the present
+practice of the United States Coast and Geodetic
+Survey. These are given in their logical order, though
+in actual work this order must often be departed from.
+In this Survey the methods of control have been of a
+high standard; that is, the main stations have been
+accurately determined and permanently marked and
+described, and this has proven an advantage in the
+joining together of the original surveys and resurveys.</p>
+
+<p><b>Astronomical observations.</b> To locate on the surface
+of the earth the area to be charted, astronomical
+observations are required for the latitude and longitude
+of one or more points. In the best practice the longitude
+of a point is obtained by observing the transits
+of stars to get the local time, and sending time signals
+by telegraph to obtain the difference from the local
+time of some other place whose longitude is known.
+The latitude is observed by measuring the difference
+of zenith distance of pairs of stars crossing the meridian
+north and south of the zenith. The azimuth or true
+direction of some line is also obtained from star
+observations, usually by observations with a theodolite
+on a circumpolar star. Much existing chart work
+depends on positions determined by less accurate
+methods, as, for instance, longitudes obtained by transporting
+chronometers between the known station and
+that to be determined, or by observations of moon culminations,
+and latitudes obtained by direct observations
+of the altitudes of stars with theodolite or sextant.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<img src="images/fig07.jpg" width="369" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 7. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE BRITISH HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig08.jpg" width="600" height="411" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 8. TRIANGULATION OF A BAY, SHOWING LOCATION OF SURVEY SIGNALS AND LANDMARKS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Triangulation.</b> The main framework of the survey
+consists of a series of triangles connecting prominently
+located points which are permanently marked in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 33-39]</a></span>
+ground and the location described so that they can be
+found at a future time. At long intervals in the survey
+base lines are laid out and carefully measured with steel
+tape. Signals are erected over the points, including
+those at the ends of the base line, and angles are then
+measured at the various stations. From the measured
+length of the base and the angles the lengths of the
+sides of the triangles are computed, and from these
+lengths and the latitude and longitude of one point the
+latitudes and longitudes of all the other points are
+obtained. When several astronomically determined
+points are connected by such a triangulation a complication
+arises from what is known as "deflection
+of the plumb line," which is the angular amount by
+which the actual sea-level surface of the earth departs
+from the symmetrical figure of revolution, owing to the
+variations in the density of the earth's outer layers.
+The distance between two points as measured by triangulation
+thus differs from the distance computed from
+the astronomically determined positions. If this irregularity
+were not taken care of by adopting mean positions,
+the discrepancy in joining up different surveys would
+in extreme cases amount to about half a mile.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig09.jpg" width="600" height="361" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 9. TRIANGULATION STATION AND SIGNAL, ON ALASKA COAST.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig10" id="Fig10"></a>
+<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="600" height="385" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 10. MEASURING ANGLES WITH THEODOLITE AT TRIANGULATION
+STATION ON ALASKA COAST.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Survey sheets</b> are next prepared, of suitable size and
+scale. On each sheet a projection is laid down, that is,
+the meridians and parallels are drawn, and all the points
+determined in the triangulation are plotted in their true
+relation. Usually separate sheets are prepared for the
+topography or shore survey and for the hydrography
+or survey of the water area.</p>
+
+<p><b>Topography.</b> The topographic survey of the shore
+and as much of the adjacent area as is required is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+usually made with a plane table, on which the map is
+actually drawn in the field as the work progresses.
+Points are located on the plane table sheet either by
+direct reading of the distance on a stadia rod or by
+intersections from two or more stations. On the plane
+table sheet it is customary to locate the shore or high-water
+line, the low-water line, off-lying rocks, streams,
+rivers, roads, towns, lighthouses, and all prominent
+features near the coast. Elevations are measured with
+the plane table or obtained from the triangulation, and
+are represented on the sheet both by figures and by
+contours, which are lines joining together points of
+the same elevation. For instance, a 100-foot contour
+represents the line where a plane 100 feet above sea
+level would cut the surface of the ground. It is particularly
+important in this topographic work to locate
+accurately objects which are good landmarks and likely
+to be of use to the mariner. In some regions auxiliary
+methods are used in filling in the topography, as, for
+instance, along a difficult coast each feature of importance
+may be located by sextant angles, or a traverse line
+may be run along the shore by the transit and stadia
+method.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="600" height="356" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 11. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY PARTY AT WORK WITH PLANE TABLE
+ON THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="400" height="431" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 12. SURVEY SIGNAL OF IRON PIPE ON THE
+BAR OFF THE MOUTH OF THE YUKON RIVER.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The hydrography,</b> or the survey of the water area, is
+of prime importance for the chart, but in the order of
+prosecution of the work it is convenient but not essential
+that it come after sufficient points have been located
+by the triangulation and topography. A hydrographic
+sheet is prepared on which all the points are plotted
+which will be useful. A system of sounding lines is
+then run over the entire area to be surveyed, locating the
+position of the sounding boat at intervals by sextant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 41-49]</a></span>
+angles on survey signals or by angles from the shore.
+The ordinary method of sounding is to cast a lead from
+a boat and read the depth when the lead touches bottom
+and the line is vertical, and make note of the nature of
+the bottom. There is a systematic spacing between the
+casts of the lead and between the lines passed over by
+the boat, depending on the depth of water and character
+of the bottom. For soundings in deeper water various
+forms of sounding machines are used, with weight
+attached to a wire. For very great depths a small steel
+wire is employed and the weight is detached and left
+on the bottom. The deepest sounding thus far made,
+5269 fathoms, or nearly six miles, was obtained by this
+method in the Pacific Ocean near Guam.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="600" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 13. HYDROGRAPHIC PARTY SOUNDING WITH LAUNCH IN BALTIMORE HARBOR.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 14. THE LUCAS AUTOMATIC SOUNDING MACHINE FOR DEPTHS TO 5000
+FATHOMS, WITH ENGINE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="600" height="359" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 15. THE SIGSBEE SOUNDING MACHINE ON A SURVEYING VESSEL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig16.jpg" width="600" height="171" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 16. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SURVEYING STEAMER <i>FATHOMER</i>, SHOWING GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS.</p>
+<p class="largeimg"><a href="images/fig16_1500.png">Fig. 16 enlarged</a> (58 kB)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The offshore soundings are made from a surveying
+steamer; the inshore work is usually done by a launch
+or small boat.</p>
+
+<p>So far as the navigational use of charts is concerned it
+is important that the hydrography shall show the limiting
+depths and the freedom from dangers, of channels,
+entrances, harbors, and anchorages. It is also desirable
+that the soundings shall be carried off shore at least as
+far as the one-hundred-fathom curve, as with the modern
+forms of navigational sounding machines it is possible
+for vessels under way to obtain soundings to this depth,
+and such soundings may be of value in identifying the
+location of the vessel. For depths greater than one
+hundred fathoms the soundings have less direct value
+to navigation except as proving the absence of shoaler
+areas, but soundings throughout the oceanic regions are
+of great geographical interest as well as of direct practical
+value in the laying of cables.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that the plan of mapping the sea bottom
+by dropping a lead at intervals over its hidden surface
+is far from an ideal one. The lead gives the depth
+only at the point at which it touches the bottom, and
+no information as to the space between the casts except
+such as may be inferred from the relation of successive
+soundings. In numerous cases, after what was considered
+a very thorough survey of a region had been
+made, at some later day a pinnacle rock or other danger
+has been discovered. For instance, a very detailed
+hydrographic survey of Buzzards Bay was made in
+1895; the sounding lines were run at intervals of 50
+to 100 yards, and 91,000 soundings were made for a
+single sheet. Within this area the cruiser <i>Brooklyn</i>
+in 1902 touched a rock which was found to have 18
+feet over it. (<a href="#Fig17">Fig. 17.</a>) The least depth in the vicinity
+developed in the original survey was 31 feet.</p>
+
+<p>For the satisfactory development of hydrographic
+work some invention is much needed which as it
+passes along the bottom will give a continuous depth
+curve. Several devices have successfully accomplished
+this in shoal water, but great credit awaits the inventor
+who designs something of more general application.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig17" id="Fig17"></a>
+<img src="images/fig17.png" width="600" height="446" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 17. PORTION OF ORIGINAL HYDROGRAPHIC SHEET, BUZZARDS BAY, ON SCALE
+1-10000, SHOWING AREA CLOSELY SOUNDED IN 1895, WHERE THE <i>BROOKLYN</i>
+STRUCK IN 1902.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Tides and currents.</b> Information must be obtained
+as to the movement of the water, both vertical and
+horizontal. The rise and fall of the tide are obtained
+by tide gauges, either automatic, which draw a continuous
+tidal curve on a roll of paper, or simple tide
+staffs, which must be read at intervals. The currents,
+whether due to the tides or other movements, are
+measured by noting the movement of partially sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 51-55]</a></span>merged
+floats. Less accurate but useful information
+as to currents is obtained from the logs of vessels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig18.png" width="600" height="190" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 18. DRAGGING FOR DANGERS WITH A LONG WIRE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Dragging for dangers</b> has long been resorted to for
+the investigation of isolated spots. A valuable and
+successful means has been employed recently of making
+sure that an area is free from shoals or rocks
+having less than a certain depth. This is done by
+dragging through the water a wire from 500 to 1400
+feet long, and suspended at the required depth, with
+suitable buoys and weights, and kept taut by the angle
+of pull. If, for instance, the wire is set at a depth of
+30 feet it will indicate the presence of any obstruction
+of less depth by catching on it and upsetting the buoys,
+and such spots are at once marked and investigated.
+Considerable work has been done with such drags in
+the last few years on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts
+and on the Great Lakes. This is of course a somewhat
+tedious process and gives no information as to depths
+greater than that for which the wire is set, but the
+experience already had indicates its great value. It
+will probably be found desirable in time to thus drag all
+water areas important to navigation where the depth
+is near the draft of vessels and the irregular nature of
+the bottom gives indication of dangers. In extensive
+dragging operations near Key West and in Jericho Bay,
+Maine, a number of shoals have been picked up which
+were not found in the original surveys.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable instance of the value of the drag was
+the recent discovery of a rock in Blue Hill Bay on the
+coast of Maine. This rock has but 7 feet of water
+over it, and is only 6 feet in diameter at the top. It is
+surrounded by depths of 78 feet, from which it rises<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+nearly perpendicularly. The original survey gave no
+indication of a danger here, and its existence was not
+suspected until it was discovered with the wire drag.</p>
+
+<p>Another method of dragging that has been employed
+is by means of a pipe suspended beneath a ship's
+bottom.</p>
+
+<p><b>Magnetic variation.</b> As the compass is a universal
+navigational instrument, information as to the magnetic
+variation is needed for the charts. The angle between
+the direction of the magnetic needle and the true north
+is measured at various points on both land and sea,
+and at some stations these observations are repeated
+after a number of years. From these results magnetic
+maps are made, from which both the variation and
+its annual change may be taken.</p>
+
+<p><b>Reports of dangers.</b> Aside from the more systematic
+surveys as outlined above, much information has
+been placed on the charts from other sources. On
+the earlier charts and on those of more remote regions
+at the present day much of the work has been sketched
+rather than surveyed. Even in the better surveyed
+portions reports come in as to dangers or other matters
+not shown, and if of importance and the report appears
+to be reliable these are sometimes at once put on the
+chart pending further investigation, or in other cases
+an examination is first made.</p>
+
+<p>Shoals, rocks, and even islands have in numerous
+instances been shown on the charts which no one has
+been able to find again, and many of them after
+repeated searches have been removed. The same
+island or danger has sometimes been charted in two
+or more different positions as reported at various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+times. The treatment of such cases is one of the
+serious and interesting problems of the chart maker.
+It is generally less harmful to show a danger which
+does not exist than to omit one which does exist. On
+the other hand a non-existing danger shown on a chart
+may be the cause of actual expense and loss of time
+in compelling a vessel needlessly to go out of its
+course.</p>
+
+<p>It is surprising to note with what lack of care and of
+sufficient evidence reports of dangers at sea have sometimes
+been made, and how incomplete are many of the
+reports even when the existence of the danger is beyond
+question. It is unfortunately true that some of these
+reports are the result of effort to escape blame for accident
+by throwing the fault on the chart. Many such
+reports also result from various illusory appearances.
+A large tree covered with weeds, an overturned iceberg
+strewn with earth and stones, a floating ice-pan covered
+with earth, the swollen carcass of a dead whale, a whale
+with clinging barnacles and seaweed, reflections from
+the clouds, marine animalculæ, vegetable growth, scum,
+floating volcanic matter, and partially submerged wrecks
+covered with barnacles, have been mistaken for islands,
+shoals, or reefs. A school of jumping fish has given the
+appearance of breakers or caused a sound like surf, and
+tide rips have been mistaken for breakers. Raper very
+properly calls attention to the obligation upon every
+seaman of carefully investigating doubtful cases and
+making reliable reports. "Of the dangers to which
+navigation is exposed none is more formidable than a
+reef or a shoal in the open sea; not only from the almost
+certain fate of the ship and her crew that have the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+misfortune to strike upon it, but also from the anxiety
+with which the navigation of all vessels, within even a
+long distance, must be conducted, on account of the
+uncertainty to which their own reckonings are ever open.
+No commander of a vessel, therefore, who might meet
+unexpectedly with any such danger, could be excused,
+except by urgent circumstances, from taking the necessary
+steps both for ascertaining its true position, and for
+giving a description as complete as a prudent regard to
+his own safety allowed."</p>
+
+<p>As to the older doubtful dangers now shown on the
+oceanic charts, it is estimated that the positions may be
+considered as uncertain by 10 miles in latitude and
+30 miles in longitude, and areas of this extent must be
+searched to determine definitely the question of their
+existence.</p>
+
+<p>The following are interesting or typical cases of
+reported dangers:</p>
+
+<p>The master of an Italian bark in September, 1874,
+reported sighting a large rock in latitude 40° N. and
+longitude 62° 18´ W. Fortunately for the charts there
+were two independent reports from other vessels in the
+same month of sighting a partially submerged wreck
+in this vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish steamer <i>Carmen</i> was wrecked in 1891
+by running on a rock off the southwest coast of Leyte;
+the rock was reported to lie one mile off shore, a dangerous
+position for vessels using Canigao Channel. A
+survey made in 1903 showed 58 feet of water in this
+location, and that Carmen Rock on which the vessel
+struck was really within one-fourth mile of the beach.
+The rock had, however, for twelve years been shown on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+the charts in a position which made it an obstruction
+to navigation.</p>
+
+<p>The ship <i>Minerva</i> in 1834 was reported to have
+struck a rock near the middle of the broad entrance to
+Balayan Bay; the fact that this occurred at 2 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>
+indicated a very doubtful position, but it was stated
+that an American ship had previously been wrecked on
+the same rock. It consequently appeared as a danger
+on the charts for seventy-one years, when a survey
+showed no depth of less than 190 fathoms in this vicinity,
+and it was removed from the charts.</p>
+
+<p>A British steamer was wrecked in San Bernardino
+Strait in 1905; the master reported that he was in a
+position where the chart showed 51 fathoms, and that
+he was 1<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> miles distant from Calantas Rock, and on
+these grounds the finding of the official inquiry was that
+"no blame can be attached to the master, officers, or any
+of the crew for the casualty." Very shortly after the
+disaster, the surveying steamer <i>Pathfinder</i> definitely
+located the wreck and made a survey of the vicinity.
+The previous chart of Calantas Reef was found to be
+fairly correct, and the stranding was determined to have
+occurred well within this reef in a position where the
+chart showed soundings of 3<span class="fraction"><span>3</span><span>4</span></span> to 4<span class="fraction"><span>3</span><span>4</span></span> fathoms, and
+<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> mile from Calantas Rock, which rises 5 feet above
+high water.</p>
+
+<p>A transport entering San Bernardino Strait a few
+years ago ran on a rock and was damaged; the position
+was reported as about two miles southeast of San
+Bernardino Island and near the middle of the passage.
+The rock was not put on the charts, as prompt investigation
+showed 50 fathoms of water in this vicinity, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+that in all probability the transport actually touched a
+small reef making out from the island.</p>
+
+<p>The master of the brig <i>Helen</i> reported that his vessel
+was wrecked on a reef lying six miles from Rockall.
+When surveyed Helen Reef was found to be about
+one-third this distance from Rockall.</p>
+
+<p>An island has been reported in eight different positions,
+ranging in latitude from 30° 29´ to 30° 42´ N.
+and in longitude from 139° 37´ to 140° 38´ E.</p>
+
+<p>There have been a number of reports of islands
+in the area from latitude 40° 00´ to 40° 30´ N. and longitude
+150° 30´ to 151° 00´ W. The master of the bark
+<i>Washington</i> reported in 1867: "On my passage
+from the Sandwich Islands to the northwest coast
+of the United States, when in latitude 40° 00´ N., in a
+dense fog, I perceived the sea to be discolored. Soundings
+at first gave great depths, but diminished gradually
+to 9 fathoms, when through the mist an island was
+seen, along which I sailed 40 miles. It was covered
+with birds, and the sea swarmed with seal and sea
+elephants." A United States vessel searched in this
+vicinity without seeing any indication of land, and
+obtained soundings of 2600 fathoms. A British ship
+in 1858 searched for fourteen days over this area without
+finding anything. Searches were also made in 1860
+and 1867 without success, and the present charts
+show no islands in this part of the Pacific.</p>
+
+<p>In a number of cases erroneous positions have been
+due simply to blunders. Thus Lots Wife, first seen
+by Captain Meares in 1788, was shown on his chart in
+latitude 29° 50´ N., longitude 156° 00´ E., and stated
+in his book to be in latitude 29° 50´ N. and longitude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+142° 23´ E. Massachusetts Island by one report was
+in longitude 177° 05´ E. and by another in 167° 05´ E.
+The apparent blunder of 10° is now immaterial, as the
+island has disappeared from the charts altogether.
+The Knox Islands were placed by the Wilkes Exploring
+Expedition in latitude 5° 59´ 15´´ N., longitude 172° 02´
+33´´ E. The old British charts showed islands of this
+name also in latitude 5° 59´ N., longitude 172° 03´ W.,
+the longitude being doubtless transposed. In the case
+of Starbuck Island, discovered south of the equator, the
+latitude was apparently transposed, as on old charts
+it was also shown in the position, latitude 5° 40´ N.,
+longitude 156° 55´ W.</p>
+
+<p>A pinnacle rock can sometimes be located only with
+great difficulty even when known to exist. Rodger
+Rock, on which the bark <i>Ellen</i> struck and was
+damaged, lies in latitude 0° 41´ 15´´ N. and longitude
+107° 31´ E. It has but three feet over it at low tide. The
+British surveying ship <i>Rifleman</i> searched four days
+before finding it, although the plotted tracks showed
+that she and her boats had passed very close to it.
+This indicates that great caution must be used in
+removing a reported danger from the charts.</p>
+
+<p>The old charts of the Atlantic indicated a danger
+30 to 45 miles to the southwest of Cape St. Vincent.
+This danger was omitted from the charts about 1786
+owing to lack of confirmation. Later, in 1813 and 1821,
+it was reported that vessels were lost or damaged by
+striking this rock. Soundings of over a thousand
+fathoms are now shown on the chart in this vicinity
+and the rock no longer appears.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of a Pacific Ocean chart of about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+forty years ago with one of the present time (<a href="#Fig19">Fig. 19</a>)
+illustrates in a striking manner how many doubtful
+dangers, or vigias, have gotten on the charts and how
+after laborious search many of them have now been
+removed. This condition was especially true of the
+Pacific, owing to the numerous reports of an indefinite
+nature from whaling ships, among whose captains
+there was a saying "that they do not care where their
+ship is, so long as there are plenty of whales in sight."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig19" id="Fig19"></a>
+<img src="images/fig19a.png" width="600" height="455" alt="" />
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig19b.png" width="600" height="460" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 19. PORTION OF CHARTS OF 1869 AND 1903, OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN WEST OF
+THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, TO ILLUSTRATE THE REMOVAL OF DOUBTFUL DANGERS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64-65]</a><br /></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig20.png" width="600" height="429" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 20. PORTION OF CHART OF PONCE HARBOR, SCALE 1-20000, TO SHOW
+SELECTION OF SOUNDINGS FROM ORIGINAL SURVEY GIVEN BELOW.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig21.png" width="600" height="396" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 21. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY OF SAME PORTION OF PONCE HARBOR, REDUCED
+TO ONE-HALF SCALE OF ORIGINAL SHEET.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PREPARATION_OF_INFORMATION_FOR_CHARTS" id="PREPARATION_OF_INFORMATION_FOR_CHARTS">PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Chart schemes.</b> Before commencing the preparation
+of a chart it is necessary to arrange a definite scheme
+for it, and the usefulness of the chart will depend
+materially on this preliminary plan, in which must
+be outlined its scale, size, limits, and features to be
+represented. New charts have sometimes been prepared
+simply to fit the surveys as they progressed or
+to fill immediate or local requirements. It is, however,
+desirable that general plans for series or groups of
+charts be made, and with changing needs, information,
+and conditions it is sometimes necessary that existing
+schemes be modified.</p>
+
+<p><b>Compilation of information.</b> Considerable work must
+usually be done to get the field records in shape for
+the published chart. The soundings must be plotted
+and the characteristic depths selected. Only a part of
+the soundings that are made can be shown on the
+original sheet and only a small part of these are used on
+the final chart. A selection is made showing the least
+soundings on shoals and bars, the channel depths, and
+the characteristic soundings in anchorages and other
+areas. The original surveys are generally made on a
+considerably larger scale than that on which the chart
+is published, in order that the soundings may be more
+thoroughly plotted. The sheets must then be reduced
+to the scale of publication, and this can conveniently be
+done by means of photography or with a pantograph.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The best judgment is required in selecting the
+important features to be shown on the chart and
+omitting the less important and not essential features
+which might tend to obscure the others. In charts of
+new regions where complete surveys are lacking, care
+must be exercised in weighing, combining, and adjusting
+information from various sources and which is,
+perhaps, more or less conflicting.</p>
+
+<p><b>Projections.</b> The surface of the earth being curved,
+there is no possible system of projection by which it can
+be represented on a flat sheet of paper in an ideally
+satisfactory way. Numerous methods of projecting the
+earth's surface upon a plane have been proposed and
+many of them are actually used for various purposes.
+In general each projection has qualities which are
+valuable for certain uses, and deficiencies which make
+it less valuable in other ways. Only four of the different
+projections need be mentioned here as of special
+interest in chart construction.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mercator projection.</b> This is a rectangular projection
+in which the meridians are straight lines spaced at equal
+intervals and the parallels are straight lines so spaced
+as to satisfy the condition that a rhumb line, or line on
+the earth cutting successive meridians at the same angle,
+shall appear on the developed projection as a straight
+line preserving the same angle with respect to the
+meridians.</p>
+
+<p>This projection may be considered as the unrolling
+upon a plane of the surface of a cylinder tangent to the
+earth along the equator, and upon which the various
+features of the earth's surface have been projected in
+such manner as to satisfy the above requirement.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On this projection there is a constant distance between
+the meridians, whereas on the earth they
+actually converge toward the poles. The distance
+between the parallels increases in passing toward the
+poles, approximately in the proportion of the secant
+of the latitude. For each small portion of the map
+the relative proportions are maintained as on the
+earth.</p>
+
+<p>Some characteristics of the mercator projection are
+these: The meridians and parallels are all straight lines
+and perpendicular to each other; there is no convergence
+of the meridians; the minute of longitude is a constant
+distance on the map; the minute of latitude increases in
+length from the equator toward the poles but locally
+retains its true proportion to the minute of longitude;
+areas and distances increase in scale with the latitude
+so that a given scale is strictly correct only for one
+latitude; great circles and consequently lines of sight
+are curved lines excepting the meridians and the equator;
+rhumb lines or lines having a constant angle with the
+meridians are straight, and for the same angle are
+parallel in all parts of the chart. These qualities are
+all rigid and the projection can therefore be used for all
+areas, small or large, up to the extent of the earth's
+surface, except that it cannot be extended to the poles,
+as there the length of the minute of latitude would
+become infinite.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting fact regarding a rhumb line oblique
+to the meridians is that it is a spiral continually
+approaching but never reaching the pole; this spiral
+makes an infinite number of revolutions around the
+pole, and yet it has a finite length for the reason that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+the length of each revolution diminishes as the number
+of revolutions increases.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig22.png" width="600" height="397" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 22. MERCATOR PROJECTION OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN, SHOWING GREAT
+CIRCLE ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO HONOLULU
+AND THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mercator projection has been extensively used
+for nautical charts, for which it presents important
+mechanical advantages, in that adjacent charts can be
+joined on all their edges while still oriented with the
+meridian; all charts are similar; the border may be
+conveniently subdivided, giving a longitude scale applicable
+to any part of the chart, but a latitude scale that
+may be used in the same latitude only; courses are
+laid down as straight lines and can be transferred with
+parallel rulers from one part of the chart to another
+without error. On a mercator chart an island in
+latitude 60° would appear four times as large as an
+island of the same actual area at the equator, but
+this distortion of areas, while it gives erroneous impressions
+on charts of great extent in latitude, does not seriously
+affect the use of the chart for nautical purposes.
+Areas may also be correctly measured on a mercator
+map by taking each projection quadrilateral separately,
+subdividing it if necessary, and using the published
+tables of areas of quadrilaterals in different latitudes.
+Although distance scales vary with the latitude, distances
+can be taken from this chart with fair correctness
+by the use of the latitude border scale for the middle
+latitude, subdividing the total distance if there is much
+range of latitude. The inability to take off the great
+circle or shortest course directly from the mercator
+chart is from a navigational point of view a defect,
+but the most convenient solution for this appears to
+be the supplementary use of a gnomonic chart as will
+be described. The fact that lines of sight are not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 71-73]</a></span>
+straight lines on this projection is another defect, as
+by the plotting of bearings and angles on approaching
+the land the positions of vessels are located on the
+chart; fortunately, however, the error due to this cause
+usually falls within the other uncertainties involved in
+locating a ship; if need be it would be practicable to
+allow for this curvature. In the polar regions, however,
+the faults of the mercator projection become so
+much exaggerated that it is not used for navigational
+purposes, but because of the absence of commercial
+navigation there this is a minor matter in the general
+question of chart projection. For the plotting of original
+surveys the mercator projection is not suited and is
+not used, for the reasons above mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig23.png" width="600" height="450" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 23. POLYCONIC PROJECTION OF PORTION OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tables of "meridional parts" are published which
+give the distance in terms of minutes of longitude from
+the equator to the various parallels; with these tables
+a mercator projection may readily be constructed.</p>
+
+<p>Airy proposed a graphical method of sweeping the
+arc of a great circle on to a mercator chart, and tables
+are published for this purpose. The method is only
+approximate and is limited in application, and the
+supplementary use of a gnomonic chart would appear
+to be preferable.</p>
+
+<p><b>Polyconic projection.</b> In plotting the original surveys
+it is essential that a projection be used which will for the
+area included on a survey sheet show the points in their
+correct relation both as to direction and distance.
+These conditions are substantially fulfilled by several
+projections, of which the polyconic is used in the
+United States. If a hollow cone were placed so that
+it would either be tangent to the earth's surface along<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+one of the parallels of latitude or cut it along two
+parallels, and the points projected on to this cone, and
+the cone then unrolled and laid out flat, the result
+would be a conical projection, of which there are several
+variations. If successive tangent cones be used and
+each parallel of latitude be developed as the circumference
+of the base of a right cone tangent to the spheroid
+along that parallel, the result is the polyconic projection,
+which has been used for field sheets and for the large
+scale charts, as well as for the topographic maps of the
+United States. This projection has valuable qualities
+for moderate areas of the earth's surface, within which
+the scale is approximately uniform, areas retain nearly
+their true proportions, and great circles and consequently
+all bearings and directions are approximately
+straight lines. The parallels of latitude are arcs of
+circles with radiuses increasing as we recede from the
+pole; therefore they are not truly parallel and the length
+of the degree of latitude increases either side from the
+central meridian. The meridians converge toward the
+poles and become slightly curved as we recede from
+the central one; the longitude scale is everywhere correct,
+but the latitude scale is strictly correct only on the
+central meridian. The angles of intersection of parallels
+and meridians are right angles or nearly so. The
+polyconic projection is not used for very extensive areas
+of the earth's surface, as for instance a hemisphere.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig24.png" width="600" height="406" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 24. GNOMONIC CHART OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN, SHOWING GREAT CIRCLE
+ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO HONOLULU AND
+THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Gnomonic projection.</b> In this projection the eye is
+assumed to be at the center of the earth and the features
+are projected upon a plane tangent to some point on
+the earth's surface. It is practicable to use this projection
+for oceanic areas, and it has the very important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 75-79]</a></span>
+quality that every straight line on it represents a great
+circle of the earth. To obtain the great circle or
+shortest course between two points it is therefore only
+necessary to draw a straight line between the points
+on a gnomonic chart. Because of the great distortion
+near the edges this projection is not otherwise adapted
+to navigational use, and it is employed only to mark
+out the general course, and sufficient points are then
+transferred to a mercator chart. The gnomonic chart
+is therefore useful in supplementing the mercator chart,
+supplying its deficiencies as to convenience in marking
+out great circle courses. The great circle course can
+be derived not only more easily and quickly from the
+gnomonic chart than by computation, but the chart is
+also to be preferred because the course marked out on
+it will show at once if any obstruction, as an island or
+danger, is met or too high a latitude is reached. A
+modified or composite course can readily be laid out
+on a gnomonic chart.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 596px;">
+<img src="images/fig25.png" width="596" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 25. NORTH POLAR CHART ON ARBITRARY PROJECTION.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Arbitrary projection.</b> The few charts published of
+the polar regions are sometimes on an arbitrary projection,
+in which the meridians are straight lines radiating
+from the pole and the parallels are equidistant
+circles with the pole as center. The latitude scale is
+uniform. At some distance from the pole the longitude
+scale becomes very much distorted, but the projection
+is a practicable and convenient one for the immediate
+polar regions. Gnomonic and conical projections are
+also used for the polar charts, differing little from the
+foregoing for moderate areas.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scales.</b> Charts are published on a variety of scales
+to suit different needs of navigation, and the usual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+classification depends on scale. In addition to the
+ocean charts covering a single ocean in either one or
+several sheets and intended for navigation on the high
+seas, there are for our Atlantic coast the following series:</p>
+
+<p>Sailing charts, scale about <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>1200000</span></span>, for general coastwise
+navigation.</p>
+
+<p>General coast charts, scale <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>400000</span></span>, for local coastwise
+navigation.</p>
+
+<p>Coast charts, scale <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span>, for approaching the coast
+at any point and for inside passages.</p>
+
+<p>Harbor and channel charts, of various large scales
+from <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>5000</span></span> to <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>60000</span></span>, for entering harbors and rivers and
+passing through channels.</p>
+
+<p>The expression of scales by miles to the inch or inches
+to the mile is the more familiar. The expression of
+scale in the manner used by the Coast Survey and by
+most of the European countries, by standard fractions
+as <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span>, meaning that any distance on the chart is
+<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span> of the actual distance on the earth, has some
+advantages. For instance, the relation of these fractions
+gives at a glance the relation of the scales of the
+charts. Thus a <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span> chart is on a scale five times as
+large as a <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>400000</span></span> chart.</p>
+
+<p>For the more important harbors charts have been
+published on several different scales to meet various
+needs. Thus New York Harbor is shown on charts of
+scales of <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>10000</span></span>, <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>40000</span></span>, <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span>, <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>200000</span></span>, <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>400000</span></span> and
+<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>1200000</span></span>, each of course including a different area.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 374px;">
+<img src="images/fig26.png" width="374" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 26. NEW YORK HARBOR, PORTIONS OF CHARTS ON FOUR DIFFERENT SCALES.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The selection of suitable publication scales is of
+prime importance; a large scale permits of greater
+clearness and of showing more detail, but on the other
+hand restricts the area and the points that can be shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 81-83]</a></span>
+on a single sheet, or else makes a chart of excessive
+dimensions. In general in chart preparation the scale
+should be restricted to the minimum that can be used
+to fulfill the particular object and clearly represent
+what is desired. A chart of very large scale is not
+convenient for plotting, and a moving vessel may pass
+quickly beyond it or into range of objects beyond the
+limits of the chart.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PUBLICATION_OF_CHARTS" id="PUBLICATION_OF_CHARTS">PUBLICATION OF CHARTS.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Methods of publication.</b> An ideal process of publication
+for nautical charts would include the following
+features; rapidity in getting out new charts, facility
+in reprinting and correcting existing charts, clearness
+and sharpness of print, durability of paper and print,
+and correctness of scale. It is difficult to fulfill all these
+requirements by any method as yet developed. In the
+Coast and Geodetic Survey several different processes
+are in use at present; charts are engraved on copper
+and printed directly from the copper plate, or they are
+transferred from the copper plate to stone and printed
+from the stone, or a finished drawing is made and
+transferred to stone by photolithography and printed
+from the stone, or an etching is made on copper from a
+finished drawing and printed from a transfer to stone.
+Charts in other countries are in large part printed from
+engraved plates, excepting some preliminary charts by
+lithography.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="600" height="425" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 27. ENGRAVING A CHART ON A COPPER PLATE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig28.jpg" width="600" height="417" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 28. ENGRAVING SOUNDINGS ON A COPPER PLATE WITH A MACHINE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Copper plate engraving and printing</b> have long been
+used in chart preparation. A drawing is prepared as
+a guide for the engraver; this must be correct as to all
+information to be shown but need not be a finished
+drawing. A true projection is ruled upon a copper
+plate. By photography a matrix is made from the
+drawing and a wax impression taken from this matrix.
+This is then laid down on the copper to fit the projection,
+and the impression is chemically fixed on to the copper.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 85-89]</a></span>
+The work thus marked out is engraved by hand or by
+machine. A high degree of skill is required in the
+accuracy and finish necessary for chart engraving.
+Machines have been invented in recent years which can
+be used for portions of the work on copper plates, as
+for instance for cutting the sounding figures, the
+bottom characteristics, the border and projection lines,
+border divisions, compasses, line ruling, and stipple
+ruling. Stamps and dies have been successfully used
+for some symbols and notes, and roulettes for shading.
+By means of these various machines, many of which are
+American inventions, the process of chart publication
+from plates has been materially facilitated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig29.jpg" width="600" height="411" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 29. ELECTROTYPING PLANT FOR ELECTROTYPING CHART PLATES.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the plate is completed an alto, or raised copy,
+is made by depositing copper on to it in an electrotype
+vat, and from this alto another basso or sunken copy is
+made by the same process. This latter basso is used
+in printing. A copper plate may be used for about
+3000 impressions, after which it may become too much
+worn for satisfactory chart printing. By printing from
+a duplicate basso the original plate is preserved and
+additional copies can be made when needed. The
+use of the alto also greatly facilitates matters when a
+considerable correction to the chart is required. All
+the portions of the chart to be changed can be scraped
+off the alto, and when a new basso is electrotyped from
+this scraped alto all such areas will of course appear
+as smooth copper, on which the new work can be
+engraved. Numerous small corrections are called for
+on charts, and on copper plates where these are to
+replace old work the latter is removed either by hammering
+up the back of the plate or by scraping its face.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Printing directly from plates is a laborious process.
+After the press bed has been carefully padded to take
+up inequalities in the plate, the surface of the latter
+is covered with ink and then carefully wiped off by
+hand, leaving the ink only in the engraved lines. The
+paper, first dampened, is laid on the plate, and passes
+with it beneath the cylinder of the press under considerable
+pressure. The prints are calendered by being
+placed in a hydraulic press under 600 tons pressure.
+The charts are beautifully clear and sharp, not equalled
+by other methods of printing. Owing to the wetting
+and drying of the paper, the finished print is, however,
+quite appreciably smaller in scale than the plate, and
+the shrinkage is greater in one direction than in the
+other. The average day's work for one press and two
+men is 75 prints. This is small compared with the
+output practicable with lithographic presses. On the
+other hand a plate can be prepared for printing more
+readily than a lithographic stone. For small editions
+the plate printing compares well in economy with
+lithographic printing, and the plate can also be printed
+on short notice. Because of changes in aids to navigation
+and other corrections, it is usually desirable to
+print at one time only a sufficient number of copies
+of a chart to meet current demands, and not to carry
+a large stock on hand.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig30.jpg" width="600" height="427" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 30. PRINTING CHARTS FROM COPPER PLATES; FINAL CLEANING OF THE PLATE
+BY HAND; PLATE PRESS ON THE LEFT.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The copper plates, bassos, and altos make a very
+convenient and enduring means of preserving the
+chart ready for printing or for further correction. A
+large number of plates can be placed in a small space,
+and if properly cared for they may be stored indefinitely
+without deterioration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 91-93]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With plate printing it is not practicable to print
+more than one impression on the chart or to use more
+than one color, and plate-printed charts are therefore
+in black only.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig31.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 31. LITHOGRAPHING PRESSES FOR PRINTING CHARTS; LITHOGRAPH STONE
+ON TRANSFER PRESS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Engraving on stone.</b> On the United States Lake
+Survey the charts are first engraved on stone, and by
+a special process the work is then transferred to small
+copper plates, which are preserved. The final publication
+is by lithography, transferring again from the
+plates to stone.</p>
+
+<p><b>Photolithography</b> is a quick method of publishing
+a chart. It would be practicable by this means to
+reproduce the original survey sheets, but ordinarily
+these are not suitable as to scale and legibility, and
+it is necessary to make a new drawing, usually on
+tracing vellum. This is photographed on to glass
+plates, on the scale of the proposed chart. From these
+glass negatives positive prints are made on sensitized
+lithographic paper. These prints are fitted together
+and then inked, taking the ink only where the lines
+appear. This transfer print is then laid face down
+on the lithographic stone and run through a press
+under pressure, the stone absorbing the ink from the
+paper. The stone is then treated so that the inked
+portion remains slightly raised, and from this stone an
+indefinite number of charts can be printed in a lithographic
+press at the rate of 1000 an hour. The paper
+is not moistened, and consequently there is little distortion
+or change of scale in prints from stone. If desired
+to shade the land or use another color for any other
+purpose, additional impressions can be made on the
+same charts from other stones. Because of the bulk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+of the stones, work cannot ordinarily be retained on
+them, but the chart is cleaned off and the stones
+repeatedly used until worn thin. The original drawing
+as well as the negatives is preserved, from which the
+chart can again be published. For republication, the
+process is, however, not entirely satisfactory; the
+negatives are not always permanent, the work must
+again be assembled and transferred to the stone,
+changes or corrections are not very conveniently made
+on either drawing or negative, and after repeated
+changes the drawing becomes difficult to use in
+photolithography. Whether the charts are actually
+printed from copper or stone, there are decided advantages
+therefore in the matter of correction work and
+future editions in having the charts engraved on copper.
+On the other hand, the advantages of the photolithographic
+process are the ability to publish new drawings
+promptly, to use more than one shade on a chart, to
+obtain prints with little change of scale or distortion,
+and to print large editions rapidly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lithographic printing by transfer from engraved
+plates.</b> An impression on transfer paper may be taken
+from an engraved plate and this laid down on the stone
+in a manner similar to that used in laying down the
+prints from the glass negatives in photolithography.
+Prints are then made from the stone the same as
+in photolithography, but with superior results as to
+clearness. This general process is extensively used
+in both map and chart publishing in this country, as
+it combines the advantages of the plate in preservation
+of the chart record and facility of correction, and the
+advantages of the lithographic printing in less distortion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+of the printed chart, ability to print more than one shade,
+and facility for large editions. As the transfer from
+the plate can be readily made it is also better applicable
+to small editions than is photolithography. It is, however,
+not as convenient in the latter respect as plate
+printing, and it does not give a resulting impression
+equal in clearness or durability to the impression directly
+from the plate.</p>
+
+<p><b>Etching on copper</b> for chart publication has been
+recently developed in the Coast and Geodetic Survey.
+A finished tracing is made, the surface of a smooth copper
+plate is sensitized, and by exposure to the sun a
+print is made on the sensitized surface. It is essential
+to use an air-exhausted printing frame so as to get
+good contact between the vellum and the plate. The
+work is then etched into the copper and the plate
+cleaned and touched up, after which it may be used the
+same as a hand-engraved plate, either for transfer to
+stone or direct plate printing. The expense and time
+required in the etching process are much less than for
+hand engraving. The process has been successfully used
+for a number of harbor charts. The etching of course
+will be of the same scale as the vellum at the time of
+the print, and vellum varies somewhat in scale with
+weather conditions and age. Unless overcome by the
+substitution of some more invariable material in place
+of vellum, this might be an obstacle to the use of the
+process for general charts where a true scale on the
+copper plate is desirable because of future work to be
+done on the plate. It must also be taken into account
+that the etching requires a finished tracing in ink, which
+is not essential for the hand engraver; if, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+the chart is first published by photolithography, as is the
+usual practice in the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the
+same tracing is used for both processes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Distribution of charts.</b> Charts published by the
+government are sold to the public at a small price,
+estimated to cover the cost of paper and printing. The
+charts may be obtained direct from the publishing
+office or from the chart agents who are to be found in
+all the principal seaports. Catalogues are published
+from time to time giving complete lists of the current
+charts and the main facts regarding them. Index maps
+show graphically the area covered by each chart. The
+notices to mariners contain announcement of new charts
+or new editions published and of charts or editions
+cancelled, as well as of all corrections.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CORRECTION_OF_CHARTS" id="CORRECTION_OF_CHARTS">CORRECTION OF CHARTS.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Need for revision.</b> The making of the survey and the
+printing of the chart do not complete the problem of the
+chart maker. Both nature and man are constantly
+changing the facts the representation of which has been
+attempted on the charts, and also the needs of man are
+always varying. The original surveys are made to
+meet the reasonable requirements of the time, but
+breakwaters and jetties are built, and channels and
+harbors dredged and otherwise improved, and cities
+built, and new paths of commerce are opened which
+bring vessels into waters previously thought of minor
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>With the increase of commerce and speed of vessels
+more direct routes are demanded for reasons of economy.
+Inside routes not originally used are sometimes
+developed for defensive reasons. The average draft of
+the larger vessels has also increased remarkably since
+the modern hydrographic surveys were commenced,
+and surveys once made to insure safety for the deepest
+vessels of that time are now not adequate. The average
+loaded draft of the 20 largest steamships of the world
+has increased as follows: 1848, 19 feet; 1873, 24 feet;
+1898, 29 feet; 1903, 32 feet. The average length of
+these vessels was 230 feet in 1848, 390 feet in 1873,
+541 feet in 1898, and 640 feet in 1903. The number of
+vessels drawing as much as 26<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>4</span></span> feet rose from 36 in
+1902 to 185 in 1904. In 1906 there were 17 vessels<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+afloat, drawing 32 feet and upwards. There are now
+two steamers on the Atlantic 790 feet long, 88 feet beam,
+and 37<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> feet draft when fully loaded, and larger vessels
+are already planned.</p>
+
+<p>Great natural agencies are also constantly at work
+effecting changes in features shown on the charts.
+The action of currents and waves is continually cutting
+away or building the shore, particularly on sandy
+coasts exposed to storms. When surveyed in 1849
+Fishing Point on the east coast of Maryland was but
+a bend in the shore line. By 1887 it had built out
+about two miles in a southerly direction, and in 1902
+about two-thirds of a mile further, curving to the westward.
+Altogether in about half a century this tongue
+of land has grown out nearly three miles.</p>
+
+<p>Rivers are bearing vast quantities of sediment and
+depositing these near their mouths, pushing out the
+coast line and filling in the bottom. The main mouths
+of the Mississippi are advancing into the Gulf, but at
+a comparatively slow rate. A break from the main
+river at Cubit's Gap just above the head of the passes,
+however, has done an enormous amount of land
+making, filling in an area of about 50 square miles
+between 1852 and 1905.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;">
+<img src="images/fig32.png" width="449" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 32. FISHING POINT, MARYLAND, FROM SURVEYS OF 1849 AND 1902, ILLUSTRATING
+BUILDING OUT OF A POINT ON THE COAST.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;">
+<img src="images/fig33.png" width="387" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 33. GROWTH OF LAND AT CUBITS GAP, MISSISSIPPI DELTA, FROM 1852 to 1905.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig34.jpg" width="600" height="423" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 34. COLUMBIA RIVER ENTRANCE, SHOWING MOVEMENT OF SAND ISLAND,
+SURVEYS OF 1851, 1870 AND 1905.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mouth of the Columbia River in Oregon shows
+an interesting example of the movement of an island.
+The chart of 1851 shows the center of Sand Island
+3<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>4</span></span> miles southeast of Cape Disappointment, the chart
+of 1870 shows it 2<span class="fraction"><span>3</span><span>4</span></span> miles southeast, and the chart
+of 1905 shows it 1<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>4</span></span> miles easterly. This island has
+thus moved 2 miles northwesterly directly across the
+middle of the river entrance, closing up the former<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 99-109]</a></span>
+north channel. The southern point of the entrance,
+Clatsop Spit, has built out about the same distance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig35.png" width="600" height="584" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 35. CHANGES IN HAULOVER BREAK, NANTUCKET ISLAND, 1890 TO 1903.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig36.png" width="600" height="323" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 36. MAPS OF BOGOSLOF ISLAND, 1895 AND 1907, SHOWING CHANGES DUE
+TO VOLCANIC ACTION.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;">
+<img src="images/fig37.jpg" width="480" height="335" alt="" />
+<div style="text-align: right;"><i><small>Photo by U. S. R. C. Service.</small></i></div>
+<p class="caption">
+FIG. 37. BOGOSLOF VOLCANO, BERING SEA.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Volcanic action in well authenticated cases has
+caused islands to rise or disappear. In the present
+location of Bogoslof Island in Bering Sea the early
+voyagers described a "sail rock." In this position in
+1796 there arose a high island. In 1883 another island
+appeared near it. In 1906 a high cone arose between
+the two, and a continuous island was formed over
+1<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> miles long and 500 feet high. The latest report
+(September, 1907) was that this central peak had suddenly
+collapsed and disappeared. Bogoslof is an active
+volcano, and the main changes have been the result
+of violent volcanic action. The history of this island
+for over a century past forms a remarkable record of
+violent transformations in the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Earthquakes sometimes cause sudden displacements,
+horizontal or vertical, of sufficient amount to affect the
+information shown on the charts. A careful investigation
+of the effects of the earthquake in Yakutat Bay,
+Alaska, in September, 1899, showed that the shore
+was raised in some parts with a maximum uplift
+of 47 feet and depressed in other parts, and that at
+least two reefs and four islets were raised in the water
+area where none appeared before. Undoubtedly there
+were changes in the water depths, but definite information
+is lacking because there had been no previous
+hydrographic survey. The San Francisco earthquake
+of 1906 caused little vertical displacement, but there
+were horizontal changes of relative position as much
+as 16 feet; so far as known this earthquake did not
+affect the practical accuracy of the charts. Related<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+to earthquake phenomena are the gradual coast movements
+of elevation or subsidence which are taking
+place but at so slow a rate as not to sensibly affect the
+charts in ordinary intervals of time.</p>
+
+<p>Another agency at work is the coral polyp on the
+coral reefs; although the rate of growth appears to be
+very slow, the resulting reefs and keys are an important
+feature in tropical seas.</p>
+
+<p>Practically all of the land features shown on charts
+are likewise subject to changes, the more rapid of
+which are mainly due to the works of man.</p>
+
+<p>The changes of channels and of commercial needs
+cause many alterations to be made from time to time
+in the lights and buoys which are shown on the charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Methods of correction.</b> The problem of keeping a
+chart sufficiently up to date is one of much practical
+importance and one which must be taken into account
+in planning what should be shown on the chart in the
+first place so as to bring it within the range of practicable
+revision.</p>
+
+<p>Certain features are corrected at once on the charts
+as soon as the information is received, such as dangers
+reported, and changes in lights and buoys. Where
+harbor works are in progress the periodic surveys made
+in this country by the Corps of Engineers furnish data
+which are applied promptly to the charts. Reported
+dangers in channels and bars are investigated by special
+surveys and the information is put on the charts.
+Examinations are made from time to time for the
+revision of the features along the coast line. Complete
+resurveys have been made, at long intervals, of some
+important portions of the coast where there has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+evidence of change, and these, when they become
+available, are applied to the charts. All parts of the
+coast where the exposed portions are not of very
+permanent material will require resurveys at intervals,
+depending on their importance and the rate of change.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the great progress made in hydrographic
+surveys, a considerable number of rocks and
+shoals dangerous to navigation and not previously
+shown on the charts are reported, averaging nearly 400
+each year for the last six years, according to the British
+reports. Of the 367 reported in 1906, 11 were discovered
+by vessels striking them.</p>
+
+<p>Immediate information in the form of <i>Notices to
+Mariners</i> is published, of the more important corrections
+to charts which can be made by hand. These corrections
+show what charts are affected, and give sufficient
+data for plotting.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of extensive corrections or new surveys
+a new edition of the chart is printed and all existing
+copies of the previous edition are canceled.</p>
+
+<p>It is important that the user of the chart shall make
+certain that he has the latest edition and that all corrections
+from its date of issue have been applied from the
+<i>Notices to Mariners</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is unfortunately true that owing to failure to take
+proper account of the notices, or to economy, old
+editions or unconnected charts are sometimes used, and
+in a number of cases the loss of vessels has been directly
+due to this cause. Those responsible for the safe
+navigation of vessels should insist that the latest editions
+of charts are provided and that all charts to be used are
+inspected and corrected to date.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="READING_AND_USING_CHARTS" id="READING_AND_USING_CHARTS">READING AND USING CHARTS.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Reading charts.</b> A chart is a representation on paper
+of hydrographic and topographic information by means
+of various conventional methods and symbols. It is
+evidently important for those making use of charts
+to understand the system and conventions used, and
+to be able to interpret readily the various parts of
+the chart. The ability to read a chart must include
+an understanding of all its features, such as scale,
+projection, geographic position, directions, depths,
+plane of reference, aids to navigation, tides, currents,
+elevations, topography, and date of survey and
+publication.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scale.</b> For American and British charts the scale is
+usually expressed by the inches or fractions of an inch
+to the minute or degree of latitude, or by the fractional
+proportion of a distance on the map to the corresponding
+distance on the earth. These fractions are sometimes
+stated on the British charts, and nearly always
+on those of the United States Coast Survey. The chart
+catalogues give the scale in one or the other form. A
+familiarity with the meaning of scales is of value in
+selecting the most suitable chart, in judging of the
+relative uses of charts, and in estimating distances.
+Where the fractional scales are stated they furnish a
+simple means of comparing charts, as, for instance, a
+chart on <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>50000</span></span> scale will show all distances just twice
+as long as a chart on <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>100000</span></span> scale.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following are scale equivalents:</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Scale equivalents">
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>10000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 7.30 inches</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>20000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 3.65 inches</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>40000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 1.82 inches</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>50000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 1.46 inches</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span></td><td align="left"> is equivalent to 0.91 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>100000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 0.73 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>200000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 0.36 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>400000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 0.18 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>1000000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 0.07 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>1200000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 0.06 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>For use in measuring distances on large scale charts
+the length of one or more nautical miles is usually
+drawn on the chart, and sometimes scales are also given
+in other units. On British charts the nautical mile
+scale is divided into tenths (that is, cables of 100 fathoms
+or 600 feet length); on the American charts into quarters
+and eighths. Where the scale covers more than one
+mile the fractional divisions are shown only for the left-hand
+mile and the zero of the scale is placed between this
+and the full mile scale, so that with dividers the full
+miles and fraction may readily be taken off. The
+nautical mile in the United States is taken to be the
+length of a minute of arc of a great circle on a sphere
+whose surface equals that of the earth; this definition
+makes the nautical mile equal 6080.27 feet. Lecky
+adopts 6080 feet as the nautical mile. The length of
+the actual minute of latitude on the earth's surface
+increases from 6046 feet at the equator to 6108 feet at
+the poles, an increase of about one per cent. It is,
+however, this somewhat variable unit of length which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+is ordinarily used in scaling distances on the sailing
+charts.</p>
+
+<p>On small scale charts there is usually a border scale
+entirely around the chart, conveniently subdivided; this
+serves the double purpose of facilitating the plotting or
+reading of positions by latitude and longitude and of
+furnishing a scale of minutes of latitude for use in
+measuring distances. On a mercator chart this scale of
+course varies with the latitude and it must be referred
+to in the mean latitude of the distance to be measured.
+In general practice the minute of latitude is taken as
+equal to the nautical mile.</p>
+
+<p><b>Projection.</b> On only a few charts is there a statement
+of the projection used. Practically all general sailing
+charts are on the mercator projection, which can be
+readily recognized by the rectangular network of meridians
+and parallels and the increase with latitude of the
+distance between the parallels. On large scale local
+and harbor charts the kind of projection used is not of
+importance to navigation, as for such limited areas
+the difference between projections would not affect the
+use of the chart. On certain small scale charts of the
+United States Coast Survey which are on the polyconic
+projection this fact is stated on the chart, and can also
+be readily recognized by the convergence of the meridians
+and curvature of the parallels. Gnomonic charts
+intended for taking off great circle courses are always
+described in their titles and are also easily recognized
+by the increased scale and distortion toward all the
+borders. Charts of the polar regions are published
+on several different projections, which are distinguished
+from the mercator by their circular or curved parallels.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Geographic position.</b> For large scale and harbor
+charts the latitude and longitude of some point marked
+on the chart are sometimes stated on the face of the
+chart. For others of these, however, and for smaller
+scale and general charts, positions are obtained by
+reference to the border scale. There is a latitude
+scale down either side of the chart, and a longitude
+scale across the top and bottom. These scales are
+conveniently subdivided into degrees, minutes, or
+fractions of a minute. The minute is divided into
+tenths (6´´), sixths (10´´), quarters (15´´), or halves
+(30´´) on various charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Directions</b> are indicated on charts both by the projection
+lines and by compass roses. Nearly all charts are
+now oriented with the meridian, that is, north is the
+top of the chart, and on a mercator chart the east and
+west border lines are parallel with the meridians and
+the north and south border lines with the parallels.
+Formerly many charts were not so oriented. Some
+of these are still in use and can readily be recognized
+by the diagonal or inclined direction of the
+projection lines with respect to the border of the chart.
+Of course directions must not be referred to the border
+lines of these diagonal charts, and scales along such
+border lines must not be used. Directions with respect
+to true north may always be referred to the projection
+lines of the chart, but on a polyconic or polar chart
+a direction must not be carried so far from any projection
+line as to introduce error on account of convergence
+of the meridians. Compass roses are placed on charts
+to facilitate the taking off or laying down of directions,
+though in some respects their use is less accurate and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+convenient than the use of protractors, referring to
+the projection lines. The British charts and many of
+those of the United States Coast Survey have only
+magnetic compasses, with degrees outside and points
+inside, the former graduated to 90°. These are engraved
+on the chart with the magnetic variation for the date
+of publication, or for a few years in advance, and give
+the annual change in the variation. Because of expense
+of engraving they can be changed on the charts only
+at intervals of some years, and until this is done allowance
+for the change in variation is to be made if
+important. The German charts and those of the
+United States Hydrographic Office now have a threefold
+compass, the outer one degrees true, the middle
+degrees magnetic and the inner points magnetic; the
+degrees in both cases are graduated to 360°, reading
+from north through east, south, and west; thus northwest
+would be stated as 315° instead of N. 45° W.
+Small scale charts covering extensive areas have no
+magnetic compasses. They sometimes have true compasses,
+and usually have the isogonic lines, or lines of
+equal magnetic variation, marked on them, from which
+the variation at any intermediate point can be estimated.</p>
+
+<p><b>Depths.</b> The unit used for depths is always stated
+plainly on the chart, and it is important to note this
+carefully, as the British, American, and Japanese charts
+use fathoms for some charts and feet for others, and
+most other countries use meters. Some of the earlier
+charts of the United States coast have the depths inside
+of the 18-foot curve in feet and outside of that curve in
+fathoms.</p>
+
+<p>Depth curves are shown on charts in order to bring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+clearly to the eye the different depth areas and the
+limits for navigation of vessels of various drafts. The
+shoaler areas are usually indicated by sanding the outer
+limit or the entire area within the depth curve. For
+the curves of greater depths various standard symbols
+are used which vary slightly in the different series
+but which may readily be recognized by the soundings
+on either side of them. On the British charts the
+1 and 3 fathom curves are usually indicated by sanding
+the outer edge of the areas of these depths respectively;
+beyond these the standard curves shown on these
+charts are the 5, 10, 20, and 100 fathom curves. Similar
+curves are used on the United States charts. The
+German charts show the 2, 4, 6, 10, and 20 meter and
+various deeper curves, and the French the 2, 5, 10, and
+20 meter and deeper curves. On the United States
+Lake Survey charts the areas included within the 6, 12,
+and 18 foot curves are shaded with a blue tint, heavy
+along the outer edge, which brings out strongly the
+shoal areas.</p>
+
+<p>Depth curves if clearly shown are a great aid in interpreting
+the hydrography and making plain the shoals
+and passages. The system of curves should always be
+understood when using a chart, and it may sometimes
+aid the navigator to trace out with a pencil an additional
+curve, if needed, beyond the draft of his vessel. The
+abbreviations used for the bottom characteristics are
+explained either on the chart or on the sheet of chart
+symbols, and give information which is useful in
+anchoring, and may be helpful in identifying a position
+by soundings. When a sounding is made without the
+lead reaching bottom, the depth obtained is sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+shown on the chart by a short line and zero above the
+figure, indicating that at the depth stated, bottom was
+not obtained (no bottom). There are a few important
+symbols shown in the water area of charts. The
+sunken rock symbol indicates a dangerous area, or a
+danger having a moderate depth of water over it, or a
+rock the least water over which is not known; ordinarily
+on the United States charts the least depth will be stated
+when known, and the symbol omitted. The rock
+awash symbol indicates a rock awash at some stage of
+the tide, unless more definitely stated. The position
+of a wreck is indicated by a special symbol. P. D.
+(position doubtful) and E. D. (existence doubtful) are
+placed after soundings or rocks or other features which
+depend on some doubtful report not yet verified.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the relations between depth units
+found on various charts:</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="relations between depth units">
+<tr><td align="left">1 meter</td><td align="left">= 3.281</td><td align="left">English feet =</td><td align="left">0.547 English fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1 sajene (Russian)</td><td align="left">= 7</td><td align="left">English feet =</td><td align="left">1.167 English fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1 braza (old Spanish)</td><td align="left">= 5.484</td><td align="left">English feet =</td><td align="left">0.914 English fathom.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1.829 meters</td><td align="left">= 6</td><td align="left">English feet =</td><td align="left">1.000 English fathom.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><b>Aids to navigation.</b> Each series of charts has a
+definite system of representing the aids to navigation;
+these are similar in principle but differ as to detail. The
+characteristics of the lights, light-vessels, buoys, and
+beacons are usually explained by abbreviations placed
+by the side of each, and the entire system of representation
+is given on the explanatory sheet for the charts.
+Various methods of coloring lights and sectors and
+buoys are in use on different charts. It is evidently of
+importance that the user of the chart should readily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+understand the significance of the navigational aids as
+shown. For details regarding lights it is of course
+desirable to refer to the light lists; for the coasts of the
+United States detailed buoy lists are also published.
+Range and channel lines when shown are represented
+by distinctive symbols with bearings indicated. Danger
+ranges for the avoidance of shoals are sometimes shown.
+On the British charts bearings as stated on range and
+channel lines are magnetic; the custom varies on other
+charts and must be carefully noted in each case.</p>
+
+<p><b>Plane of reference.</b> The soundings given on the
+chart express the depth of water when the tide is at the
+height adopted for the plane of reference; this same
+plane is used in the tide tables, which thus will indicate
+the amount to be added to the soundings when the tide
+is above the plane, or to be subtracted when it is below.
+In order to be on the safe side the plane of reference
+adopted is always some low stage of the tide, so that
+there is usually more water than shown on the chart.</p>
+
+<p>On the British and German charts the soundings are
+reduced to the mean low water of ordinary spring tides,
+unless otherwise stated. On the charts of the Coast
+and Geodetic Survey the following are the planes of
+reference: for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the mean
+of the low waters; for the Pacific coast, Alaska, and the
+Philippines, the mean of the lower low waters, except
+for Puget Sound and Wrangell Narrows, where planes
+two and three feet lower respectively have been adopted.
+According to the Tide Tables for 1908, at New York
+(Sandy Hook) the tide will fall below the plane of
+reference on 135 days during the year, but the extreme
+low tide will be only one foot below the plane. At<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+Portland, Maine, in 1908, the extreme low water is 2.1
+feet below the plane, and at San Francisco 1.5 feet. Of
+course when the tide is below the plane of reference the
+amount must be subtracted from the depths shown on
+the chart.</p>
+
+<p>Strong winds and unusual barometric pressure may
+have a marked effect on the height of tide, so that it may
+differ appreciably from the predicted height, which is of
+course based on normal conditions. At Baltimore and
+at Willets Point observation shows that a heavy wind
+may reduce the tide four feet below the predicted heights.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tides.</b> Information regarding tides is given on all
+large scale charts, and additional information and predictions
+may be found in the Tide Tables. On the
+charts of the United States coast there is a small tide
+table giving for the high and low waters the time relations
+to the moon's transit and the height relations to
+the plane of reference. On the British charts there is
+a brief statement as to the tides either at the port on
+the chart or in the general notes; this ordinarily gives
+the interval in hours and minutes between the moon's
+meridian passage and the time of high water for the
+periods of full and new moon, and also the amount in
+feet that the spring and neap tides rise above the plane
+of reference, and the range of the neap tide. The
+following is an example of such a tide note: "H. W. F.
+and C. Campbellton IV<sup>h</sup> 0<sup>m</sup>. Springs rise 10 feet,
+Neaps 7 feet."</p>
+
+<p>At some important ports information as to the state
+of the tide is given to vessels, either by means of signal
+balls, or by automatic tidal indicators, as at the Narrows
+in New York Harbor, where a large dial shows to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+passing vessels the height of the tide, and an arrow
+indicates whether it is rising or falling.</p>
+
+<p>The tidal information becomes important and must
+be considered in navigation or in anchoring in waters
+where the available depth at low water approximates
+the draft of the vessel. In the general use of coast
+charts it is also important to observe the effect of the
+stage of tide on the appearance of many features.
+Rocks rising some feet above low water may be entirely
+submerged at high water. In some areas the aspect
+may be radically changed between high and low water
+by the baring of extensive shoals or reefs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Currents.</b> Information, when available, as to currents
+is given either by a note or by current arrows
+placed on the chart at the position of observation.
+Additional information as to certain regions is given
+in the United States Tide Tables. Tidal currents,
+flood and ebb, and currents not due to tidal action are
+distinguished by symbols, and the velocity is given
+in knots, and on some charts is indicated by the lengths
+of the arrows.</p>
+
+<p>Complete and systematic current observations have
+been made in comparatively few localities because of
+the time and expense necessary to get the full information
+as to the variations of the currents with the tides
+and seasons. Ordinarily therefore the current arrows
+shown on charts indicate only the average direction
+and velocity, or possibly only the conditions existing
+at the season when the survey was made. Oceanic
+and coast currents are probably much less uniform
+than might be inferred from the current streams
+drawn on maps and charts. A more systematic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+investigation of ocean currents is required to fulfill
+the needs of navigation.</p>
+
+<p>The tidal currents seldom turn with the tides, and
+there may be an interval of as much as three hours
+between the time of high tide or low tide and slack
+water. This leads to the apparent anomaly that in
+cases the current may be running with its greatest
+velocity at the time of high or low water, and may be
+running into a channel for several hours after the tide
+commences to fall. It is therefore, evidently, not safe
+to draw inferences as to currents solely from the tidal
+heights.</p>
+
+<p>There are passages where the tidal currents become of
+the greatest importance to navigation, as, for instance,
+in Seymour Narrows on the inside route to Alaska,
+where the current velocity reaches 12 knots and the
+interval of apparent slack water lasts but a few
+minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elevations.</b> The unit used for elevations is also
+stated on the face of the chart, as also the plane to
+which elevations are referred. On the United States
+charts this is generally mean high water and on British
+charts the high water of ordinary spring tides. Rocks
+and islets usually have figures shown beside them,
+either in brackets or underscored, which indicate the
+height above high water. Rocks which are bare at
+low water sometimes have a note "dries" or "bares"
+so many feet, indicating their height above low tide,
+although they are covered at high tide. The British
+charts in some regions where there is a large range of
+tide have underlined figures in the area between high
+water and low water indicating the heights above low<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+water, or the depths of water over the bank at high
+water, as explained in each case.</p>
+
+<p><b>Topography.</b> The land area on most charts is
+distinguished from the water area by a stipple or tint;
+on some charts the topographic features have, however,
+been depended upon to bring out the land from the
+water. The solid shore line is the high-water line,
+and should be clear on the chart; the area between
+high and low water is sanded or otherwise shaded on
+all charts. The relief of the land is represented by
+hill shading or by contour lines which are the successive
+curves of elevation on the land. Topographic
+symbols are used for some of the more important
+features, such as cliffs, rocky ledges, buildings, bridges,
+trees, roads, etc. It is important for the navigator
+to understand the significance of the hill representation
+and the symbols, as they will aid him in recognizing a
+coast or island, and in identifying landmarks.</p>
+
+<p><b>Date of survey and publication.</b> There is usually an
+authority note on each chart showing the source of
+information or date of survey; if on a coast subject to
+change, the latter is important. On the United States
+Coast Survey charts the date of publication of the
+edition is given, and on British and other charts the
+date of both large and small corrections. The chart
+catalogues give the dates of the last editions, or the
+dates of extensive corrections, and this affords a means
+of seeing whether the copy of the chart in use is the
+latest edition available.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="USE_OF_CHARTS_IN_NAVIGATION" id="USE_OF_CHARTS_IN_NAVIGATION">USE OF CHARTS IN NAVIGATION.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Chart working.</b> In crossing the open and deep portions
+of the ocean, where the only data given may be
+the projection lines and soundings far deeper than can
+be reached with navigational sounding machines, the
+chart is used to lay out in advance the general course
+to be followed and to plot the positions of the vessel at
+intervals either as determined by observations or, lacking
+these, by dead reckoning. When necessary the
+courses of the vessel are modified as the plotted positions
+are found to fall one side or the other of the proposed
+general track.</p>
+
+<p>The principal operations on a chart are plotting or
+taking off positions by latitude and longitude, laying
+down or taking off bearings, directions, and courses,
+plotting or measuring distances, and laying down or
+taking off angles.</p>
+
+<p>To plot a position by its latitude and longitude on
+a mercator chart, set a parallel ruler on the adjacent
+parallel and then move it to the required latitude as
+shown by the border scale at either side; then with a
+pair of dividers at the upper or lower longitude border
+scale take the distance from the nearest meridian and
+lay this distance off along the edge of the parallel ruler.
+The latitude and longitude of a point are taken from the
+chart by reversing this process, or with the dividers
+only. A direction is laid down on the chart or read
+from the chart preferably by using some form of pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>tractor
+and measuring the angle from the projection
+lines. In this country it is more commonly done by
+carrying the direction with a parallel ruler either from
+or to a compass rose printed on the chart. Distances
+are measured or laid down on a mercator chart by using
+the latitude border scale for the middle latitude. On
+polyconic and other larger scale charts distances are
+measured from the scales printed on the chart. It
+should be remarked that in general where special
+accuracy is required distances should be computed and
+not scaled from any chart, because of the error due to
+the distortion of paper in printing.</p>
+
+<p>The use of protractors on charts in plotting by
+angles in the three-point problem will be referred to
+later.</p>
+
+<p>The course to be steered to allow for a set due to
+current or wind may be obtained by a graphical solution
+on the chart, though it will be preferable to do this on
+other paper, using a larger scale. (<a href="#Fig38">Fig. 38.</a>) The direction
+and velocity of the set and the course and speed of the
+ship may be considered as two sides of a parallelogram of
+forces, of which the diagonal is the distance and course
+made good. To obtain the course to steer to reach a
+given point with a given current and speed of vessel,
+lay down the direction of the destination; from the
+starting point lay off the direction of set and the amount
+in one hour; from the extremity of this describe an arc
+with radius equal to the speed of the vessel in one hour.
+A line drawn from the extremity of the direction of
+set to the point of intersection of the arc and the course
+to be made good will give the direction of the course to
+be steered, and the point of intersection will also be the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+estimated position of the vessel at the end of the hour's
+run.</p>
+
+<p><b>Methods of locating a vessel.</b> The principal methods
+used for locating the position of a vessel are by astronomical
+observations, by dead reckoning, by compass
+bearings, by ranges, by horizontal angles, by soundings,
+by vertical angles, and by sound. The full discussion
+of these methods pertains to navigation and pilotage,
+and they will be only briefly referred to here as to their
+graphical application to charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Astronomical methods.</b> There are a number of
+methods of obtaining the position of a vessel by astronomical
+observations. When the position is computed
+the chart enters into these only in the plotting of the
+final result, so that with one exception these methods
+will not be referred to further here.</p>
+
+<p>The elegant method discovered by an American seaman,
+Captain Sumner, in 1843, is in part graphical, to
+be worked out upon the chart. This method is based
+on the obvious fact that at any instant there is a point
+on the earth having the sun in its zenith and which is
+the center of circles on the earth's surface along the
+circumference of any one of which the sun's altitude is
+the same at all points. A short portion of such a circle
+may be considered as a straight line and can be determined
+by locating one point and its direction, or two
+points in it. This is known as a Sumner line. (<a href="#Fig39">Fig. 39.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>From an observation of the sun's altitude and azimuth
+and an assumed latitude a position is computed
+and plotted and a line drawn on the chart through this
+position at right angles to the azimuth of the sun as
+taken from the azimuth tables and laid off from a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 127-129]</a></span>
+meridian. Another method is to compute positions with
+two assumed latitudes and plot the two resulting positions
+and draw a line through them. The vessel must
+be somewhere on the resulting Sumner line. A good
+determination may be obtained by the intersection of
+two Sumner lines obtained from two observations of
+the sun with sufficient interval so that there will be a
+change of azimuth of as much as 30 degrees to give a fair
+intersection. Allowance must be made for the movement
+of the vessel between the two observations by
+drawing a line parallel to the first and at a distance
+equal to the distance made good. An excellent intersection
+may be obtained by observation of the sun, and
+before or after it of a star in the twilight at a different
+azimuth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig38" id="Fig38"></a>
+<img src="images/fig38.png" width="400" height="354" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">COURSE TO ALLOW FOR SET,
+GRAPHICAL SOLUTION<br /><br />
+FIG. 38.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig39" id="Fig39"></a>
+<img src="images/fig39.png" width="400" height="378" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">POSITION BY INTERSECTION
+OF SUMNER LINES<br /><br />
+
+FIG. 39.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig40" id="Fig40"></a>
+<img src="images/fig40.png" width="400" height="376" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">POSITION BY COMPASS BEARINGS<br /><br />
+
+FIG. 40.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even a single Sumner line, however, furnishes valuable
+information, as it may be combined with other
+sources of information to obtain an approximation to
+the position. The vessel must be somewhere on this
+line, and this gives a good check on the position by dead
+reckoning, or an intersection may be obtained with a
+line or bearing of a distant land object, or a line of
+soundings may be compared on the chart with the
+Sumner line.</p>
+
+<p>If an observation is taken when the observed heavenly
+body is bearing abeam, it is evident that the resulting
+Sumner line will be the direction of the course of the
+vessel, and this fact may be useful in shaping the course
+when nearing the land or a danger.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dead reckoning.</b> When impossible to obtain the
+position by any other means, it is computed or plotted
+from the last determined position, using the courses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+and distances run as shown by compass and log and
+allowing for effect of current and wind. Because of
+uncertainties in all these elements, positions so obtained
+may be from five to twenty miles in error in a two-hundred-mile
+run, depending of course to some extent
+on the speed of the vessel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Compass bearings.</b> A compass bearing of a single
+object, as a lighthouse or a tangent to a point of land,
+laid down on the chart, shows that the vessel is somewhere
+on that line, and when combined with other
+information, as with a Sumner line or the course by dead
+reckoning or the distance by a vertical angle, will give
+a position whose correctness of course depends on the
+accuracy of the data used. Bearings of two objects not
+in the same direction give two lines on the chart whose
+intersection is the position. This will be very weak
+if the angle of intersection is acute, and will become
+stronger as it approaches a right angle. A bearing of
+a third object should be taken when practicable, as it
+affords a valuable check in that the three lines should
+intersect in the same point; if they do not do so when
+plotted the error is either in the observations, or the
+compass, or the plotting, or the chart. (<a href="#Fig40">Fig. 40</a>). All
+compass bearings are of course dependent upon the
+accuracy of the compass and the knowledge of its errors
+due to the local magnetic effect of the ship, and also
+upon the correctness with which the magnetic variation
+from true north is known. Bearings of near objects
+should therefore always be preferred, and those of distant
+objects considered as giving only approximate positions.
+An error of one degree in the bearing of an object
+30 miles away will deflect the plotted line about one-half<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+mile. Because of the facility with which they may be
+taken compass bearings are much used for inshore
+navigation, but in point of reliability they are inferior
+to some of the other methods.</p>
+
+<p>A single or "danger" bearing of an object is often
+a valuable guide in avoiding a danger. For example,
+a reef may lie to the westward of a line drawn South
+10° East from a lighthouse; in approaching a vessel
+will pass safely to the eastward of the reef if the lighthouse
+is not allowed to bear any to the northward of
+North 10° West. (<a href="#Fig41">Fig. 41.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>Two successive bearings of a single object, as, for
+instance, a lighthouse, noting the distance run in the
+interval, afford a convenient and much used means
+of locating the position with respect to that object.
+Such bearings are drawn on the chart in reversed
+direction from the object. The distance run between
+the bearings, as read by the log and corrected for
+current if practicable, is scaled off with dividers and
+the course of the vessel is set off with parallel ruler;
+the latter is then moved across the two plotted directions
+until the distance intercepted between them equals that
+scaled with the dividers, and the edge of the ruler then
+represents the track of the vessel. (<a href="#Fig42">Fig. 42.</a>) If the angle
+from the bow, or from the course of the vessel, for the
+second bearing is double that for the first bearing, the
+distance from the object at the second bearing is equal
+to that run by the vessel in the interval, and the use of
+this simple relation is designated as "doubling the angle
+on the bow." If the angles between the course and
+the object are respectively 45° and 90° when the two
+bearings are taken on an object on the shore, the dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>tance
+that the ship passes offshore when the object
+is abeam is equal to the distance run between the two
+bearings; this is a much used navigational device,
+known as the "bow and beam bearing" or the "four-point
+bearing." There is an advantage, however,
+in using bearings at two and four points (or 22.5°
+and 45°), as these give the probable distance that the
+object will be passed before it is abeam.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ranges.</b> A valuable line of position is obtained by
+noting when two well-situated objects are in range,
+that is, one back of the other in the line of sight from
+the vessel, as, for instance, a church spire appearing
+behind a lighthouse or a rock in line with a prominent
+point. Such ranges are of course entirely free from
+compass errors, and should be noted whenever there is
+favorable opportunity. The value of the range in plotting
+will increase with the distance between the objects,
+and if the two are close in proportion to the distance
+to the vessel the direction will be weak owing to the
+uncertainty in drawing a direction through close points.
+Artificial ranges are often erected as aids to navigation,
+usually to indicate the course to be followed in passing
+through a channel. Ranges afford a valuable guide in
+avoiding dangers, as for example an inspection of the
+chart may show that if a certain lighthouse is kept in line
+with or open from an islet a dangerous shoal will be given
+a good berth; on coasts not well buoyed such danger
+ranges are sometimes marked on the charts. (<a href="#Fig43">Fig. 43.</a>)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 236px;">
+<a name="Fig41" id="Fig41"></a>
+<img src="images/fig41.png" width="236" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">DANGER BEARING<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 41.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<a name="Fig42" id="Fig42"></a>
+<img src="images/fig42.png" width="278" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">POSITION BY SUCCESSIVE BEARINGS
+TWO AND FOUR POINT BEARINGS<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 42.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 183px;">
+<a name="Fig43" id="Fig43"></a>
+<img src="images/fig43.png" width="183" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">RANGE TO AVOID DANGER<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 43.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Horizontal sextant angles.</b> The location of a position
+by the three-point problem, using sextant angles,
+is much more exact than by bearings, but is less used
+because not so well known and also because additional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 133-135]</a></span>
+instruments are required and the conditions are not
+always favorable. It is so valuable a method, however,
+that it should be used, when necessary, on every well-equipped
+vessel. A single horizontal angle taken
+with a sextant between objects, as two lighthouses,
+defines the position of the vessel as somewhere on the
+circumference of a circle passing through the two
+objects and the vessel. A protractor laid on the
+chart with two of its arms set at the observed angle
+and passing through the two objects, will permit of
+locating two or more points of this circle on the chart.
+This furnishes a line of position which may be combined
+with other information to locate the vessel.
+With a compass bearing of one of the objects the
+position may be plotted directly from the single angle.
+Two sextant angles measured at the same instant
+between three objects furnish one of the most accurate
+means of locating the position of a vessel, this being
+the same method that is ordinarily used in hydrographic
+surveying, known as the three-point problem. (<a href="#Fig44">Fig. 44.</a>)
+The two angles are conveniently set off on a three-arm
+protractor, which is shifted on the chart until the three
+arms touch the three points, when the position of the
+center is plotted. A third angle to a fourth point
+furnishes a valuable check in case of doubt. Two
+angles may also be taken to four objects without any
+common point, and in this case portions of the two
+circles of position are plotted and their intersection
+will be the ship's position.</p>
+
+<p>The value of this method depends largely on the
+selection of favorably located objects, and it is quite
+important that the principles of the three-point problem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+be understood. If the ship is on or near the circumference
+of a circle which passes through the three
+objects the position will be very weak, and the same
+is true if the distance between any two of the objects
+is small as compared with the distance from them to
+the vessel. A useful general rule is that the position
+will be strong if the middle one of the three objects
+is the nearest to the vessel, provided that no two of
+the objects are close together in comparison with the
+distance to the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>A single sextant angle furnishes a means of avoiding a
+known danger by using what is known as the horizontal
+"danger angle." (<a href="#Fig45">Fig. 45.</a>) Note two well-defined objects
+on the coast either side of the danger to be avoided and
+describe a circle through them and passing sufficiently
+outside of the reef to give it a safe berth. With a protractor
+on the chart note the angle between the objects
+at any point on the outer part of this circle. If in
+passing, the angle at the ship between the two objects
+is not allowed to become greater than this "danger
+angle" the danger will be given a sufficient berth. This
+method as well as any use of sextant angles or bearings
+depends of course on the accuracy of the chart, and
+caution must be used where it is not certain that the
+chart depends upon an accurate survey.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig44" id="Fig44"></a>
+<img src="images/fig44.png" width="400" height="359" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">POSITION BY SEXTANT ANGLES
+THREE POINT PROBLEM<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 44.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<a name="Fig45" id="Fig45"></a>
+<img src="images/fig45.png" width="251" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">HORIZONTAL DANGER ANGLE<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 45.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig46" id="Fig46"></a>
+<img src="images/fig46a.png" width="400" height="60" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">DISTANCE BY VERTICAL ANGLE</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<img src="images/fig46.png" width="320" height="297" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">VERTICAL DANGER ANGLE<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 46.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Soundings.</b> Even if objects cannot be seen, due to
+distance or thick weather, the chart furnishes a valuable
+aid when a vessel has approached within the limits
+where it is practicable to obtain soundings. Modern
+navigational sounding machines permit of obtaining
+soundings to depths of nearly one hundred fathoms
+without stopping the vessel. A rough check is at once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 137-139]</a></span>
+obtained by comparing such soundings with those
+given on the chart for the position carried forward by
+dead reckoning. If a number of soundings are taken
+and plotted on a piece of tracing paper, spaced by the
+log readings to the scale of the chart, and this tracing
+paper is laid over the chart and shifted in the vicinity
+of the probable position until the soundings best agree
+with those on the chart, a valuable verification of position
+may be obtained. This is particularly the case if
+the area has been well surveyed, and the soundings
+taken on the vessel are accurate, and the configuration
+of the bottom has marked characteristics. For instance,
+in approaching New York the crossing of the 30, 20, and
+10 fathom curves will give a fair warning of the distance
+off the Long Island and New Jersey coasts, and soundings
+across such a feature as the submerged Hudson
+gorge extending to the southeastward of Sandy Hook
+will give a valuable indication of position. The taking
+of soundings should be resorted to even in favorable
+conditions, in approaching shoal water, as a check on
+other means of locating the vessel. Many marine
+disasters are attributed to failure to make sufficient use
+of the lead, the simplest of navigational aids.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vertical angles.</b> The vertical angle of elevation of an
+object whose height is known will give the distance, and
+combined with a bearing or other information this permits
+of locating a vessel where better means cannot be
+used. Distance tables are published for this method.
+(<a href="#Fig46">Fig. 46.</a>) The vertical angle is measured with a sextant
+and must be the angle at the ship between the top of the
+object and the sea level vertically beneath it; for a hill
+or mountain, therefore, the eye of the observer should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+be near the water. The object should not be so distant
+that curvature becomes appreciable. The "vertical
+danger angle" is a means of avoiding a known danger,
+on a principle similar to that of the horizontal danger
+angle; that is, the angle of elevation of a known object
+is not permitted to become greater than a fixed amount
+depending on the distance from the object to the danger
+to be avoided.</p>
+
+<p><b>Positions by sound.</b> In thick weather sound affords
+a valuable aid to the navigator. In narrow passages
+noting the echo of the whistle from a cliff is a method
+resorted to, as for instance in Puget Sound and along
+the Alaska coast. Fog whistles and bell buoys are
+maintained at many places. Submarine bells have
+recently been introduced at a number of points along
+the Atlantic coast, and vessels may be equipped to receive
+these submarine signals transmitted through the water,
+which indicate also the general direction from which
+the sound comes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Need of vigilance.</b> Too great importance cannot be
+attached to frequent verification of positions by the best
+available means, particularly when approaching the
+land. Neglect of this or overconfidence has caused
+many disasters. A notable instance was the loss of one
+of the largest Pacific steamers on the coast of Japan in
+March, 1907. In the afternoon of a clear day this
+vessel ran on to a well-known reef about a mile from a
+lighthouse, resulting in the total loss of vessel and cargo
+valued at three and a half million dollars. The captain
+was so confident of his position and that he was giving
+the reef a sufficient berth that he laid down no bearings
+on the chart and took no soundings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;">
+<img src="images/fig47.jpg" width="475" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 47. FIELD'S PROTRACTOR AND PARALLEL RULER IN USE ON A CHART,
+PLOTTING BEARING OF A LIGHTHOUSE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span><b>Instruments.</b> The principal instruments needed for
+use with charts are; dividers for taking off distances and
+latitudes and longitudes, parallel ruler for transferring
+directions to or from a compass rose and for taking off
+or plotting the latitude on a mercator chart, protractor of
+180 degrees for reading the angle with the meridian of any
+direction or for laying off on the chart any given angle with
+the meridian, and three-arm or other full-circle protractor
+for plotting a position by the three-point problem.</p>
+
+<p>Parallel rulers on the principle of Field's are strongly
+recommended for chart work, as they combine in a
+single instrument the advantages of a parallel ruler
+and a 180-degree protractor. Any direction can be
+read or laid off by simply moving the parallel ruler
+to the nearest projection line, which is a process not
+only more convenient than referring to the compass
+rose printed on the chart but also more accurate
+because of the longer radius. These instruments
+can also be used the same as a plain parallel ruler.
+Field's parallel rulers are made in two forms, one rolling
+and the other sliding. The former is a single ruler
+with edge graduated 90 degrees either way, and
+mounted on rollers; it is the most rapid instrument
+for reading or laying off a direction, but it requires
+a smooth surface. The latter is an ordinary two-bar
+parallel ruler with edge when closed graduated
+90 degrees either way; it is a very serviceable instrument
+and probably more to be depended upon for ordinary
+use than the rolling form. Some form of combined
+protractor and parallel ruler should be in every navigational
+equipment, and it is unfortunate that these
+instruments are not better known in this country.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+There are other forms of half-circle protractors which
+are used on the same principle, that is, of bringing
+the center on to a projection line and reading where
+the line cuts the border graduation of the protractor.
+Thus a semicircular protractor is used with a separate
+straight edge, along which it is slid to the nearest
+meridian; another form is the simple circular protractor
+with a thread fastened at the center. All these
+forms of protractors, it will be noted, are intended to
+work from the true meridian, and they are usually
+graduated in degrees only; the use of degrees instead
+of points is becoming much more general in navigational
+work, and reference to the true meridian is also more
+common than formerly.</p>
+
+<p>The standard three-arm protractor, or station
+pointer, as it is known to the English, should be a part
+of every navigational outfit because of its value in
+locating a position by the three-point problem. A
+recent American invention, Court's three-arm protractor,
+is an instrument made of celluloid for the
+same purpose. It should not be considered as a
+substitute for the standard metal instrument, but it
+is a simple, cheap, and handy supplement to it, as it
+may be readily used for small angles and short distances
+where there are mechanical difficulties in working
+with the metal three-arm protractor. Other protractors
+can be used for the three-point problem, as, for
+instance, Cust's protractor on celluloid, on which the
+angles are drawn in pencil and erased, and the tracing-paper
+protractor.</p>
+
+<p><b>Degree of reliance on charts.</b> The value of a chart
+must not be judged alone from its general appearance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 145-147]</a></span>
+as skill in preparation and publication may give a
+handsome appearance to an incomplete survey. On
+the other hand a thorough survey might through poor
+preparation result in a chart defective either in information
+or in utility.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;">
+<img src="images/fig48.jpg" width="475" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 48. THREE-ARM PROTRACTOR IN USE ON A CHART, PLOTTING POSITION FROM
+TWO ANGLES.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The degree of completeness of the soundings, the
+character of the region, and the date of the survey
+should be taken into account in deciding as to the
+amount of reliance to be placed on the chart. Areas
+where the soundings are not distributed with fair
+uniformity may be assumed not to have been completely
+surveyed. Caution should be used in navigating on
+charts where the survey is not complete, and even where
+careful surveys exist care must be taken if the bottom
+is of very irregular nature with lumps near the navigable
+depth, as for instance on some of the coral
+reef coasts. Isolated soundings shoaler than the surrounding
+depths should be avoided, as there may be
+less water than shown. In such a region, unless the
+whole area is dragged, it is impossible to make it
+entirely certain that all obstructions are charted.</p>
+
+<p>While an immense amount of faithful work has
+been put into the preparation of many charts, the
+user must constantly exercise his own judgment as to
+the reliance to be placed on them. A coast is not
+to be considered as clear unless it is shown to be; buoys
+may get adrift and be in a different position or be
+gone altogether; fog signals vary in distinctness owing
+to atmospheric conditions; extreme or unusual tides
+may fall below the plane of reference; owing to strong
+winds the actual tide may differ from the predicted
+tide. Errors sometimes creep in from various sources,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+such as those due to different reference longitudes
+or the use of a corrected longitude for a portion of the
+chart without changing other positions to which the
+same correction is applicable; clerical and printing
+errors may occur; there are sometimes omissions in
+surveys; a feature may get plotted in two different
+positions; tide rips are reported as breakers and
+floating objects as rocks or islands, and thus many
+dangers have gotten on the charts which cannot be
+found again, and false reports are sometimes made to
+shield some one from blame. Most of these classes
+of errors and uncertainties, however, disappear in the
+use of charts of a thoroughly surveyed coast.</p>
+
+<p><b>Use the latest editions of charts.</b> The latest edition
+of a chart should always be used and should be corrected
+for all notices since its issue. Carelessness or false
+economy in not providing the largest scale or the latest
+chart has been the cause of more than one marine
+disaster.</p>
+
+<p>The British Board of Trade issue the following
+official notice to shipowners and agents: "The attention
+of the Board of Trade has frequently been called to
+cases in which British vessels have been endangered or
+wrecked through the masters' attempting to navigate
+them by means of antiquated or otherwise defective
+charts. The Board of Trade desires, therefore, to
+direct the especial attention of shipowners and their
+agents to the necessity of seeing that the charts taken or
+sent on board their ships are corrected to the time of
+sailing. Neglect to supply a ship with proper charts
+will be brought prominently before the Court of Inquiry
+in the event of a wreck occurring from that cause."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following is a translation of a notice in the
+preface to the catalogue of charts published by the
+German government: "Owners and masters of vessels
+are apprised that cases of marine accidents in which the
+casualty was due to antiquated or erroneous charts,
+have frequently been before the admiralty courts. In
+consequence of this, the 'Instructions for the prevention
+of accidents to steamers and sailing vessels,' issued by
+the Seeberufsgenossenschaft have been amended by the
+following additional paragraph: 'It is obligatory upon
+every master, except when engaged in local coastwise
+navigation, to keep the Notices to Mariners regularly,
+and with the aid of them to carefully keep his charts
+up to date.'"</p>
+
+<p>The British shipping laws provide that a ship may
+not be sent to sea in such an unseaworthy state that the
+life of any person is thereby endangered, and the House
+of Lords has defined the term "seaworthy" to mean "in
+a fit state as to repairs, equipment, and crew, and in all
+other respects, to encounter the ordinary perils of the
+voyage." Proper charts and sailing directions are a
+necessary part of the equipment of a vessel, and the
+courts have frequently inquired into this.</p>
+
+<p>The records of the British courts, however, show that
+even in recent years many ships have been damaged
+or lost owing directly or indirectly to failure to have
+the latest information on board. The following are
+instances from these records.</p>
+
+<p>In 1890 the steamer <i>Dunluce</i> was lost owing to the
+use of an old edition of the Admiralty chart which
+showed a depth of 4<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> fathoms on the Wikesgrund,
+whereas the later chart showed much less water. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+this case the master had requested his ship chandler to
+send him the latest chart.</p>
+
+<p>In 1891 the steamer <i>St. Donats</i> got ashore on a
+patch which was not shown on the chart in use, which
+was privately published in 1881; the danger was, however,
+shown on the Admiralty chart corrected to 1889.</p>
+
+<p>Also in 1891 the steamer <i>Trent</i> was lost on the
+Missipezza Rock in the Adriatic. The ship was navigated
+by a private chart published in 1890 which did
+not show this rock, and by sailing directions published
+in 1866.</p>
+
+<p>The steamer <i>Aboraca</i>, stranded in the Gulf of
+Bothnia in 1894, was being navigated by a chart corrected
+to 1881 which did not show that the Storkallagrund
+light-vessel had been moved eight miles.</p>
+
+<p>The steamer <i>Ravenspur</i> was lost on Bilbao Breakwater
+owing to the use of a chart not up to date which
+did not show the breakwater. In 1898 the steamer
+<i>Cromarty</i> was lost in attempting to enter Ponta
+Delgada harbor, and in 1901 the steamer "Dinnington"
+was lost by steaming on to the new breakwater in
+Portland harbor; both of these disasters were likewise
+due to the use of old charts which did not show the
+breakwaters. In these three cases the masters of the
+vessels had authority to obtain the necessary charts at
+the owners' expense.</p>
+
+<p>Not so, however, in the following case from the
+finding of a British marine court in 1877: "The primary
+cause of the ship's getting on shore was due to the
+master's being guided in his navigation by an obsolete
+Admiralty chart dated September 1, 1852, and corrected
+to April, 1862, and on which no lights are shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+to exist either in ... or ... and to his not being
+supplied with the latest sailing directions. The Court,
+considering that the master was obliged to furnish
+himself with chronometer, barometer, sextant, charts,
+sailing directions, and everything necessary for the
+navigation of his vessel out of his private resources,
+which, under very favorable circumstances, might perhaps
+reach £150 a year, find themselves unable in this
+instance to pass a heavier censure upon him than that
+he be severely reprimanded."</p>
+
+<p>The loss of the German steamer <i>Baker</i> on the coast
+of Cuba on January 31, 1908, was declared by the
+marine court at Hamburg to be due in part to the use
+of an unofficial chart which did not show the latest
+surveys on that coast.</p>
+
+<p><b>Use the largest scale charts.</b> The largest scale chart
+available should be employed when entering channels,
+bays, or harbors, as it gives information with more
+clearness and detail, positions may be more accurately
+plotted, and sometimes it is the first corrected for new
+information.</p>
+
+<p>The records of the courts of inquiry also show
+cases where vessels have been wrecked owing to the use
+of charts of too small scale.</p>
+
+<p>In 1890 the steamer <i>Lady Ailsa</i> was lost on the
+Plateau du Four. The only chart on board for this
+locality was a general chart of the Bay of Biscay,
+and the stranding was due to the master's mistaking
+one buoy for another. The court found that the
+chart, although a proper one for general use, was not
+sufficient for the navigation of a vessel in such narrow
+waters and on such a dangerous coast.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Zenobia</i> was stranded on the San Thomé
+Bank in 1891. On this vessel the owners were to
+furnish the chronometers and the master the charts
+and sailing directions. The master was, however,
+apparently satisfied with only a general chart of the
+South Atlantic for navigation on the coast of Brazil,
+and had no sailing directions at all.</p>
+
+<p><b>The depth curves</b> on charts furnish a valuable guide,
+and if the curves are lacking or broken in some parts
+it is usually a sign that the information is incomplete.
+The 100-fathom curve is a general warning of approach
+to the coast. The 10-fathom curve on rocky coasts
+should be considered as a danger curve, and caution
+used after crossing it. The 5-fathom curve is the
+most important for modern vessels of medium draft,
+as it indicates for them the practical limit of navigation.
+The 3, 2, and 1-fathom curves are a guide to
+smaller vessels, but have less significance than formerly
+because of the increase of draft of vessels.</p>
+
+<p><b>The shrinkage of paper</b>, especially in plate printing,
+has been referred to. This introduces two possible
+sources of error: first, the shrinkage being different
+in the two directions, any scale printed on the chart
+will be accurate only when used in a direction parallel
+to itself; second, for the same reason, angles and
+directions will be somewhat distorted. Fortunately
+these errors are not serious in the ordinary navigational
+use of a chart, but they should not be overlooked when
+accurate plotting or measuring of distances is attempted
+on a plate-printed chart.</p>
+
+<p>The actual shrinkage measured on charts printed
+from plates varies from <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>3</span></span> inch to 1 inch in a length<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+of chart of 36 inches. On British and American plate
+printed charts the shrinkage is usually from two to
+nearly three times as much in one direction as it is in
+the other.</p>
+
+<p><b>Care of charts.</b> In order that they may be properly
+used charts should be filed flat and not rolled. They
+should be systematically arranged so that the desired
+chart can be instantly found. They should be cared
+for and when in bad condition replaced by new copies.
+They can be most conveniently filed in shallow drawers,
+thus avoiding the placing of many charts in a single
+drawer. The latter is a common fault; it not only
+increases the labor of handling the charts but adds
+to the liability of their injury.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PUBLICATIONS_SUPPLEMENTING_NAUTICAL" id="PUBLICATIONS_SUPPLEMENTING_NAUTICAL">PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL
+CHARTS.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>There are several publications in book and in chart
+form which are either necessary or convenient for use
+in connection with nautical charts. These comprise
+the coast pilots, notices to mariners, tide tables, light
+and buoy lists, and various special charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coast pilots</b>, or sailing directions, are books giving
+descriptions of the main features, as far as of interest
+to seamen, of the coast and adjacent waters, with
+directions for navigation. They contain much miscellaneous
+information of value to the mariner, especially
+the stranger. Although they contain additional facts
+which cannot be shown on the charts, they are not at
+all intended to supersede the latter; the mariner should
+in general rely on the charts. The sailing directions
+can be less readily corrected than the charts, and in all
+cases where they differ the charts are to be taken as the
+guide.</p>
+
+<p>The most extensive series of sailing directions is
+that published by the British Admiralty, comprising
+fifty-six volumes and including all the navigable regions
+of the world. In the United States the Coast and
+Geodetic Survey publishes ten volumes of coast pilots
+for the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts, Porto Rico,
+and southeastern Alaska, and eight volumes of sailing
+directions for Alaska and the Philippine Islands.
+The United States Hydrographic Office publishes six<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>teen
+volumes of sailing directions for various parts of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p><b>Notices to Mariners</b> are published at frequent intervals,
+giving all important corrections, which should be
+at once applied by hand to the charts, such as rocks
+or shoals discovered and lights and buoys established
+or moved. New charts, new editions, and canceled
+charts are also announced.</p>
+
+<p>These notices should be carefully examined and the
+necessary corrections made on all charts of the sets in
+use on the vessel. A chart should be considered as a
+growing rather than a finished instrument, and constant
+watchfulness is required to see that it is kept up to
+date. Neglect of this may cause shipwreck, as the following
+instance shows. Report came to Manila in
+1904 that there was a low sand islet lying off the very
+poorly charted northeast coast of Samar; this information
+was promptly published in the local Notice to
+Mariners. About a month later a small steamer was
+sent to land some native constabulary on that coast.
+The captain failed to obtain or observe this notice,
+and approached the coast before daylight on a course
+which led directly across the sand islet. The vessel
+was driven far up on the sand, where it still lies.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States, weekly Notices to Mariners
+are published by the Department of Commerce and
+Labor for the coasts under the jurisdiction of the
+United States, and by the Navy Department for all
+regions. These notices are distributed free and can
+be obtained from chart agents and consular officers.
+In Great Britain the notices are published at frequent
+intervals by the Hydrographic Office, and practically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+all countries issuing charts also issue such notices.
+Information as to important changes in lights and
+other announcements of navigational interest are also
+sometimes printed in the marine columns of newspapers
+and in nautical periodicals.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tide Tables.</b> Brief information as to the time and
+height of the tide is usually for convenience given on
+the face of the chart. More complete information is
+published in the Tide Tables, with which every navigator
+should be provided. "The Tide Tables for
+United States and foreign ports," published annually
+in advance by the United States Coast and Geodetic
+Survey, give complete predictions of the time and
+height of high and low water for each day of the year
+for 70 of the principal ports of the world, and the tidal
+differences from some principal port for 3000 subordinate
+ports. The other leading nations also publish
+annual tide tables; those of the British government
+are entitled "Tide Tables for British and Irish ports,
+and also the times of high water for the principal
+places on the globe."</p>
+
+<p><b>Light and buoy lists.</b> Brief information as to all
+artificial aids to navigation is shown on the charts.
+Every vessel should also have on board the latest
+official light and buoy lists, which give a more detailed
+description than can be placed on the charts.</p>
+
+<p>Light and buoy lists for the coasts of the United States
+are published annually by the Light-House Board.
+The United States Hydrographic Office publishes a
+"List of Lights of the World" (excepting the United
+States), in three volumes.</p>
+
+<p>The British Hydrographic Office publishes eight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+volumes of Lists of Lights, and these are corrected
+annually.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chart catalogues</b> are published in connection with
+all series of charts. They give the particulars and
+price of each chart published, and are usually arranged
+in geographical order, with both alphabetical and
+numerical indexes, for convenience in finding charts
+either by position, name, or number.</p>
+
+<p><b>Charts for special purposes.</b> There are various
+special charts published for the benefit of mariners,
+although not intended for direct use in plotting the
+course of a vessel or in locating its position. Some
+of the more important of these are mentioned below.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gnomonic charts</b> are intended solely for laying down
+the great circle or shortest practicable courses between
+points, for which purpose they are very convenient.
+Their use has already been described. The United
+States Hydrographic Office publishes six such charts,
+for the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, Pacific, North
+Pacific, South Pacific, and Indian Oceans.</p>
+
+<p><b>Current charts</b> are published by the British Hydrographic
+Office for the various oceans; these usually
+show the average ocean currents, but for the Atlantic
+there are monthly and for the Pacific quarterly current
+charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Magnetic variation charts</b> are published by both the
+United States and British governments. They show
+on a mercator chart of the world the isogonic lines,
+or lines along which the variation of the needle from
+true north is the same. The lines are drawn for each
+degree of variation. The annual change in the variation
+is also indicated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Other magnetic charts are published showing the
+lines of equal magnetic dip, horizontal magnetic force,
+and vertical magnetic force.</p>
+
+<p><b>Meteorological ocean charts</b> are published by several
+governments, including the United States, Great
+Britain, and Germany, and give the average weather
+conditions, winds, fogs, currents, ice, tracks of storms,
+and other information. "Pilot charts" of the North
+Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans are issued by the
+United States Hydrographic Office about the first of
+each month, and give "a forecast of the weather for the
+ensuing and a review of that for the preceding month,
+together with all obtainable information as to the most
+available sailing and steam routes, dangers to navigation,
+ice, fog, derelicts, etc., and any additional information
+that may be received of value to navigation." Mariners
+in all parts of the world have joined in contributing
+the information which has been used in compiling
+these pilot charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Track charts</b> are published by the British and
+United States governments. That of the latter is
+entitled "Track and distance chart of the world, showing
+the routes traversed by full-powered steamers
+between the principal ports of the world, and the
+corresponding distances."</p>
+
+<p><b>Telegraph charts</b> are published showing the "telegraphic
+connections afforded by the submarine cables
+and the principal overland telegraph lines."</p>
+
+<p><b>Index charts</b> are outline plans showing the area
+covered by each chart of a series, and furnish a convenient
+means of finding a chart of any desired region
+or of selecting the most suitable chart for any purpose.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+These index charts are published either in sets, showing
+all the charts of a series, or are bound into the chart
+catalogues.</p>
+
+<p><b>Star charts</b> are included in navigational series,
+and are conveniently arranged for use on shipboard
+in identifying the brighter stars. The United States
+Hydrographic Office publishes two, constellations of
+the northern and of the southern hemispheres.</p>
+
+<p><b>Explanatory sheets</b> are published in connection
+with various series of charts, giving explanations of
+the symbols and abbreviations used and of other
+important features. In the United States the Coast
+and Geodetic Survey has issued a small pamphlet,
+"Notes on the use of charts," which contains explanations
+of its chart symbols, and the Hydrographic Office
+has published "A manual of conventional symbols and
+abbreviations in use on the official charts of the principal
+maritime nations."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Index">
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Aids to navigation,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Arbitrary projection,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Astronomical observations,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Astronomical positions,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bearings, position by,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Board of Trade notice,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Care of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Catalogues of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Changes in the coast,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chart making, development of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chart publications of various nations,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charts, earliest nautical,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charts, loxodromic,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charts, plain,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chart schemes,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chart working,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Coast and Geodetic Survey, United States,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Coast pilots,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Compass bearings,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Compass, nautical use of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Compass, variation of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Compilation of information,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Correction of charts, method of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cosa, Juan de la,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Current charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Currents,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Danger angle, horizontal,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Danger bearing,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Danger range,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dangers, reports of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dates on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dead reckoning,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Depth curves,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Depths, unit for,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Depth units, relation of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Directions on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Distances, measured on chart,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Distribution of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Doubling angle on bow,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Draft of vessels,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dragging for dangers,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Earthquakes,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Electrotyping plates,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Elevations,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Engraving machines,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Engraving on copper,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Engraving on stone,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Eskimo map,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Etching on copper,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Explanatory sheets,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flattening of the earth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">France, establishment of chart office,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Geographic position on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Geography, early,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Germany, contributions to hydrography,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gnomonic charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gnomonic projection,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Great Britain, contributions to geography,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Holland, development of chart making,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hydrographic Office, British,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hydrographic Office, United States,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>Hydrography,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Index charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Information on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Instruments used on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lake Survey, United States,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Largest scale chart,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Latest editions of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Light and buoy lists,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lithographic printing,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Locating a vessel,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Longitude, initial,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Longitude, uncertainties in,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Magnetic charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Magnetic variation,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Map, earliest,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Map making, development of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Maps, need of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Maritime surveys, extension of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mercator chart, history,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mercator projection,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Meteorological charts (pilot charts),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Navigation, use of charts in,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Notices to mariners,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Paper, shrinkage of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Parallel rulers, Field's,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Photolithography,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Plane of reference,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Plotting positions,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Polyconic projection,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Printing, plate,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Privately published charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Progress of hydrographic surveys,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Projection, explanation of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Projections,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Protractor, three-arm,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ptolemy,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Publication of charts, methods,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Purpose of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ranges,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reading charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reliance on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reports of dangers, erroneous,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Requirements for charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Revision of charts, need of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rock, Brooklyn,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sailing directions, early,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sailing directions,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale equivalents,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scales of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Set, graphical allowance for,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sextant angles,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sheets for surveys,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shrinkage of paper,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sound, position by,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sounding machines,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Soundings, position by,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Star charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Station pointer,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Steamer for surveying,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sumner's method,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Supplementary publications,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Surveys on foreign coasts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Surveys, need of thorough,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Symbols on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Telegraph charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Three-point problem,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tides,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tide tables,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Topography,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Topography on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Track charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Triangulation,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Uniformity in charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Use of charts in navigation,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vertical angles,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vigias, removal of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vigilance, need of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Volcanic action,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wrecks due to deficient charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_1" id="Catalogue_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<big><big><big>SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE</big></big></big><br />
+OF THE<br />
+<big><big>PUBLICATIONS</big></big><br />
+OF<br />
+<big><big><big>JOHN WILEY &amp; SONS,</big></big></big><br />
+<span class="smcap">New York.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap"><big>London: CHAPMAN &amp; HALL, Limited.</big></span><br />
+<br />
+ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p>Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk (*) are sold
+at <i>net</i> prices only. All books are bound in cloth unless otherwise stated.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>AGRICULTURE.</big></p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="AGRICULTURE books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Armsby's Manual of Cattle-feeding.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;$1&nbsp;75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Principles of Animal Nutrition.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Propagation, Culture, and Improvement.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1 50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Systematic Pomology.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"> 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Practical Farm Drainage.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Graves's Forest Mensuration.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Green's Principles of American Forestry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Woll's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>ARCHITECTURE.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ARCHITECTURE books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Birkmire's Planning and Construction of American Theatres.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Architectural Iron and Steel.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Compound Rivetée Girders as Applied in Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Skeleton Construction in Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Brigg's Modern American School Buildings.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_2" id="Catalogue_2">[2]</a></span>Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Freitag's Architectural Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fireproofing of Steel Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">French and Ives's Stereotomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sanitation of Public Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Theatre Fires and Panics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Greene's Structural Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Holly's Carpenters' and Joiners' Handbook.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kellaway's How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket-book. Rewritten Edition.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Monckton's Stair-building.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Peabody's Naval Architecture.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">* Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Book:</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">* Carpenters' and Woodworkers' Edition.</span></td><td class="tdr">16mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td class="tdr">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">* Cementworkers and Plasterer's Edition. (In Press.)</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">* Stone- and Brick-mason's Edition.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Snow's Principal Species of Wood.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sondericker's Graphic Statics with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Towne's Locks and Builders' Hardware.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Architecture.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Contracts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Air Conditioning, (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance, Suggestions for Hospital Architecture with Plans for a Small Hospital.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>ARMY AND NAVY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ARMY AND NAVY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bernadou's Smokeless Powder, Nitro-cellulose, and the Theory of the Cellulose Molecule.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Chase's Screw Propellers and Marine Propulsion.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Cloke's Gunner's Examiner.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Craig's Azimuth.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Davis's Elements of Law.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; Treatise on the Military Law of United States.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">De Brack's Cavalry Outposts Duties. (Carr.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">24mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dietz's Soldier's First Aid Handbook.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_3" id="Catalogue_3">[3]</a></span>Durand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Dyer's Handbook of Light Artillery.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Eissler's Modern High Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Fiebeger's Text-book on Field Fortification.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hamilton's The Gunner's Catechism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Hoff's Elementary Naval Tactics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, each,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Mahan's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, half morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Manual for Courts-martial.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Mercur's Attack of Fortified Places.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; Elements of the Art of War.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures&mdash;And the Administration of Workshops.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; Ordnance and Gunnery. 2 vols.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Murray's Infantry Drill Regulations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Nixon's Adjutants' Manual.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">24mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Peabody's Naval Architecture.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Powell's Army Officer's Examiner.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Tupes and Poole's Manual of Bayonet Exercises and Musketry Fencing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">24mo, leather,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weaver's Military Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wheeler's Siege Operations and Military Mining.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Young's Simple Elements of Navigation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>ASSAYING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ASSAYING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Low's Technical Methods of Ore Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Miller's Manual of Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cyanide Process.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Cyanide Processes.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chlorination Process.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>ASTRONOMY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ASTRONOMY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Craig's Azimuth.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Doolittle's Treatise on Practical Astronomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gore's Elements of Geodesy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* White's Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_4" id="Catalogue_4">[4]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>BOTANY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="BOTANY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Davenport's Statistical Methods, with Special Reference to Biological Variation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thomé and Bennett's Structural and Physiological Botany.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>CHEMISTRY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="CHEMISTRY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Adriance's Laboratory Calculations and Specific Gravity Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Alexeyeff's General Principles of Organic Synthesis. (Matthews.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Austen's Notes for Chemical Students.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bernadou's Smokeless Powder.&mdash;Nitro-cellulose, and Theory of the Cellulose Molecule.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bolduan's Immune Sera.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Brush and Penfield's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tests and Reagents.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crafts's Short Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Schaeffer.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (Von Ende.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Drechsel's Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Eissler's Modern High Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Erdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I. Descriptive. (Wells.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) 2 vols.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;12&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fuertes's Water and Public Health.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Getman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Gooch and Browning's Outlines of Qualitative Chemical Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography. (Marshall.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Haskin's and MacLeod's Organic Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hind's Inorganic Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Laboratory Manual for Students.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Holleman's Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry. (Walker.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_5" id="Catalogue_5">[5]</a></span>Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Iddings's Rock Minerals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Keep's Cast Iron.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ladd's Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Langworthy and Austen. The Occurrence of Aluminium in Vegetable Products, Animal Products, and Natural Waters.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lassar-Cohn's Application of Some General Reactions to Investigations in Organic Chemistry. (Tingle.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Löb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Low's Technical Method of Ore Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lunge's Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">60</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.) 3d Edition, Rewritten.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds. (Tingle.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Miller's Manual of Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cyanide Process.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Morgan's An Outline of the Theory of Solutions and its Results.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elements of Physical Chemistry.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Muir's History of Chemical Theories and Laws.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mulliken's General Method for the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ostwald's Conversations on Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="visibility:hidden;">Ostw</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ld's Convers</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">tions o</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;"> Chem</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">istry. </span> Part Two. (Turnbull.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Palmer's Practical Test Book of Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Pictet's The Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution. (Biddle.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry. (Austen.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Standpoint.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Riggs's Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_6" id="Catalogue_6">[6]</a></span>Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Whys in Pharmacy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Schimpf's Text-book of Volumetric Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Essentials of Volumetric Analysis.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Qualitative Chemical Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Descriptive General Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis. (Hall.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quantitative Analysis. (Hall.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Walke's Lectures on Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="visibility:hidden;">Wa</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">e's Beet</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">sugar Manua</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">cture a</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">d Refn</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ing. </span>Vol. II.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weaver's Military Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-Water.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wells's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering Students.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Cyanide Processes.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chlorination Process.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic, Pharmaceutical, and Medical Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>CIVIL ENGINEERING.</big></p>
+
+
+<p class="center">BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
+RAILWAY ENGINEERING.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="CIVIL ENGINEERING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bixby's Graphical Computing Table.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Paper 19<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> × 24<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>4</span></span> inches,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Breed and Hosmer's Principles and Practice of Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Corthell's Allowable Pressures on Deep Foundations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Practical Farm Drainage.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Flemer's Phototopographic Methods and Instruments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 2d Edition, Rewritten.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">French and Ives's Stereotomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goodhue's Municipal Improvements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gore's Elements of Geodesy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Hauch and Rice's Tables of Quantities for Preliminary Estimates.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_7" id="Catalogue_7">[7]</a></span>Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Ives's Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, Bds.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Descriptive Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Nugent's Plane Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ogden's Sewer Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo half leather,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Riemer's Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Tracy's Plane Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Venable's Garbage Crematories in America.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Architecture.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Contracts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Warren's Stereotomy&mdash;Problems in Stone-cutting.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Topographic Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>BRIDGES AND ROOFS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="BRIDGES AND ROOFS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Boller's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Burr and Falk's Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Greene's Roof Trusses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bridge Trusses.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Howe's Treatise on Arches.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Symmetrical Masonry Arches.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of Modern Framed Structures.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Graphic Statics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part III. Bridge Design.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part IV. Higher Structures.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_8" id="Catalogue_8">[8]</a></span>Morison's Memphis Bridge.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Specifications for Steel Bridges.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wright's Designing of Draw-spans. Two parts in one volume.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>HYDRAULICS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="HYDRAULICS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Barnes's Ice Formation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from an Orifice. (Trautwine.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Church's Mechanics of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hydraulic Motors.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Folwell's Water-supply Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Frizell's Water-power.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fuertes's Water and Public Health.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Water-filtration Works.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Filtration of Public Water-supply.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal Conduits.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Hubbard and Kiersted's Water-works Management and Maintenance.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water-supply</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 5th Edition, enlarged.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Whipple's Value of Pure Water.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Irrigation Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Turbines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Roads and Pavements.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Black's United States Public Works.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Oblong&nbsp;4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Byrne's Highway Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Church's Mechanics of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_9" id="Catalogue_9">[9]</a></span>Johnson's Materials of Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Graves's Forest Mensuration.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Greene's Structural Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Keep's Cast Iron.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lanza's Applied Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maurer's Technical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Strength of Materials.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Patron's Practical Treatise on Foundations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Ries's Clays; Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Materials of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Snow's Principal Species of Wood.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Text-book on Roads and Pavements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Iron and Steel.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Construction.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Waddell's De Pontibus. (A Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Specifications for Steel Bridges.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>RAILWAY ENGINEERING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="RAILWAY ENGINEERING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Andrew's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3x5&nbsp;inches,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Brook's Handbook of Street Railroad Location.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Butt's Civil Engineer's Field-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crandall's Transition Curve.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Railway and Other Earthwork Tables.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crookett's Methods for Earthwork Computations. (In Press)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879).</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cardboard,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Embankments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Raymond's Elements of Railroad Engineering. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_10" id="Catalogue_10">[10]</a></span>Searles's Field Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Railroad Spiral.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Taylor's Prismoidal Formulæ and Earthwork.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cube Contents of Excavations and Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cross-section Sheet.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Webb's Railroad Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Economics of Railroad Construction.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>DRAWING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="DRAWING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">*<span style="visibility:hidden;"> Bart</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ett's Mecha</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ical Draw</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ing. </span>Abridged Ed.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Oblong 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Durley's Kinematics of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Advanced Mechanical Drawing.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jones's Machine Design:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mechanical Drawing.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Velocity Diagrams.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacLeod's Descriptive Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Moyer's Descriptive Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Oblong 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Drafting Instruments and Operations.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and Shadow.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">General Problems of Shades and Shadows.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Herrmann and Klein.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Art of Letter Engraving.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_11" id="Catalogue_11">[11]</a></span>Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Perspective.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measurements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Benjamin's History of Electricity.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Voltaic Cell.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (Von Ende.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Holman's Precision of Measurements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Karapetoff's Experimental Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard&mdash;Burgess.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Löb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, each,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (Fishback.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to, half morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;12&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee&mdash;Kinzbrunner.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>LAW.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="LAW books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Davis's Elements of Law.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Treatise on the Military Law of United States.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">*</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large&nbsp;12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Manual for Courts-martial.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Architecture.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Contracts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_12" id="Catalogue_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MANUFACTURES.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MANUFACTURES books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bernadou's Smokeless Powder&mdash;Nitro-cellulose and Theory of the Cellulose Molecule.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bolland's Iron Founder.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">"The Iron Founder," Supplement.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used in the Practice of Moulding.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Eissler's Modern High Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Keep's Cast Iron.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures&mdash;And the Administration of Workshops.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;25&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Press-working of Metals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction and Operation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="visibility:hidden;">Wa</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">e's Beet</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">sugar Manu</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">acture a</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">d Refin</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ng. </span>Vol. II.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weaver's Military Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">West's American Foundry Practice.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Moulder's Text-book.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MATHEMATICS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MATHEMATICS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Baker's Elliptic Functions.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Dickson's College Algebra.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Halsted's Elements of Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elementary Synthetic Geometry.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Rational Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_13" id="Catalogue_13">[13]</a></span>* Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">100&nbsp;copies&nbsp;for</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 × 10 inches,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10 copies for</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (W. W.) Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (W. W.) Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's Treatise on the Integral Calculus.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (W. W.) Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Trigonometry and Tables published separately.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Each,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Manning's Irrational Numbers and their Representation by Sequences and Series</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman and Robert S. Woodward.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Octavo, each</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>No. 1. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith.
+No. 2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted.
+No. 3. Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyperbolic
+Functions, by James McMahon. No. 5. Harmonic Functions,
+by William E. Byerly. No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis,
+by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7. Probability and Theory of Errors,
+by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8. Vector Analysis and Quaternions,
+by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9. Differential Equations, by
+William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The Solution of Equations,
+by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of a Complex Variable,
+by Thomas S. Fiske.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MATHEMATICS books (continued)">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maurer's Technical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Method of Least Squares.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sm. 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols. in one.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small&nbsp;8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real Infinitesimal Analysis of One Variable.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.</big></p>
+
+<p class="center">MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bacon's Forge Practice.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">*<span style="visibility:hidden;"> Bart</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ett's Mech</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ancal Dra</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">wng. </span>Abridged Ed.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Carpenter's Experimental Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Heating and Ventilating Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Oblong 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_14" id="Catalogue_14">[14]</a></span>Durley's Kinematics of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rope Driving.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hall's Car Lubrication.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hutton's The Gas Engine.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jamison's Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jones's Machine Design:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mechanical Drawing.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Velocity Diagrams.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richards's Compressed Air.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill Work.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann&mdash;Klein.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann&mdash;Klein.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Turbines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edition. Reset.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Church's Mechanics of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Greene's Structural Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's Materials of Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Keep's Cast Iron.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lanza's Applied Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maurer's Technical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Strength of Materials</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Materials of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Materials of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;vols.,&nbsp;8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Iron and Steel.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_15" id="Catalogue_15">[15]</a></span>Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Creighton's Steam-engine and other Heat-motors.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goss's Locomotive Sparks.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Locomotive Performance.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hutton's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Heat and Heat-engines.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kent's Steam boiler Economy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacCord's Slide-valves.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Valve-gears for Steam-engines.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors. (Osterberg.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large&nbsp;12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Snow's Steam-boiler Practice.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spangler's Valve-gears.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Notes on Thermodynamics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thomas's Steam-turbines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Handy Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of the Steam-engine.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2 vols., 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. History, Structure, and Theory.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and the Prony Brake.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stationary Steam-engines.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and Operation.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water. (Patterson.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Whitham's Steam-engine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MECHANICS AND MACHINERY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MECHANICS AND MACHINERY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Chase's The Art of Pattern-making.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_16" id="Catalogue_16">[16]</a></span>Church's Mechanics of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Notes and Examples in Mechanics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and Schools.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to, half morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. I. Kinematics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. II. Statics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span style="visibility:hidden;">Mechanics of Engineering.</span> Vol. II.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Durley's Kinematics of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rope Driving.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goss's Locomotive Sparks.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Locomotive Performance.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Greene's Structural Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hall's Car Lubrication.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Holly's Art of Saw Filing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jones's Machine Design:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lanza's Applied Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Velocity Diagrams.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Martin's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. 1, Statics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* <span style="visibility:hidden">Martin's Text Book on Mechanics,</span> Vol. 2, Kinematics and Kinetics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maurer's Technical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Elements of Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to, half morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richards's Compressed Air.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sanborn's Mechanics: Problems.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's (A. W.) Materials of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sorel's Carbureting and Combustion of Alcohol Engines. (Woodward and Preston.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_17" id="Catalogue_17">[17]</a></span>Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill Work.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Herrmann&mdash;Klein.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann&mdash;Klein.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Principles of Elementary Mechanics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Turbines.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MEDICAL.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MEDICAL books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bolduan's Immune Sera.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">De Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large&nbsp;12mo,&nbsp;cloth,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Pozzi-Escot's The Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies. (Cohn.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">* Personal Hygiene.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wulling's An Elementary Course in Inorganic Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>METALLURGY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="METALLURGY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. I. Silver.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. II. Gold and Mercury.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,&nbsp;mor.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Iles's Lead-smelting.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Keep's Cast Iron.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard&mdash;Burgess.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Miller's Cyanide Process.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Materials of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Iron and Steel.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MINERALOGY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MINERALOGY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial Value.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Oblong, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_18" id="Catalogue_18">[18]</a></span>Boyd's Map of Southwest Virginia.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Pocket-book form.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Chester's Catalogue of Minerals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cloth,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dictionary of the Names of Minerals.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dana's System of Mineralogy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo, half leather,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;12&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">First Appendix to Dana's New "System of Mineralogy."</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Mineralogy.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minerals and How to Study Them.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Eakle's Mineral Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Iddings's Rock Minerals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">60</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals. Their Occurrence and Uses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stones for Building and Decoration.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tables of Minerals.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Ries's Clays. Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals. (Iddings.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MINING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MINING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Map of Southwest Virginia.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Pocket-book form,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Eissler's Modern High Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goesel's Minerals and Metals; A Reference Book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the United States.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ihlseng's Manual of Mining.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Iles's Lead-smelting.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Miller's Cyanide Process.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weaver's Military Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Cyanide Processes.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chlorination Process.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>SANITARY SCIENCE.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="SANITARY SCIENCE books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Outlines of Practical Sanitation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Water-supply Engineering.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_19" id="Catalogue_19">[19]</a></span>Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fuertes's Water and Public Health.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Water-filtration Works.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sanitation of Public Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mason's Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ogden's Sewer Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Price's Handbook on Sanitation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cost of Shelter.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richards and Woodman's Air. Water, and Food from a Sanitary Standpoint.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Air Conditioning. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Personal Hygiene.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MISCELLANEOUS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MISCELLANEOUS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments (Interstate Pure Food Commission):</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Tenth Annual Convention Held at Hartford, July 17-20, 1906.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Eleventh Annual Convention, Held at Jamestown Tri-Centennial Exposition, July 16-19, 1907. (In Press.)</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the International Congress of Geologists.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large&nbsp;8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gannett's Statistical Abstract of the World.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">24mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gerhard's The Modern Bath and Bath-houses. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Haines's American Railway Management.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1894.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Standage's Decorative Treatment of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.</big></p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hebrew Chrestomathy.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures. (Tregelles.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small&nbsp;4to,&nbsp;half&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Letteris's Hebrew Bible.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<div class='transnote'><h2>Transcriber's Notes:</h2>
+The following inconsistencies were kept:
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Aluminum -- Aluminium</li>
+<li>canceled -- cancelled</li>
+<li>Cubit's Gap -- CUBITS GAP</li>
+<li>Encyclopædia -- Encyclopedia</li>
+<li>Feed-water -- Feed-Water</li>
+<li>Light-House -- lighthouse</li>
+<li>sea-weed -- seaweed</li>
+</ul>
+Punctuation has been corrected without explicit notice.
+The following changes have been made (c. = catalogue page):
+<ul class="index">
+<li>p. vii "Nordenskiold" changed to "Nordenskiöld"</li>
+<li>p.   9 "alsoo" changed to "also".</li>
+<li>p. 114 "United States Court Survey" changed to "United States Coast Survey".</li>
+<li>p. 132 "22°.5" changed to "22.5°".</li>
+<li>c.   1 "Riveteé" changed to "Rivetée".</li>
+<li>c.   3 "Metcalf's" changed to "Metcalfe's".</li>
+<li>c.   5 "Matthew's" changed to "Matthews's".</li>
+<li>c.  10 "Hermann" changed to "Herrmann".</li>
+<li>c.  12 "Maunal" changed to "Manual".</li>
+<li>c.  14 "Richard's" changed to "Richards's".</li>
+<li>c.  15 "Wehrenfenning's" changed to "Wehrenfennig's".</li>
+<li>c.  18 "Virignia" changed to "Virginia".</li>
+
+</ul>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44175 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #44175 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44175)
diff --git a/old/44175-0.txt b/old/44175-0.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nautical Charts, by G. R. Putnam
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Nautical Charts
+
+Author: G. R. Putnam
+
+Release Date: November 13, 2013 [EBook #44175]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAUTICAL CHARTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Peter Becker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.              |
+  | Passages in bold are indicated by #bold#.                    |
+  | Superscript text is preceded by a caret, like N^o.           |
+  | Small-caps text has been converted to UPPERCASE.             |
+  | Changes in the text are listed at the end of the book.       |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SURVEYING STEAMER _FATHOMER_ IN MANILA BAY.
+
+  (_Frontispiece_)
+]
+
+
+
+
+                            NAUTICAL CHARTS
+
+                                  BY
+
+                          G. R. PUTNAM, M.S.
+
+           MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
+                 DIRECTOR OF COAST SURVEYS, PHILIPPINE
+                         ISLANDS, 1900 TO 1906
+
+                             _FIRST EDITION_
+                             FIRST THOUSAND
+
+                                NEW YORK
+                           JOHN WILEY & SONS
+                    LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
+                                  1908
+
+
+                             COPYRIGHT, 1908,
+                                   BY
+                              G. R. PUTNAM
+
+
+                             Stanhope Press
+
+                          F. H. GILSON COMPANY
+                             BOSTON, U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In preparing the material for a lecture on Charts for Columbia
+University, the writer was impressed with the fact that although
+nautical charts are mentioned or discussed in many publications, there
+was not found any one which covered the general subject of their origin,
+construction, and use. In the countries of the world more than a million
+copies of such charts are now issued annually. A considerable portion of
+the human race is interested directly or indirectly, whether as mariners
+or passengers or shippers, in navigation upon the sea. Aside from
+supplying a handbook for those who might have a general interest in the
+subject, it was thought that a discussion of charts might lead to
+further consideration of the principles governing their construction.
+
+This paper has intentionally been made as non-technical as seemed
+feasible in treating a somewhat technical subject. The writer is
+indebted to the Coast and Geodetic Survey for various illustrative
+material from its archives, and to a number of authors for facts or
+suggestions. A list is appended of books and papers which have been
+freely consulted, bearing on this and related subjects.
+
+  G. R. P.
+
+  WASHINGTON, D.C., _May 24, 1908_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                        PAGE
+
+  LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTICAL CHARTS
+  AND RELATED SUBJECTS                                   vii
+
+  CHARTS AND MAPS                                          1
+
+  COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS                    31
+
+  PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS                   67
+
+  PUBLICATION OF CHARTS                                   84
+
+  CORRECTION OF CHARTS                                    97
+
+  READING AND USING CHARTS                               112
+
+  USE OF CHARTS IN NAVIGATION                            124
+
+  PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL CHARTS             154
+
+  INDEX                                                  161
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTICAL CHARTS AND RELATED SUBJECTS
+
+
+    Periplus, an Essay on the Early History of Charts, and Sailing
+    Directions. A. E. Nordenskiöld, Stockholm, 1897.
+
+    Maps, their Uses and Construction. G. James Morrison, London,
+    1902.
+
+    Charts and Chart Making. Lieut. John E. Pillsbury, U.S.N., in
+    _Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute, 1884_.
+
+    Principal Facts relating to the Earth's Magnetism. L. A. Bauer, in
+    U. S. Magnetic Declination Tables, Coast and Geodetic Survey,
+    1903.
+
+    Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Coasts of the World. G. W.
+    Littlehales, in Report of the Eighth International Geographic
+    Congress, 1904.
+
+    Smithsonian Geographical Tables. R. S. Woodward, Washington, 1906.
+
+    Admiralty Charts, Abridged list of. Published by J. D. Potter,
+    London, 1907.
+
+    Military Topography. Capt. C. B. Hagadorn, U.S.A., West Point,
+    1907.
+
+    Service Hydrographique de la Marine, Paris, 1900.
+
+    A Manual of Conventional Symbols in Use on Official Charts. United
+    States Hydrographic Office, Gustave Herrle, 1903.
+
+    Hydrographical Surveying. Admiral W. J. L. Wharton, London, 1898.
+
+    On the Correction of Charts, Light Lists, and Sailing Directions.
+    Published by J. D. Potter, London, 1904.
+
+    Notes Relative to the Use of Charts. D. B. Wainwright, Coast and
+    Geodetic Survey, 1900.
+
+    The Law relating to Charts and Sailing Directions. H. Stuart
+    Moore, London, 1904.
+
+    Notes bearing on the Navigation of H. M. Ships. Hydrographic
+    Office, London, 1900.
+
+    The Relations of Harbors to Modern Shipping. W. H. Wheeler, in
+    _Engineering News_, September 6, 1906, New York.
+
+    Wrinkles in Practical Navigation. Capt. S. T. S. Lecky, London,
+    1899.
+
+    Navigation and Compass Deviations. Commander W. C. P. Muir,
+    U.S.N., Annapolis, 1906.
+
+    The Practice of Navigation. Henry Raper, London, 1898.
+
+    Lehrbuch der Navigation. Reichs-Marine-Amt, Berlin, 1906.
+
+    _The Nautical Magazine_, London.
+
+    Dangers and Ice in the North Atlantic Ocean. Bureau of Navigation,
+    U. S. Navy Department, 1868.
+
+    Reported Dangers in the North Pacific Ocean. U. S. Hydrographic
+    Office, 1871.
+
+    Pacific Islands, Vol. III, chapter on "Vigias." British
+    Hydrographic Office, London, 1900.
+
+    Harriman Alaska Expedition, Vol. II, Bogoslof, our Newest Volcano,
+    by C. Hart Merriam, New York, 1901.
+
+    Expedition to the Aleutian Islands, 1907. T. A. Jaggar, Jr., in
+    _The Technology Review_, 1907, Boston.
+
+    Recent Changes in Level in the Yakutat Bay Region, Alaska, by R.
+    S. Tarr and Lawrence Martin, in Bulletin of the American
+    Geological Society, 1906.
+
+    An Index to the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. W. T. Brigham,
+    Honolulu, 1900.
+
+    Geography, articles by C. R. Markham, A. R. Clarke, and H. R. Mill
+    in Encyclopædia Britannica.
+
+    Development in Dimensions of vessels, Elmer L. Corthell, Tenth
+    International Navigation Congress, 1905.
+
+
+
+
+NAUTICAL CHARTS
+
+
+
+
+CHARTS AND MAPS
+
+
+#Need of maps.# Maps are useful and necessary for many purposes. Only by
+means of a correct map or globe can a clear idea of the geography of a
+region be given. An attempt to convey the same information by a written
+description would in comparison be both cumbersome and obscure. Even by
+passing over an extensive region a man unaided by instruments will
+obtain only a rather crude notion of the relations, which he could
+clearly see on a good map. The importance among the human arts of the
+making of maps is indicated by the references to them in very early
+historical records, and by the skill in map drawing shown by some of
+the primitive peoples of to-day. This skill exists particularly among
+races whose mode of life gives them a wide horizon, as for instance the
+Eskimos. An interesting instance of this was the case of Joe, an Eskimo
+guide, who, in 1898, before the surveys of the Yukon delta were made,
+drew a map of the Yukon mouths with much more complete information than
+any previously available.
+
+Without attempting to enumerate in detail the special uses for maps, in
+the broader sense they may be said to be essential for commercial,
+engineering, military, scientific, educational, and political purposes.
+
+#Early geography and map making.# The oldest map known is a plan of gold
+mines in Nubia, drawn on a papyrus. This is of the thirteenth century
+B.C., and was found in Egypt.
+
+In the earliest historic times men believed the earth to be a flat
+surface of nearly circular outline, a natural inference for those with
+limited outlook and communication. Later the idea was introduced of the
+ocean as a river bounding the earth disk. The spherical theory of the
+earth was, however, early accepted by learned men, and was demonstrated
+by Aristotle (384 to 322 B.C.), who used as proofs the earth's shadow on
+the moon, and the change in the visibility of the stars in traveling
+north or south. Crates constructed a terrestrial globe in the second
+century B.C.
+
+There is no Greek or Latin map extant of earlier date than the time of
+Ptolemy, but there are references showing that maps were in use. One of
+the first of such passages in Greek literature is the interesting
+comment of Herodotus written in the fifth century B.C., "but I laugh
+when I see many who already have drawn the circuits of the earth,
+without any right understanding thereof. Thus they draw Oceanus flowing
+round the earth, which is circular, as though turned by a lathe, and
+they make Asia equal to Europe."
+
+A map of the world was drawn by Anaximander, 560 B.C. A hundred years
+later Democritus drew a map having an oblong shape, and taught that the
+width of the world from east to west was one and a half times its extent
+from north to south, a conclusion based on his travels eastward as far
+as India. This theory, which was for a time accepted, has left an
+enduring mark in the words _longitude_ and _latitude_, originally
+signifying the length and the breadth of the earth.
+
+The first application of astronomy to geography was made by Pytheas, who
+about 326 B.C. obtained the latitude of Marseilles by an observation of
+the altitude of the sun. Dicearchus in 310 B.C. determined the first
+parallel of latitude by noting places where on the same day the sun cast
+shadows of equal length from pillars of equal height. Eratosthenes (276
+to 196 B.C.) was the first to compute the circumference of the earth
+from observations of the altitude of the sun at Alexandria and at Syene
+in Upper Egypt and an estimation of the distance between these two
+places. Ptolemy, a Greek of Alexandria, in the years from 127 to 151
+A.D. wrote extensively on geographic subjects, and collected into
+systematic form all geographic knowledge then existing; he was the
+greatest geographer of early history.
+
+In the ten centuries which followed, part of the early advance in this
+science was obscured, and the theory that the earth was a flat disk
+surrounded by the sea again became prevalent. The voyages of discovery
+of the middle ages, however, led to a rapid development of geographic
+knowledge.
+
+The flattening of the spherical earth was not suspected until in 1672 a
+clock regulated to beat seconds at Paris, when taken to Cayenne near the
+equator was found to lose two and one-half minutes a day. Newton proved
+that this was due to the fact that the earth is an oblate spheroid. In
+1735 accurate measurements were undertaken to determine the size and
+shape of the earth. The equatorial diameter has been found to be 7926.6
+miles and the polar diameter 7899.6 miles, the difference, or 27
+statute miles, being the amount of the flattening at the poles.
+
+#The first sailing directions.# The early Greek and Roman writers do not
+allude to charts or maps intended especially for the use of seafarers.
+There are, however, extant several peripli or descriptions of the coast.
+Some of these appear certainly to have been intended for use as nautical
+guides, corresponding to the modern sailing directions. It is probable
+that they were explanatory of or accompanied by coast charts, now lost.
+They are of interest therefore as being probably the first compilations
+for the guidance of seamen. One of the earliest, written apparently in
+the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., is entitled "Scylax of Caryanda,
+his circumnavigation of the sea of the inhabited part of Europe and Asia
+and Libya." It contains a systematic description of the coasts of the
+Mediterranean, Black Sea, and part of the west coast of Africa. The
+following are some extracts which indicate the character of the work. It
+is to be noted that no bearings are given, and that distances are
+usually stated by day's sail: Africa is referred to as Libya.
+
+"Europe. I shall begin from the Pillars of Hercules in Europe and
+continue to the Pillars of Hercules in Libya, and as far as the land of
+the great Ethiopians. The Pillars of Hercules are opposite each other,
+and are distant from each other by one day's sail.... From Thonis the
+voyage to Pharos, a desert island (good harborage but no drinking
+water), is 150 stadia. In Pharos are many harbors. But ships water at
+the Marian mere, for it is drinkable.... From Chersonesus is one day's
+sail; but from Naustathmus to the harbor of Cyrene, 100 stadia. But from
+the harbor to Cyrene, 80 stadia; for Cyrene is inland. These harbors are
+always fit for putting into. And there are other refuges at little
+islands, and anchorages and many beaches, in the district between....
+After the isthmus is Carthage, a city of the Phœnicians, and a harbor.
+Sailing along from Hermæa it is half a day to Carthage. There are
+islands off the Hermæan cape, Pontia island and Cosyrus. From Hermæa to
+Cosyrus is a day's sail. Beyond the Hermæan cape, towards the rising
+sun, are three islands belonging to this shore, inhabited by
+Carthaginians; the city and harbor of Melite, the city of Gaulus, and
+Lampas; this has two or three towers.... The sailing along Libya from
+the Canopic mouth in Egypt to the Pillars of Hercules ... takes 74 days
+if one coast round the bays.... From the cape of Hermæa extend great
+reefs, that is, from Libya towards Europe, not rising above the sea; it
+washes over them at times.... From Thymiateria one sails to cape
+Soloes, which juts far into the sea. But all this district of Libya is
+very famous and very sacred.... This whole coasting from the Pillars of
+Hercules to Cerne Island takes twelve days. The parts beyond the isle of
+Cerne are no longer navigable because of shoals, mud, and sea-weed. This
+sea-weed has the width of a palm, and is sharp towards the points, so as
+to prick."
+
+That there were many other similar writings in the following centuries
+is shown by the following quotation from Marcianus, in a preface to
+sailing directions written in the fifth century A.D.: "This I write
+after having gone through many sailing directions, and spent much time
+on their examination. For it behooves all who are men of education, to
+scrutinise such attempts at learning in this subject, so as neither
+rashly to believe the things that are said, nor incredulously to set
+their private opinions against the careful decisions of others."
+
+The oldest extant sailing directions of the middle ages bear date 1306
+to 1320.
+
+#Development of chart making.# The application of the compass to
+nautical use in the twelfth century A.D. had a marked effect in
+encouraging voyages of exploration, and therefore indirectly on chart
+making. The following, written toward the close of the twelfth century,
+is the first known mention of the use of the compass in Europe: "The
+sailors, moreover, as they sail over the sea, when in cloudy weather
+they cannot longer profit by the light of the sun, or when the world is
+wrapped in the darkness of the shades of night, and they are ignorant to
+what part of the horizon the prow is directed, place the needle over the
+magnet, which is whirled round in a circle, until, when the motion
+ceases, the point of it (the needle) looks to the north." The nautical
+compass of that time appears to have consisted of a magnetized needle,
+floated in a vessel of water by a cork or reed, and having no index nor
+compass card. Peregrinus in 1269 made notable improvements in the
+compass, including a pivot suspension for the needle, a graduation, a
+lubber line, and an azimuth bar for sighting on the sun or other object.
+
+Nautical charts are known to have been in use since the thirteenth
+century A.D., but the earliest extant of which the date can be fixed is
+Vesconte's loxodromic chart of 1311.
+
+The loxodromic charts first appeared in Italy, and were so called from
+the fact that they were crossed by loxodromes (or rhumb lines) radiating
+from a number of crossing points distributed regularly over the map.
+Compass roses carefully drawn were later added at these crossing points,
+the first appearing on a chart of 1375. The earliest known mention
+of the variation of the compass from true north was on the first voyage
+of Columbus, who discovered this important fact in 1492, and as a
+consequence his "seamen were terrified and dismayed." Before that time
+it was assumed in Europe that the compass pointed "true to the north
+pole." The apparent failure to detect the variation earlier was
+doubtless to some extent due to its small amount at that time along the
+Mediterranean. The earlier charts showed both lines and compass roses
+apparently oriented with the true meridian, though there is some
+evidence to indicate that they were actually oriented with the magnetic
+meridian, the designer not recognizing any difference. The variation of
+the compass was first marked on a map in 1532 and on a printed chart in
+1595, but the placing of magnetic compasses on charts did not become
+customary until about fifty years ago. These early charts were drawn on
+parchment, using bright colors. They were copied by hand, one from
+another, with gradual variations. They had no projections, and the
+draftsmen evidently had no idea of the sphericity of the earth. Islands
+and points were usually exaggerated; shallows were indicated, but no
+soundings; no information was given as to the interior of the countries;
+a scale of distances was nearly always provided.
+
+Charts were first printed about 1477, and are known to have been
+engraved on copper by 1560.
+
+The maps of Ptolemy were ruled with degree lines, but no chart was so
+provided until 1427; by 1500, however, most charts were graduated.
+Before this date it is not known on what projection the charts were
+constructed. On the first graduated charts the degree lines were
+equidistant parallel straight lines cutting each other at right angles
+and thus dividing the chart into equal squares or rectangles. These were
+known as "plain charts." This square projection had little to commend it
+save simplicity of construction, as in higher latitudes it gave neither
+directions nor distances correctly. The difficulties of its use in
+navigation were early recognized, and nautical works contained chapters
+on "sailing by the plain chart, and the uncertainties thereof."
+
+The example of early chart making shown in Fig. 2 is of great interest
+as being the earliest extant chart which includes America. This chart
+was drawn on ox-hide in 1500 by Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied
+Columbus on his first voyage as master of his flagship, and on his
+second voyage as cartographer. The chart, of which only a portion is
+shown here, purports to cover the entire world; it joins Asia and
+America as one continent, the Pacific Ocean being then still unknown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN,]
+
+Gerhard Krämer, a Flemish map-maker, better known by his Latin name of
+Mercator, in 1569 published his famous Universal Map. In this map the
+meridians and parallels were still straight lines intersecting at right
+angles, but the distances between the parallels were increased with
+increasing latitude in such proportion that a rhumb line, or line
+cutting the meridians at a constant angle, would appear on the map as a
+straight line. Mercator never explained the construction of his chart,
+and as the above condition was not accurately carried out, it is thought
+that the chart was drawn by comparing a terrestrial globe with a "plain
+chart." After examination of a mercator chart in 1590, Edward Wright
+developed the correct principles on which such a chart should be
+constructed, and published in 1599 his treatise "The Correction of
+Certain Errors in Navigation." It took nearly a century to bring this
+chart into use, and even in the middle of the eighteenth century
+nautical writers complain that "some prefer the plain chart."
+
+[Illustration: BY JUAN DE LA COSA, 1500. EARLIEST EXTANT CHART SHOWING
+AMERICA.]
+
+The Arcano del Mare, 1646, was the first marine atlas in which all the
+maps were drawn on the mercator projection.
+
+In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries charts and
+sailing directions were often bound together in large volumes. These
+usually had quaint titles, not overburdened with modesty, of which the
+following is an example: "The Lightning Columne, or Sea-Mirrour,
+containing the Sea-Coasts of the Northern, Eastern, and Western
+Navigation. Setting forth in divers necessaire Sea-Cards, all the Ports,
+Rivers, Bayes, Roads, Depths, and Sands. Very curiously placed on its
+due Polus height furnished. With the Discoveries of the chief Countries
+and on what Cours and Distance they lay one from another. Never there to
+fore so Clearly laid open, and here and there very diligently bettered
+and augmented for the use of all Seamen. As also the situation of the
+Northerly Countries, as Islands, the Strate Davids, the Isle of Jan
+Mayen, Bears Island, Old Greenland, Spitsbergen and Nova Zembla.
+Adorneth with many Sea-Cards and Discoveries. Gathered out of the
+Experiences and practice of divers Pilots and Lovers of the famous Art
+of Navigation. Where unto is added a brief Instruction of the Art of
+Navigation, together with New Tables of the Sun's Declination, with a
+new Almanach. At Amsterdam. Printed by Casparus Loots-Man, Bookseller in
+the Loots-Man, upon the Water. Anno 1697. With Previlege for fiftheen
+years."
+
+In 1633 a cartographer was appointed to the States-General of Holland,
+and it was his duty to correct the charts from the ships' logs. The
+Dutch at an early date made important progress in publishing charts. In
+1720 there was established in Paris by order of the king, a central
+chart office ("dépôt des cartes et plans, journaux et mémoires
+concernant la navigation"), and in 1737 the first charts were published
+by this office. Detailed surveys of the coast of France were commenced
+in 1816.
+
+In 1740 "the commissioners for the discovery of longitude at sea" were
+authorized by Parliament to expend money on the survey of the coasts of
+Great Britain, this commission having been created in 1713. Various
+rewards were offered by this commission, including one of £10,000, for
+the discovery of a method of determining the longitude within 60 miles,
+an interesting side light on the uncertainties of navigation at that
+time. Compensated timepieces, which have been so important a factor in
+improving navigation, were invented by Harrison about 1761.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. LOXODROMIC CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN, 1565. A
+PLAIN CHART WITH LATITUDE DEGREES OF EQUAL LENGTH.]
+
+In 1795, by an Order in Council, a Hydrographical Office was established
+in London, "to take charge and custody of such plans and charts as then
+were, or should thereafter be, deposited in the Admiralty, and to select
+and compile such information as might appear to be requisite for the
+purpose of improving navigation." This office had at first one assistant
+and one draftsman. Before that time many charts of a private or
+semiofficial character had been published; the catalogue of the East
+India Company in 1786 included 347 charts.
+
+In 1807 the Congress of the United States authorized the President "to
+cause a survey to be taken of the coasts of the United States, in which
+shall be designated the islands and shoals, with the roads or places of
+anchorage, within twenty leagues of any part of the shores of the United
+States; and also the respective courses and distances between the
+principal capes, or headlands, together with such other matters as he
+may deem proper for completing an accurate chart of every part of the
+coasts within the extent aforesaid." This law was the origin of the
+present United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, now under the
+Department of Commerce and Labor.
+
+In 1841 a systematic survey of the Great Lakes was commenced; this is
+the Survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes, briefly known as the
+Lake Survey, conducted under the Corps of Engineers.
+
+In 1866 the United States Hydrographic Office was established under the
+Navy Department "for the improvement of the means for navigating safely
+the vessels of the Navy, and of the mercantile marine, by providing
+under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, accurate and cheap
+nautical charts, sailing directions, navigators, and manuals of
+instructions for the use of all vessels of the United States, and for
+the benefit and use of navigation generally."
+
+#Systematic surveying and chart making# date back little more than a
+century, and most of the information shown on modern charts has been
+gathered in that time. At present all the principal maritime nations of
+the world have made, or are extending, careful surveys of their own
+coasts.
+
+Several of the countries have added valuable contributions in the
+examination of other regions and oceanic areas beyond their borders. The
+maritime and colonial interests of Great Britain impelled that nation to
+carry on extensive surveys along coasts whose inhabitants were not
+prepared to do this work in the earlier days; the British have made
+surveys along the coasts of Asia and Africa and a part of South America,
+and the resulting charts have been a very important and not sufficiently
+known contribution to commercial intercourse among the nations, as well
+as to geography.
+
+The Dutch, French, Spanish, and other European governments have made
+nautical surveys in various parts of the world, largely in connection
+with their own colonies, and in recent years much useful work has been
+done by vessels of the German government. The United States has also
+beyond its own territory made valuable additions to hydrographic
+knowledge in the work of officers of the Navy in a number of oceanic
+exploring expeditions, and surveys on the coasts of Mexico and in the
+West Indies, and in the explorations of Fish Commission vessels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. EARLY CHART OF NEW YORK HARBOR, 1737.]
+
+#Extension of maritime surveys.# Of the total area of the earth's
+surface, 51,886,000 square miles is land and 145,054,000 square miles is
+sea. The oceans thus occupy nearly three-fourths of the whole surface,
+affording highways open to the nations. To conduct international
+commerce by water the ships of one country must enter the ports of
+another. Thus both on the open sea and in the harbors there is an
+interest, common to seamen of all nationalities, in the advance of
+marine surveys and in the publication of charts.
+
+To keep the coasts properly charted, as well as lighted and buoyed, is
+an obligation devolving on modern nations, not only for the benefit of
+their own commerce but for that of other countries.
+
+As shown below, only a small part of the coast line of the world is
+thoroughly surveyed. In the extensive ocean areas which are dotted with
+islands or reefs, a large amount of work is required for their
+sufficient charting, although many doubtful areas have been cleared up
+in recent years. Even the parts that are known to be of depths so great
+as to be free from navigational dangers should be sounded over
+sufficiently to develop the general configuration of the ocean bottom.
+
+Through international understanding a thorough exploration of all the
+water area of the globe and the coasts may in time be effected, and the
+many doubtful spots which still disfigure the charts may be either
+eliminated or definitely located.
+
+#Present state of progress of hydrographic surveys.# A comparatively
+small proportion of the coasts of the world can be considered as
+completely surveyed at the present time, and even such regions require
+much additional revision. In the class of more thoroughly surveyed
+coasts should be included the Atlantic and most of the Pacific coast of
+the United States, Porto Rico, nearly all the coasts of Europe, Algeria,
+and portions of the coasts of Japan, the Philippine Islands, and India.
+
+A large part of the world's coasts has been surveyed incompletely, but
+sufficiently well to permit the publication of navigational charts. This
+is the condition as respects most of southeastern Alaska and some other
+portions of the Alaskan coast, British Columbia, most of Mexico, Central
+America, the West Indies, Brazil and parts of Chile, the Hawaiian
+Islands, China, Malay Peninsula, Siam, the Dutch East Indies, Australia,
+New Zealand, Persia, Arabia, most of Africa, Iceland, northern
+Scandinavia, and Finland.
+
+Another considerable portion of the coasts has not been surveyed, but
+has been covered by explorations which have been embodied in nautical
+charts of varied degrees of incompleteness. In this class are the north
+coast and considerable portions of the south and west coasts of Alaska,
+the Aleutian Islands, Siberia, most of the oceanic groups in the
+Pacific, the northern coasts of Europe and North America, Greenland, the
+west coast of South America, Venezuela, and Argentina.
+
+Only a very small proportion of the total length of coasts is now
+entirely unexplored, and such portions are confined to the polar
+regions.
+
+#Chart publications of various nations.# There are about eighteen
+nations publishing navigational charts, and adding to the information on
+which charts are based. Many of these nations republish to some extent
+the charts prepared by the others. Great Britain has kept up a series of
+charts covering all parts of the world and practically including in some
+form all information published elsewhere. This series now (1908)
+includes 3725 different charts, of which the annual issue is about
+600,000 copies. France (1906) publishes 2948 different charts.
+
+In the United States, charts are published by the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey for the coasts and tidal waters of the main country and the
+insular possessions, by the Hydrographic Office for oceanic areas and
+foreign coasts, and by the Lake Survey for the Great Lakes. The total
+number of different charts issued by these bureaus is about 2300, and
+the total annual issue is about 225,000 copies.
+
+#Systems in use on various charts.#
+
+_Longitude._ The first chart of New York, published by the Coast Survey
+in 1844, was referred to the City Hall of New York as the initial
+longitude, and some years ago it was the prevailing custom for each
+nation to use a local initial longitude. While this satisfied local
+pride it led to much geographical and navigational confusion. Happily
+the charts of all countries are now referred to Greenwich, with the
+following exceptions:
+
+  France refers to Paris, which is 2° 20´ 15´´ E. of Greenwich.
+  Spain refers to San Fernando, which is 6° 12´ 20´´ W. of Greenwich.
+  Portugal refers to Lisbon, which is 9° 08´ 24´´ W. of Greenwich.
+
+_Units for depths._ The English fathom or foot is used for depths on the
+charts of Great Britain, the United States, and Japan. Russia uses the
+sajene of seven English feet. On the modern charts of practically all
+the other countries the meter is used, though on older charts various
+units are found.
+
+In the first group feet are ordinarily found only on large scale or
+local charts of areas with moderate depths, and the other charts are in
+fathoms, except that on the earlier charts of the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey feet were used on a sanded surface inside of the three-fathom
+curve and fathoms on the white surface outside of that curve. Heights
+are stated in feet on the charts of the first group.
+
+_Plane of reference._ As the depth of water varies with the tide, it is
+necessary for charting purposes to adopt some standard plane to which
+the soundings are referred. Practically all countries have adopted for
+this purpose a low stage of the tide, as this is obviously on the side
+of safety; in most cases an extreme low water is used, so that the
+actual depths will seldom, owing to the tide, be less than those shown
+on the chart. The definite reference planes used on the American charts
+will be mentioned later.
+
+On nearly all charts heights are referred to mean high water, doubtless
+owing to this being the visible limit of the land at high tide. On
+topographic maps of the interior, the heights are referred to mean sea
+level, which plane is of course lower than the preceding by one-half the
+range of tide.
+
+_Symbols on charts._ Fair uniformity as to general principles, with
+differences as to details in carrying them out, exists on the various
+series of charts regarding their general arrangement and the more
+important symbols, such as in the shading of land to distinguish from
+water, the use of depth curves, the representation of hills by shade or
+contour, the indication of shoals and dangers, and of lighthouses and
+buoys.
+
+#Desirability of uniformity in charts.# Ships engaged in international
+commerce must enter foreign ports. As the information is constantly
+changing and charts are being corrected or improved, it is sometimes
+desirable for the navigator to consult the local foreign charts, and it
+may often be necessary for him to carry in his chart room the charts of
+several different countries. There are therefore important advantages in
+international uniformity in chart publication.
+
+There should be a common initial longitude, and as the longitude of
+Greenwich has been so extensively adopted, it appears quite probable
+that its use may some day become universal.
+
+A common unit for soundings and heights would be very desirable, but the
+fact that a large group of nations has united on the metric system,
+while a small group with great commercial interests retains another
+system, makes the attainment of uniformity difficult.
+
+Substantial agreement as to the use of symbols on charts, particularly
+such as represent aids or dangers to navigation, would be desirable and
+doubtless feasible.
+
+#Privately published charts.# Many of the earlier charts were prepared
+and published by private enterprise, and such charts are still
+published, as, for instance, the so-called "blue-back" charts printed in
+London. These charts have usually differed from those published by the
+various governments either in representing the main features in a very
+bold manner with little detail or in including a considerable area with
+many plans on a single large sheet backed for permanency. An objection
+to the latter is that the durability together with the high price tends
+to keep an old chart in use long after it is out of date. It would be
+financially difficult for a private firm to give the service that a
+government does in the matter of correcting the charts and issuing new
+editions, and this is an important consideration in the selection of
+charts.
+
+#Purpose of charts.# The main purpose of charts is to furnish graphical
+guides to aid in taking a vessel safely from one port to another; they
+are maps for the use of navigators. An experienced mariner may be able
+to steer his vessel over a familiar course without charts, but this does
+not make their publication less necessary. Even such an expert pilot
+doubtless studied the charts in the first place; the uncertainties of
+the sea and the changes of information are such that his vessel's
+equipment should include the latest charts, and safety requires their
+examination. The passengers and the merchants who intrust their lives or
+their goods to the sea are largely dependent upon the correctness of the
+charts.
+
+Besides their main purpose charts fill many other needs, among which
+are; for preliminary planning of harbor improvements and various
+engineering works, for defensive works and other military uses, for the
+fishing interests, and for general information as to the coastal
+regions. Charts will furnish much of interest and instruction to the
+traveler by sea and the dweller near the coast, who will learn to read
+them. Passenger steamers should more often for the interest of their
+patrons display charts of the waters traversed. No written or verbal
+description can give as clear an idea of geographical features and
+relations as a good map or chart.
+
+As the charts are revised from time to time, a comparison of editions at
+different dates furnishes a record of the changes wrought by nature or
+man, and this is especially useful in studying the action in many harbor
+and river entrances, as well as for historical purposes.
+
+#Requirements for charts.# As charts are maps of the water areas,
+including the adjoining land, and intended primarily for the use of
+mariners, they differ in important respects from topographic maps or
+general maps, even such as include the water areas. The main
+requirements for charts are these; correct and complete information,
+early publication of new data, clear and intelligible representation of
+the information, convenient arrangement as navigational instruments, and
+high standard of publication.
+
+The special and sometimes difficult conditions under which charts must
+be used on shipboard call for good judgment throughout their
+preparation. Even the paper on which they are printed is of importance,
+in order that they may be sufficiently durable and suitable for
+plotting.
+
+#Information given on charts.# It is evident that it is impossible to
+represent on a chart of any practicable scale all the features that
+exist on the corresponding area of the earth's surface. It is
+essential, therefore, that a selection be made of the classes of facts
+that are to be shown, as well as of the detail that is to be used for
+each class. The practical utility of the chart depends largely on the
+good judgment used in this selection. In the information shown, charts
+differ from maps principally in representing by soundings and curves the
+configuration of the bottom of the water area, and in showing ordinarily
+the topographic features only in the vicinity of the coast line.
+
+The convenience of mariners should govern in the selection and
+arrangement of the information to be shown on charts, though they may be
+made useful for other purposes so long as this convenience is not
+lessened. The needs and preferences of navigators alone, however, differ
+so much that a reasonable chart must be somewhat of a compromise between
+conflicting views. For certain classes of navigation a boldly drawn
+chart showing only the dangers and a few other soundings and some
+landmarks might be useful. For other maritime purposes a more detailed
+chart would be valuable. The first, however, would fail to give facts
+often demanded in the navigational use of the chart, and the second if
+carried to an extreme would make a chart difficult to use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. STATE OF ADVANCEMENT OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF
+THE COASTS OF THE WORLD, 1904.
+
+  _By G. W. Littlehales._
+]
+
+Shoals and dangers are shown either by the least depth or by rock or
+reef symbols. The characteristic soundings are shown on the chart, with
+abbreviations indicating the nature of the bottom. Depth curves are
+drawn, joining together points of like depth, and inclosing areas of
+less depth, on the same principle that contours are used on land maps;
+usually also the shoaler spots are made more prominent by sanding or
+tinting the area within them. Lighthouses, buoys, and other artificial
+aids to navigation are represented, with descriptive abbreviations. The
+coast is shown by a bold solid line for high water and a dotted line for
+low water. The main topographic features are represented for a moderate
+distance from the coast, with such detail as is useful, depending on the
+scale of the chart. Elevations are given in figures for prominent
+summits, islands, and rocks; the general configuration of hills and
+mountains is represented by contours on large scale charts or by
+hachures or shading on small scale charts. Rivers, streams, lakes,
+marshes, towns, roads, prominent buildings, and other important
+topographic features are shown by appropriate symbols. It is important
+that objects which may be useful in navigation as landmarks, whether
+natural or artificial, be plainly shown and described, if necessary to
+their identification, and that they should not be obscured by details of
+lesser importance. On the larger scale charts only, vegetation features,
+particularly areas covered by trees, are represented by symbols. The
+land area is usually clearly distinguished from the water area by a tint
+or stipple. Latitude and longitude are given by the projection
+lines and the subdivided border, or sometimes on harbor plans by a note
+giving the position of some one point. Brief information as to the time
+and range of the tides is stated in a note. Data regarding currents,
+whether due to tidal or other causes, are given by current arrows placed
+on the chart, or by explanatory notes. Compasses are for convenience
+printed on the charts, and data given as to the magnetic variation and
+its rate of change. On large scale charts scales are provided for use in
+measuring distances. Ranges and channel lines are given when required.
+The ports are indicated where storm warning signals are displayed. The
+areas of forbidden anchorages are shown, and when important, the
+positions of submarine cables. The lines dividing the high seas from
+inland waters are sometimes stated on United States charts. Life saving
+stations are given, and time balls are usually noted. Views of important
+features are shown on some charts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE UNITED STATES COAST
+AND GEODETIC SURVEY.]
+
+The layman who looks at the printed chart probably does not appreciate
+the amount or the variety of information that must be gathered and
+sifted and put in proper shape for a single chart.
+
+
+
+
+COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS
+
+
+#Need of thorough surveys.# As has been stated, a good chart requires
+that a thorough and correct survey be first made of the region to be
+charted. It is said that men are very apt to accept as true anything
+they see on a map. As to the nautical chart the mariner is likely to be
+somewhat more critical, however, and it is well that he is. The
+difficulty of charting an invisible surface such as the bottom of the
+sea is great, and the proportion of the navigable waters surveyed in
+sufficient detail to be at all certain of the absence of uncharted
+dangers is small.
+
+The planning of surveys in a new region, such, for instance, as the
+Philippine Islands, presents many interesting problems, on the solution
+of which the effectiveness in chart results and the cost of the work
+materially depend. Many local conditions must be taken into account. The
+surveys are made on opposite coasts according to the seasonal winds and
+rainfall. In some parts fair-sized steamers are necessary; in others
+launches and small boats can do the work more economically. Shore
+parties with land transportation are used for portions of the work where
+the country permits. Natives are employed as far as practicable for the
+classes of work they can do; the Filipinos, for instance, make good
+sailors on the vessels and excellent penmen in the office.
+
+The following is a brief outline of the steps of a complete survey for
+charting purposes, according to the present practice of the United
+States Coast and Geodetic Survey. These are given in their logical
+order, though in actual work this order must often be departed from. In
+this Survey the methods of control have been of a high standard; that
+is, the main stations have been accurately determined and permanently
+marked and described, and this has proven an advantage in the
+joining together of the original surveys and resurveys.
+
+#Astronomical observations.# To locate on the surface of the earth the
+area to be charted, astronomical observations are required for the
+latitude and longitude of one or more points. In the best practice the
+longitude of a point is obtained by observing the transits of stars to
+get the local time, and sending time signals by telegraph to obtain the
+difference from the local time of some other place whose longitude is
+known. The latitude is observed by measuring the difference of zenith
+distance of pairs of stars crossing the meridian north and south of the
+zenith. The azimuth or true direction of some line is also obtained from
+star observations, usually by observations with a theodolite on a
+circumpolar star. Much existing chart work depends on positions
+determined by less accurate methods, as, for instance, longitudes
+obtained by transporting chronometers between the known station and that
+to be determined, or by observations of moon culminations, and latitudes
+obtained by direct observations of the altitudes of stars with
+theodolite or sextant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE BRITISH
+HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. TRIANGULATION OF A BAY, SHOWING LOCATION OF
+SURVEY SIGNALS AND LANDMARKS.]
+
+#Triangulation.# The main framework of the survey consists of a series
+of triangles connecting prominently located points which are permanently
+marked in the ground and the location described so that they can be
+found at a future time. At long intervals in the survey base lines are
+laid out and carefully measured with steel tape. Signals are erected
+over the points, including those at the ends of the base line, and
+angles are then measured at the various stations. From the measured
+length of the base and the angles the lengths of the sides of the
+triangles are computed, and from these lengths and the latitude and
+longitude of one point the latitudes and longitudes of all the other
+points are obtained. When several astronomically determined points are
+connected by such a triangulation a complication arises from what is
+known as "deflection of the plumb line," which is the angular amount by
+which the actual sea-level surface of the earth departs from the
+symmetrical figure of revolution, owing to the variations in the density
+of the earth's outer layers. The distance between two points as measured
+by triangulation thus differs from the distance computed from the
+astronomically determined positions. If this irregularity were not taken
+care of by adopting mean positions, the discrepancy in joining up
+different surveys would in extreme cases amount to about half a mile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. TRIANGULATION STATION AND SIGNAL, ON ALASKA
+COAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. MEASURING ANGLES WITH THEODOLITE AT
+TRIANGULATION STATION ON ALASKA COAST.]
+
+#Survey sheets# are next prepared, of suitable size and scale. On each
+sheet a projection is laid down, that is, the meridians and parallels
+are drawn, and all the points determined in the triangulation are
+plotted in their true relation. Usually separate sheets are prepared for
+the topography or shore survey and for the hydrography or survey of the
+water area.
+
+#Topography.# The topographic survey of the shore and as much of the
+adjacent area as is required is usually made with a plane table, on
+which the map is actually drawn in the field as the work progresses.
+Points are located on the plane table sheet either by direct reading of
+the distance on a stadia rod or by intersections from two or more
+stations. On the plane table sheet it is customary to locate the shore
+or high-water line, the low-water line, off-lying rocks, streams,
+rivers, roads, towns, lighthouses, and all prominent features near the
+coast. Elevations are measured with the plane table or obtained from the
+triangulation, and are represented on the sheet both by figures and by
+contours, which are lines joining together points of the same elevation.
+For instance, a 100-foot contour represents the line where a plane 100
+feet above sea level would cut the surface of the ground. It is
+particularly important in this topographic work to locate accurately
+objects which are good landmarks and likely to be of use to the mariner.
+In some regions auxiliary methods are used in filling in the topography,
+as, for instance, along a difficult coast each feature of importance may
+be located by sextant angles, or a traverse line may be run along the
+shore by the transit and stadia method.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY PARTY AT WORK WITH PLANE
+TABLE ON THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. SURVEY SIGNAL OF IRON PIPE ON THE BAR OFF THE
+MOUTH OF THE YUKON RIVER.]
+
+#The hydrography,# or the survey of the water area, is of prime
+importance for the chart, but in the order of prosecution of the work it
+is convenient but not essential that it come after sufficient points
+have been located by the triangulation and topography. A hydrographic
+sheet is prepared on which all the points are plotted which will be
+useful. A system of sounding lines is then run over the entire area to
+be surveyed, locating the position of the sounding boat at intervals by
+sextant angles on survey signals or by angles from the shore. The
+ordinary method of sounding is to cast a lead from a boat and read the
+depth when the lead touches bottom and the line is vertical, and make
+note of the nature of the bottom. There is a systematic spacing between
+the casts of the lead and between the lines passed over by the boat,
+depending on the depth of water and character of the bottom. For
+soundings in deeper water various forms of sounding machines are used,
+with weight attached to a wire. For very great depths a small steel wire
+is employed and the weight is detached and left on the bottom. The
+deepest sounding thus far made, 5269 fathoms, or nearly six miles, was
+obtained by this method in the Pacific Ocean near Guam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. HYDROGRAPHIC PARTY SOUNDING WITH LAUNCH IN
+BALTIMORE HARBOR.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. THE LUCAS AUTOMATIC SOUNDING MACHINE FOR DEPTHS
+TO 5000 FATHOMS, WITH ENGINE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. THE SIGSBEE SOUNDING MACHINE ON A SURVEYING
+VESSEL.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SURVEYING STEAMER
+_FATHOMER_, SHOWING GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS.]
+
+The offshore soundings are made from a surveying steamer; the inshore
+work is usually done by a launch or small boat.
+
+So far as the navigational use of charts is concerned it is important
+that the hydrography shall show the limiting depths and the freedom from
+dangers, of channels, entrances, harbors, and anchorages. It is also
+desirable that the soundings shall be carried off shore at least as far
+as the one-hundred-fathom curve, as with the modern forms of
+navigational sounding machines it is possible for vessels under way to
+obtain soundings to this depth, and such soundings may be of value in
+identifying the location of the vessel. For depths greater than one
+hundred fathoms the soundings have less direct value to navigation
+except as proving the absence of shoaler areas, but soundings throughout
+the oceanic regions are of great geographical interest as well as of
+direct practical value in the laying of cables.
+
+It is obvious that the plan of mapping the sea bottom by dropping a lead
+at intervals over its hidden surface is far from an ideal one. The lead
+gives the depth only at the point at which it touches the bottom, and no
+information as to the space between the casts except such as may be
+inferred from the relation of successive soundings. In numerous cases,
+after what was considered a very thorough survey of a region had been
+made, at some later day a pinnacle rock or other danger has been
+discovered. For instance, a very detailed hydrographic survey of
+Buzzards Bay was made in 1895; the sounding lines were run at intervals
+of 50 to 100 yards, and 91,000 soundings were made for a single sheet.
+Within this area the cruiser _Brooklyn_ in 1902 touched a rock which
+was found to have 18 feet over it. (Fig. 17.) The least depth in the
+vicinity developed in the original survey was 31 feet.
+
+For the satisfactory development of hydrographic work some invention is
+much needed which as it passes along the bottom will give a continuous
+depth curve. Several devices have successfully accomplished this in
+shoal water, but great credit awaits the inventor who designs something
+of more general application.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17. PORTION OF ORIGINAL HYDROGRAPHIC SHEET, BUZZARDS
+BAY, ON SCALE 1-10000, SHOWING AREA CLOSELY SOUNDED IN 1895, WHERE THE
+_BROOKLYN_ STRUCK IN 1902.]
+
+#Tides and currents.# Information must be obtained as to the movement of
+the water, both vertical and horizontal. The rise and fall of the tide
+are obtained by tide gauges, either automatic, which draw a continuous
+tidal curve on a roll of paper, or simple tide staffs, which must be
+read at intervals. The currents, whether due to the tides or other
+movements, are measured by noting the movement of partially submerged
+floats. Less accurate but useful information as to currents is obtained
+from the logs of vessels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18. DRAGGING FOR DANGERS WITH A LONG WIRE.]
+
+#Dragging for dangers# has long been resorted to for the investigation
+of isolated spots. A valuable and successful means has been employed
+recently of making sure that an area is free from shoals or rocks having
+less than a certain depth. This is done by dragging through the water a
+wire from 500 to 1400 feet long, and suspended at the required depth,
+with suitable buoys and weights, and kept taut by the angle of pull. If,
+for instance, the wire is set at a depth of 30 feet it will indicate the
+presence of any obstruction of less depth by catching on it and
+upsetting the buoys, and such spots are at once marked and investigated.
+Considerable work has been done with such drags in the last few years on
+the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and on the Great Lakes. This is of course a
+somewhat tedious process and gives no information as to depths greater
+than that for which the wire is set, but the experience already had
+indicates its great value. It will probably be found desirable in time
+to thus drag all water areas important to navigation where the depth is
+near the draft of vessels and the irregular nature of the bottom gives
+indication of dangers. In extensive dragging operations near Key West
+and in Jericho Bay, Maine, a number of shoals have been picked up which
+were not found in the original surveys.
+
+A remarkable instance of the value of the drag was the recent discovery
+of a rock in Blue Hill Bay on the coast of Maine. This rock has but 7
+feet of water over it, and is only 6 feet in diameter at the top. It is
+surrounded by depths of 78 feet, from which it rises nearly
+perpendicularly. The original survey gave no indication of a danger
+here, and its existence was not suspected until it was discovered with
+the wire drag.
+
+Another method of dragging that has been employed is by means of a pipe
+suspended beneath a ship's bottom.
+
+#Magnetic variation.# As the compass is a universal navigational
+instrument, information as to the magnetic variation is needed for the
+charts. The angle between the direction of the magnetic needle and the
+true north is measured at various points on both land and sea, and at
+some stations these observations are repeated after a number of years.
+From these results magnetic maps are made, from which both the variation
+and its annual change may be taken.
+
+#Reports of dangers.# Aside from the more systematic surveys as outlined
+above, much information has been placed on the charts from other
+sources. On the earlier charts and on those of more remote regions at
+the present day much of the work has been sketched rather than surveyed.
+Even in the better surveyed portions reports come in as to dangers or
+other matters not shown, and if of importance and the report appears to
+be reliable these are sometimes at once put on the chart pending further
+investigation, or in other cases an examination is first made.
+
+Shoals, rocks, and even islands have in numerous instances been shown on
+the charts which no one has been able to find again, and many of them
+after repeated searches have been removed. The same island or danger has
+sometimes been charted in two or more different positions as reported at
+various times. The treatment of such cases is one of the serious and
+interesting problems of the chart maker. It is generally less harmful to
+show a danger which does not exist than to omit one which does exist. On
+the other hand a non-existing danger shown on a chart may be the cause
+of actual expense and loss of time in compelling a vessel needlessly to
+go out of its course.
+
+It is surprising to note with what lack of care and of sufficient
+evidence reports of dangers at sea have sometimes been made, and how
+incomplete are many of the reports even when the existence of the danger
+is beyond question. It is unfortunately true that some of these reports
+are the result of effort to escape blame for accident by throwing the
+fault on the chart. Many such reports also result from various illusory
+appearances. A large tree covered with weeds, an overturned iceberg
+strewn with earth and stones, a floating ice-pan covered with earth, the
+swollen carcass of a dead whale, a whale with clinging barnacles and
+seaweed, reflections from the clouds, marine animalculæ, vegetable
+growth, scum, floating volcanic matter, and partially submerged wrecks
+covered with barnacles, have been mistaken for islands, shoals, or
+reefs. A school of jumping fish has given the appearance of breakers or
+caused a sound like surf, and tide rips have been mistaken for breakers.
+Raper very properly calls attention to the obligation upon every seaman
+of carefully investigating doubtful cases and making reliable reports.
+"Of the dangers to which navigation is exposed none is more formidable
+than a reef or a shoal in the open sea; not only from the almost certain
+fate of the ship and her crew that have the misfortune to strike upon
+it, but also from the anxiety with which the navigation of all vessels,
+within even a long distance, must be conducted, on account of the
+uncertainty to which their own reckonings are ever open. No commander of
+a vessel, therefore, who might meet unexpectedly with any such danger,
+could be excused, except by urgent circumstances, from taking the
+necessary steps both for ascertaining its true position, and for giving
+a description as complete as a prudent regard to his own safety
+allowed."
+
+As to the older doubtful dangers now shown on the oceanic charts, it is
+estimated that the positions may be considered as uncertain by 10 miles
+in latitude and 30 miles in longitude, and areas of this extent must be
+searched to determine definitely the question of their existence.
+
+The following are interesting or typical cases of reported dangers:
+
+The master of an Italian bark in September, 1874, reported sighting a
+large rock in latitude 40° N. and longitude 62° 18´ W. Fortunately for
+the charts there were two independent reports from other vessels in the
+same month of sighting a partially submerged wreck in this vicinity.
+
+The Spanish steamer _Carmen_ was wrecked in 1891 by running on a rock
+off the southwest coast of Leyte; the rock was reported to lie one mile
+off shore, a dangerous position for vessels using Canigao Channel. A
+survey made in 1903 showed 58 feet of water in this location, and
+that Carmen Rock on which the vessel struck was really within one-fourth
+mile of the beach. The rock had, however, for twelve years been shown on
+the charts in a position which made it an obstruction to navigation.
+
+The ship _Minerva_ in 1834 was reported to have struck a rock near the
+middle of the broad entrance to Balayan Bay; the fact that this occurred
+at 2 A.M. indicated a very doubtful position, but it was stated that an
+American ship had previously been wrecked on the same rock. It
+consequently appeared as a danger on the charts for seventy-one years,
+when a survey showed no depth of less than 190 fathoms in this vicinity,
+and it was removed from the charts.
+
+A British steamer was wrecked in San Bernardino Strait in 1905; the
+master reported that he was in a position where the chart showed 51
+fathoms, and that he was 1-1/2 miles distant from Calantas Rock, and on
+these grounds the finding of the official inquiry was that "no blame can
+be attached to the master, officers, or any of the crew for the
+casualty." Very shortly after the disaster, the surveying steamer
+_Pathfinder_ definitely located the wreck and made a survey of the
+vicinity. The previous chart of Calantas Reef was found to be fairly
+correct, and the stranding was determined to have occurred well within
+this reef in a position where the chart showed soundings of 3-3/4 to
+4-3/4 fathoms, and 1/2 mile from Calantas Rock, which rises 5 feet above
+high water.
+
+A transport entering San Bernardino Strait a few years ago ran on a rock
+and was damaged; the position was reported as about two miles southeast
+of San Bernardino Island and near the middle of the passage. The rock
+was not put on the charts, as prompt investigation showed 50 fathoms of
+water in this vicinity, and that in all probability the transport
+actually touched a small reef making out from the island.
+
+The master of the brig _Helen_ reported that his vessel was wrecked on a
+reef lying six miles from Rockall. When surveyed Helen Reef was found to
+be about one-third this distance from Rockall.
+
+An island has been reported in eight different positions, ranging in
+latitude from 30° 29´ to 30° 42´ N. and in longitude from 139° 37´ to
+140° 38´ E.
+
+There have been a number of reports of islands in the area from latitude
+40° 00´ to 40° 30´ N. and longitude 150° 30´ to 151° 00´ W. The master
+of the bark _Washington_ reported in 1867: "On my passage from the
+Sandwich Islands to the northwest coast of the United States, when in
+latitude 40° 00´ N., in a dense fog, I perceived the sea to be
+discolored. Soundings at first gave great depths, but diminished
+gradually to 9 fathoms, when through the mist an island was seen, along
+which I sailed 40 miles. It was covered with birds, and the sea swarmed
+with seal and sea elephants." A United States vessel searched in
+this vicinity without seeing any indication of land, and obtained
+soundings of 2600 fathoms. A British ship in 1858 searched for fourteen
+days over this area without finding anything. Searches were also made in
+1860 and 1867 without success, and the present charts show no islands in
+this part of the Pacific.
+
+In a number of cases erroneous positions have been due simply to
+blunders. Thus Lots Wife, first seen by Captain Meares in 1788, was
+shown on his chart in latitude 29° 50´ N., longitude 156° 00´ E., and
+stated in his book to be in latitude 29° 50´ N. and longitude 142° 23´
+E. Massachusetts Island by one report was in longitude 177° 05´ E. and
+by another in 167° 05´ E. The apparent blunder of 10° is now immaterial,
+as the island has disappeared from the charts altogether. The Knox
+Islands were placed by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition in latitude 5°
+59´ 15´´ N., longitude 172° 02´ 33´´ E. The old British charts showed
+islands of this name also in latitude 5° 59´ N., longitude 172° 03´ W.,
+the longitude being doubtless transposed. In the case of Starbuck
+Island, discovered south of the equator, the latitude was apparently
+transposed, as on old charts it was also shown in the position, latitude
+5° 40´ N., longitude 156° 55´ W.
+
+A pinnacle rock can sometimes be located only with great difficulty even
+when known to exist. Rodger Rock, on which the bark _Ellen_ struck and
+was damaged, lies in latitude 0° 41´ 15´´ N. and longitude 107° 31´ E.
+It has but three feet over it at low tide. The British surveying ship
+_Rifleman_ searched four days before finding it, although the plotted
+tracks showed that she and her boats had passed very close to it. This
+indicates that great caution must be used in removing a reported danger
+from the charts.
+
+The old charts of the Atlantic indicated a danger 30 to 45 miles to the
+southwest of Cape St. Vincent. This danger was omitted from the charts
+about 1786 owing to lack of confirmation. Later, in 1813 and 1821, it
+was reported that vessels were lost or damaged by striking this rock.
+Soundings of over a thousand fathoms are now shown on the chart in this
+vicinity and the rock no longer appears.
+
+A comparison of a Pacific Ocean chart of about forty years ago with one
+of the present time (Fig. 19) illustrates in a striking manner how many
+doubtful dangers, or vigias, have gotten on the charts and how after
+laborious search many of them have now been removed. This condition was
+especially true of the Pacific, owing to the numerous reports of an
+indefinite nature from whaling ships, among whose captains there was a
+saying "that they do not care where their ship is, so long as there are
+plenty of whales in sight."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19. PORTION OF CHARTS OF 1869 AND 1903, OF THE
+PACIFIC OCEAN WEST OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, TO ILLUSTRATE THE REMOVAL OF
+DOUBTFUL DANGERS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. PORTION OF CHART OF PONCE HARBOR, SCALE 1-20000,
+TO SHOW SELECTION OF SOUNDINGS FROM ORIGINAL SURVEY GIVEN BELOW.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY OF SAME PORTION OF PONCE
+HARBOR, REDUCED TO ONE-HALF SCALE OF ORIGINAL SHEET.]
+
+
+
+
+PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS.
+
+
+#Chart schemes.# Before commencing the preparation of a chart it is
+necessary to arrange a definite scheme for it, and the usefulness of the
+chart will depend materially on this preliminary plan, in which must be
+outlined its scale, size, limits, and features to be represented. New
+charts have sometimes been prepared simply to fit the surveys as they
+progressed or to fill immediate or local requirements. It is, however,
+desirable that general plans for series or groups of charts be made, and
+with changing needs, information, and conditions it is sometimes
+necessary that existing schemes be modified.
+
+#Compilation of information.# Considerable work must usually be done to
+get the field records in shape for the published chart. The soundings
+must be plotted and the characteristic depths selected. Only a part of
+the soundings that are made can be shown on the original sheet and only
+a small part of these are used on the final chart. A selection is made
+showing the least soundings on shoals and bars, the channel depths, and
+the characteristic soundings in anchorages and other areas. The original
+surveys are generally made on a considerably larger scale than that on
+which the chart is published, in order that the soundings may be more
+thoroughly plotted. The sheets must then be reduced to the scale of
+publication, and this can conveniently be done by means of photography
+or with a pantograph.
+
+The best judgment is required in selecting the important features
+to be shown on the chart and omitting the less important and not
+essential features which might tend to obscure the others. In charts of
+new regions where complete surveys are lacking, care must be exercised
+in weighing, combining, and adjusting information from various sources
+and which is, perhaps, more or less conflicting.
+
+#Projections.# The surface of the earth being curved, there is no
+possible system of projection by which it can be represented on a flat
+sheet of paper in an ideally satisfactory way. Numerous methods of
+projecting the earth's surface upon a plane have been proposed and many
+of them are actually used for various purposes. In general each
+projection has qualities which are valuable for certain uses, and
+deficiencies which make it less valuable in other ways. Only four of the
+different projections need be mentioned here as of special interest in
+chart construction.
+
+#Mercator projection.# This is a rectangular projection in which the
+meridians are straight lines spaced at equal intervals and the parallels
+are straight lines so spaced as to satisfy the condition that a rhumb
+line, or line on the earth cutting successive meridians at the same
+angle, shall appear on the developed projection as a straight line
+preserving the same angle with respect to the meridians.
+
+This projection may be considered as the unrolling upon a plane of the
+surface of a cylinder tangent to the earth along the equator, and upon
+which the various features of the earth's surface have been projected in
+such manner as to satisfy the above requirement.
+
+On this projection there is a constant distance between the meridians,
+whereas on the earth they actually converge toward the poles. The
+distance between the parallels increases in passing toward the poles,
+approximately in the proportion of the secant of the latitude. For each
+small portion of the map the relative proportions are maintained as on
+the earth.
+
+Some characteristics of the mercator projection are these: The meridians
+and parallels are all straight lines and perpendicular to each other;
+there is no convergence of the meridians; the minute of longitude is a
+constant distance on the map; the minute of latitude increases in length
+from the equator toward the poles but locally retains its true
+proportion to the minute of longitude; areas and distances increase in
+scale with the latitude so that a given scale is strictly correct only
+for one latitude; great circles and consequently lines of sight are
+curved lines excepting the meridians and the equator; rhumb lines or
+lines having a constant angle with the meridians are straight, and for
+the same angle are parallel in all parts of the chart. These qualities
+are all rigid and the projection can therefore be used for all areas,
+small or large, up to the extent of the earth's surface, except that it
+cannot be extended to the poles, as there the length of the minute of
+latitude would become infinite.
+
+An interesting fact regarding a rhumb line oblique to the meridians is
+that it is a spiral continually approaching but never reaching the pole;
+this spiral makes an infinite number of revolutions around the pole, and
+yet it has a finite length for the reason that the length of each
+revolution diminishes as the number of revolutions increases.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. MERCATOR PROJECTION OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN,
+SHOWING GREAT CIRCLE ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO
+HONOLULU AND THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.]
+
+The mercator projection has been extensively used for nautical charts,
+for which it presents important mechanical advantages, in that adjacent
+charts can be joined on all their edges while still oriented with the
+meridian; all charts are similar; the border may be conveniently
+subdivided, giving a longitude scale applicable to any part of the
+chart, but a latitude scale that may be used in the same latitude only;
+courses are laid down as straight lines and can be transferred with
+parallel rulers from one part of the chart to another without error. On
+a mercator chart an island in latitude 60° would appear four times as
+large as an island of the same actual area at the equator, but this
+distortion of areas, while it gives erroneous impressions on charts of
+great extent in latitude, does not seriously affect the use of the chart
+for nautical purposes. Areas may also be correctly measured on a
+mercator map by taking each projection quadrilateral separately,
+subdividing it if necessary, and using the published tables of areas of
+quadrilaterals in different latitudes. Although distance scales vary
+with the latitude, distances can be taken from this chart with fair
+correctness by the use of the latitude border scale for the middle
+latitude, subdividing the total distance if there is much range of
+latitude. The inability to take off the great circle or shortest course
+directly from the mercator chart is from a navigational point of view a
+defect, but the most convenient solution for this appears to be the
+supplementary use of a gnomonic chart as will be described. The fact
+that lines of sight are not straight lines on this projection is another
+defect, as by the plotting of bearings and angles on approaching the
+land the positions of vessels are located on the chart; fortunately,
+however, the error due to this cause usually falls within the other
+uncertainties involved in locating a ship; if need be it would be
+practicable to allow for this curvature. In the polar regions, however,
+the faults of the mercator projection become so much exaggerated that it
+is not used for navigational purposes, but because of the absence of
+commercial navigation there this is a minor matter in the general
+question of chart projection. For the plotting of original surveys the
+mercator projection is not suited and is not used, for the reasons above
+mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23. POLYCONIC PROJECTION OF PORTION OF NORTH PACIFIC
+OCEAN.]
+
+Tables of "meridional parts" are published which give the distance in
+terms of minutes of longitude from the equator to the various parallels;
+with these tables a mercator projection may readily be constructed.
+
+Airy proposed a graphical method of sweeping the arc of a great circle
+on to a mercator chart, and tables are published for this purpose. The
+method is only approximate and is limited in application, and the
+supplementary use of a gnomonic chart would appear to be preferable.
+
+#Polyconic projection.# In plotting the original surveys it is essential
+that a projection be used which will for the area included on a survey
+sheet show the points in their correct relation both as to direction and
+distance. These conditions are substantially fulfilled by several
+projections, of which the polyconic is used in the United States. If a
+hollow cone were placed so that it would either be tangent to the
+earth's surface along one of the parallels of latitude or cut it along
+two parallels, and the points projected on to this cone, and the cone
+then unrolled and laid out flat, the result would be a conical
+projection, of which there are several variations. If successive tangent
+cones be used and each parallel of latitude be developed as the
+circumference of the base of a right cone tangent to the spheroid along
+that parallel, the result is the polyconic projection, which has been
+used for field sheets and for the large scale charts, as well as for the
+topographic maps of the United States. This projection has valuable
+qualities for moderate areas of the earth's surface, within which the
+scale is approximately uniform, areas retain nearly their true
+proportions, and great circles and consequently all bearings and
+directions are approximately straight lines. The parallels of latitude
+are arcs of circles with radiuses increasing as we recede from the pole;
+therefore they are not truly parallel and the length of the degree of
+latitude increases either side from the central meridian. The meridians
+converge toward the poles and become slightly curved as we recede from
+the central one; the longitude scale is everywhere correct, but the
+latitude scale is strictly correct only on the central meridian. The
+angles of intersection of parallels and meridians are right angles or
+nearly so. The polyconic projection is not used for very extensive areas
+of the earth's surface, as for instance a hemisphere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24. GNOMONIC CHART OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN, SHOWING
+GREAT CIRCLE ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO HONOLULU
+AND THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.]
+
+#Gnomonic projection.# In this projection the eye is assumed to be at
+the center of the earth and the features are projected upon a plane
+tangent to some point on the earth's surface. It is practicable to use
+this projection for oceanic areas, and it has the very important quality
+that every straight line on it represents a great circle of the earth.
+To obtain the great circle or shortest course between two points it is
+therefore only necessary to draw a straight line between the points on a
+gnomonic chart. Because of the great distortion near the edges this
+projection is not otherwise adapted to navigational use, and it is
+employed only to mark out the general course, and sufficient points are
+then transferred to a mercator chart. The gnomonic chart is therefore
+useful in supplementing the mercator chart, supplying its deficiencies
+as to convenience in marking out great circle courses. The great circle
+course can be derived not only more easily and quickly from the gnomonic
+chart than by computation, but the chart is also to be preferred because
+the course marked out on it will show at once if any obstruction, as an
+island or danger, is met or too high a latitude is reached. A modified
+or composite course can readily be laid out on a gnomonic chart.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25. NORTH POLAR CHART ON ARBITRARY PROJECTION.]
+
+#Arbitrary projection.# The few charts published of the polar regions
+are sometimes on an arbitrary projection, in which the meridians are
+straight lines radiating from the pole and the parallels are equidistant
+circles with the pole as center. The latitude scale is uniform. At some
+distance from the pole the longitude scale becomes very much distorted,
+but the projection is a practicable and convenient one for the immediate
+polar regions. Gnomonic and conical projections are also used for the
+polar charts, differing little from the foregoing for moderate areas.
+
+#Scales.# Charts are published on a variety of scales to suit different
+needs of navigation, and the usual classification depends on scale. In
+addition to the ocean charts covering a single ocean in either one or
+several sheets and intended for navigation on the high seas,
+there are for our Atlantic coast the following series:
+
+Sailing charts, scale about 1/1200000, for general coastwise navigation.
+
+General coast charts, scale 1/400000, for local coastwise navigation.
+
+Coast charts, scale 1/80000, for approaching the coast at any point and
+for inside passages.
+
+Harbor and channel charts, of various large scales from 1/5000 to
+1/60000, for entering harbors and rivers and passing through channels.
+
+The expression of scales by miles to the inch or inches to the mile is
+the more familiar. The expression of scale in the manner used by the
+Coast Survey and by most of the European countries, by standard
+fractions as 1/80000, meaning that any distance on the chart is 1/80000
+of the actual distance on the earth, has some advantages. For instance,
+the relation of these fractions gives at a glance the relation of the
+scales of the charts. Thus a 1/80000 chart is on a scale five times as
+large as a 1/400000 chart.
+
+For the more important harbors charts have been published on several
+different scales to meet various needs. Thus New York Harbor is shown on
+charts of scales of 1/10000, 1/40000, 1/80000, 1/200000, 1/400000 and
+1/1200000, each of course including a different area.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26. NEW YORK HARBOR, PORTIONS OF CHARTS ON FOUR
+DIFFERENT SCALES.]
+
+The selection of suitable publication scales is of prime importance; a
+large scale permits of greater clearness and of showing more detail, but
+on the other hand restricts the area and the points that can be shown on
+a single sheet, or else makes a chart of excessive dimensions. In
+general in chart preparation the scale should be restricted to the
+minimum that can be used to fulfill the particular object and clearly
+represent what is desired. A chart of very large scale is not convenient
+for plotting, and a moving vessel may pass quickly beyond it or into
+range of objects beyond the limits of the chart.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATION OF CHARTS.
+
+
+#Methods of publication.# An ideal process of publication for nautical
+charts would include the following features; rapidity in getting out new
+charts, facility in reprinting and correcting existing charts, clearness
+and sharpness of print, durability of paper and print, and correctness
+of scale. It is difficult to fulfill all these requirements by any
+method as yet developed. In the Coast and Geodetic Survey several
+different processes are in use at present; charts are engraved on copper
+and printed directly from the copper plate, or they are transferred from
+the copper plate to stone and printed from the stone, or a finished
+drawing is made and transferred to stone by photolithography and printed
+from the stone, or an etching is made on copper from a finished drawing
+and printed from a transfer to stone. Charts in other countries are in
+large part printed from engraved plates, excepting some preliminary
+charts by lithography.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27. ENGRAVING A CHART ON A COPPER PLATE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28. ENGRAVING SOUNDINGS ON A COPPER PLATE WITH A
+MACHINE.]
+
+#Copper plate engraving and printing# have long been used in chart
+preparation. A drawing is prepared as a guide for the engraver; this
+must be correct as to all information to be shown but need not be a
+finished drawing. A true projection is ruled upon a copper plate. By
+photography a matrix is made from the drawing and a wax impression taken
+from this matrix. This is then laid down on the copper to fit the
+projection, and the impression is chemically fixed on to the copper. The
+work thus marked out is engraved by hand or by machine. A high degree of
+skill is required in the accuracy and finish necessary for chart
+engraving. Machines have been invented in recent years which can be used
+for portions of the work on copper plates, as for instance for cutting
+the sounding figures, the bottom characteristics, the border and
+projection lines, border divisions, compasses, line ruling, and stipple
+ruling. Stamps and dies have been successfully used for some symbols and
+notes, and roulettes for shading. By means of these various machines,
+many of which are American inventions, the process of chart publication
+from plates has been materially facilitated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29. ELECTROTYPING PLANT FOR ELECTROTYPING CHART
+PLATES.]
+
+When the plate is completed an alto, or raised copy, is made by
+depositing copper on to it in an electrotype vat, and from this alto
+another basso or sunken copy is made by the same process. This latter
+basso is used in printing. A copper plate may be used for about 3000
+impressions, after which it may become too much worn for satisfactory
+chart printing. By printing from a duplicate basso the original plate is
+preserved and additional copies can be made when needed. The use of the
+alto also greatly facilitates matters when a considerable correction to
+the chart is required. All the portions of the chart to be changed can
+be scraped off the alto, and when a new basso is electrotyped from this
+scraped alto all such areas will of course appear as smooth copper, on
+which the new work can be engraved. Numerous small corrections are
+called for on charts, and on copper plates where these are to replace
+old work the latter is removed either by hammering up the back of the
+plate or by scraping its face.
+
+Printing directly from plates is a laborious process. After the press
+bed has been carefully padded to take up inequalities in the plate, the
+surface of the latter is covered with ink and then carefully wiped off
+by hand, leaving the ink only in the engraved lines. The paper, first
+dampened, is laid on the plate, and passes with it beneath the cylinder
+of the press under considerable pressure. The prints are calendered by
+being placed in a hydraulic press under 600 tons pressure. The charts
+are beautifully clear and sharp, not equalled by other methods of
+printing. Owing to the wetting and drying of the paper, the finished
+print is, however, quite appreciably smaller in scale than the plate,
+and the shrinkage is greater in one direction than in the other. The
+average day's work for one press and two men is 75 prints. This is small
+compared with the output practicable with lithographic presses. On the
+other hand a plate can be prepared for printing more readily than a
+lithographic stone. For small editions the plate printing compares well
+in economy with lithographic printing, and the plate can also be printed
+on short notice. Because of changes in aids to navigation and other
+corrections, it is usually desirable to print at one time only a
+sufficient number of copies of a chart to meet current demands, and not
+to carry a large stock on hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30. PRINTING CHARTS FROM COPPER PLATES; FINAL
+CLEANING OF THE PLATE BY HAND; PLATE PRESS ON THE LEFT.]
+
+The copper plates, bassos, and altos make a very convenient and enduring
+means of preserving the chart ready for printing or for further
+correction. A large number of plates can be placed in a small space, and
+if properly cared for they may be stored indefinitely without
+deterioration.
+
+With plate printing it is not practicable to print more than one
+impression on the chart or to use more than one color, and plate-printed
+charts are therefore in black only.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. LITHOGRAPHING PRESSES FOR PRINTING CHARTS;
+LITHOGRAPH STONE ON TRANSFER PRESS.]
+
+#Engraving on stone.# On the United States Lake Survey the charts are
+first engraved on stone, and by a special process the work is then
+transferred to small copper plates, which are preserved. The final
+publication is by lithography, transferring again from the plates to
+stone.
+
+#Photolithography# is a quick method of publishing a chart. It would be
+practicable by this means to reproduce the original survey sheets, but
+ordinarily these are not suitable as to scale and legibility, and it is
+necessary to make a new drawing, usually on tracing vellum. This is
+photographed on to glass plates, on the scale of the proposed chart.
+From these glass negatives positive prints are made on sensitized
+lithographic paper. These prints are fitted together and then inked,
+taking the ink only where the lines appear. This transfer print is then
+laid face down on the lithographic stone and run through a press under
+pressure, the stone absorbing the ink from the paper. The stone is then
+treated so that the inked portion remains slightly raised, and from this
+stone an indefinite number of charts can be printed in a lithographic
+press at the rate of 1000 an hour. The paper is not moistened, and
+consequently there is little distortion or change of scale in prints
+from stone. If desired to shade the land or use another color for any
+other purpose, additional impressions can be made on the same charts
+from other stones. Because of the bulk of the stones, work cannot
+ordinarily be retained on them, but the chart is cleaned off and the
+stones repeatedly used until worn thin. The original drawing as well as
+the negatives is preserved, from which the chart can again be published.
+For republication, the process is, however, not entirely satisfactory;
+the negatives are not always permanent, the work must again be assembled
+and transferred to the stone, changes or corrections are not very
+conveniently made on either drawing or negative, and after repeated
+changes the drawing becomes difficult to use in photolithography.
+Whether the charts are actually printed from copper or stone, there are
+decided advantages therefore in the matter of correction work and future
+editions in having the charts engraved on copper. On the other hand, the
+advantages of the photolithographic process are the ability to publish
+new drawings promptly, to use more than one shade on a chart, to obtain
+prints with little change of scale or distortion, and to print large
+editions rapidly.
+
+#Lithographic printing by transfer from engraved plates.# An impression
+on transfer paper may be taken from an engraved plate and this laid down
+on the stone in a manner similar to that used in laying down the prints
+from the glass negatives in photolithography. Prints are then made from
+the stone the same as in photolithography, but with superior results as
+to clearness. This general process is extensively used in both map and
+chart publishing in this country, as it combines the advantages of the
+plate in preservation of the chart record and facility of correction,
+and the advantages of the lithographic printing in less distortion of
+the printed chart, ability to print more than one shade, and facility
+for large editions. As the transfer from the plate can be readily made
+it is also better applicable to small editions than is photolithography.
+It is, however, not as convenient in the latter respect as plate
+printing, and it does not give a resulting impression equal in clearness
+or durability to the impression directly from the plate.
+
+#Etching on copper# for chart publication has been recently developed in
+the Coast and Geodetic Survey. A finished tracing is made, the surface
+of a smooth copper plate is sensitized, and by exposure to the sun a
+print is made on the sensitized surface. It is essential to use an
+air-exhausted printing frame so as to get good contact between the
+vellum and the plate. The work is then etched into the copper and the
+plate cleaned and touched up, after which it may be used the same as a
+hand-engraved plate, either for transfer to stone or direct plate
+printing. The expense and time required in the etching process are much
+less than for hand engraving. The process has been successfully used for
+a number of harbor charts. The etching of course will be of the same
+scale as the vellum at the time of the print, and vellum varies somewhat
+in scale with weather conditions and age. Unless overcome by the
+substitution of some more invariable material in place of vellum, this
+might be an obstacle to the use of the process for general charts where
+a true scale on the copper plate is desirable because of future work to
+be done on the plate. It must also be taken into account that the
+etching requires a finished tracing in ink, which is not essential for
+the hand engraver; if, however, the chart is first published by
+photolithography, as is the usual practice in the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey, the same tracing is used for both processes.
+
+#Distribution of charts.# Charts published by the government are sold to
+the public at a small price, estimated to cover the cost of paper and
+printing. The charts may be obtained direct from the publishing office
+or from the chart agents who are to be found in all the principal
+seaports. Catalogues are published from time to time giving complete
+lists of the current charts and the main facts regarding them. Index
+maps show graphically the area covered by each chart. The notices to
+mariners contain announcement of new charts or new editions published
+and of charts or editions cancelled, as well as of all corrections.
+
+
+
+
+CORRECTION OF CHARTS.
+
+
+#Need for revision.# The making of the survey and the printing of the
+chart do not complete the problem of the chart maker. Both nature and
+man are constantly changing the facts the representation of which has
+been attempted on the charts, and also the needs of man are always
+varying. The original surveys are made to meet the reasonable
+requirements of the time, but breakwaters and jetties are built, and
+channels and harbors dredged and otherwise improved, and cities built,
+and new paths of commerce are opened which bring vessels into waters
+previously thought of minor importance.
+
+With the increase of commerce and speed of vessels more direct routes
+are demanded for reasons of economy. Inside routes not originally used
+are sometimes developed for defensive reasons. The average draft of the
+larger vessels has also increased remarkably since the modern
+hydrographic surveys were commenced, and surveys once made to insure
+safety for the deepest vessels of that time are now not adequate. The
+average loaded draft of the 20 largest steamships of the world has
+increased as follows: 1848, 19 feet; 1873, 24 feet; 1898, 29 feet;
+1903, 32 feet. The average length of these vessels was 230 feet in 1848,
+390 feet in 1873, 541 feet in 1898, and 640 feet in 1903. The number of
+vessels drawing as much as 26-1/4 feet rose from 36 in 1902 to 185 in
+1904. In 1906 there were 17 vessels afloat, drawing 32 feet and upwards.
+There are now two steamers on the Atlantic 790 feet long, 88 feet beam,
+and 37-1/2 feet draft when fully loaded, and larger vessels are already
+planned.
+
+Great natural agencies are also constantly at work effecting changes in
+features shown on the charts. The action of currents and waves is
+continually cutting away or building the shore, particularly on sandy
+coasts exposed to storms. When surveyed in 1849 Fishing Point on the
+east coast of Maryland was but a bend in the shore line. By 1887 it had
+built out about two miles in a southerly direction, and in 1902 about
+two-thirds of a mile further, curving to the westward. Altogether in
+about half a century this tongue of land has grown out nearly three
+miles.
+
+Rivers are bearing vast quantities of sediment and depositing these near
+their mouths, pushing out the coast line and filling in the bottom. The
+main mouths of the Mississippi are advancing into the Gulf, but at a
+comparatively slow rate. A break from the main river at Cubit's Gap
+just above the head of the passes, however, has done an enormous amount
+of land making, filling in an area of about 50 square miles between 1852
+and 1905.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. FISHING POINT, MARYLAND, FROM SURVEYS OF 1849
+AND 1902, ILLUSTRATING BUILDING OUT OF A POINT ON THE COAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33. GROWTH OF LAND AT CUBITS GAP, MISSISSIPPI DELTA,
+FROM 1852 to 1905.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34. COLUMBIA RIVER ENTRANCE, SHOWING MOVEMENT OF
+SAND ISLAND, SURVEYS OF 1851, 1870 AND 1905.]
+
+The mouth of the Columbia River in Oregon shows an interesting example
+of the movement of an island. The chart of 1851 shows the center of Sand
+Island 3-1/4 miles southeast of Cape Disappointment, the chart of 1870
+shows it 2-3/4 miles southeast, and the chart of 1905 shows it 1-1/4
+miles easterly. This island has thus moved 2 miles northwesterly
+directly across the middle of the river entrance, closing up the former
+north channel. The southern point of the entrance, Clatsop Spit, has
+built out about the same distance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35. CHANGES IN HAULOVER BREAK, NANTUCKET ISLAND,
+1890 TO 1903.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36. MAPS OF BOGOSLOF ISLAND, 1895 AND 1907, SHOWING
+CHANGES DUE TO VOLCANIC ACTION.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Photo by U. S. R. C. Service._
+
+FIG. 37. BOGOSLOF VOLCANO, BERING SEA.]
+
+Volcanic action in well authenticated cases has caused islands to rise
+or disappear. In the present location of Bogoslof Island in Bering Sea
+the early voyagers described a "sail rock." In this position in 1796
+there arose a high island. In 1883 another island appeared near it. In
+1906 a high cone arose between the two, and a continuous island was
+formed over 1-1/2 miles long and 500 feet high. The latest report
+(September, 1907) was that this central peak had suddenly collapsed and
+disappeared. Bogoslof is an active volcano, and the main changes have
+been the result of violent volcanic action. The history of this island
+for over a century past forms a remarkable record of violent
+transformations in the sea.
+
+Earthquakes sometimes cause sudden displacements, horizontal or
+vertical, of sufficient amount to affect the information shown on the
+charts. A careful investigation of the effects of the earthquake in
+Yakutat Bay, Alaska, in September, 1899, showed that the shore was
+raised in some parts with a maximum uplift of 47 feet and depressed in
+other parts, and that at least two reefs and four islets were raised in
+the water area where none appeared before. Undoubtedly there were
+changes in the water depths, but definite information is lacking because
+there had been no previous hydrographic survey. The San Francisco
+earthquake of 1906 caused little vertical displacement, but there were
+horizontal changes of relative position as much as 16 feet; so far as
+known this earthquake did not affect the practical accuracy of the
+charts. Related to earthquake phenomena are the gradual coast movements
+of elevation or subsidence which are taking place but at so slow a rate
+as not to sensibly affect the charts in ordinary intervals of time.
+
+Another agency at work is the coral polyp on the coral reefs; although
+the rate of growth appears to be very slow, the resulting reefs and keys
+are an important feature in tropical seas.
+
+Practically all of the land features shown on charts are likewise
+subject to changes, the more rapid of which are mainly due to the works
+of man.
+
+The changes of channels and of commercial needs cause many alterations
+to be made from time to time in the lights and buoys which are shown on
+the charts.
+
+#Methods of correction.# The problem of keeping a chart sufficiently up
+to date is one of much practical importance and one which must be taken
+into account in planning what should be shown on the chart in the first
+place so as to bring it within the range of practicable revision.
+
+Certain features are corrected at once on the charts as soon as the
+information is received, such as dangers reported, and changes in lights
+and buoys. Where harbor works are in progress the periodic surveys made
+in this country by the Corps of Engineers furnish data which are applied
+promptly to the charts. Reported dangers in channels and bars are
+investigated by special surveys and the information is put on the
+charts. Examinations are made from time to time for the revision of the
+features along the coast line. Complete resurveys have been made, at
+long intervals, of some important portions of the coast where there has
+been evidence of change, and these, when they become available, are
+applied to the charts. All parts of the coast where the exposed portions
+are not of very permanent material will require resurveys at intervals,
+depending on their importance and the rate of change.
+
+Notwithstanding the great progress made in hydrographic surveys, a
+considerable number of rocks and shoals dangerous to navigation and not
+previously shown on the charts are reported, averaging nearly 400 each
+year for the last six years, according to the British reports. Of the
+367 reported in 1906, 11 were discovered by vessels striking them.
+
+Immediate information in the form of _Notices to Mariners_ is published,
+of the more important corrections to charts which can be made by hand.
+These corrections show what charts are affected, and give sufficient
+data for plotting.
+
+In the case of extensive corrections or new surveys a new edition of the
+chart is printed and all existing copies of the previous edition are
+canceled.
+
+It is important that the user of the chart shall make certain that he
+has the latest edition and that all corrections from its date of issue
+have been applied from the _Notices to Mariners_.
+
+It is unfortunately true that owing to failure to take proper account of
+the notices, or to economy, old editions or unconnected charts are
+sometimes used, and in a number of cases the loss of vessels has been
+directly due to this cause. Those responsible for the safe navigation of
+vessels should insist that the latest editions of charts are provided
+and that all charts to be used are inspected and corrected to date.
+
+
+
+
+READING AND USING CHARTS.
+
+
+#Reading charts.# A chart is a representation on paper of hydrographic
+and topographic information by means of various conventional methods and
+symbols. It is evidently important for those making use of charts to
+understand the system and conventions used, and to be able to interpret
+readily the various parts of the chart. The ability to read a chart must
+include an understanding of all its features, such as scale, projection,
+geographic position, directions, depths, plane of reference, aids to
+navigation, tides, currents, elevations, topography, and date of survey
+and publication.
+
+#Scale.# For American and British charts the scale is usually expressed
+by the inches or fractions of an inch to the minute or degree of
+latitude, or by the fractional proportion of a distance on the map to
+the corresponding distance on the earth. These fractions are sometimes
+stated on the British charts, and nearly always on those of the United
+States Coast Survey. The chart catalogues give the scale in one or the
+other form. A familiarity with the meaning of scales is of value in
+selecting the most suitable chart, in judging of the relative uses of
+charts, and in estimating distances. Where the fractional scales are
+stated they furnish a simple means of comparing charts, as, for
+instance, a chart on 1/50000 scale will show all distances just twice as
+long as a chart on 1/100000 scale.
+
+The following are scale equivalents:
+
+  Scale   1/10000 is equivalent to 7.30 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/20000 is equivalent to 3.65 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/40000 is equivalent to 1.82 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/50000 is equivalent to 1.46 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/80000 is equivalent to 0.91 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/100000 is equivalent to 0.73 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/200000 is equivalent to 0.36 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/400000 is equivalent to 0.18 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale 1/1000000 is equivalent to 0.07 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale 1/1200000 is equivalent to 0.06 inch   to one nautical mile.
+
+For use in measuring distances on large scale charts the length of one
+or more nautical miles is usually drawn on the chart, and sometimes
+scales are also given in other units. On British charts the nautical
+mile scale is divided into tenths (that is, cables of 100 fathoms or 600
+feet length); on the American charts into quarters and eighths. Where
+the scale covers more than one mile the fractional divisions are shown
+only for the left-hand mile and the zero of the scale is placed between
+this and the full mile scale, so that with dividers the full miles and
+fraction may readily be taken off. The nautical mile in the United
+States is taken to be the length of a minute of arc of a great circle on
+a sphere whose surface equals that of the earth; this definition makes
+the nautical mile equal 6080.27 feet. Lecky adopts 6080 feet as the
+nautical mile. The length of the actual minute of latitude on the
+earth's surface increases from 6046 feet at the equator to 6108 feet at
+the poles, an increase of about one per cent. It is, however, this
+somewhat variable unit of length which is ordinarily used in scaling
+distances on the sailing charts.
+
+On small scale charts there is usually a border scale entirely around
+the chart, conveniently subdivided; this serves the double purpose of
+facilitating the plotting or reading of positions by latitude and
+longitude and of furnishing a scale of minutes of latitude for use in
+measuring distances. On a mercator chart this scale of course varies
+with the latitude and it must be referred to in the mean latitude of the
+distance to be measured. In general practice the minute of latitude is
+taken as equal to the nautical mile.
+
+#Projection.# On only a few charts is there a statement of the
+projection used. Practically all general sailing charts are on the
+mercator projection, which can be readily recognized by the rectangular
+network of meridians and parallels and the increase with latitude of the
+distance between the parallels. On large scale local and harbor charts
+the kind of projection used is not of importance to navigation, as for
+such limited areas the difference between projections would not affect
+the use of the chart. On certain small scale charts of the United States
+Coast Survey which are on the polyconic projection this fact is stated
+on the chart, and can also be readily recognized by the convergence of
+the meridians and curvature of the parallels. Gnomonic charts intended
+for taking off great circle courses are always described in their titles
+and are also easily recognized by the increased scale and distortion
+toward all the borders. Charts of the polar regions are published on
+several different projections, which are distinguished from the mercator
+by their circular or curved parallels.
+
+#Geographic position.# For large scale and harbor charts the latitude
+and longitude of some point marked on the chart are sometimes stated on
+the face of the chart. For others of these, however, and for smaller
+scale and general charts, positions are obtained by reference to the
+border scale. There is a latitude scale down either side of the chart,
+and a longitude scale across the top and bottom. These scales are
+conveniently subdivided into degrees, minutes, or fractions of a minute.
+The minute is divided into tenths (6´´), sixths (10´´), quarters (15´´),
+or halves (30´´) on various charts.
+
+#Directions# are indicated on charts both by the projection lines and by
+compass roses. Nearly all charts are now oriented with the meridian,
+that is, north is the top of the chart, and on a mercator chart the east
+and west border lines are parallel with the meridians and the north and
+south border lines with the parallels. Formerly many charts were not so
+oriented. Some of these are still in use and can readily be recognized
+by the diagonal or inclined direction of the projection lines with
+respect to the border of the chart. Of course directions must not be
+referred to the border lines of these diagonal charts, and scales along
+such border lines must not be used. Directions with respect to true
+north may always be referred to the projection lines of the chart, but
+on a polyconic or polar chart a direction must not be carried so far
+from any projection line as to introduce error on account of
+convergence of the meridians. Compass roses are placed on charts to
+facilitate the taking off or laying down of directions, though in some
+respects their use is less accurate and convenient than the use of
+protractors, referring to the projection lines. The British charts and
+many of those of the United States Coast Survey have only magnetic
+compasses, with degrees outside and points inside, the former graduated
+to 90°. These are engraved on the chart with the magnetic variation for
+the date of publication, or for a few years in advance, and give the
+annual change in the variation. Because of expense of engraving they can
+be changed on the charts only at intervals of some years, and until this
+is done allowance for the change in variation is to be made if
+important. The German charts and those of the United States Hydrographic
+Office now have a threefold compass, the outer one degrees true, the
+middle degrees magnetic and the inner points magnetic; the degrees in
+both cases are graduated to 360°, reading from north through east,
+south, and west; thus northwest would be stated as 315° instead of N.
+45° W. Small scale charts covering extensive areas have no magnetic
+compasses. They sometimes have true compasses, and usually have the
+isogonic lines, or lines of equal magnetic variation, marked on them,
+from which the variation at any intermediate point can be estimated.
+
+#Depths.# The unit used for depths is always stated plainly on the
+chart, and it is important to note this carefully, as the British,
+American, and Japanese charts use fathoms for some charts and feet for
+others, and most other countries use meters. Some of the earlier charts
+of the United States coast have the depths inside of the 18-foot curve
+in feet and outside of that curve in fathoms.
+
+Depth curves are shown on charts in order to bring clearly to the eye
+the different depth areas and the limits for navigation of vessels of
+various drafts. The shoaler areas are usually indicated by sanding the
+outer limit or the entire area within the depth curve. For the curves
+of greater depths various standard symbols are used which vary slightly
+in the different series but which may readily be recognized by the
+soundings on either side of them. On the British charts the 1 and 3
+fathom curves are usually indicated by sanding the outer edge of the
+areas of these depths respectively; beyond these the standard curves
+shown on these charts are the 5, 10, 20, and 100 fathom curves. Similar
+curves are used on the United States charts. The German charts show the
+2, 4, 6, 10, and 20 meter and various deeper curves, and the French the
+2, 5, 10, and 20 meter and deeper curves. On the United States Lake
+Survey charts the areas included within the 6, 12, and 18 foot curves
+are shaded with a blue tint, heavy along the outer edge, which brings
+out strongly the shoal areas.
+
+Depth curves if clearly shown are a great aid in interpreting the
+hydrography and making plain the shoals and passages. The system of
+curves should always be understood when using a chart, and it may
+sometimes aid the navigator to trace out with a pencil an additional
+curve, if needed, beyond the draft of his vessel. The abbreviations used
+for the bottom characteristics are explained either on the chart or on
+the sheet of chart symbols, and give information which is useful in
+anchoring, and may be helpful in identifying a position by soundings.
+When a sounding is made without the lead reaching bottom, the depth
+obtained is sometimes shown on the chart by a short line and zero above
+the figure, indicating that at the depth stated, bottom was not obtained
+(no bottom). There are a few important symbols shown in the water area
+of charts. The sunken rock symbol indicates a dangerous area, or a
+danger having a moderate depth of water over it, or a rock the least
+water over which is not known; ordinarily on the United States charts
+the least depth will be stated when known, and the symbol omitted. The
+rock awash symbol indicates a rock awash at some stage of the tide,
+unless more definitely stated. The position of a wreck is indicated by a
+special symbol. P. D. (position doubtful) and E. D. (existence doubtful)
+are placed after soundings or rocks or other features which depend on
+some doubtful report not yet verified.
+
+The following are the relations between depth units found on various
+charts:
+
+  1 meter               = 3.281 English feet = 0.547 English fathoms.
+  1 sajene (Russian)    = 7     English feet = 1.167 English fathoms.
+  1 braza (old Spanish) = 5.484 English feet = 0.914 English fathom.
+  1.829 meters          = 6     English feet = 1.000 English fathom.
+
+#Aids to navigation.# Each series of charts has a definite system of
+representing the aids to navigation; these are similar in principle but
+differ as to detail. The characteristics of the lights, light-vessels,
+buoys, and beacons are usually explained by abbreviations placed by the
+side of each, and the entire system of representation is given on the
+explanatory sheet for the charts. Various methods of coloring lights and
+sectors and buoys are in use on different charts. It is evidently of
+importance that the user of the chart should readily understand the
+significance of the navigational aids as shown. For details regarding
+lights it is of course desirable to refer to the light lists; for the
+coasts of the United States detailed buoy lists are also published.
+Range and channel lines when shown are represented by distinctive
+symbols with bearings indicated. Danger ranges for the avoidance of
+shoals are sometimes shown. On the British charts bearings as stated on
+range and channel lines are magnetic; the custom varies on other charts
+and must be carefully noted in each case.
+
+#Plane of reference.# The soundings given on the chart express the depth
+of water when the tide is at the height adopted for the plane of
+reference; this same plane is used in the tide tables, which thus will
+indicate the amount to be added to the soundings when the tide is above
+the plane, or to be subtracted when it is below. In order to be on the
+safe side the plane of reference adopted is always some low stage of the
+tide, so that there is usually more water than shown on the chart.
+
+On the British and German charts the soundings are reduced to the mean
+low water of ordinary spring tides, unless otherwise stated. On the
+charts of the Coast and Geodetic Survey the following are the planes of
+reference: for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the mean of the low
+waters; for the Pacific coast, Alaska, and the Philippines, the mean of
+the lower low waters, except for Puget Sound and Wrangell Narrows, where
+planes two and three feet lower respectively have been adopted.
+According to the Tide Tables for 1908, at New York (Sandy Hook) the tide
+will fall below the plane of reference on 135 days during the year, but
+the extreme low tide will be only one foot below the plane. At Portland,
+Maine, in 1908, the extreme low water is 2.1 feet below the plane, and
+at San Francisco 1.5 feet. Of course when the tide is below the plane of
+reference the amount must be subtracted from the depths shown on the
+chart.
+
+Strong winds and unusual barometric pressure may have a marked effect on
+the height of tide, so that it may differ appreciably from the predicted
+height, which is of course based on normal conditions. At Baltimore and
+at Willets Point observation shows that a heavy wind may reduce the tide
+four feet below the predicted heights.
+
+#Tides.# Information regarding tides is given on all large scale charts,
+and additional information and predictions may be found in the Tide
+Tables. On the charts of the United States coast there is a small tide
+table giving for the high and low waters the time relations to the
+moon's transit and the height relations to the plane of reference. On
+the British charts there is a brief statement as to the tides either
+at the port on the chart or in the general notes; this ordinarily
+gives the interval in hours and minutes between the moon's meridian
+passage and the time of high water for the periods of full and new moon,
+and also the amount in feet that the spring and neap tides rise above
+the plane of reference, and the range of the neap tide. The following is
+an example of such a tide note: "H. W. F. and C. Campbellton IV^h 0^m.
+Springs rise 10 feet, Neaps 7 feet."
+
+At some important ports information as to the state of the tide is given
+to vessels, either by means of signal balls, or by automatic tidal
+indicators, as at the Narrows in New York Harbor, where a large dial
+shows to passing vessels the height of the tide, and an arrow indicates
+whether it is rising or falling.
+
+The tidal information becomes important and must be considered in
+navigation or in anchoring in waters where the available depth at low
+water approximates the draft of the vessel. In the general use of coast
+charts it is also important to observe the effect of the stage of tide
+on the appearance of many features. Rocks rising some feet above low
+water may be entirely submerged at high water. In some areas the aspect
+may be radically changed between high and low water by the baring of
+extensive shoals or reefs.
+
+#Currents.# Information, when available, as to currents is given either
+by a note or by current arrows placed on the chart at the position of
+observation. Additional information as to certain regions is given in
+the United States Tide Tables. Tidal currents, flood and ebb, and
+currents not due to tidal action are distinguished by symbols, and the
+velocity is given in knots, and on some charts is indicated by the
+lengths of the arrows.
+
+Complete and systematic current observations have been made in
+comparatively few localities because of the time and expense necessary
+to get the full information as to the variations of the currents with
+the tides and seasons. Ordinarily therefore the current arrows shown on
+charts indicate only the average direction and velocity, or possibly
+only the conditions existing at the season when the survey was made.
+Oceanic and coast currents are probably much less uniform than might be
+inferred from the current streams drawn on maps and charts. A more
+systematic investigation of ocean currents is required to fulfill the
+needs of navigation.
+
+The tidal currents seldom turn with the tides, and there may be an
+interval of as much as three hours between the time of high tide or
+low tide and slack water. This leads to the apparent anomaly that in
+cases the current may be running with its greatest velocity at the time
+of high or low water, and may be running into a channel for several
+hours after the tide commences to fall. It is therefore, evidently, not
+safe to draw inferences as to currents solely from the tidal heights.
+
+There are passages where the tidal currents become of the greatest
+importance to navigation, as, for instance, in Seymour Narrows on the
+inside route to Alaska, where the current velocity reaches 12 knots and
+the interval of apparent slack water lasts but a few minutes.
+
+#Elevations.# The unit used for elevations is also stated on the face of
+the chart, as also the plane to which elevations are referred. On the
+United States charts this is generally mean high water and on British
+charts the high water of ordinary spring tides. Rocks and islets usually
+have figures shown beside them, either in brackets or underscored, which
+indicate the height above high water. Rocks which are bare at low water
+sometimes have a note "dries" or "bares" so many feet, indicating their
+height above low tide, although they are covered at high tide. The
+British charts in some regions where there is a large range of tide have
+underlined figures in the area between high water and low water
+indicating the heights above low water, or the depths of water over the
+bank at high water, as explained in each case.
+
+#Topography.# The land area on most charts is distinguished from the
+water area by a stipple or tint; on some charts the topographic features
+have, however, been depended upon to bring out the land from the water.
+The solid shore line is the high-water line, and should be clear on the
+chart; the area between high and low water is sanded or otherwise shaded
+on all charts. The relief of the land is represented by hill shading or
+by contour lines which are the successive curves of elevation on the
+land. Topographic symbols are used for some of the more important
+features, such as cliffs, rocky ledges, buildings, bridges, trees,
+roads, etc. It is important for the navigator to understand the
+significance of the hill representation and the symbols, as they will
+aid him in recognizing a coast or island, and in identifying landmarks.
+
+#Date of survey and publication.# There is usually an authority note on
+each chart showing the source of information or date of survey; if on a
+coast subject to change, the latter is important. On the United States
+Coast Survey charts the date of publication of the edition is given,
+and on British and other charts the date of both large and small
+corrections. The chart catalogues give the dates of the last editions,
+or the dates of extensive corrections, and this affords a means of
+seeing whether the copy of the chart in use is the latest edition
+available.
+
+
+
+
+USE OF CHARTS IN NAVIGATION.
+
+
+#Chart working.# In crossing the open and deep portions of the ocean,
+where the only data given may be the projection lines and soundings far
+deeper than can be reached with navigational sounding machines, the
+chart is used to lay out in advance the general course to be followed
+and to plot the positions of the vessel at intervals either as
+determined by observations or, lacking these, by dead reckoning. When
+necessary the courses of the vessel are modified as the plotted
+positions are found to fall one side or the other of the proposed
+general track.
+
+The principal operations on a chart are plotting or taking off positions
+by latitude and longitude, laying down or taking off bearings,
+directions, and courses, plotting or measuring distances, and laying
+down or taking off angles.
+
+To plot a position by its latitude and longitude on a mercator chart,
+set a parallel ruler on the adjacent parallel and then move it to the
+required latitude as shown by the border scale at either side; then with
+a pair of dividers at the upper or lower longitude border scale take the
+distance from the nearest meridian and lay this distance off along the
+edge of the parallel ruler. The latitude and longitude of a point are
+taken from the chart by reversing this process, or with the dividers
+only. A direction is laid down on the chart or read from the chart
+preferably by using some form of protractor and measuring the angle from
+the projection lines. In this country it is more commonly done by
+carrying the direction with a parallel ruler either from or to a compass
+rose printed on the chart. Distances are measured or laid down on a
+mercator chart by using the latitude border scale for the middle
+latitude. On polyconic and other larger scale charts distances are
+measured from the scales printed on the chart. It should be remarked
+that in general where special accuracy is required distances should be
+computed and not scaled from any chart, because of the error due to the
+distortion of paper in printing.
+
+The use of protractors on charts in plotting by angles in the
+three-point problem will be referred to later.
+
+The course to be steered to allow for a set due to current or wind may
+be obtained by a graphical solution on the chart, though it will be
+preferable to do this on other paper, using a larger scale. (Fig. 38.)
+The direction and velocity of the set and the course and speed of the
+ship may be considered as two sides of a parallelogram of forces, of
+which the diagonal is the distance and course made good. To obtain the
+course to steer to reach a given point with a given current and speed of
+vessel, lay down the direction of the destination; from the starting
+point lay off the direction of set and the amount in one hour; from the
+extremity of this describe an arc with radius equal to the speed of the
+vessel in one hour. A line drawn from the extremity of the direction of
+set to the point of intersection of the arc and the course to be made
+good will give the direction of the course to be steered, and the point
+of intersection will also be the estimated position of the vessel at the
+end of the hour's run.
+
+#Methods of locating a vessel.# The principal methods used for locating
+the position of a vessel are by astronomical observations, by dead
+reckoning, by compass bearings, by ranges, by horizontal angles, by
+soundings, by vertical angles, and by sound. The full discussion of
+these methods pertains to navigation and pilotage, and they will be only
+briefly referred to here as to their graphical application to charts.
+
+#Astronomical methods.# There are a number of methods of obtaining the
+position of a vessel by astronomical observations. When the position is
+computed the chart enters into these only in the plotting of the final
+result, so that with one exception these methods will not be referred to
+further here.
+
+The elegant method discovered by an American seaman, Captain Sumner, in
+1843, is in part graphical, to be worked out upon the chart. This method
+is based on the obvious fact that at any instant there is a point on the
+earth having the sun in its zenith and which is the center of circles on
+the earth's surface along the circumference of any one of which the
+sun's altitude is the same at all points. A short portion of such a
+circle may be considered as a straight line and can be determined by
+locating one point and its direction, or two points in it. This is known
+as a Sumner line. (Fig. 39.)
+
+From an observation of the sun's altitude and azimuth and an assumed
+latitude a position is computed and plotted and a line drawn on the
+chart through this position at right angles to the azimuth of the sun as
+taken from the azimuth tables and laid off from a meridian. Another
+method is to compute positions with two assumed latitudes and plot the
+two resulting positions and draw a line through them. The vessel must be
+somewhere on the resulting Sumner line. A good determination may be
+obtained by the intersection of two Sumner lines obtained from two
+observations of the sun with sufficient interval so that there will be a
+change of azimuth of as much as 30 degrees to give a fair intersection.
+Allowance must be made for the movement of the vessel between the two
+observations by drawing a line parallel to the first and at a distance
+equal to the distance made good. An excellent intersection may be
+obtained by observation of the sun, and before or after it of a star in
+the twilight at a different azimuth.
+
+[Illustration: COURSE TO ALLOW FOR SET, GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
+
+FIG. 38.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY INTERSECTION OF SUMNER LINES
+
+FIG. 39.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY COMPASS BEARINGS
+
+FIG. 40.]
+
+Even a single Sumner line, however, furnishes valuable information, as
+it may be combined with other sources of information to obtain an
+approximation to the position. The vessel must be somewhere on this
+line, and this gives a good check on the position by dead reckoning, or
+an intersection may be obtained with a line or bearing of a distant land
+object, or a line of soundings may be compared on the chart with the
+Sumner line.
+
+If an observation is taken when the observed heavenly body is bearing
+abeam, it is evident that the resulting Sumner line will be the
+direction of the course of the vessel, and this fact may be useful in
+shaping the course when nearing the land or a danger.
+
+#Dead reckoning.# When impossible to obtain the position by any other
+means, it is computed or plotted from the last determined position,
+using the courses and distances run as shown by compass and log and
+allowing for effect of current and wind. Because of uncertainties in all
+these elements, positions so obtained may be from five to twenty miles
+in error in a two-hundred-mile run, depending of course to some extent
+on the speed of the vessel.
+
+#Compass bearings.# A compass bearing of a single object, as a
+lighthouse or a tangent to a point of land, laid down on the chart,
+shows that the vessel is somewhere on that line, and when combined with
+other information, as with a Sumner line or the course by dead reckoning
+or the distance by a vertical angle, will give a position whose
+correctness of course depends on the accuracy of the data used. Bearings
+of two objects not in the same direction give two lines on the chart
+whose intersection is the position. This will be very weak if the angle
+of intersection is acute, and will become stronger as it approaches a
+right angle. A bearing of a third object should be taken when
+practicable, as it affords a valuable check in that the three lines
+should intersect in the same point; if they do not do so when plotted
+the error is either in the observations, or the compass, or the
+plotting, or the chart. (Fig. 40). All compass bearings are of course
+dependent upon the accuracy of the compass and the knowledge of its
+errors due to the local magnetic effect of the ship, and also upon the
+correctness with which the magnetic variation from true north is known.
+Bearings of near objects should therefore always be preferred, and those
+of distant objects considered as giving only approximate positions. An
+error of one degree in the bearing of an object 30 miles away will
+deflect the plotted line about one-half mile. Because of the facility
+with which they may be taken compass bearings are much used for inshore
+navigation, but in point of reliability they are inferior to some of the
+other methods.
+
+A single or "danger" bearing of an object is often a valuable guide in
+avoiding a danger. For example, a reef may lie to the westward of a line
+drawn South 10° East from a lighthouse; in approaching a vessel will
+pass safely to the eastward of the reef if the lighthouse is not allowed
+to bear any to the northward of North 10° West. (Fig. 41.)
+
+Two successive bearings of a single object, as, for instance, a
+lighthouse, noting the distance run in the interval, afford a convenient
+and much used means of locating the position with respect to that
+object. Such bearings are drawn on the chart in reversed direction from
+the object. The distance run between the bearings, as read by the log
+and corrected for current if practicable, is scaled off with dividers
+and the course of the vessel is set off with parallel ruler; the latter
+is then moved across the two plotted directions until the distance
+intercepted between them equals that scaled with the dividers, and the
+edge of the ruler then represents the track of the vessel. (Fig. 42.) If
+the angle from the bow, or from the course of the vessel, for the second
+bearing is double that for the first bearing, the distance from the
+object at the second bearing is equal to that run by the vessel in the
+interval, and the use of this simple relation is designated as "doubling
+the angle on the bow." If the angles between the course and the object
+are respectively 45° and 90° when the two bearings are taken on an
+object on the shore, the distance that the ship passes offshore when the
+object is abeam is equal to the distance run between the two bearings;
+this is a much used navigational device, known as the "bow and beam
+bearing" or the "four-point bearing." There is an advantage, however, in
+using bearings at two and four points (or 22.5° and 45°), as these give
+the probable distance that the object will be passed before it is abeam.
+
+#Ranges.# A valuable line of position is obtained by noting when two
+well-situated objects are in range, that is, one back of the other in
+the line of sight from the vessel, as, for instance, a church spire
+appearing behind a lighthouse or a rock in line with a prominent point.
+Such ranges are of course entirely free from compass errors, and should
+be noted whenever there is favorable opportunity. The value of the range
+in plotting will increase with the distance between the objects, and if
+the two are close in proportion to the distance to the vessel the
+direction will be weak owing to the uncertainty in drawing a direction
+through close points. Artificial ranges are often erected as aids to
+navigation, usually to indicate the course to be followed in passing
+through a channel. Ranges afford a valuable guide in avoiding dangers,
+as for example an inspection of the chart may show that if a certain
+lighthouse is kept in line with or open from an islet a dangerous shoal
+will be given a good berth; on coasts not well buoyed such danger ranges
+are sometimes marked on the charts. (Fig. 43.)
+
+[Illustration: DANGER BEARING
+
+FIG. 41.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY SUCCESSIVE BEARINGS TWO AND FOUR POINT
+BEARINGS
+
+FIG. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: RANGE TO AVOID DANGER
+
+FIG. 43.]
+
+#Horizontal sextant angles.# The location of a position by the
+three-point problem, using sextant angles, is much more exact than by
+bearings, but is less used because not so well known and also because
+additional instruments are required and the conditions are not always
+favorable. It is so valuable a method, however, that it should be used,
+when necessary, on every well-equipped vessel. A single horizontal angle
+taken with a sextant between objects, as two lighthouses, defines the
+position of the vessel as somewhere on the circumference of a circle
+passing through the two objects and the vessel. A protractor laid on the
+chart with two of its arms set at the observed angle and passing through
+the two objects, will permit of locating two or more points of this
+circle on the chart. This furnishes a line of position which may be
+combined with other information to locate the vessel. With a compass
+bearing of one of the objects the position may be plotted directly from
+the single angle. Two sextant angles measured at the same instant
+between three objects furnish one of the most accurate means of locating
+the position of a vessel, this being the same method that is ordinarily
+used in hydrographic surveying, known as the three-point problem. (Fig.
+44.) The two angles are conveniently set off on a three-arm protractor,
+which is shifted on the chart until the three arms touch the three
+points, when the position of the center is plotted. A third angle to a
+fourth point furnishes a valuable check in case of doubt. Two angles may
+also be taken to four objects without any common point, and in this case
+portions of the two circles of position are plotted and their
+intersection will be the ship's position.
+
+The value of this method depends largely on the selection of favorably
+located objects, and it is quite important that the principles of the
+three-point problem be understood. If the ship is on or near the
+circumference of a circle which passes through the three objects the
+position will be very weak, and the same is true if the distance between
+any two of the objects is small as compared with the distance from them
+to the vessel. A useful general rule is that the position will be strong
+if the middle one of the three objects is the nearest to the vessel,
+provided that no two of the objects are close together in comparison
+with the distance to the vessel.
+
+A single sextant angle furnishes a means of avoiding a known danger by
+using what is known as the horizontal "danger angle." (Fig. 45.) Note
+two well-defined objects on the coast either side of the danger to be
+avoided and describe a circle through them and passing sufficiently
+outside of the reef to give it a safe berth. With a protractor on the
+chart note the angle between the objects at any point on the outer part
+of this circle. If in passing, the angle at the ship between the two
+objects is not allowed to become greater than this "danger angle" the
+danger will be given a sufficient berth. This method as well as any use
+of sextant angles or bearings depends of course on the accuracy of the
+chart, and caution must be used where it is not certain that the chart
+depends upon an accurate survey.
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY SEXTANT ANGLES THREE POINT PROBLEM
+
+FIG. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: HORIZONTAL DANGER ANGLE
+
+FIG. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: DISTANCE BY VERTICAL ANGLE]
+
+[Illustration: VERTICAL DANGER ANGLE
+
+FIG. 46.]
+
+#Soundings.# Even if objects cannot be seen, due to distance or thick
+weather, the chart furnishes a valuable aid when a vessel has approached
+within the limits where it is practicable to obtain soundings. Modern
+navigational sounding machines permit of obtaining soundings to depths
+of nearly one hundred fathoms without stopping the vessel. A rough check
+is at once obtained by comparing such soundings with those given on the
+chart for the position carried forward by dead reckoning. If a number of
+soundings are taken and plotted on a piece of tracing paper, spaced by
+the log readings to the scale of the chart, and this tracing paper is
+laid over the chart and shifted in the vicinity of the probable position
+until the soundings best agree with those on the chart, a valuable
+verification of position may be obtained. This is particularly the case
+if the area has been well surveyed, and the soundings taken on the
+vessel are accurate, and the configuration of the bottom has marked
+characteristics. For instance, in approaching New York the crossing of
+the 30, 20, and 10 fathom curves will give a fair warning of the
+distance off the Long Island and New Jersey coasts, and soundings across
+such a feature as the submerged Hudson gorge extending to the
+southeastward of Sandy Hook will give a valuable indication of position.
+The taking of soundings should be resorted to even in favorable
+conditions, in approaching shoal water, as a check on other means of
+locating the vessel. Many marine disasters are attributed to failure to
+make sufficient use of the lead, the simplest of navigational aids.
+
+#Vertical angles.# The vertical angle of elevation of an object whose
+height is known will give the distance, and combined with a bearing or
+other information this permits of locating a vessel where better means
+cannot be used. Distance tables are published for this method. (Fig.
+46.) The vertical angle is measured with a sextant and must be the angle
+at the ship between the top of the object and the sea level vertically
+beneath it; for a hill or mountain, therefore, the eye of the observer
+should be near the water. The object should not be so distant that
+curvature becomes appreciable. The "vertical danger angle" is a means of
+avoiding a known danger, on a principle similar to that of the
+horizontal danger angle; that is, the angle of elevation of a known
+object is not permitted to become greater than a fixed amount depending
+on the distance from the object to the danger to be avoided.
+
+#Positions by sound.# In thick weather sound affords a valuable aid to
+the navigator. In narrow passages noting the echo of the whistle from a
+cliff is a method resorted to, as for instance in Puget Sound and along
+the Alaska coast. Fog whistles and bell buoys are maintained at many
+places. Submarine bells have recently been introduced at a number of
+points along the Atlantic coast, and vessels may be equipped to receive
+these submarine signals transmitted through the water, which indicate
+also the general direction from which the sound comes.
+
+#Need of vigilance.# Too great importance cannot be attached to frequent
+verification of positions by the best available means, particularly when
+approaching the land. Neglect of this or overconfidence has caused many
+disasters. A notable instance was the loss of one of the largest Pacific
+steamers on the coast of Japan in March, 1907. In the afternoon of a
+clear day this vessel ran on to a well-known reef about a mile from a
+lighthouse, resulting in the total loss of vessel and cargo valued at
+three and a half million dollars. The captain was so confident of his
+position and that he was giving the reef a sufficient berth that he laid
+down no bearings on the chart and took no soundings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47. FIELD'S PROTRACTOR AND PARALLEL RULER IN USE ON
+A CHART, PLOTTING BEARING OF A LIGHTHOUSE.]
+
+#Instruments.# The principal instruments needed for use with charts are;
+dividers for taking off distances and latitudes and longitudes, parallel
+ruler for transferring directions to or from a compass rose and for
+taking off or plotting the latitude on a mercator chart, protractor of
+180 degrees for reading the angle with the meridian of any direction or
+for laying off on the chart any given angle with the meridian, and
+three-arm or other full-circle protractor for plotting a position by the
+three-point problem.
+
+Parallel rulers on the principle of Field's are strongly recommended for
+chart work, as they combine in a single instrument the advantages of a
+parallel ruler and a 180-degree protractor. Any direction can be read or
+laid off by simply moving the parallel ruler to the nearest projection
+line, which is a process not only more convenient than referring to the
+compass rose printed on the chart but also more accurate because of the
+longer radius. These instruments can also be used the same as a plain
+parallel ruler. Field's parallel rulers are made in two forms, one
+rolling and the other sliding. The former is a single ruler with edge
+graduated 90 degrees either way, and mounted on rollers; it is the most
+rapid instrument for reading or laying off a direction, but it requires
+a smooth surface. The latter is an ordinary two-bar parallel ruler with
+edge when closed graduated 90 degrees either way; it is a very
+serviceable instrument and probably more to be depended upon for
+ordinary use than the rolling form. Some form of combined protractor and
+parallel ruler should be in every navigational equipment, and it is
+unfortunate that these instruments are not better known in this country.
+There are other forms of half-circle protractors which are used on the
+same principle, that is, of bringing the center on to a projection line
+and reading where the line cuts the border graduation of the protractor.
+Thus a semicircular protractor is used with a separate straight edge,
+along which it is slid to the nearest meridian; another form is the
+simple circular protractor with a thread fastened at the center. All
+these forms of protractors, it will be noted, are intended to work from
+the true meridian, and they are usually graduated in degrees only; the
+use of degrees instead of points is becoming much more general in
+navigational work, and reference to the true meridian is also more
+common than formerly.
+
+The standard three-arm protractor, or station pointer, as it is known to
+the English, should be a part of every navigational outfit because of
+its value in locating a position by the three-point problem. A recent
+American invention, Court's three-arm protractor, is an instrument made
+of celluloid for the same purpose. It should not be considered as a
+substitute for the standard metal instrument, but it is a simple, cheap,
+and handy supplement to it, as it may be readily used for small angles
+and short distances where there are mechanical difficulties in working
+with the metal three-arm protractor. Other protractors can be used for
+the three-point problem, as, for instance, Cust's protractor on
+celluloid, on which the angles are drawn in pencil and erased, and the
+tracing-paper protractor.
+
+#Degree of reliance on charts.# The value of a chart must not be judged
+alone from its general appearance, as skill in preparation and
+publication may give a handsome appearance to an incomplete survey. On
+the other hand a thorough survey might through poor preparation result
+in a chart defective either in information or in utility.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48. THREE-ARM PROTRACTOR IN USE ON A CHART, PLOTTING
+POSITION FROM TWO ANGLES.]
+
+The degree of completeness of the soundings, the character of the
+region, and the date of the survey should be taken into account in
+deciding as to the amount of reliance to be placed on the chart. Areas
+where the soundings are not distributed with fair uniformity may be
+assumed not to have been completely surveyed. Caution should be used in
+navigating on charts where the survey is not complete, and even where
+careful surveys exist care must be taken if the bottom is of very
+irregular nature with lumps near the navigable depth, as for instance on
+some of the coral reef coasts. Isolated soundings shoaler than the
+surrounding depths should be avoided, as there may be less water than
+shown. In such a region, unless the whole area is dragged, it is
+impossible to make it entirely certain that all obstructions are
+charted.
+
+While an immense amount of faithful work has been put into the
+preparation of many charts, the user must constantly exercise his own
+judgment as to the reliance to be placed on them. A coast is not to be
+considered as clear unless it is shown to be; buoys may get adrift and
+be in a different position or be gone altogether; fog signals vary in
+distinctness owing to atmospheric conditions; extreme or unusual tides
+may fall below the plane of reference; owing to strong winds the actual
+tide may differ from the predicted tide. Errors sometimes creep in from
+various sources, such as those due to different reference longitudes or
+the use of a corrected longitude for a portion of the chart without
+changing other positions to which the same correction is applicable;
+clerical and printing errors may occur; there are sometimes omissions in
+surveys; a feature may get plotted in two different positions; tide rips
+are reported as breakers and floating objects as rocks or islands, and
+thus many dangers have gotten on the charts which cannot be found again,
+and false reports are sometimes made to shield some one from blame. Most
+of these classes of errors and uncertainties, however, disappear in the
+use of charts of a thoroughly surveyed coast.
+
+#Use the latest editions of charts.# The latest edition of a chart
+should always be used and should be corrected for all notices since its
+issue. Carelessness or false economy in not providing the largest scale
+or the latest chart has been the cause of more than one marine disaster.
+
+The British Board of Trade issue the following official notice to
+shipowners and agents: "The attention of the Board of Trade has
+frequently been called to cases in which British vessels have been
+endangered or wrecked through the masters' attempting to navigate them
+by means of antiquated or otherwise defective charts. The Board of Trade
+desires, therefore, to direct the especial attention of shipowners and
+their agents to the necessity of seeing that the charts taken or sent on
+board their ships are corrected to the time of sailing. Neglect to
+supply a ship with proper charts will be brought prominently before the
+Court of Inquiry in the event of a wreck occurring from that cause."
+
+The following is a translation of a notice in the preface to the
+catalogue of charts published by the German government: "Owners and
+masters of vessels are apprised that cases of marine accidents in which
+the casualty was due to antiquated or erroneous charts, have frequently
+been before the admiralty courts. In consequence of this, the
+'Instructions for the prevention of accidents to steamers and sailing
+vessels,' issued by the Seeberufsgenossenschaft have been amended by the
+following additional paragraph: 'It is obligatory upon every master,
+except when engaged in local coastwise navigation, to keep the Notices
+to Mariners regularly, and with the aid of them to carefully keep his
+charts up to date.'"
+
+The British shipping laws provide that a ship may not be sent to sea in
+such an unseaworthy state that the life of any person is thereby
+endangered, and the House of Lords has defined the term "seaworthy" to
+mean "in a fit state as to repairs, equipment, and crew, and in all
+other respects, to encounter the ordinary perils of the voyage." Proper
+charts and sailing directions are a necessary part of the equipment of a
+vessel, and the courts have frequently inquired into this.
+
+The records of the British courts, however, show that even in recent
+years many ships have been damaged or lost owing directly or indirectly
+to failure to have the latest information on board. The following are
+instances from these records.
+
+In 1890 the steamer _Dunluce_ was lost owing to the use of an old
+edition of the Admiralty chart which showed a depth of 4-1/2 fathoms on
+the Wikesgrund, whereas the later chart showed much less water. In this
+case the master had requested his ship chandler to send him the latest
+chart.
+
+In 1891 the steamer _St. Donats_ got ashore on a patch which was not
+shown on the chart in use, which was privately published in 1881; the
+danger was, however, shown on the Admiralty chart corrected to 1889.
+
+Also in 1891 the steamer _Trent_ was lost on the Missipezza Rock in the
+Adriatic. The ship was navigated by a private chart published in 1890
+which did not show this rock, and by sailing directions published in
+1866.
+
+The steamer _Aboraca_, stranded in the Gulf of Bothnia in 1894, was
+being navigated by a chart corrected to 1881 which did not show that the
+Storkallagrund light-vessel had been moved eight miles.
+
+The steamer _Ravenspur_ was lost on Bilbao Breakwater owing to the use
+of a chart not up to date which did not show the breakwater. In 1898 the
+steamer _Cromarty_ was lost in attempting to enter Ponta Delgada harbor,
+and in 1901 the steamer "Dinnington" was lost by steaming on to the new
+breakwater in Portland harbor; both of these disasters were likewise due
+to the use of old charts which did not show the breakwaters. In these
+three cases the masters of the vessels had authority to obtain the
+necessary charts at the owners' expense.
+
+Not so, however, in the following case from the finding of a British
+marine court in 1877: "The primary cause of the ship's getting on shore
+was due to the master's being guided in his navigation by an obsolete
+Admiralty chart dated September 1, 1852, and corrected to April, 1862,
+and on which no lights are shown to exist either in ... or ... and to
+his not being supplied with the latest sailing directions. The Court,
+considering that the master was obliged to furnish himself with
+chronometer, barometer, sextant, charts, sailing directions, and
+everything necessary for the navigation of his vessel out of his private
+resources, which, under very favorable circumstances, might perhaps
+reach £150 a year, find themselves unable in this instance to pass a
+heavier censure upon him than that he be severely reprimanded."
+
+The loss of the German steamer _Baker_ on the coast of Cuba on January
+31, 1908, was declared by the marine court at Hamburg to be due in part
+to the use of an unofficial chart which did not show the latest surveys
+on that coast.
+
+#Use the largest scale charts.# The largest scale chart available should
+be employed when entering channels, bays, or harbors, as it gives
+information with more clearness and detail, positions may be more
+accurately plotted, and sometimes it is the first corrected for new
+information.
+
+The records of the courts of inquiry also show cases where vessels have
+been wrecked owing to the use of charts of too small scale.
+
+In 1890 the steamer _Lady Ailsa_ was lost on the Plateau du Four. The
+only chart on board for this locality was a general chart of the Bay of
+Biscay, and the stranding was due to the master's mistaking one buoy for
+another. The court found that the chart, although a proper one for
+general use, was not sufficient for the navigation of a vessel in such
+narrow waters and on such a dangerous coast.
+
+The _Zenobia_ was stranded on the San Thomé Bank in 1891. On this vessel
+the owners were to furnish the chronometers and the master the charts
+and sailing directions. The master was, however, apparently satisfied
+with only a general chart of the South Atlantic for navigation on the
+coast of Brazil, and had no sailing directions at all.
+
+#The depth curves# on charts furnish a valuable guide, and if the curves
+are lacking or broken in some parts it is usually a sign that the
+information is incomplete. The 100-fathom curve is a general warning of
+approach to the coast. The 10-fathom curve on rocky coasts should be
+considered as a danger curve, and caution used after crossing it. The
+5-fathom curve is the most important for modern vessels of medium draft,
+as it indicates for them the practical limit of navigation. The 3, 2,
+and 1-fathom curves are a guide to smaller vessels, but have less
+significance than formerly because of the increase of draft of vessels.
+
+#The shrinkage of paper#, especially in plate printing, has been
+referred to. This introduces two possible sources of error: first, the
+shrinkage being different in the two directions, any scale printed on
+the chart will be accurate only when used in a direction parallel to
+itself; second, for the same reason, angles and directions will be
+somewhat distorted. Fortunately these errors are not serious in the
+ordinary navigational use of a chart, but they should not be overlooked
+when accurate plotting or measuring of distances is attempted on a
+plate-printed chart.
+
+The actual shrinkage measured on charts printed from plates varies from
+1/3 inch to 1 inch in a length of chart of 36 inches. On British and
+American plate printed charts the shrinkage is usually from two to
+nearly three times as much in one direction as it is in the other.
+
+#Care of charts.# In order that they may be properly used charts should
+be filed flat and not rolled. They should be systematically arranged so
+that the desired chart can be instantly found. They should be cared for
+and when in bad condition replaced by new copies. They can be most
+conveniently filed in shallow drawers, thus avoiding the placing of many
+charts in a single drawer. The latter is a common fault; it not only
+increases the labor of handling the charts but adds to the liability of
+their injury.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL CHARTS.
+
+
+There are several publications in book and in chart form which are
+either necessary or convenient for use in connection with nautical
+charts. These comprise the coast pilots, notices to mariners, tide
+tables, light and buoy lists, and various special charts.
+
+#Coast pilots#, or sailing directions, are books giving descriptions of
+the main features, as far as of interest to seamen, of the coast and
+adjacent waters, with directions for navigation. They contain much
+miscellaneous information of value to the mariner, especially the
+stranger. Although they contain additional facts which cannot be shown
+on the charts, they are not at all intended to supersede the latter; the
+mariner should in general rely on the charts. The sailing directions can
+be less readily corrected than the charts, and in all cases where they
+differ the charts are to be taken as the guide.
+
+The most extensive series of sailing directions is that published by the
+British Admiralty, comprising fifty-six volumes and including all the
+navigable regions of the world. In the United States the Coast and
+Geodetic Survey publishes ten volumes of coast pilots for the Atlantic,
+Gulf, and Pacific coasts, Porto Rico, and southeastern Alaska, and eight
+volumes of sailing directions for Alaska and the Philippine Islands. The
+United States Hydrographic Office publishes sixteen volumes of sailing
+directions for various parts of the world.
+
+#Notices to Mariners# are published at frequent intervals, giving all
+important corrections, which should be at once applied by hand to the
+charts, such as rocks or shoals discovered and lights and buoys
+established or moved. New charts, new editions, and canceled charts are
+also announced.
+
+These notices should be carefully examined and the necessary corrections
+made on all charts of the sets in use on the vessel. A chart should be
+considered as a growing rather than a finished instrument, and constant
+watchfulness is required to see that it is kept up to date. Neglect of
+this may cause shipwreck, as the following instance shows. Report came
+to Manila in 1904 that there was a low sand islet lying off the very
+poorly charted northeast coast of Samar; this information was promptly
+published in the local Notice to Mariners. About a month later a small
+steamer was sent to land some native constabulary on that coast. The
+captain failed to obtain or observe this notice, and approached the
+coast before daylight on a course which led directly across the sand
+islet. The vessel was driven far up on the sand, where it still lies.
+
+In the United States, weekly Notices to Mariners are published by the
+Department of Commerce and Labor for the coasts under the jurisdiction
+of the United States, and by the Navy Department for all regions. These
+notices are distributed free and can be obtained from chart agents and
+consular officers. In Great Britain the notices are published at
+frequent intervals by the Hydrographic Office, and practically all
+countries issuing charts also issue such notices. Information as to
+important changes in lights and other announcements of navigational
+interest are also sometimes printed in the marine columns of newspapers
+and in nautical periodicals.
+
+#Tide Tables.# Brief information as to the time and height of the tide
+is usually for convenience given on the face of the chart. More complete
+information is published in the Tide Tables, with which every navigator
+should be provided. "The Tide Tables for United States and foreign
+ports," published annually in advance by the United States Coast and
+Geodetic Survey, give complete predictions of the time and height of
+high and low water for each day of the year for 70 of the principal
+ports of the world, and the tidal differences from some principal port
+for 3000 subordinate ports. The other leading nations also publish
+annual tide tables; those of the British government are entitled "Tide
+Tables for British and Irish ports, and also the times of high water for
+the principal places on the globe."
+
+#Light and buoy lists.# Brief information as to all artificial aids to
+navigation is shown on the charts. Every vessel should also have on
+board the latest official light and buoy lists, which give a more
+detailed description than can be placed on the charts.
+
+Light and buoy lists for the coasts of the United States are published
+annually by the Light-House Board. The United States Hydrographic Office
+publishes a "List of Lights of the World" (excepting the United States),
+in three volumes.
+
+The British Hydrographic Office publishes eight volumes of Lists of
+Lights, and these are corrected annually.
+
+#Chart catalogues# are published in connection with all series of
+charts. They give the particulars and price of each chart published, and
+are usually arranged in geographical order, with both alphabetical and
+numerical indexes, for convenience in finding charts either by position,
+name, or number.
+
+#Charts for special purposes.# There are various special charts
+published for the benefit of mariners, although not intended for direct
+use in plotting the course of a vessel or in locating its position. Some
+of the more important of these are mentioned below.
+
+#Gnomonic charts# are intended solely for laying down the great circle
+or shortest practicable courses between points, for which purpose they
+are very convenient. Their use has already been described. The United
+States Hydrographic Office publishes six such charts, for the North
+Atlantic, South Atlantic, Pacific, North Pacific, South Pacific, and
+Indian Oceans.
+
+#Current charts# are published by the British Hydrographic Office for
+the various oceans; these usually show the average ocean currents, but
+for the Atlantic there are monthly and for the Pacific quarterly current
+charts.
+
+#Magnetic variation charts# are published by both the United States and
+British governments. They show on a mercator chart of the world the
+isogonic lines, or lines along which the variation of the needle from
+true north is the same. The lines are drawn for each degree of
+variation. The annual change in the variation is also indicated.
+
+Other magnetic charts are published showing the lines of equal magnetic
+dip, horizontal magnetic force, and vertical magnetic force.
+
+#Meteorological ocean charts# are published by several governments,
+including the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, and give the
+average weather conditions, winds, fogs, currents, ice, tracks of
+storms, and other information. "Pilot charts" of the North Atlantic and
+North Pacific Oceans are issued by the United States Hydrographic Office
+about the first of each month, and give "a forecast of the weather for
+the ensuing and a review of that for the preceding month, together with
+all obtainable information as to the most available sailing and steam
+routes, dangers to navigation, ice, fog, derelicts, etc., and any
+additional information that may be received of value to navigation."
+Mariners in all parts of the world have joined in contributing the
+information which has been used in compiling these pilot charts.
+
+#Track charts# are published by the British and United States
+governments. That of the latter is entitled "Track and distance chart of
+the world, showing the routes traversed by full-powered steamers between
+the principal ports of the world, and the corresponding distances."
+
+#Telegraph charts# are published showing the "telegraphic connections
+afforded by the submarine cables and the principal overland telegraph
+lines."
+
+#Index charts# are outline plans showing the area covered by each chart
+of a series, and furnish a convenient means of finding a chart of any
+desired region or of selecting the most suitable chart for any purpose.
+These index charts are published either in sets, showing all the charts
+of a series, or are bound into the chart catalogues.
+
+#Star charts# are included in navigational series, and are conveniently
+arranged for use on shipboard in identifying the brighter stars. The
+United States Hydrographic Office publishes two, constellations of the
+northern and of the southern hemispheres.
+
+#Explanatory sheets# are published in connection with various series of
+charts, giving explanations of the symbols and abbreviations used and of
+other important features. In the United States the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey has issued a small pamphlet, "Notes on the use of charts," which
+contains explanations of its chart symbols, and the Hydrographic Office
+has published "A manual of conventional symbols and abbreviations in use
+on the official charts of the principal maritime nations."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                     PAGE
+
+  Aids to navigation, 118
+
+  Arbitrary projection, 79
+
+  Astronomical observations, 32
+
+  Astronomical positions, 126
+
+
+  Bearings, position by, 130
+
+  Board of Trade notice, 148
+
+
+  Care of charts, 153
+
+  Catalogues of charts, 157
+
+  Changes in the coast, 98
+
+  Chart making, development of, 6
+
+  Chart publications of various nations, 18
+
+  Charts, earliest nautical, 6
+
+  Charts, loxodromic, 7
+
+  Charts, plain, 8
+
+  Chart schemes, 67
+
+  Chart working, 124
+
+  Coast and Geodetic Survey, United States, 13
+
+  Coast pilots, 154
+
+  Compass bearings, 130
+
+  Compass, nautical use of, 6
+
+  Compass, variation of, 7
+
+  Compilation of information, 67
+
+  Correction of charts, method of, 110
+
+  Cosa, Juan de la, 8
+
+  Current charts, 157
+
+  Currents, 50, 121
+
+
+  Danger angle, horizontal, 136
+
+  Danger bearing, 131
+
+  Danger range, 132
+
+  Dangers, reports of, 56
+
+  Dates on charts, 123
+
+  Dead reckoning, 129
+
+  Depth curves, 116, 152
+
+  Depths, unit for, 19, 116
+
+  Depth units, relation of, 118
+
+  Directions on charts, 115
+
+  Distances, measured on chart, 125
+
+  Distribution of charts, 96
+
+  Doubling angle on bow, 131
+
+  Draft of vessels, 97
+
+  Dragging for dangers, 55
+
+
+  Earthquakes, 109
+
+  Electrotyping plates, 89
+
+  Elevations, 122
+
+  Engraving machines, 89
+
+  Engraving on copper, 84
+
+  Engraving on stone, 93
+
+  Eskimo map, 1
+
+  Etching on copper, 95
+
+  Explanatory sheets, 159
+
+
+  Flattening of the earth, 3
+
+  France, establishment of chart office, 10
+
+
+  Geographic position on charts, 115
+
+  Geography, early, 2
+
+  Germany, contributions to hydrography, 14
+
+  Gnomonic charts, 79, 157
+
+  Gnomonic projection, 74
+
+  Great Britain, contributions to geography, 14
+
+
+  Holland, development of chart making, 10
+
+  Hydrographic Office, British, 13
+
+  Hydrographic Office, United States, 13
+
+  Hydrography, 40
+
+
+  Index charts, 158
+
+  Information on charts, 23
+
+  Instruments used on charts, 141
+
+
+  Lake Survey, United States, 13
+
+  Largest scale chart, 151
+
+  Latest editions of charts, 148
+
+  Light and buoy lists, 156
+
+  Lithographic printing, 94
+
+  Locating a vessel, 126
+
+  Longitude, initial, 19
+
+  Longitude, uncertainties in, 10
+
+
+  Magnetic charts, 157
+
+  Magnetic variation, 56
+
+  Map, earliest, 2
+
+  Map making, development of, 2
+
+  Maps, need of, 1
+
+  Maritime surveys, extension of, 17
+
+  Mercator chart, history, 8
+
+  Mercator projection, 68
+
+  Meteorological charts (pilot charts), 158
+
+
+  Navigation, use of charts in, 124
+
+  Notices to mariners, 111, 155
+
+
+  Paper, shrinkage of, 152
+
+  Parallel rulers, Field's, 141
+
+  Photolithography, 93
+
+  Plane of reference, 20, 119
+
+  Plotting positions, 124
+
+  Polyconic projection, 73
+
+  Printing, plate, 84, 90
+
+  Privately published charts, 21
+
+  Progress of hydrographic surveys, 17
+
+  Projection, explanation of, 114
+
+  Projections, 68, 114
+
+  Protractor, three-arm, 144
+
+  Ptolemy, 3
+
+  Publication of charts, methods, 84
+
+  Purpose of charts, 22
+
+
+  Ranges, 132
+
+  Reading charts, 112
+
+  Reliance on charts, 144
+
+  Reports of dangers, erroneous, 57
+
+  Requirements for charts, 23
+
+  Revision of charts, need of, 97
+
+  Rock, Brooklyn, 50
+
+
+  Sailing directions, early, 4
+
+  Sailing directions, 154
+
+  Scale equivalents, 113
+
+  Scales of charts, 79, 112
+
+  Set, graphical allowance for, 125
+
+  Sextant angles, 132
+
+  Sheets for surveys, 39
+
+  Shrinkage of paper, 152
+
+  Sound, position by, 140
+
+  Sounding machines, 49
+
+  Soundings, position by, 136
+
+  Star charts, 159
+
+  Station pointer, 144
+
+  Steamer for surveying, 49
+
+  Sumner's method, 126
+
+  Supplementary publications, 154
+
+  Surveys on foreign coasts, 14
+
+  Surveys, need of thorough, 31
+
+  Symbols on charts, 20
+
+
+  Telegraph charts, 158
+
+  Three-point problem, 132, 135
+
+  Tides, 50, 120
+
+  Tide tables, 156
+
+  Topography, 39
+
+  Topography on charts, 123
+
+  Track charts, 158
+
+  Triangulation, 32
+
+
+  Uniformity in charts, 21
+
+  Use of charts in navigation, 124
+
+
+  Vertical angles, 139
+
+  Vigias, removal of, 62
+
+  Vigilance, need of, 140
+
+  Volcanic action, 109
+
+
+  Wrecks due to deficient charts, 149
+
+
+
+
+  SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE
+  OF THE
+  PUBLICATIONS
+  OF
+  JOHN WILEY & SONS,
+  NEW YORK.
+  LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED.
+
+  ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS.
+
+
+Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk
+(*) are sold at _net_ prices only. All books are bound in cloth unless
+otherwise stated.
+
+
+AGRICULTURE.
+
+  Armsby's Manual of Cattle-feeding.                            12mo, $1 75
+      Principles of Animal Nutrition.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual:
+      Part I. Propagation, Culture, and Improvement.            12mo,  1 50
+      Part II. Systematic Pomology.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.                      12mo,  1 50
+      Practical Farm Drainage.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  Graves's Forest Mensuration.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  Green's Principles of American Forestry.                      12mo,  1 50
+  Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)     12mo,  2 00
+  Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)         8vo,  5 00
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration.  12mo,  1 50
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of
+        Butter-making.                                           8vo,  1 50
+  Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops.                12mo,  1 50
+  * Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.                                 8vo,  2 50
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Woll's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen.                     16mo,  1 50
+
+
+ARCHITECTURE.
+
+  Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.                      12mo,  1 00
+  Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.         4to,  5 00
+  Birkmire's Planning and Construction of American Theatres.     8vo,  3 00
+      Architectural Iron and Steel.                              8vo,  3 50
+      Compound Rivetée Girders as Applied in Buildings.          8vo,  2 00
+      Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings.        8vo,  3 50
+      Skeleton Construction in Buildings.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Brigg's Modern American School Buildings.                      8vo,  4 00
+  Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings.              8vo,  4 00
+  Freitag's Architectural Engineering.                           8vo,  3 50
+      Fireproofing of Steel Buildings.                           8vo,  2 50
+  French and Ives's Stereotomy.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.                 16mo,  1 00
+      Sanitation of Public Buildings.                           12mo,  1 50
+      Theatre Fires and Panics.                                 12mo,  1 50
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Holly's Carpenters' and Joiners' Handbook.                    18mo,    75
+  Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.            8vo,  2 00
+  Kellaway's How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds.               8vo,  2 00
+  Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket-book.
+        Rewritten Edition.                                16mo, mor.,  5 00
+  Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.                  8vo,  5 00
+      Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses.          8vo,  4 00
+  Monckton's Stair-building.                                     4to,  4 00
+  Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Peabody's Naval Architecture.                                  8vo,  7 50
+  Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.                             8vo,  2 00
+  Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.  16mo, mor.,  4 00
+      * Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Book:
+          * Carpenters' and Woodworkers' Edition.      16mo, morocco,  1 50
+          * Cementworkers and Plasterer's Edition. (In Press.)
+          * Stone- and Brick-mason's Edition.             12mo, mor.,  1 50
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints
+        and Varnish.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.         8vo,  1 50
+  Snow's Principal Species of Wood.                              8vo,  3 50
+  Sondericker's Graphic Statics with Applications to Trusses,
+        Beams, and Arches.                                       8vo,  2 00
+  Towne's Locks and Builders' Hardware.                18mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete
+        Construction.                                            8vo,  3 00
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Air Conditioning, (In Press.)
+  Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron
+        and Steel.                                               8vo,  4 00
+  Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals, Establishment and
+        Maintenance, Suggestions for Hospital Architecture,
+        with Plans for a Small Hospital.                        12mo,  1 25
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                Large 4to,  1 00
+
+
+ARMY AND NAVY.
+
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder, Nitro-cellulose, and the Theory
+        of the Cellulose Molecule.                              12mo,  2 50
+  Chase's Screw Propellers and Marine Propulsion.                8vo,  3 00
+  Cloke's Gunner's Examiner.                                     8vo,  1 50
+  Craig's Azimuth.                                               4to,  3 50
+  Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.             8vo,  3 00
+  * Davis's Elements of Law.                                     8vo,  2 50
+  *   Treatise on the Military Law of United States.             8vo,  7 00
+                                                               Sheep,  7 50
+  De Brack's Cavalry Outposts Duties. (Carr.)          24mo, morocco,  2 00
+  Dietz's Soldier's First Aid Handbook.                16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of
+        Courts-martial.                                   Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Durand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships.                   8vo,  5 00
+  * Dyer's Handbook of Light Artillery.                         12mo,  3 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  * Fiebeger's Text-book on Field Fortification.           Small 8vo,  2 00
+  Hamilton's The Gunner's Catechism.                            18mo,  1 00
+  * Hoff's Elementary Naval Tactics.                             8vo,  1 50
+  Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire.                 8vo,  4 00
+  * Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery.                               8vo,  6 00
+  * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena.
+        Vols. I. and II.                                   8vo, each,  6 00
+  * Mahan's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.)    8vo, half morocco,  7 50
+  Manual for Courts-martial.                           16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Mercur's Attack of Fortified Places.                        12mo,  2 00
+  *   Elements of the Art of War.                                8vo,  4 00
+  Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures--And the Administration
+        of Workshops.                                            8vo,  5 00
+  *   Ordnance and Gunnery. 2 vols.                             12mo,  5 00
+  Murray's Infantry Drill Regulations.                   18mo, paper,    10
+  Nixon's Adjutants' Manual.                                    24mo,  1 00
+  Peabody's Naval Architecture.                                  8vo,  7 50
+  * Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying.                         8vo,  2 50
+  Powell's Army Officer's Examiner.                             12mo,  4 00
+  Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War.            18mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Tupes and Poole's Manual of Bayonet Exercises and
+        Musketry Fencing.                              24mo, leather,    50
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wheeler's Siege Operations and Military Mining.                8vo,  2 00
+  Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+  Young's Simple Elements of Navigation.               16mo, morocco,  2 00
+
+
+ASSAYING.
+
+  Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative
+        Assaying with the Blowpipe.                    12mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory
+        Experiments.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Low's Technical Methods of Ore Analysis.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Miller's Manual of Assaying.                                  12mo,  1 00
+      Cyanide Process.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+
+
+ASTRONOMY.
+
+  Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.                      8vo,  2 50
+  Craig's Azimuth.                                               4to,  3 50
+  Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.             8vo,  3 00
+  Doolittle's Treatise on Practical Astronomy.                   8vo,  4 00
+  Gore's Elements of Geodesy.                                    8vo,  2 50
+  Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.          8vo,  2 50
+  * Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  * White's Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy.  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+BOTANY.
+
+  Davenport's Statistical Methods, with Special
+        Reference to Biological Variation.             16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  Thomé and Bennett's Structural and Physiological Botany.      16mo,  2 25
+  Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider.)       8vo,  2 00
+
+
+CHEMISTRY.
+
+  * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)    12mo,  1 25
+  Adriance's Laboratory Calculations and Specific Gravity
+        Tables.                                                 12mo,  1 25
+  Alexeyeff's General Principles of Organic Synthesis.
+        (Matthews.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel.)              Small 8vo,  3 50
+  Austen's Notes for Chemical Students.                         12mo,  1 50
+  Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder.--Nitro-cellulose, and Theory
+        of the Cellulose Molecule.                              12mo,  2 50
+  Bolduan's Immune Sera.                                        12mo,  1 50
+  * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.               8vo,  1 50
+  Brush and Penfield's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy.       8vo,  4 00
+  * Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)         8vo,  3 00
+  Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis.
+        (Boltwood.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers.                            12mo,  2 00
+      Tests and Reagents.                                        8vo,  3 00
+  Crafts's Short Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis.
+        (Schaeffer.)                                            12mo,  1 50
+  * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)                      12mo,  1 25
+  Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery).
+        (Von Ende.)                                             12mo,  2 50
+  Drechsel's Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.)                     12mo,  1 25
+  Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)               8vo,  4 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)          8vo,  3 00
+  Erdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.)    12mo,  1 25
+  * Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.                 Large 12mo,  2 00
+  Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative
+        Assaying with the Blowpipe.                    12mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.                               12mo,  2 00
+  Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.)  8vo,  5 00
+      Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I.
+        Descriptive. (Wells.)                                    8vo,  3 00
+      Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) 2 vols.            8vo, 12 50
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.                         8vo,  3 00
+  * Getman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry.                   12mo,  2 00
+  Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.                   12mo,  1 25
+  * Gooch and Browning's Outlines of Qualitative Chemical
+        Analysis.                                          Small 8vo,  1 25
+  Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)     12mo,  2 00
+  Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography. (Marshall.) 12mo,  1 25
+  Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)   8vo,  4 00
+  Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)         8vo,  5 00
+  * Haskin's and MacLeod's Organic Chemistry.                   12mo,  2 00
+  Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan.)        12mo,  1 50
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors.)
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Hind's Inorganic Chemistry.                                    8vo,  3 00
+  *   Laboratory Manual for Students.                           12mo,  1 00
+  Holleman's Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.)         8vo,  2 50
+      Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.)         8vo,  2 50
+  *   Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry. (Walker.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments,
+        and Varnishes. (In Press.)
+  Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Iddings's Rock Minerals.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological
+        Chemistry.                                               8vo,  1 25
+  Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals
+        in Thin Sections. (In Press.)
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Ladd's Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis.              12mo,  1 00
+  Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)                        8vo,  3 00
+  * Langworthy and Austen. The Occurrence of Aluminium in
+        Vegetable Products, Animal Products, and Natural Waters. 8vo,  2 00
+  Lassar-Cohn's Application of Some General Reactions to
+        Investigations in Organic Chemistry. (Tingle.)          12mo,  1 00
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                              8vo,  7 50
+  Löb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)         8vo,  3 00
+  Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory
+        Experiments.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Low's Technical Method of Ore Analysis.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Lunge's Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.)                      12mo  1 00
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making. 8vo,  1 50
+  Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)
+  Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory.                12mo,  1 50
+  * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with
+        the Blowpipe.                                           12mo,    60
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.) 3d Edition, Rewritten.                      8vo,  4 00
+      Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)     12mo,  1 25
+  Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.          8vo,  4 00
+  Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds.
+        (Tingle.)                                               12mo,  1 00
+  Miller's Manual of Assaying.                                  12mo,  1 00
+      Cyanide Process.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry.                   12mo,  1 50
+  Morgan's An Outline of the Theory of Solutions and its
+        Results.                                                12mo,  1 00
+      Elements of Physical Chemistry.                           12mo,  3 00
+  *   Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers.              12mo,  5 00
+  Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.   16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Muir's History of Chemical Theories and Laws.                8vo,  4 00
+  Mulliken's General Method for the Identification of Pure
+        Organic Compounds. Vol. I.                         Large 8vo,  5 00
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Ostwald's Conversations on Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey.)     12mo,  1 50
+      "           "       "      "      Part Two. (Turnbull.)   12mo,  2 00
+  * Palmer's Practical Test Book of Chemistry.                  12mo,  1 00
+  * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine.
+        (Fischer.)                                              12mo,  1 25
+  * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and
+        Record of Mineral Tests.                          8vo, paper,    50
+  Pictet's The Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution.
+        (Biddle.)                                                8vo,  5 00
+  Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry. (Austen.)         12mo,  1 50
+  Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with
+        Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.           12mo,  1 25
+  * Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.                              8vo, 25 00
+  Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.                                              8vo,  2 00
+  Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.      8vo,  4 00
+      Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.                 8vo,  4 00
+  Riggs's Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory.         8vo,  1 25
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions.                 8vo,  2 00
+  *   Whys in Pharmacy.                                         12mo,  1 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.
+        (Orndorff.)                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Schimpf's Text-book of Volumetric Analysis.                   12mo,  2 50
+      Essentials of Volumetric Analysis.                        12mo,  1 25
+  *   Qualitative Chemical Analysis.                             8vo,  1 25
+  Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students.        8vo,  2 50
+  Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.           16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.                                 8vo,  2 50
+  * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.                        8vo,  1 50
+  *   Descriptive General Chemistry.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis. (Hall.)                      8vo,  3 00
+      Quantitative Analysis. (Hall.)                             8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.)  12mo,  1 50
+  * Walke's Lectures on Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+    "        "           "       "     "      Vol. II.     Small 8vo,  5 00
+  Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks.         8vo,  2 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-Water.    8vo,  4 00
+  Wells's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis.     8vo,  1 50
+      Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis
+        for Engineering Students.                               12mo,  1 50
+      Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic.                         12mo,  1 25
+  Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic, Pharmaceutical,
+        and Medical Chemistry.                                  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+CIVIL ENGINEERING.
+
+
+BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. RAILWAY
+ENGINEERING.
+
+  Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments.                     12mo,  3 00
+  Bixby's Graphical Computing Table.    Paper 19-1/2 × 24-1/4 inches,    25
+  Breed and Hosmer's Principles and Practice of Surveying.       8vo,  3 00
+  * Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.                      8vo,  2 50
+  * Corthell's Allowable Pressures on Deep Foundations.         12mo,  1 25
+  Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.             8vo,  3 00
+  Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables.                           8vo,  1 00
+  Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.                      12mo,  1 50
+      Practical Farm Drainage.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  * Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Flemer's Phototopographic Methods and Instruments.             8vo,  5 00
+  Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.)               8vo,  3 00
+  Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 2d Edition, Rewritten.    8vo,  3 50
+  French and Ives's Stereotomy.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Goodhue's Municipal Improvements.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Gore's Elements of Geodesy.                                    8vo,  2 50
+  * Hauch and Rice's Tables of Quantities for Preliminary
+        Estimates.                                              12mo,  1 25
+  Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth.                             12mo,  1 25
+  Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge.                             8vo,  2 00
+  * Ives's Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level.
+                                                           16mo, Bds.    25
+  Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying.              16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.    8vo,  2 00
+  Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities.
+        (Truscott and Emory.)                                   12mo,  2 00
+  Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.)         8vo,  5 00
+  *   Descriptive Geometry.                                      8vo,  1 50
+  Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.          8vo,  2 50
+  Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors.        16mo, morocco,  2 00
+  Nugent's Plane Surveying.                                      8vo,  3 50
+  Ogden's Sewer Design.                                         12mo,  2 00
+  Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse.                        8vo,  2 00
+  Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering.           8vo half leather,  7 50
+  Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.                    4to,  5 00
+  Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.      8vo,  4 00
+  Riemer's Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions.
+        (Corning and Peele.)                                     8vo,  3 00
+  Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.         8vo,  1 50
+  Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)           8vo,  2 50
+  Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to
+        Trusses, Beams, and Arches.                              8vo,  2 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Tracy's Plane Surveying.                             16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  * Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book.          16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Venable's Garbage Crematories in America.                      8vo,  2 00
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Warren's Stereotomy--Problems in Stone-cutting.                8vo,  2 50
+  Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of
+        Engineering Instruments.                       16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  Wilson's Topographic Surveying.                                8vo,  3 50
+
+
+BRIDGES AND ROOFS.
+
+  Boller's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron
+        Highway Bridges.                                         8vo,  2 00
+  Burr and Falk's Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof
+        Computations.                                            8vo,  3 00
+      Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges.               8vo,  5 00
+  Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering.  Vol. II.            Small 4to, 10 00
+  Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges.                   4to,  5 00
+  Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Greene's Roof Trusses.                                         8vo,  1 25
+      Bridge Trusses.                                            8vo,  2 50
+      Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses. (In Press.)
+  Howe's Treatise on Arches.                                     8vo,  4 00
+      Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel.           8vo,  2 00
+      Symmetrical Masonry Arches.                                8vo,  2 50
+  Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in
+        the Designing of Modern Framed Structures.         Small 4to, 10 00
+  Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges:
+      Part I.  Stresses in Simple Trusses.                       8vo,  2 50
+      Part II.  Graphic Statics.                                 8vo,  2 50
+      Part III. Bridge Design.                                   8vo,  2 50
+      Part IV. Higher Structures.                                8vo,  2 50
+  Morison's Memphis Bridge.                                      4to, 10 00
+  Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge
+        Engineers.                                     16mo, morocco,  2 00
+  *   Specifications for Steel Bridges.                         12mo,    50
+  Wright's Designing of Draw-spans. Two parts in one volume.     8vo,  3 50
+
+
+HYDRAULICS.
+
+  Barnes's Ice Formation.                                        8vo,  3 00
+  Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein
+        Issuing from an Orifice. (Trautwine.)                    8vo,  2 00
+  Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics.                                8vo,  5 00
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+      Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels.     paper,  1 50
+      Hydraulic Motors.                                          8vo,  2 00
+  Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems.   16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+  Folwell's Water-supply Engineering.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Frizell's Water-power.                                         8vo,  5 00
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+      Water-filtration Works.                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform
+        Flow of Water in Rivers and Other Channels.
+        (Hering and Trautwine.)                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It.                  Large 12mo,  1 50
+      Filtration of Public Water-supply.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works.                 8vo,  2 50
+  Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of
+        Large, Riveted, Metal Conduits.                          8vo,  2 00
+  * Hubbard and Kiersted's Water-works Management and
+        Maintenance.                                             8vo,  4 00
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a
+        Sanitary Standpoint.)                                    8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics.                             8vo,  5 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                   8vo,  4 00
+  Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and
+        Domestic Water-supply                              Large 8vo,  5 00
+  * Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers.                     4to,  6 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 5th Edition,
+        enlarged.                                                4to,  6 00
+      Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895.    4to, 10 00
+  Whipple's Value of Pure Water.                          Large 12mo,  1 00
+  Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables.                         8vo,  1 50
+  Wilson's Irrigation Engineering.                         Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Turbines.                                               8vo,  2 50
+      Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                          8vo,  3 00
+
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
+
+  Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction.                      8vo,  5 00
+      Roads and Pavements.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Black's United States Public Works.                     Oblong 4to,  5 00
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of
+        Engineering.                                             8vo,  7 50
+  Byrne's Highway Construction.                                  8vo,  5 00
+      Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed
+        in Construction.                                        16mo,  3 00
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+  Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.              Small 4to,  7 50
+  * Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.                        8vo,  6 00
+  Johnson's Materials of Construction.                     Large 8vo,  6 00
+  Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Graves's Forest Mensuration.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols.    8vo,  7 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.                  8vo,  5 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Strength of Materials.                                    12mo,  1 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Patron's Practical Treatise on Foundations.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.  16mo, mor.,  4 00
+  * Ries's Clays; Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.        8vo,  5 00
+  Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France.                     12mo,  1 25
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  * Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Snow's Principal Species of Wood.                              8vo,  3 50
+  Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.                                  12mo,  2 00
+  Text-book on Roads and Pavements.                             12mo,  2 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts.                  8vo,  8 00
+      Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and
+        Metallurgy.                                              8vo,  2 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other
+        Alloys and their Constituents.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials.               8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete
+        Construction.                                            8vo,  3 00
+  Waddell's De Pontibus. (A Pocket-book for Bridge
+        Engineers.)                                       16mo, mor.,  2 00
+  *   Specifications for Steel Bridges.                         12mo,    50
+  Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and
+        an Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.               8vo,  2 00
+  Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics.               8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis
+        of Iron and Steel.                                       8vo,  4 00
+
+
+RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
+
+  Andrew's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers.
+                                                 3x5 inches, morocco,  1 25
+  Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.         4to,  5 00
+  Brook's Handbook of Street Railroad Location.        16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Butt's Civil Engineer's Field-book.                  16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Crandall's Transition Curve.                         16mo, morocco,  1 50
+      Railway and Other Earthwork Tables.                        8vo,  1 50
+  Crookett's Methods for Earthwork Computations. (In Press)
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                   16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879).       Paper,  5 00
+  Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards.                           Cardboard,    25
+  Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers'
+        Guide.                                            16mo, mor.,  2 50
+  Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of
+        Excavations and Embankments.                             8vo,  1 00
+  Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers.            16mo,  1 00
+  Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers.         16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers.              16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Raymond's Elements of Railroad Engineering. (In Press.)
+  Searles's Field Engineering.                         16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Railroad Spiral.                                 16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Taylor's Prismoidal Formulæ and Earthwork.                     8vo,  1 50
+  * Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cube Contents
+        of Excavations and Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams.   8vo,  2 00
+      The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves
+        for Railroads.                                 12mo, morocco,  2 50
+      Cross-section Sheet.                                     Paper,    25
+  Webb's Railroad Construction.                        16mo, morocco,  5 00
+      Economics of Railroad Construction.                 Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways.
+                                                           Small 8vo,  5 00
+
+
+DRAWING.
+
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  3 00
+  *     "          "         "     Abridged Ed.                  8vo,  1 50
+  Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.                           8vo, paper,  1 00
+  Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting
+        for Mechanical Engineers.                         Oblong 4to,  2 50
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its
+        Applications.                                            8vo,  2 50
+  Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective.       8vo,  2 00
+  Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.                      8vo,  2 50
+      Advanced Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  2 00
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry.                    8vo,  3 00
+      Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                       8vo,  5 00
+      Mechanical Drawing.                                        4to,  4 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  MacLeod's Descriptive Geometry.                          Small 8vo,  1 50
+  * Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting.              8vo,  1 50
+      Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)                            8vo,  3 50
+  Moyer's Descriptive Geometry.                                  8vo,  2 00
+  Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.                    4to,  5 00
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)   8vo,  2 50
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  * Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.           Oblong 8vo,  1 25
+  Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical
+        Drawing.                                                12mo,  1 00
+      Drafting Instruments and Operations.                      12mo,  1 25
+      Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing.                  12mo,  1 50
+      Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective
+        of Form and Shadow.                                     12mo,  1 00
+      Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry.                    12mo,  1 25
+      Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 50
+      General Problems of Shades and Shadows.                    8vo,  3 00
+      Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.              8vo,  7 50
+      Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry.  8vo,  2 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Herrmann
+        and Klein.)                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Art of Letter
+        Engraving.                                              12mo,  2 00
+  Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Perspective.                        8vo,  2 50
+  Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering.                          8vo,  1 00
+  Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry.       Large 8vo,  3 00
+
+
+ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.
+
+  * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)    12mo,  1 25
+  Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.)    Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical
+        Measurements.                                           12mo,  1 00
+  Benjamin's History of Electricity.                             8vo,  3 00
+      Voltaic Cell.                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis. (In Press.)
+  Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis.
+        (Boltwood.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  * Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy.                    12mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.             8vo,  3 00
+  * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)                      12mo,  1 25
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                   16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage
+        Battery). (Von Ende.)                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)               8vo,  4 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+  Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.)                              8vo,  2 50
+  Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained.                    12mo,  1 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)
+  Holman's Precision of Measurements.                            8vo,  2 00
+      Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments,
+        and Tests.                                         Large 8vo,    75
+  Karapetoff's Experimental Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)
+  Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines.          8vo,  2 00
+  Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)                        8vo,  3 00
+  Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements.
+        (Boudouard--Burgess.)                                   12mo,  3 00
+  Löb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)         8vo,  3 00
+  * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena.
+        Vols. I. and II.                                   8vo, each,  6 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to
+        Sound and Light.                                         8vo,  4 00
+  Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries.
+        (Fishback.)                                             12mo,  2 50
+  Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)
+  * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design. 4to, half morocco, 12 50
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  * Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering.
+        (Haldane Gee--Kinzbrunner.)                              8vo,  2 00
+  Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.        8vo,  2 50
+  Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines.                           8vo,  2 50
+  * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.                        8vo,  1 50
+  Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics.         Small 8vo,  2 00
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+
+
+LAW.
+
+  * Davis's Elements of Law.                                     8vo,  2 50
+  *   Treatise on the Military Law of United States.             8vo,  7 00
+  *                                                            Sheep,  7 50
+  * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure
+        of Courts-martial.                                Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Manual for Courts-martial.                           16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.                        12mo,  2 50
+
+
+MANUFACTURES.
+
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder--Nitro-cellulose and Theory of
+        the Cellulose Molecule.                                 12mo,  2 50
+  Bolland's Iron Founder.                                       12mo,  2 50
+      "The Iron Founder," Supplement.                           12mo,  2 50
+      Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms
+        Used in the Practice of Moulding.                       12mo,  3 00
+  * Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)         8vo,  3 00
+  * Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.                        8vo,  6 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)          8vo,  3 00
+  Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.                       18mo,  1 00
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments,
+        and Varnishes. (In Press.)
+  Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                        Large 8vo,  7 50
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making. 8vo,  1 50
+  Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)
+  Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.          8vo,  4 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures--And the Administration
+        of Workshops.                                            8vo,  5 00
+  Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.                        4to, 10 00
+  Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.   16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.                              8vo, 25 00
+  Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.                             8vo,  2 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's Press-working of Metals.                               8vo,  3 00
+  Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.                                  12mo,  2 00
+  Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.           16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Thurston's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs,
+        Construction and Operation.                              8vo,  5 00
+  Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+   "          "         "         "     "     Vol. II.           8vo,  5 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  West's American Foundry Practice.                             12mo,  2 50
+      Moulder's Text-book.                                      12mo,  2 50
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of
+        Iron and Steel.                                          8vo,  4 00
+
+
+MATHEMATICS.
+
+  Baker's Elliptic Functions.                                    8vo,  1 50
+  Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry.                 12mo,  1 00
+  Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. (In Press.)
+  Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations.                 12mo,  1 50
+  Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra.                  8vo,  1 50
+  * Dickson's College Algebra.                            Large 12mo,  1 50
+  *   Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations.  Large 12mo,  1 25
+  Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its
+        Applications.                                            8vo,  2 50
+  Halsted's Elements of Geometry.                                8vo,  1 75
+      Elementary Synthetic Geometry.                             8vo,  1 50
+  *   Rational Geometry.                                        12mo,  1 50
+  * Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables:
+                                              Vest-pocket size paper,    15
+                                                       100 copies for  5 00
+  *                        Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 × 10 inches,    25
+                                                        10 copies for  2 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on Differential
+        Calculus.                                          Small 8vo,  3 00
+      Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus.        Small 8vo,  1 50
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates.    12mo,  1 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Treatise on Ordinary and Partial
+        Differential Equations.                            Small 8vo,  3 50
+  Johnson's Treatise on the Integral Calculus.             Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Theory of Errors and the Method of
+        Least Squares.                                          12mo,  1 50
+  * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.                    12mo,  3 00
+  Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities.
+        (Truscott and Emory.)                                   12mo,  2 00
+  * Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic
+        and Other Tables.                                        8vo,  3 00
+      Trigonometry and Tables published separately.             Each,  2 00
+  * Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables.               8vo,  1 00
+  Manning's Irrational Numbers and their Representation by
+        Sequences and Series                                    12mo,  1 25
+  Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman
+        and Robert S. Woodward.                          Octavo, each  1 00
+
+    No. 1. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith. No.
+    2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted. No. 3.
+    Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyperbolic Functions,
+    by James McMahon. No. 5. Harmonic Functions, by William E. Byerly.
+    No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis, by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7.
+    Probability and Theory of Errors, by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8.
+    Vector Analysis and Quaternions, by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9.
+    Differential Equations, by William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The
+    Solution of Equations, by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of
+    a Complex Variable, by Thomas S. Fiske.
+
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Method of Least Squares.                            8vo,  2 00
+  Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the
+        Differential Calculus.                               Sm. 8vo,  3 00
+      Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols. in one.  Small 8vo,  3 50
+  * Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real
+        Infinitesimal Analysis of One Variable.                  8vo,  2 00
+  Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry.                       8vo,  2 00
+      Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical.           12mo,  1 00
+
+
+MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
+
+  Bacon's Forge Practice.                                       12mo,  1 50
+  Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  3 00
+  *     "          "         "     Abridged Ed.                  8vo,  1 50
+  Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes.                              12mo,  2 00
+  Carpenter's Experimental Engineering.                          8vo,  6 00
+      Heating and Ventilating Buildings.                         8vo,  4 00
+  Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine.                              Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.                           8vo, paper,  1 00
+  Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting
+        for Mechanical Engineers.                         Oblong 4to,  2 50
+  Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.                       12mo,  1 50
+      Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power.          12mo,  3 00
+      Rope Driving.                                             12mo,  2 00
+  Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Hall's Car Lubrication.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Hutton's The Gas Engine.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Jamison's Mechanical Drawing.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book.            16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.                    8vo,  4 00
+  * Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven,
+        and Dean.)                                               8vo,  4 00
+  MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                 8vo,  5 00
+      Mechanical Drawing.                                        4to,  4 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases.             8vo,  1 50
+  Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)                        8vo,  3 50
+  Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Richards's Compressed Air.                                    12mo,  1 50
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery
+        and Mill Work.                                           8vo,  3 00
+      Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of
+        Energetics.                                             12mo,  1 00
+  Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.                     16mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.         8vo,  7 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission.
+        (Herrmann--Klein.)                                       8vo,  5 00
+      Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann--Klein.)
+                                                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Turbines.                                               8vo,  2 50
+
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
+
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of
+        Engineering. 6th Edition. Reset.                         8vo,  7 50
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Johnson's Materials of Construction.                           8vo,  6 00
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.)            8vo,  7 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Strength of Materials                                     12mo,  1 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering.                  3 vols., 8vo,  8 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other
+        Alloys and their Constituents.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an
+        Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.                  8vo,  2 00
+      Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis
+        of Iron and Steel.                                       8vo,  4 00
+
+
+STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
+
+  Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram.                          12mo,  1 25
+  Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.) 12mo,  1 50
+  Creighton's Steam-engine and other Heat-motors.                8vo,  5 00
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                      16mo, mor.,  5 00
+  Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.                       18mo,  1 00
+  Goss's Locomotive Sparks.                                      8vo,  2 00
+      Locomotive Performance.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy.       12mo,  2 00
+  Hutton's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants.               8vo,  5 00
+      Heat and Heat-engines.                                     8vo,  5 00
+  Kent's Steam boiler Economy.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector.                  8vo,  1 50
+  MacCord's Slide-valves.                                        8vo,  2 00
+  Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.                        4to, 10 00
+  Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator.               12mo,  1 50
+      Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other
+        Vapors.                                                  8vo,  1 00
+      Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines. 8vo,  5 00
+      Valve-gears for Steam-engines.                             8vo,  2 50
+  Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator.                  Large 8vo,  2 50
+  Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and
+        Saturated Vapors. (Osterberg.)                          12mo,  1 25
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management.          12mo,  2 00
+  Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice.          12mo,  2 50
+  Snow's Steam-boiler Practice.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Spangler's Valve-gears.                                        8vo,  2 50
+      Notes on Thermodynamics.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of
+        Steam-engineering.                                       8vo,  3 00
+  Thomas's Steam-turbines.                                       8vo,  3 50
+  Thurston's Handy Tables.                                       8vo,  1 50
+      Manual of the Steam-engine.                       2 vols., 8vo, 10 00
+      Part I. History, Structure, and Theory.                    8vo,  6 00
+      Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation.              8vo,  6 00
+      Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the
+        Indicator and the Prony Brake.                           8vo,  5 00
+      Stationary Steam-engines.                                  8vo,  2 50
+      Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice.        12mo,  1 50
+      Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and
+        Operation.                                               8vo,  5 00
+  Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water.
+        (Patterson.)                                             8vo,  4 00
+  Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.)          8vo,  5 00
+  Whitham's Steam-engine Design.                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines.
+                                                                 8vo,  4 00
+
+
+MECHANICS AND MACHINERY.
+
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Chase's The Art of Pattern-making.                            12mo,  2 50
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+      Notes and Examples in Mechanics.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working.                     12mo,  1 50
+  Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe.                      12mo,  1 50
+  Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.                       12mo,  1 50
+      Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and
+        Schools.                                                12mo,  1 50
+  Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making.                            12mo,  2 00
+  Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of
+        the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.  4to, half morocco,  5 00
+  Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics:
+      Vol. I. Kinematics.                                        8vo,  3 50
+      Vol. II. Statics.                                          8vo,  4 00
+      Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.                    Small 4to,  7 50
+                                Vol. II.                   Small 4to, 10 00
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.                                16mo,  1 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+      Rope Driving.                                             12mo,  2 00
+  Goss's Locomotive Sparks.                                      8vo,  2 00
+      Locomotive Performance.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Hall's Car Lubrication.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)
+  Holly's Art of Saw Filing.                                    18mo,    75
+  James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics
+        of a Particle.                                     Small 8vo,  2 00
+  * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.                    12mo,  3 00
+  Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods.    8vo,  2 00
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.                    8vo,  4 00
+  * Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven,
+        and Dean.)                                               8vo,  4 00
+  MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                 8vo,  5 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  * Martin's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. 1, Statics.           12mo,  1 25
+  *                                  Vol. 2, Kinematics and
+        Kinetics.                                               12mo,  1 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Elements of Mechanics.                                    12mo,  1 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                   8vo,  4 00
+  * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design. 4to, half morocco, 12 50
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Richards's Compressed Air.                                    12mo,  1 50
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.        8vo,  2 50
+  Sanborn's Mechanics: Problems.                          Large 12mo,  1 50
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management.          12mo,  2 00
+  Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (A. W.) Materials of Machines.                        12mo,  1 00
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Sorel's Carbureting and Combustion of Alcohol Engines.
+        (Woodward and Preston.)                            Large 8vo,  3 00
+  Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and
+        Mill Work.                                               8vo,  3 00
+      Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of
+        Energetics.                                             12mo,  1 00
+  Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.                     16mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.         8vo,  7 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission.
+        (Herrmann--Klein.)                                       8vo,  5 00
+      Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann--Klein.)
+                                                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                       8vo,  3 00
+      Principles of Elementary Mechanics.                       12mo,  1 25
+      Turbines.                                                  8vo,  2 50
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                      4to,  1 00
+
+
+MEDICAL.
+
+  * Bolduan's Immune Sera.                                      12mo,  1 50
+  De Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and
+        Collins.)                                         Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.)            8vo,  6 00
+  * Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.          Large 12mo, cloth,  2 00
+  Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)   8vo,  4 00
+  Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.)           12mo,  1 00
+  * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine.
+        (Fischer.)                                              12mo,  1 25
+  * Pozzi-Escot's The Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies.
+        (Cohn.)                                                 12mo,  1 00
+  Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.)                        12mo,  1 00
+  Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.
+        (Orndorff.)                                              8vo,  2 50
+  * Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog.                   8vo,  3 50
+  Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+      * Personal Hygiene.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Wulling's An Elementary Course in Inorganic Pharmaceutical
+        and Medical Chemistry.                                  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+METALLURGY.
+
+  Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis. (In Press.)
+  Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury.
+      Vol. I.  Silver.                                           8vo,  7 50
+      Vol. II. Gold and Mercury.                                 8vo,  7 50
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.          16mo, mor.  3 00
+  * Iles's Lead-smelting.                                       12mo,  2 50
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.                 8vo,  1 50
+  Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements.
+        (Boudouard--Burgess.)                                   12mo,  3 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Miller's Cyanide Process.                                     12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts.           8vo,  8 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys
+        and their Constituents.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+
+
+MINERALOGY.
+
+  Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial
+        Value.                                       Oblong, morocco,  2 50
+  Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Boyd's Map of Southwest Virginia.                 Pocket-book form.  2 00
+  * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.               8vo,  1 50
+  Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.)        8vo,  4 00
+  Chester's Catalogue of Minerals.                        8vo, paper,  1 00
+                                                               Cloth,  1 25
+      Dictionary of the Names of Minerals.                       8vo,  3 50
+  Dana's System of Mineralogy.               Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50
+      First Appendix to Dana's New "System of Mineralogy." Large 8vo,  1 00
+      Text-book of Mineralogy.                                   8vo,  4 00
+      Minerals and How to Study Them.                           12mo,  1 50
+      Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals.        Large 8vo,  1 00
+      Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography.                     12mo,  2 00
+  Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.        12mo,  1 00
+  Eakle's Mineral Tables.                                        8vo,  1 25
+  Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms.                 8vo,  2 50
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.         16mo, mor.,  3 00
+  Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall.)  12mo,  1 25
+  Iddings's Rock Minerals.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals
+        in Thin Sections. (In Press.)
+  * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the
+        Blowpipe.                                               12mo,    60
+  Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals. Their Occurrence and Uses.    8vo,  4 00
+      Stones for Building and Decoration.                        8vo,  5 00
+  * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and
+        Record of Mineral Tests.                          8vo, paper,    50
+      Tables of Minerals.                                        8vo,  1 00
+  * Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters          12mo, morocco,  1 25
+  * Ries's Clays. Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.        8vo,  5 00
+  Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making
+        Minerals. (Iddings.)                                     8vo,  5 00
+  * Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks.         8vo,  2 00
+
+
+MINING.
+
+  Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)
+  Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.                        8vo,  3 00
+      Map of Southwest Virginia.                    Pocket-book form,  2 00
+  Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.        12mo,  1 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals; A Reference Book.         16mo, mor.,  3 00
+  Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the
+        United States.                                          12mo,  2 50
+  Ihlseng's Manual of Mining.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  * Iles's Lead-smelting.                                       12mo,  2 50
+  Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.                 8vo,  1 50
+  Miller's Cyanide Process.                                     12mo,  1 00
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+      Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten.       12mo,  2 50
+      Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation.   12mo,  1 25
+
+
+SANITARY SCIENCE.
+
+  Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.                      12mo,  1 00
+  *   Outlines of Practical Sanitation.                         12mo,  1 25
+  Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.)
+                                                                 8vo,  3 00
+      Water-supply Engineering.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.                               12mo,  2 00
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+      Water-filtration Works.                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.                 16mo,  1 00
+      Sanitation of Public Buildings.                           12mo,  1 50
+  Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                              8vo,  7 50
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint)                                              8vo,  4 00
+      Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)     12mo,  1 25
+  * Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering.                 8vo,  2 00
+  Ogden's Sewer Design.                                         12mo,  2 00
+  Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with
+        Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.           12mo,  1 25
+  * Price's Handbook on Sanitation.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries.                12mo,  1 00
+      Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science.           12mo,  1 00
+      Cost of Shelter.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Richards and Woodman's Air. Water, and Food from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.                                              8vo,  2 00
+  * Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer.                8vo,  1 50
+  Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage.          8vo,  4 00
+      Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.                 8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's Air Conditioning.  (In Press.)
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+  *   Personal Hygiene.                                         12mo,  1 00
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+  Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments
+        (Interstate Pure Food Commission):
+          Tenth Annual Convention Held at Hartford,
+            July 17-20, 1906.                                    8vo,  3 00
+          Eleventh Annual Convention, Held at Jamestown
+            Tri-Centennial Exposition, July 16-19, 1907. (In Press.)
+  Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion
+        of the International Congress of Geologists.       Large 8vo,  1 50
+  Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds.                        8vo,  4 00
+  Gannett's Statistical Abstract of the World.                  24mo,    75
+  Gerhard's The Modern Bath and Bath-houses. (In Press.)
+  Haines's American Railway Management.                         12mo,  2 50
+  Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
+        1824-1894.                                         Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament.                    Large 8vo,  2 00
+  Standage's Decorative Treatment of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc. (In Press.)
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                      4to,  1 00
+  Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy.                     12mo,  1 50
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+HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.
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+  Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar.                            12mo,  1 25
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+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | The following inconsistencies were kept:                     |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Aluminum -- Aluminium                                        |
+  | canceled -- cancelled                                        |
+  | Cubit's Gap -- CUBITS GAP                                    |
+  | Encyclopædia -- Encyclopedia                                 |
+  | Feed-water -- Feed-Water                                     |
+  | Light-House -- lighthouse                                    |
+  | sea-weed -- seaweed                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Punctuation has been corrected without explicit notice.      |
+  | The following changes have been made (c. = catalogue page):  |
+  |                                                              |
+  | p. vii "Nordenskiold" changed to "Nordenskiöld"              |
+  | p.   9 "alsoo" changed to "also".                            |
+  | p. 114 "United States Court Survey" changed to               |
+  |        "United States Coast Survey".                         |
+  | p. 132 "22°.5" changed to "22.5°".                           |
+  | c.   1 "Riveteé" changed to "Rivetée".                       |
+  | c.   3 "Metcalf's" changed to "Metcalfe's".                  |
+  | c.   5 "Matthew's" changed to "Matthews's".                  |
+  | c.  10 "Hermann" changed to "Herrmann".                      |
+  | c.  12 "Maunal" changed to "Manual".                         |
+  | c.  14 "Richard's" changed to "Richards's".                  |
+  | c.  15 "Wehrenfenning's" changed to "Wehrenfennig's".        |
+  | c.  18 "Virignia" changed to "Virginia".                     |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nautical Charts, by G. R. Putnam
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Nautical Charts
+
+Author: G. R. Putnam
+
+Release Date: November 13, 2013 [EBook #44175]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAUTICAL CHARTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Peter Becker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.              |
+  | Passages in bold are indicated by #bold#.                    |
+  | Superscript text is preceded by a caret, like N^o.           |
+  | [oe] represents the oe-ligature.                             |
+  | Small-caps text has been converted to UPPERCASE.             |
+  | Changes in the text are listed at the end of the book.       |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SURVEYING STEAMER _FATHOMER_ IN MANILA BAY.
+
+  (_Frontispiece_)
+]
+
+
+
+
+                            NAUTICAL CHARTS
+
+                                  BY
+
+                          G. R. PUTNAM, M.S.
+
+           MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
+                 DIRECTOR OF COAST SURVEYS, PHILIPPINE
+                         ISLANDS, 1900 TO 1906
+
+                             _FIRST EDITION_
+                             FIRST THOUSAND
+
+                                NEW YORK
+                           JOHN WILEY & SONS
+                    LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
+                                  1908
+
+
+                             COPYRIGHT, 1908,
+                                   BY
+                              G. R. PUTNAM
+
+
+                             Stanhope Press
+
+                          F. H. GILSON COMPANY
+                             BOSTON, U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In preparing the material for a lecture on Charts for Columbia
+University, the writer was impressed with the fact that although
+nautical charts are mentioned or discussed in many publications, there
+was not found any one which covered the general subject of their origin,
+construction, and use. In the countries of the world more than a million
+copies of such charts are now issued annually. A considerable portion of
+the human race is interested directly or indirectly, whether as mariners
+or passengers or shippers, in navigation upon the sea. Aside from
+supplying a handbook for those who might have a general interest in the
+subject, it was thought that a discussion of charts might lead to
+further consideration of the principles governing their construction.
+
+This paper has intentionally been made as non-technical as seemed
+feasible in treating a somewhat technical subject. The writer is
+indebted to the Coast and Geodetic Survey for various illustrative
+material from its archives, and to a number of authors for facts or
+suggestions. A list is appended of books and papers which have been
+freely consulted, bearing on this and related subjects.
+
+  G. R. P.
+
+  WASHINGTON, D.C., _May 24, 1908_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                        PAGE
+
+  LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTICAL CHARTS
+  AND RELATED SUBJECTS                                   vii
+
+  CHARTS AND MAPS                                          1
+
+  COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS                    31
+
+  PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS                   67
+
+  PUBLICATION OF CHARTS                                   84
+
+  CORRECTION OF CHARTS                                    97
+
+  READING AND USING CHARTS                               112
+
+  USE OF CHARTS IN NAVIGATION                            124
+
+  PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL CHARTS             154
+
+  INDEX                                                  161
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTICAL CHARTS AND RELATED SUBJECTS
+
+
+    Periplus, an Essay on the Early History of Charts, and Sailing
+    Directions. A. E. Nordenskiöld, Stockholm, 1897.
+
+    Maps, their Uses and Construction. G. James Morrison, London,
+    1902.
+
+    Charts and Chart Making. Lieut. John E. Pillsbury, U.S.N., in
+    _Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute, 1884_.
+
+    Principal Facts relating to the Earth's Magnetism. L. A. Bauer, in
+    U. S. Magnetic Declination Tables, Coast and Geodetic Survey,
+    1903.
+
+    Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Coasts of the World. G. W.
+    Littlehales, in Report of the Eighth International Geographic
+    Congress, 1904.
+
+    Smithsonian Geographical Tables. R. S. Woodward, Washington, 1906.
+
+    Admiralty Charts, Abridged list of. Published by J. D. Potter,
+    London, 1907.
+
+    Military Topography. Capt. C. B. Hagadorn, U.S.A., West Point,
+    1907.
+
+    Service Hydrographique de la Marine, Paris, 1900.
+
+    A Manual of Conventional Symbols in Use on Official Charts. United
+    States Hydrographic Office, Gustave Herrle, 1903.
+
+    Hydrographical Surveying. Admiral W. J. L. Wharton, London, 1898.
+
+    On the Correction of Charts, Light Lists, and Sailing Directions.
+    Published by J. D. Potter, London, 1904.
+
+    Notes Relative to the Use of Charts. D. B. Wainwright, Coast and
+    Geodetic Survey, 1900.
+
+    The Law relating to Charts and Sailing Directions. H. Stuart
+    Moore, London, 1904.
+
+    Notes bearing on the Navigation of H. M. Ships. Hydrographic
+    Office, London, 1900.
+
+    The Relations of Harbors to Modern Shipping. W. H. Wheeler, in
+    _Engineering News_, September 6, 1906, New York.
+
+    Wrinkles in Practical Navigation. Capt. S. T. S. Lecky, London,
+    1899.
+
+    Navigation and Compass Deviations. Commander W. C. P. Muir,
+    U.S.N., Annapolis, 1906.
+
+    The Practice of Navigation. Henry Raper, London, 1898.
+
+    Lehrbuch der Navigation. Reichs-Marine-Amt, Berlin, 1906.
+
+    _The Nautical Magazine_, London.
+
+    Dangers and Ice in the North Atlantic Ocean. Bureau of Navigation,
+    U. S. Navy Department, 1868.
+
+    Reported Dangers in the North Pacific Ocean. U. S. Hydrographic
+    Office, 1871.
+
+    Pacific Islands, Vol. III, chapter on "Vigias." British
+    Hydrographic Office, London, 1900.
+
+    Harriman Alaska Expedition, Vol. II, Bogoslof, our Newest Volcano,
+    by C. Hart Merriam, New York, 1901.
+
+    Expedition to the Aleutian Islands, 1907. T. A. Jaggar, Jr., in
+    _The Technology Review_, 1907, Boston.
+
+    Recent Changes in Level in the Yakutat Bay Region, Alaska, by R.
+    S. Tarr and Lawrence Martin, in Bulletin of the American
+    Geological Society, 1906.
+
+    An Index to the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. W. T. Brigham,
+    Honolulu, 1900.
+
+    Geography, articles by C. R. Markham, A. R. Clarke, and H. R. Mill
+    in Encyclopædia Britannica.
+
+    Development in Dimensions of vessels, Elmer L. Corthell, Tenth
+    International Navigation Congress, 1905.
+
+
+
+
+NAUTICAL CHARTS
+
+
+
+
+CHARTS AND MAPS
+
+
+#Need of maps.# Maps are useful and necessary for many purposes. Only by
+means of a correct map or globe can a clear idea of the geography of a
+region be given. An attempt to convey the same information by a written
+description would in comparison be both cumbersome and obscure. Even by
+passing over an extensive region a man unaided by instruments will
+obtain only a rather crude notion of the relations, which he could
+clearly see on a good map. The importance among the human arts of the
+making of maps is indicated by the references to them in very early
+historical records, and by the skill in map drawing shown by some of
+the primitive peoples of to-day. This skill exists particularly among
+races whose mode of life gives them a wide horizon, as for instance the
+Eskimos. An interesting instance of this was the case of Joe, an Eskimo
+guide, who, in 1898, before the surveys of the Yukon delta were made,
+drew a map of the Yukon mouths with much more complete information than
+any previously available.
+
+Without attempting to enumerate in detail the special uses for maps, in
+the broader sense they may be said to be essential for commercial,
+engineering, military, scientific, educational, and political purposes.
+
+#Early geography and map making.# The oldest map known is a plan of gold
+mines in Nubia, drawn on a papyrus. This is of the thirteenth century
+B.C., and was found in Egypt.
+
+In the earliest historic times men believed the earth to be a flat
+surface of nearly circular outline, a natural inference for those with
+limited outlook and communication. Later the idea was introduced of the
+ocean as a river bounding the earth disk. The spherical theory of the
+earth was, however, early accepted by learned men, and was demonstrated
+by Aristotle (384 to 322 B.C.), who used as proofs the earth's shadow on
+the moon, and the change in the visibility of the stars in traveling
+north or south. Crates constructed a terrestrial globe in the second
+century B.C.
+
+There is no Greek or Latin map extant of earlier date than the time of
+Ptolemy, but there are references showing that maps were in use. One of
+the first of such passages in Greek literature is the interesting
+comment of Herodotus written in the fifth century B.C., "but I laugh
+when I see many who already have drawn the circuits of the earth,
+without any right understanding thereof. Thus they draw Oceanus flowing
+round the earth, which is circular, as though turned by a lathe, and
+they make Asia equal to Europe."
+
+A map of the world was drawn by Anaximander, 560 B.C. A hundred years
+later Democritus drew a map having an oblong shape, and taught that the
+width of the world from east to west was one and a half times its extent
+from north to south, a conclusion based on his travels eastward as far
+as India. This theory, which was for a time accepted, has left an
+enduring mark in the words _longitude_ and _latitude_, originally
+signifying the length and the breadth of the earth.
+
+The first application of astronomy to geography was made by Pytheas, who
+about 326 B.C. obtained the latitude of Marseilles by an observation of
+the altitude of the sun. Dicearchus in 310 B.C. determined the first
+parallel of latitude by noting places where on the same day the sun cast
+shadows of equal length from pillars of equal height. Eratosthenes (276
+to 196 B.C.) was the first to compute the circumference of the earth
+from observations of the altitude of the sun at Alexandria and at Syene
+in Upper Egypt and an estimation of the distance between these two
+places. Ptolemy, a Greek of Alexandria, in the years from 127 to 151
+A.D. wrote extensively on geographic subjects, and collected into
+systematic form all geographic knowledge then existing; he was the
+greatest geographer of early history.
+
+In the ten centuries which followed, part of the early advance in this
+science was obscured, and the theory that the earth was a flat disk
+surrounded by the sea again became prevalent. The voyages of discovery
+of the middle ages, however, led to a rapid development of geographic
+knowledge.
+
+The flattening of the spherical earth was not suspected until in 1672 a
+clock regulated to beat seconds at Paris, when taken to Cayenne near the
+equator was found to lose two and one-half minutes a day. Newton proved
+that this was due to the fact that the earth is an oblate spheroid. In
+1735 accurate measurements were undertaken to determine the size and
+shape of the earth. The equatorial diameter has been found to be 7926.6
+miles and the polar diameter 7899.6 miles, the difference, or 27
+statute miles, being the amount of the flattening at the poles.
+
+#The first sailing directions.# The early Greek and Roman writers do not
+allude to charts or maps intended especially for the use of seafarers.
+There are, however, extant several peripli or descriptions of the coast.
+Some of these appear certainly to have been intended for use as nautical
+guides, corresponding to the modern sailing directions. It is probable
+that they were explanatory of or accompanied by coast charts, now lost.
+They are of interest therefore as being probably the first compilations
+for the guidance of seamen. One of the earliest, written apparently in
+the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., is entitled "Scylax of Caryanda,
+his circumnavigation of the sea of the inhabited part of Europe and Asia
+and Libya." It contains a systematic description of the coasts of the
+Mediterranean, Black Sea, and part of the west coast of Africa. The
+following are some extracts which indicate the character of the work. It
+is to be noted that no bearings are given, and that distances are
+usually stated by day's sail: Africa is referred to as Libya.
+
+"Europe. I shall begin from the Pillars of Hercules in Europe and
+continue to the Pillars of Hercules in Libya, and as far as the land of
+the great Ethiopians. The Pillars of Hercules are opposite each other,
+and are distant from each other by one day's sail.... From Thonis the
+voyage to Pharos, a desert island (good harborage but no drinking
+water), is 150 stadia. In Pharos are many harbors. But ships water at
+the Marian mere, for it is drinkable.... From Chersonesus is one day's
+sail; but from Naustathmus to the harbor of Cyrene, 100 stadia. But from
+the harbor to Cyrene, 80 stadia; for Cyrene is inland. These harbors are
+always fit for putting into. And there are other refuges at little
+islands, and anchorages and many beaches, in the district between....
+After the isthmus is Carthage, a city of the Ph[oe]nicians, and a
+harbor. Sailing along from Hermæa it is half a day to Carthage. There
+are islands off the Hermæan cape, Pontia island and Cosyrus. From Hermæa
+to Cosyrus is a day's sail. Beyond the Hermæan cape, towards the rising
+sun, are three islands belonging to this shore, inhabited by
+Carthaginians; the city and harbor of Melite, the city of Gaulus, and
+Lampas; this has two or three towers.... The sailing along Libya from
+the Canopic mouth in Egypt to the Pillars of Hercules ... takes 74 days
+if one coast round the bays.... From the cape of Hermæa extend great
+reefs, that is, from Libya towards Europe, not rising above the sea; it
+washes over them at times.... From Thymiateria one sails to cape
+Soloes, which juts far into the sea. But all this district of Libya is
+very famous and very sacred.... This whole coasting from the Pillars of
+Hercules to Cerne Island takes twelve days. The parts beyond the isle of
+Cerne are no longer navigable because of shoals, mud, and sea-weed. This
+sea-weed has the width of a palm, and is sharp towards the points, so as
+to prick."
+
+That there were many other similar writings in the following centuries
+is shown by the following quotation from Marcianus, in a preface to
+sailing directions written in the fifth century A.D.: "This I write
+after having gone through many sailing directions, and spent much time
+on their examination. For it behooves all who are men of education, to
+scrutinise such attempts at learning in this subject, so as neither
+rashly to believe the things that are said, nor incredulously to set
+their private opinions against the careful decisions of others."
+
+The oldest extant sailing directions of the middle ages bear date 1306
+to 1320.
+
+#Development of chart making.# The application of the compass to
+nautical use in the twelfth century A.D. had a marked effect in
+encouraging voyages of exploration, and therefore indirectly on chart
+making. The following, written toward the close of the twelfth century,
+is the first known mention of the use of the compass in Europe: "The
+sailors, moreover, as they sail over the sea, when in cloudy weather
+they cannot longer profit by the light of the sun, or when the world is
+wrapped in the darkness of the shades of night, and they are ignorant to
+what part of the horizon the prow is directed, place the needle over the
+magnet, which is whirled round in a circle, until, when the motion
+ceases, the point of it (the needle) looks to the north." The nautical
+compass of that time appears to have consisted of a magnetized needle,
+floated in a vessel of water by a cork or reed, and having no index nor
+compass card. Peregrinus in 1269 made notable improvements in the
+compass, including a pivot suspension for the needle, a graduation, a
+lubber line, and an azimuth bar for sighting on the sun or other object.
+
+Nautical charts are known to have been in use since the thirteenth
+century A.D., but the earliest extant of which the date can be fixed is
+Vesconte's loxodromic chart of 1311.
+
+The loxodromic charts first appeared in Italy, and were so called from
+the fact that they were crossed by loxodromes (or rhumb lines) radiating
+from a number of crossing points distributed regularly over the map.
+Compass roses carefully drawn were later added at these crossing points,
+the first appearing on a chart of 1375. The earliest known mention
+of the variation of the compass from true north was on the first voyage
+of Columbus, who discovered this important fact in 1492, and as a
+consequence his "seamen were terrified and dismayed." Before that time
+it was assumed in Europe that the compass pointed "true to the north
+pole." The apparent failure to detect the variation earlier was
+doubtless to some extent due to its small amount at that time along the
+Mediterranean. The earlier charts showed both lines and compass roses
+apparently oriented with the true meridian, though there is some
+evidence to indicate that they were actually oriented with the magnetic
+meridian, the designer not recognizing any difference. The variation of
+the compass was first marked on a map in 1532 and on a printed chart in
+1595, but the placing of magnetic compasses on charts did not become
+customary until about fifty years ago. These early charts were drawn on
+parchment, using bright colors. They were copied by hand, one from
+another, with gradual variations. They had no projections, and the
+draftsmen evidently had no idea of the sphericity of the earth. Islands
+and points were usually exaggerated; shallows were indicated, but no
+soundings; no information was given as to the interior of the countries;
+a scale of distances was nearly always provided.
+
+Charts were first printed about 1477, and are known to have been
+engraved on copper by 1560.
+
+The maps of Ptolemy were ruled with degree lines, but no chart was so
+provided until 1427; by 1500, however, most charts were graduated.
+Before this date it is not known on what projection the charts were
+constructed. On the first graduated charts the degree lines were
+equidistant parallel straight lines cutting each other at right angles
+and thus dividing the chart into equal squares or rectangles. These were
+known as "plain charts." This square projection had little to commend it
+save simplicity of construction, as in higher latitudes it gave neither
+directions nor distances correctly. The difficulties of its use in
+navigation were early recognized, and nautical works contained chapters
+on "sailing by the plain chart, and the uncertainties thereof."
+
+The example of early chart making shown in Fig. 2 is of great interest
+as being the earliest extant chart which includes America. This chart
+was drawn on ox-hide in 1500 by Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied
+Columbus on his first voyage as master of his flagship, and on his
+second voyage as cartographer. The chart, of which only a portion is
+shown here, purports to cover the entire world; it joins Asia and
+America as one continent, the Pacific Ocean being then still unknown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN,]
+
+Gerhard Krämer, a Flemish map-maker, better known by his Latin name of
+Mercator, in 1569 published his famous Universal Map. In this map the
+meridians and parallels were still straight lines intersecting at right
+angles, but the distances between the parallels were increased with
+increasing latitude in such proportion that a rhumb line, or line
+cutting the meridians at a constant angle, would appear on the map as a
+straight line. Mercator never explained the construction of his chart,
+and as the above condition was not accurately carried out, it is thought
+that the chart was drawn by comparing a terrestrial globe with a "plain
+chart." After examination of a mercator chart in 1590, Edward Wright
+developed the correct principles on which such a chart should be
+constructed, and published in 1599 his treatise "The Correction of
+Certain Errors in Navigation." It took nearly a century to bring this
+chart into use, and even in the middle of the eighteenth century
+nautical writers complain that "some prefer the plain chart."
+
+[Illustration: BY JUAN DE LA COSA, 1500. EARLIEST EXTANT CHART SHOWING
+AMERICA.]
+
+The Arcano del Mare, 1646, was the first marine atlas in which all the
+maps were drawn on the mercator projection.
+
+In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries charts and
+sailing directions were often bound together in large volumes. These
+usually had quaint titles, not overburdened with modesty, of which the
+following is an example: "The Lightning Columne, or Sea-Mirrour,
+containing the Sea-Coasts of the Northern, Eastern, and Western
+Navigation. Setting forth in divers necessaire Sea-Cards, all the Ports,
+Rivers, Bayes, Roads, Depths, and Sands. Very curiously placed on its
+due Polus height furnished. With the Discoveries of the chief Countries
+and on what Cours and Distance they lay one from another. Never there to
+fore so Clearly laid open, and here and there very diligently bettered
+and augmented for the use of all Seamen. As also the situation of the
+Northerly Countries, as Islands, the Strate Davids, the Isle of Jan
+Mayen, Bears Island, Old Greenland, Spitsbergen and Nova Zembla.
+Adorneth with many Sea-Cards and Discoveries. Gathered out of the
+Experiences and practice of divers Pilots and Lovers of the famous Art
+of Navigation. Where unto is added a brief Instruction of the Art of
+Navigation, together with New Tables of the Sun's Declination, with a
+new Almanach. At Amsterdam. Printed by Casparus Loots-Man, Bookseller in
+the Loots-Man, upon the Water. Anno 1697. With Previlege for fiftheen
+years."
+
+In 1633 a cartographer was appointed to the States-General of Holland,
+and it was his duty to correct the charts from the ships' logs. The
+Dutch at an early date made important progress in publishing charts. In
+1720 there was established in Paris by order of the king, a central
+chart office ("dépôt des cartes et plans, journaux et mémoires
+concernant la navigation"), and in 1737 the first charts were published
+by this office. Detailed surveys of the coast of France were commenced
+in 1816.
+
+In 1740 "the commissioners for the discovery of longitude at sea" were
+authorized by Parliament to expend money on the survey of the coasts of
+Great Britain, this commission having been created in 1713. Various
+rewards were offered by this commission, including one of £10,000, for
+the discovery of a method of determining the longitude within 60 miles,
+an interesting side light on the uncertainties of navigation at that
+time. Compensated timepieces, which have been so important a factor in
+improving navigation, were invented by Harrison about 1761.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. LOXODROMIC CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN, 1565. A
+PLAIN CHART WITH LATITUDE DEGREES OF EQUAL LENGTH.]
+
+In 1795, by an Order in Council, a Hydrographical Office was established
+in London, "to take charge and custody of such plans and charts as then
+were, or should thereafter be, deposited in the Admiralty, and to select
+and compile such information as might appear to be requisite for the
+purpose of improving navigation." This office had at first one assistant
+and one draftsman. Before that time many charts of a private or
+semiofficial character had been published; the catalogue of the East
+India Company in 1786 included 347 charts.
+
+In 1807 the Congress of the United States authorized the President "to
+cause a survey to be taken of the coasts of the United States, in which
+shall be designated the islands and shoals, with the roads or places of
+anchorage, within twenty leagues of any part of the shores of the United
+States; and also the respective courses and distances between the
+principal capes, or headlands, together with such other matters as he
+may deem proper for completing an accurate chart of every part of the
+coasts within the extent aforesaid." This law was the origin of the
+present United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, now under the
+Department of Commerce and Labor.
+
+In 1841 a systematic survey of the Great Lakes was commenced; this is
+the Survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes, briefly known as the
+Lake Survey, conducted under the Corps of Engineers.
+
+In 1866 the United States Hydrographic Office was established under the
+Navy Department "for the improvement of the means for navigating safely
+the vessels of the Navy, and of the mercantile marine, by providing
+under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, accurate and cheap
+nautical charts, sailing directions, navigators, and manuals of
+instructions for the use of all vessels of the United States, and for
+the benefit and use of navigation generally."
+
+#Systematic surveying and chart making# date back little more than a
+century, and most of the information shown on modern charts has been
+gathered in that time. At present all the principal maritime nations of
+the world have made, or are extending, careful surveys of their own
+coasts.
+
+Several of the countries have added valuable contributions in the
+examination of other regions and oceanic areas beyond their borders. The
+maritime and colonial interests of Great Britain impelled that nation to
+carry on extensive surveys along coasts whose inhabitants were not
+prepared to do this work in the earlier days; the British have made
+surveys along the coasts of Asia and Africa and a part of South America,
+and the resulting charts have been a very important and not sufficiently
+known contribution to commercial intercourse among the nations, as well
+as to geography.
+
+The Dutch, French, Spanish, and other European governments have made
+nautical surveys in various parts of the world, largely in connection
+with their own colonies, and in recent years much useful work has been
+done by vessels of the German government. The United States has also
+beyond its own territory made valuable additions to hydrographic
+knowledge in the work of officers of the Navy in a number of oceanic
+exploring expeditions, and surveys on the coasts of Mexico and in the
+West Indies, and in the explorations of Fish Commission vessels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. EARLY CHART OF NEW YORK HARBOR, 1737.]
+
+#Extension of maritime surveys.# Of the total area of the earth's
+surface, 51,886,000 square miles is land and 145,054,000 square miles is
+sea. The oceans thus occupy nearly three-fourths of the whole surface,
+affording highways open to the nations. To conduct international
+commerce by water the ships of one country must enter the ports of
+another. Thus both on the open sea and in the harbors there is an
+interest, common to seamen of all nationalities, in the advance of
+marine surveys and in the publication of charts.
+
+To keep the coasts properly charted, as well as lighted and buoyed, is
+an obligation devolving on modern nations, not only for the benefit of
+their own commerce but for that of other countries.
+
+As shown below, only a small part of the coast line of the world is
+thoroughly surveyed. In the extensive ocean areas which are dotted with
+islands or reefs, a large amount of work is required for their
+sufficient charting, although many doubtful areas have been cleared up
+in recent years. Even the parts that are known to be of depths so great
+as to be free from navigational dangers should be sounded over
+sufficiently to develop the general configuration of the ocean bottom.
+
+Through international understanding a thorough exploration of all the
+water area of the globe and the coasts may in time be effected, and the
+many doubtful spots which still disfigure the charts may be either
+eliminated or definitely located.
+
+#Present state of progress of hydrographic surveys.# A comparatively
+small proportion of the coasts of the world can be considered as
+completely surveyed at the present time, and even such regions require
+much additional revision. In the class of more thoroughly surveyed
+coasts should be included the Atlantic and most of the Pacific coast of
+the United States, Porto Rico, nearly all the coasts of Europe, Algeria,
+and portions of the coasts of Japan, the Philippine Islands, and India.
+
+A large part of the world's coasts has been surveyed incompletely, but
+sufficiently well to permit the publication of navigational charts. This
+is the condition as respects most of southeastern Alaska and some other
+portions of the Alaskan coast, British Columbia, most of Mexico, Central
+America, the West Indies, Brazil and parts of Chile, the Hawaiian
+Islands, China, Malay Peninsula, Siam, the Dutch East Indies, Australia,
+New Zealand, Persia, Arabia, most of Africa, Iceland, northern
+Scandinavia, and Finland.
+
+Another considerable portion of the coasts has not been surveyed, but
+has been covered by explorations which have been embodied in nautical
+charts of varied degrees of incompleteness. In this class are the north
+coast and considerable portions of the south and west coasts of Alaska,
+the Aleutian Islands, Siberia, most of the oceanic groups in the
+Pacific, the northern coasts of Europe and North America, Greenland, the
+west coast of South America, Venezuela, and Argentina.
+
+Only a very small proportion of the total length of coasts is now
+entirely unexplored, and such portions are confined to the polar
+regions.
+
+#Chart publications of various nations.# There are about eighteen
+nations publishing navigational charts, and adding to the information on
+which charts are based. Many of these nations republish to some extent
+the charts prepared by the others. Great Britain has kept up a series of
+charts covering all parts of the world and practically including in some
+form all information published elsewhere. This series now (1908)
+includes 3725 different charts, of which the annual issue is about
+600,000 copies. France (1906) publishes 2948 different charts.
+
+In the United States, charts are published by the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey for the coasts and tidal waters of the main country and the
+insular possessions, by the Hydrographic Office for oceanic areas and
+foreign coasts, and by the Lake Survey for the Great Lakes. The total
+number of different charts issued by these bureaus is about 2300, and
+the total annual issue is about 225,000 copies.
+
+#Systems in use on various charts.#
+
+_Longitude._ The first chart of New York, published by the Coast Survey
+in 1844, was referred to the City Hall of New York as the initial
+longitude, and some years ago it was the prevailing custom for each
+nation to use a local initial longitude. While this satisfied local
+pride it led to much geographical and navigational confusion. Happily
+the charts of all countries are now referred to Greenwich, with the
+following exceptions:
+
+  France refers to Paris, which is 2° 20´ 15´´ E. of Greenwich.
+  Spain refers to San Fernando, which is 6° 12´ 20´´ W. of Greenwich.
+  Portugal refers to Lisbon, which is 9° 08´ 24´´ W. of Greenwich.
+
+_Units for depths._ The English fathom or foot is used for depths on the
+charts of Great Britain, the United States, and Japan. Russia uses the
+sajene of seven English feet. On the modern charts of practically all
+the other countries the meter is used, though on older charts various
+units are found.
+
+In the first group feet are ordinarily found only on large scale or
+local charts of areas with moderate depths, and the other charts are in
+fathoms, except that on the earlier charts of the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey feet were used on a sanded surface inside of the three-fathom
+curve and fathoms on the white surface outside of that curve. Heights
+are stated in feet on the charts of the first group.
+
+_Plane of reference._ As the depth of water varies with the tide, it is
+necessary for charting purposes to adopt some standard plane to which
+the soundings are referred. Practically all countries have adopted for
+this purpose a low stage of the tide, as this is obviously on the side
+of safety; in most cases an extreme low water is used, so that the
+actual depths will seldom, owing to the tide, be less than those shown
+on the chart. The definite reference planes used on the American charts
+will be mentioned later.
+
+On nearly all charts heights are referred to mean high water, doubtless
+owing to this being the visible limit of the land at high tide. On
+topographic maps of the interior, the heights are referred to mean sea
+level, which plane is of course lower than the preceding by one-half the
+range of tide.
+
+_Symbols on charts._ Fair uniformity as to general principles, with
+differences as to details in carrying them out, exists on the various
+series of charts regarding their general arrangement and the more
+important symbols, such as in the shading of land to distinguish from
+water, the use of depth curves, the representation of hills by shade or
+contour, the indication of shoals and dangers, and of lighthouses and
+buoys.
+
+#Desirability of uniformity in charts.# Ships engaged in international
+commerce must enter foreign ports. As the information is constantly
+changing and charts are being corrected or improved, it is sometimes
+desirable for the navigator to consult the local foreign charts, and it
+may often be necessary for him to carry in his chart room the charts of
+several different countries. There are therefore important advantages in
+international uniformity in chart publication.
+
+There should be a common initial longitude, and as the longitude of
+Greenwich has been so extensively adopted, it appears quite probable
+that its use may some day become universal.
+
+A common unit for soundings and heights would be very desirable, but the
+fact that a large group of nations has united on the metric system,
+while a small group with great commercial interests retains another
+system, makes the attainment of uniformity difficult.
+
+Substantial agreement as to the use of symbols on charts, particularly
+such as represent aids or dangers to navigation, would be desirable and
+doubtless feasible.
+
+#Privately published charts.# Many of the earlier charts were prepared
+and published by private enterprise, and such charts are still
+published, as, for instance, the so-called "blue-back" charts printed in
+London. These charts have usually differed from those published by the
+various governments either in representing the main features in a very
+bold manner with little detail or in including a considerable area with
+many plans on a single large sheet backed for permanency. An objection
+to the latter is that the durability together with the high price tends
+to keep an old chart in use long after it is out of date. It would be
+financially difficult for a private firm to give the service that a
+government does in the matter of correcting the charts and issuing new
+editions, and this is an important consideration in the selection of
+charts.
+
+#Purpose of charts.# The main purpose of charts is to furnish graphical
+guides to aid in taking a vessel safely from one port to another; they
+are maps for the use of navigators. An experienced mariner may be able
+to steer his vessel over a familiar course without charts, but this does
+not make their publication less necessary. Even such an expert pilot
+doubtless studied the charts in the first place; the uncertainties of
+the sea and the changes of information are such that his vessel's
+equipment should include the latest charts, and safety requires their
+examination. The passengers and the merchants who intrust their lives or
+their goods to the sea are largely dependent upon the correctness of the
+charts.
+
+Besides their main purpose charts fill many other needs, among which
+are; for preliminary planning of harbor improvements and various
+engineering works, for defensive works and other military uses, for the
+fishing interests, and for general information as to the coastal
+regions. Charts will furnish much of interest and instruction to the
+traveler by sea and the dweller near the coast, who will learn to read
+them. Passenger steamers should more often for the interest of their
+patrons display charts of the waters traversed. No written or verbal
+description can give as clear an idea of geographical features and
+relations as a good map or chart.
+
+As the charts are revised from time to time, a comparison of editions at
+different dates furnishes a record of the changes wrought by nature or
+man, and this is especially useful in studying the action in many harbor
+and river entrances, as well as for historical purposes.
+
+#Requirements for charts.# As charts are maps of the water areas,
+including the adjoining land, and intended primarily for the use of
+mariners, they differ in important respects from topographic maps or
+general maps, even such as include the water areas. The main
+requirements for charts are these; correct and complete information,
+early publication of new data, clear and intelligible representation of
+the information, convenient arrangement as navigational instruments, and
+high standard of publication.
+
+The special and sometimes difficult conditions under which charts must
+be used on shipboard call for good judgment throughout their
+preparation. Even the paper on which they are printed is of importance,
+in order that they may be sufficiently durable and suitable for
+plotting.
+
+#Information given on charts.# It is evident that it is impossible to
+represent on a chart of any practicable scale all the features that
+exist on the corresponding area of the earth's surface. It is
+essential, therefore, that a selection be made of the classes of facts
+that are to be shown, as well as of the detail that is to be used for
+each class. The practical utility of the chart depends largely on the
+good judgment used in this selection. In the information shown, charts
+differ from maps principally in representing by soundings and curves the
+configuration of the bottom of the water area, and in showing ordinarily
+the topographic features only in the vicinity of the coast line.
+
+The convenience of mariners should govern in the selection and
+arrangement of the information to be shown on charts, though they may be
+made useful for other purposes so long as this convenience is not
+lessened. The needs and preferences of navigators alone, however, differ
+so much that a reasonable chart must be somewhat of a compromise between
+conflicting views. For certain classes of navigation a boldly drawn
+chart showing only the dangers and a few other soundings and some
+landmarks might be useful. For other maritime purposes a more detailed
+chart would be valuable. The first, however, would fail to give facts
+often demanded in the navigational use of the chart, and the second if
+carried to an extreme would make a chart difficult to use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. STATE OF ADVANCEMENT OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF
+THE COASTS OF THE WORLD, 1904.
+
+  _By G. W. Littlehales._
+]
+
+Shoals and dangers are shown either by the least depth or by rock or
+reef symbols. The characteristic soundings are shown on the chart, with
+abbreviations indicating the nature of the bottom. Depth curves are
+drawn, joining together points of like depth, and inclosing areas of
+less depth, on the same principle that contours are used on land maps;
+usually also the shoaler spots are made more prominent by sanding or
+tinting the area within them. Lighthouses, buoys, and other artificial
+aids to navigation are represented, with descriptive abbreviations. The
+coast is shown by a bold solid line for high water and a dotted line for
+low water. The main topographic features are represented for a moderate
+distance from the coast, with such detail as is useful, depending on the
+scale of the chart. Elevations are given in figures for prominent
+summits, islands, and rocks; the general configuration of hills and
+mountains is represented by contours on large scale charts or by
+hachures or shading on small scale charts. Rivers, streams, lakes,
+marshes, towns, roads, prominent buildings, and other important
+topographic features are shown by appropriate symbols. It is important
+that objects which may be useful in navigation as landmarks, whether
+natural or artificial, be plainly shown and described, if necessary to
+their identification, and that they should not be obscured by details of
+lesser importance. On the larger scale charts only, vegetation features,
+particularly areas covered by trees, are represented by symbols. The
+land area is usually clearly distinguished from the water area by a tint
+or stipple. Latitude and longitude are given by the projection
+lines and the subdivided border, or sometimes on harbor plans by a note
+giving the position of some one point. Brief information as to the time
+and range of the tides is stated in a note. Data regarding currents,
+whether due to tidal or other causes, are given by current arrows placed
+on the chart, or by explanatory notes. Compasses are for convenience
+printed on the charts, and data given as to the magnetic variation and
+its rate of change. On large scale charts scales are provided for use in
+measuring distances. Ranges and channel lines are given when required.
+The ports are indicated where storm warning signals are displayed. The
+areas of forbidden anchorages are shown, and when important, the
+positions of submarine cables. The lines dividing the high seas from
+inland waters are sometimes stated on United States charts. Life saving
+stations are given, and time balls are usually noted. Views of important
+features are shown on some charts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE UNITED STATES COAST
+AND GEODETIC SURVEY.]
+
+The layman who looks at the printed chart probably does not appreciate
+the amount or the variety of information that must be gathered and
+sifted and put in proper shape for a single chart.
+
+
+
+
+COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS
+
+
+#Need of thorough surveys.# As has been stated, a good chart requires
+that a thorough and correct survey be first made of the region to be
+charted. It is said that men are very apt to accept as true anything
+they see on a map. As to the nautical chart the mariner is likely to be
+somewhat more critical, however, and it is well that he is. The
+difficulty of charting an invisible surface such as the bottom of the
+sea is great, and the proportion of the navigable waters surveyed in
+sufficient detail to be at all certain of the absence of uncharted
+dangers is small.
+
+The planning of surveys in a new region, such, for instance, as the
+Philippine Islands, presents many interesting problems, on the solution
+of which the effectiveness in chart results and the cost of the work
+materially depend. Many local conditions must be taken into account. The
+surveys are made on opposite coasts according to the seasonal winds and
+rainfall. In some parts fair-sized steamers are necessary; in others
+launches and small boats can do the work more economically. Shore
+parties with land transportation are used for portions of the work where
+the country permits. Natives are employed as far as practicable for the
+classes of work they can do; the Filipinos, for instance, make good
+sailors on the vessels and excellent penmen in the office.
+
+The following is a brief outline of the steps of a complete survey for
+charting purposes, according to the present practice of the United
+States Coast and Geodetic Survey. These are given in their logical
+order, though in actual work this order must often be departed from. In
+this Survey the methods of control have been of a high standard; that
+is, the main stations have been accurately determined and permanently
+marked and described, and this has proven an advantage in the
+joining together of the original surveys and resurveys.
+
+#Astronomical observations.# To locate on the surface of the earth the
+area to be charted, astronomical observations are required for the
+latitude and longitude of one or more points. In the best practice the
+longitude of a point is obtained by observing the transits of stars to
+get the local time, and sending time signals by telegraph to obtain the
+difference from the local time of some other place whose longitude is
+known. The latitude is observed by measuring the difference of zenith
+distance of pairs of stars crossing the meridian north and south of the
+zenith. The azimuth or true direction of some line is also obtained from
+star observations, usually by observations with a theodolite on a
+circumpolar star. Much existing chart work depends on positions
+determined by less accurate methods, as, for instance, longitudes
+obtained by transporting chronometers between the known station and that
+to be determined, or by observations of moon culminations, and latitudes
+obtained by direct observations of the altitudes of stars with
+theodolite or sextant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE BRITISH
+HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. TRIANGULATION OF A BAY, SHOWING LOCATION OF
+SURVEY SIGNALS AND LANDMARKS.]
+
+#Triangulation.# The main framework of the survey consists of a series
+of triangles connecting prominently located points which are permanently
+marked in the ground and the location described so that they can be
+found at a future time. At long intervals in the survey base lines are
+laid out and carefully measured with steel tape. Signals are erected
+over the points, including those at the ends of the base line, and
+angles are then measured at the various stations. From the measured
+length of the base and the angles the lengths of the sides of the
+triangles are computed, and from these lengths and the latitude and
+longitude of one point the latitudes and longitudes of all the other
+points are obtained. When several astronomically determined points are
+connected by such a triangulation a complication arises from what is
+known as "deflection of the plumb line," which is the angular amount by
+which the actual sea-level surface of the earth departs from the
+symmetrical figure of revolution, owing to the variations in the density
+of the earth's outer layers. The distance between two points as measured
+by triangulation thus differs from the distance computed from the
+astronomically determined positions. If this irregularity were not taken
+care of by adopting mean positions, the discrepancy in joining up
+different surveys would in extreme cases amount to about half a mile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. TRIANGULATION STATION AND SIGNAL, ON ALASKA
+COAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. MEASURING ANGLES WITH THEODOLITE AT
+TRIANGULATION STATION ON ALASKA COAST.]
+
+#Survey sheets# are next prepared, of suitable size and scale. On each
+sheet a projection is laid down, that is, the meridians and parallels
+are drawn, and all the points determined in the triangulation are
+plotted in their true relation. Usually separate sheets are prepared for
+the topography or shore survey and for the hydrography or survey of the
+water area.
+
+#Topography.# The topographic survey of the shore and as much of the
+adjacent area as is required is usually made with a plane table, on
+which the map is actually drawn in the field as the work progresses.
+Points are located on the plane table sheet either by direct reading of
+the distance on a stadia rod or by intersections from two or more
+stations. On the plane table sheet it is customary to locate the shore
+or high-water line, the low-water line, off-lying rocks, streams,
+rivers, roads, towns, lighthouses, and all prominent features near the
+coast. Elevations are measured with the plane table or obtained from the
+triangulation, and are represented on the sheet both by figures and by
+contours, which are lines joining together points of the same elevation.
+For instance, a 100-foot contour represents the line where a plane 100
+feet above sea level would cut the surface of the ground. It is
+particularly important in this topographic work to locate accurately
+objects which are good landmarks and likely to be of use to the mariner.
+In some regions auxiliary methods are used in filling in the topography,
+as, for instance, along a difficult coast each feature of importance may
+be located by sextant angles, or a traverse line may be run along the
+shore by the transit and stadia method.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY PARTY AT WORK WITH PLANE
+TABLE ON THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. SURVEY SIGNAL OF IRON PIPE ON THE BAR OFF THE
+MOUTH OF THE YUKON RIVER.]
+
+#The hydrography,# or the survey of the water area, is of prime
+importance for the chart, but in the order of prosecution of the work it
+is convenient but not essential that it come after sufficient points
+have been located by the triangulation and topography. A hydrographic
+sheet is prepared on which all the points are plotted which will be
+useful. A system of sounding lines is then run over the entire area to
+be surveyed, locating the position of the sounding boat at intervals by
+sextant angles on survey signals or by angles from the shore. The
+ordinary method of sounding is to cast a lead from a boat and read the
+depth when the lead touches bottom and the line is vertical, and make
+note of the nature of the bottom. There is a systematic spacing between
+the casts of the lead and between the lines passed over by the boat,
+depending on the depth of water and character of the bottom. For
+soundings in deeper water various forms of sounding machines are used,
+with weight attached to a wire. For very great depths a small steel wire
+is employed and the weight is detached and left on the bottom. The
+deepest sounding thus far made, 5269 fathoms, or nearly six miles, was
+obtained by this method in the Pacific Ocean near Guam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. HYDROGRAPHIC PARTY SOUNDING WITH LAUNCH IN
+BALTIMORE HARBOR.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. THE LUCAS AUTOMATIC SOUNDING MACHINE FOR DEPTHS
+TO 5000 FATHOMS, WITH ENGINE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. THE SIGSBEE SOUNDING MACHINE ON A SURVEYING
+VESSEL.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SURVEYING STEAMER
+_FATHOMER_, SHOWING GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS.]
+
+The offshore soundings are made from a surveying steamer; the inshore
+work is usually done by a launch or small boat.
+
+So far as the navigational use of charts is concerned it is important
+that the hydrography shall show the limiting depths and the freedom from
+dangers, of channels, entrances, harbors, and anchorages. It is also
+desirable that the soundings shall be carried off shore at least as far
+as the one-hundred-fathom curve, as with the modern forms of
+navigational sounding machines it is possible for vessels under way to
+obtain soundings to this depth, and such soundings may be of value in
+identifying the location of the vessel. For depths greater than one
+hundred fathoms the soundings have less direct value to navigation
+except as proving the absence of shoaler areas, but soundings throughout
+the oceanic regions are of great geographical interest as well as of
+direct practical value in the laying of cables.
+
+It is obvious that the plan of mapping the sea bottom by dropping a lead
+at intervals over its hidden surface is far from an ideal one. The lead
+gives the depth only at the point at which it touches the bottom, and no
+information as to the space between the casts except such as may be
+inferred from the relation of successive soundings. In numerous cases,
+after what was considered a very thorough survey of a region had been
+made, at some later day a pinnacle rock or other danger has been
+discovered. For instance, a very detailed hydrographic survey of
+Buzzards Bay was made in 1895; the sounding lines were run at intervals
+of 50 to 100 yards, and 91,000 soundings were made for a single sheet.
+Within this area the cruiser _Brooklyn_ in 1902 touched a rock which
+was found to have 18 feet over it. (Fig. 17.) The least depth in the
+vicinity developed in the original survey was 31 feet.
+
+For the satisfactory development of hydrographic work some invention is
+much needed which as it passes along the bottom will give a continuous
+depth curve. Several devices have successfully accomplished this in
+shoal water, but great credit awaits the inventor who designs something
+of more general application.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17. PORTION OF ORIGINAL HYDROGRAPHIC SHEET, BUZZARDS
+BAY, ON SCALE 1-10000, SHOWING AREA CLOSELY SOUNDED IN 1895, WHERE THE
+_BROOKLYN_ STRUCK IN 1902.]
+
+#Tides and currents.# Information must be obtained as to the movement of
+the water, both vertical and horizontal. The rise and fall of the tide
+are obtained by tide gauges, either automatic, which draw a continuous
+tidal curve on a roll of paper, or simple tide staffs, which must be
+read at intervals. The currents, whether due to the tides or other
+movements, are measured by noting the movement of partially submerged
+floats. Less accurate but useful information as to currents is obtained
+from the logs of vessels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18. DRAGGING FOR DANGERS WITH A LONG WIRE.]
+
+#Dragging for dangers# has long been resorted to for the investigation
+of isolated spots. A valuable and successful means has been employed
+recently of making sure that an area is free from shoals or rocks having
+less than a certain depth. This is done by dragging through the water a
+wire from 500 to 1400 feet long, and suspended at the required depth,
+with suitable buoys and weights, and kept taut by the angle of pull. If,
+for instance, the wire is set at a depth of 30 feet it will indicate the
+presence of any obstruction of less depth by catching on it and
+upsetting the buoys, and such spots are at once marked and investigated.
+Considerable work has been done with such drags in the last few years on
+the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and on the Great Lakes. This is of course a
+somewhat tedious process and gives no information as to depths greater
+than that for which the wire is set, but the experience already had
+indicates its great value. It will probably be found desirable in time
+to thus drag all water areas important to navigation where the depth is
+near the draft of vessels and the irregular nature of the bottom gives
+indication of dangers. In extensive dragging operations near Key West
+and in Jericho Bay, Maine, a number of shoals have been picked up which
+were not found in the original surveys.
+
+A remarkable instance of the value of the drag was the recent discovery
+of a rock in Blue Hill Bay on the coast of Maine. This rock has but 7
+feet of water over it, and is only 6 feet in diameter at the top. It is
+surrounded by depths of 78 feet, from which it rises nearly
+perpendicularly. The original survey gave no indication of a danger
+here, and its existence was not suspected until it was discovered with
+the wire drag.
+
+Another method of dragging that has been employed is by means of a pipe
+suspended beneath a ship's bottom.
+
+#Magnetic variation.# As the compass is a universal navigational
+instrument, information as to the magnetic variation is needed for the
+charts. The angle between the direction of the magnetic needle and the
+true north is measured at various points on both land and sea, and at
+some stations these observations are repeated after a number of years.
+From these results magnetic maps are made, from which both the variation
+and its annual change may be taken.
+
+#Reports of dangers.# Aside from the more systematic surveys as outlined
+above, much information has been placed on the charts from other
+sources. On the earlier charts and on those of more remote regions at
+the present day much of the work has been sketched rather than surveyed.
+Even in the better surveyed portions reports come in as to dangers or
+other matters not shown, and if of importance and the report appears to
+be reliable these are sometimes at once put on the chart pending further
+investigation, or in other cases an examination is first made.
+
+Shoals, rocks, and even islands have in numerous instances been shown on
+the charts which no one has been able to find again, and many of them
+after repeated searches have been removed. The same island or danger has
+sometimes been charted in two or more different positions as reported at
+various times. The treatment of such cases is one of the serious and
+interesting problems of the chart maker. It is generally less harmful to
+show a danger which does not exist than to omit one which does exist. On
+the other hand a non-existing danger shown on a chart may be the cause
+of actual expense and loss of time in compelling a vessel needlessly to
+go out of its course.
+
+It is surprising to note with what lack of care and of sufficient
+evidence reports of dangers at sea have sometimes been made, and how
+incomplete are many of the reports even when the existence of the danger
+is beyond question. It is unfortunately true that some of these reports
+are the result of effort to escape blame for accident by throwing the
+fault on the chart. Many such reports also result from various illusory
+appearances. A large tree covered with weeds, an overturned iceberg
+strewn with earth and stones, a floating ice-pan covered with earth, the
+swollen carcass of a dead whale, a whale with clinging barnacles and
+seaweed, reflections from the clouds, marine animalculæ, vegetable
+growth, scum, floating volcanic matter, and partially submerged wrecks
+covered with barnacles, have been mistaken for islands, shoals, or
+reefs. A school of jumping fish has given the appearance of breakers or
+caused a sound like surf, and tide rips have been mistaken for breakers.
+Raper very properly calls attention to the obligation upon every seaman
+of carefully investigating doubtful cases and making reliable reports.
+"Of the dangers to which navigation is exposed none is more formidable
+than a reef or a shoal in the open sea; not only from the almost certain
+fate of the ship and her crew that have the misfortune to strike upon
+it, but also from the anxiety with which the navigation of all vessels,
+within even a long distance, must be conducted, on account of the
+uncertainty to which their own reckonings are ever open. No commander of
+a vessel, therefore, who might meet unexpectedly with any such danger,
+could be excused, except by urgent circumstances, from taking the
+necessary steps both for ascertaining its true position, and for giving
+a description as complete as a prudent regard to his own safety
+allowed."
+
+As to the older doubtful dangers now shown on the oceanic charts, it is
+estimated that the positions may be considered as uncertain by 10 miles
+in latitude and 30 miles in longitude, and areas of this extent must be
+searched to determine definitely the question of their existence.
+
+The following are interesting or typical cases of reported dangers:
+
+The master of an Italian bark in September, 1874, reported sighting a
+large rock in latitude 40° N. and longitude 62° 18´ W. Fortunately for
+the charts there were two independent reports from other vessels in the
+same month of sighting a partially submerged wreck in this vicinity.
+
+The Spanish steamer _Carmen_ was wrecked in 1891 by running on a rock
+off the southwest coast of Leyte; the rock was reported to lie one mile
+off shore, a dangerous position for vessels using Canigao Channel. A
+survey made in 1903 showed 58 feet of water in this location, and
+that Carmen Rock on which the vessel struck was really within one-fourth
+mile of the beach. The rock had, however, for twelve years been shown on
+the charts in a position which made it an obstruction to navigation.
+
+The ship _Minerva_ in 1834 was reported to have struck a rock near the
+middle of the broad entrance to Balayan Bay; the fact that this occurred
+at 2 A.M. indicated a very doubtful position, but it was stated that an
+American ship had previously been wrecked on the same rock. It
+consequently appeared as a danger on the charts for seventy-one years,
+when a survey showed no depth of less than 190 fathoms in this vicinity,
+and it was removed from the charts.
+
+A British steamer was wrecked in San Bernardino Strait in 1905; the
+master reported that he was in a position where the chart showed 51
+fathoms, and that he was 1-1/2 miles distant from Calantas Rock, and on
+these grounds the finding of the official inquiry was that "no blame can
+be attached to the master, officers, or any of the crew for the
+casualty." Very shortly after the disaster, the surveying steamer
+_Pathfinder_ definitely located the wreck and made a survey of the
+vicinity. The previous chart of Calantas Reef was found to be fairly
+correct, and the stranding was determined to have occurred well within
+this reef in a position where the chart showed soundings of 3-3/4 to
+4-3/4 fathoms, and 1/2 mile from Calantas Rock, which rises 5 feet above
+high water.
+
+A transport entering San Bernardino Strait a few years ago ran on a rock
+and was damaged; the position was reported as about two miles southeast
+of San Bernardino Island and near the middle of the passage. The rock
+was not put on the charts, as prompt investigation showed 50 fathoms of
+water in this vicinity, and that in all probability the transport
+actually touched a small reef making out from the island.
+
+The master of the brig _Helen_ reported that his vessel was wrecked on a
+reef lying six miles from Rockall. When surveyed Helen Reef was found to
+be about one-third this distance from Rockall.
+
+An island has been reported in eight different positions, ranging in
+latitude from 30° 29´ to 30° 42´ N. and in longitude from 139° 37´ to
+140° 38´ E.
+
+There have been a number of reports of islands in the area from latitude
+40° 00´ to 40° 30´ N. and longitude 150° 30´ to 151° 00´ W. The master
+of the bark _Washington_ reported in 1867: "On my passage from the
+Sandwich Islands to the northwest coast of the United States, when in
+latitude 40° 00´ N., in a dense fog, I perceived the sea to be
+discolored. Soundings at first gave great depths, but diminished
+gradually to 9 fathoms, when through the mist an island was seen, along
+which I sailed 40 miles. It was covered with birds, and the sea swarmed
+with seal and sea elephants." A United States vessel searched in
+this vicinity without seeing any indication of land, and obtained
+soundings of 2600 fathoms. A British ship in 1858 searched for fourteen
+days over this area without finding anything. Searches were also made in
+1860 and 1867 without success, and the present charts show no islands in
+this part of the Pacific.
+
+In a number of cases erroneous positions have been due simply to
+blunders. Thus Lots Wife, first seen by Captain Meares in 1788, was
+shown on his chart in latitude 29° 50´ N., longitude 156° 00´ E., and
+stated in his book to be in latitude 29° 50´ N. and longitude 142° 23´
+E. Massachusetts Island by one report was in longitude 177° 05´ E. and
+by another in 167° 05´ E. The apparent blunder of 10° is now immaterial,
+as the island has disappeared from the charts altogether. The Knox
+Islands were placed by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition in latitude 5°
+59´ 15´´ N., longitude 172° 02´ 33´´ E. The old British charts showed
+islands of this name also in latitude 5° 59´ N., longitude 172° 03´ W.,
+the longitude being doubtless transposed. In the case of Starbuck
+Island, discovered south of the equator, the latitude was apparently
+transposed, as on old charts it was also shown in the position, latitude
+5° 40´ N., longitude 156° 55´ W.
+
+A pinnacle rock can sometimes be located only with great difficulty even
+when known to exist. Rodger Rock, on which the bark _Ellen_ struck and
+was damaged, lies in latitude 0° 41´ 15´´ N. and longitude 107° 31´ E.
+It has but three feet over it at low tide. The British surveying ship
+_Rifleman_ searched four days before finding it, although the plotted
+tracks showed that she and her boats had passed very close to it. This
+indicates that great caution must be used in removing a reported danger
+from the charts.
+
+The old charts of the Atlantic indicated a danger 30 to 45 miles to the
+southwest of Cape St. Vincent. This danger was omitted from the charts
+about 1786 owing to lack of confirmation. Later, in 1813 and 1821, it
+was reported that vessels were lost or damaged by striking this rock.
+Soundings of over a thousand fathoms are now shown on the chart in this
+vicinity and the rock no longer appears.
+
+A comparison of a Pacific Ocean chart of about forty years ago with one
+of the present time (Fig. 19) illustrates in a striking manner how many
+doubtful dangers, or vigias, have gotten on the charts and how after
+laborious search many of them have now been removed. This condition was
+especially true of the Pacific, owing to the numerous reports of an
+indefinite nature from whaling ships, among whose captains there was a
+saying "that they do not care where their ship is, so long as there are
+plenty of whales in sight."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19. PORTION OF CHARTS OF 1869 AND 1903, OF THE
+PACIFIC OCEAN WEST OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, TO ILLUSTRATE THE REMOVAL OF
+DOUBTFUL DANGERS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. PORTION OF CHART OF PONCE HARBOR, SCALE 1-20000,
+TO SHOW SELECTION OF SOUNDINGS FROM ORIGINAL SURVEY GIVEN BELOW.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY OF SAME PORTION OF PONCE
+HARBOR, REDUCED TO ONE-HALF SCALE OF ORIGINAL SHEET.]
+
+
+
+
+PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS.
+
+
+#Chart schemes.# Before commencing the preparation of a chart it is
+necessary to arrange a definite scheme for it, and the usefulness of the
+chart will depend materially on this preliminary plan, in which must be
+outlined its scale, size, limits, and features to be represented. New
+charts have sometimes been prepared simply to fit the surveys as they
+progressed or to fill immediate or local requirements. It is, however,
+desirable that general plans for series or groups of charts be made, and
+with changing needs, information, and conditions it is sometimes
+necessary that existing schemes be modified.
+
+#Compilation of information.# Considerable work must usually be done to
+get the field records in shape for the published chart. The soundings
+must be plotted and the characteristic depths selected. Only a part of
+the soundings that are made can be shown on the original sheet and only
+a small part of these are used on the final chart. A selection is made
+showing the least soundings on shoals and bars, the channel depths, and
+the characteristic soundings in anchorages and other areas. The original
+surveys are generally made on a considerably larger scale than that on
+which the chart is published, in order that the soundings may be more
+thoroughly plotted. The sheets must then be reduced to the scale of
+publication, and this can conveniently be done by means of photography
+or with a pantograph.
+
+The best judgment is required in selecting the important features
+to be shown on the chart and omitting the less important and not
+essential features which might tend to obscure the others. In charts of
+new regions where complete surveys are lacking, care must be exercised
+in weighing, combining, and adjusting information from various sources
+and which is, perhaps, more or less conflicting.
+
+#Projections.# The surface of the earth being curved, there is no
+possible system of projection by which it can be represented on a flat
+sheet of paper in an ideally satisfactory way. Numerous methods of
+projecting the earth's surface upon a plane have been proposed and many
+of them are actually used for various purposes. In general each
+projection has qualities which are valuable for certain uses, and
+deficiencies which make it less valuable in other ways. Only four of the
+different projections need be mentioned here as of special interest in
+chart construction.
+
+#Mercator projection.# This is a rectangular projection in which the
+meridians are straight lines spaced at equal intervals and the parallels
+are straight lines so spaced as to satisfy the condition that a rhumb
+line, or line on the earth cutting successive meridians at the same
+angle, shall appear on the developed projection as a straight line
+preserving the same angle with respect to the meridians.
+
+This projection may be considered as the unrolling upon a plane of the
+surface of a cylinder tangent to the earth along the equator, and upon
+which the various features of the earth's surface have been projected in
+such manner as to satisfy the above requirement.
+
+On this projection there is a constant distance between the meridians,
+whereas on the earth they actually converge toward the poles. The
+distance between the parallels increases in passing toward the poles,
+approximately in the proportion of the secant of the latitude. For each
+small portion of the map the relative proportions are maintained as on
+the earth.
+
+Some characteristics of the mercator projection are these: The meridians
+and parallels are all straight lines and perpendicular to each other;
+there is no convergence of the meridians; the minute of longitude is a
+constant distance on the map; the minute of latitude increases in length
+from the equator toward the poles but locally retains its true
+proportion to the minute of longitude; areas and distances increase in
+scale with the latitude so that a given scale is strictly correct only
+for one latitude; great circles and consequently lines of sight are
+curved lines excepting the meridians and the equator; rhumb lines or
+lines having a constant angle with the meridians are straight, and for
+the same angle are parallel in all parts of the chart. These qualities
+are all rigid and the projection can therefore be used for all areas,
+small or large, up to the extent of the earth's surface, except that it
+cannot be extended to the poles, as there the length of the minute of
+latitude would become infinite.
+
+An interesting fact regarding a rhumb line oblique to the meridians is
+that it is a spiral continually approaching but never reaching the pole;
+this spiral makes an infinite number of revolutions around the pole, and
+yet it has a finite length for the reason that the length of each
+revolution diminishes as the number of revolutions increases.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. MERCATOR PROJECTION OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN,
+SHOWING GREAT CIRCLE ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO
+HONOLULU AND THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.]
+
+The mercator projection has been extensively used for nautical charts,
+for which it presents important mechanical advantages, in that adjacent
+charts can be joined on all their edges while still oriented with the
+meridian; all charts are similar; the border may be conveniently
+subdivided, giving a longitude scale applicable to any part of the
+chart, but a latitude scale that may be used in the same latitude only;
+courses are laid down as straight lines and can be transferred with
+parallel rulers from one part of the chart to another without error. On
+a mercator chart an island in latitude 60° would appear four times as
+large as an island of the same actual area at the equator, but this
+distortion of areas, while it gives erroneous impressions on charts of
+great extent in latitude, does not seriously affect the use of the chart
+for nautical purposes. Areas may also be correctly measured on a
+mercator map by taking each projection quadrilateral separately,
+subdividing it if necessary, and using the published tables of areas of
+quadrilaterals in different latitudes. Although distance scales vary
+with the latitude, distances can be taken from this chart with fair
+correctness by the use of the latitude border scale for the middle
+latitude, subdividing the total distance if there is much range of
+latitude. The inability to take off the great circle or shortest course
+directly from the mercator chart is from a navigational point of view a
+defect, but the most convenient solution for this appears to be the
+supplementary use of a gnomonic chart as will be described. The fact
+that lines of sight are not straight lines on this projection is another
+defect, as by the plotting of bearings and angles on approaching the
+land the positions of vessels are located on the chart; fortunately,
+however, the error due to this cause usually falls within the other
+uncertainties involved in locating a ship; if need be it would be
+practicable to allow for this curvature. In the polar regions, however,
+the faults of the mercator projection become so much exaggerated that it
+is not used for navigational purposes, but because of the absence of
+commercial navigation there this is a minor matter in the general
+question of chart projection. For the plotting of original surveys the
+mercator projection is not suited and is not used, for the reasons above
+mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23. POLYCONIC PROJECTION OF PORTION OF NORTH PACIFIC
+OCEAN.]
+
+Tables of "meridional parts" are published which give the distance in
+terms of minutes of longitude from the equator to the various parallels;
+with these tables a mercator projection may readily be constructed.
+
+Airy proposed a graphical method of sweeping the arc of a great circle
+on to a mercator chart, and tables are published for this purpose. The
+method is only approximate and is limited in application, and the
+supplementary use of a gnomonic chart would appear to be preferable.
+
+#Polyconic projection.# In plotting the original surveys it is essential
+that a projection be used which will for the area included on a survey
+sheet show the points in their correct relation both as to direction and
+distance. These conditions are substantially fulfilled by several
+projections, of which the polyconic is used in the United States. If a
+hollow cone were placed so that it would either be tangent to the
+earth's surface along one of the parallels of latitude or cut it along
+two parallels, and the points projected on to this cone, and the cone
+then unrolled and laid out flat, the result would be a conical
+projection, of which there are several variations. If successive tangent
+cones be used and each parallel of latitude be developed as the
+circumference of the base of a right cone tangent to the spheroid along
+that parallel, the result is the polyconic projection, which has been
+used for field sheets and for the large scale charts, as well as for the
+topographic maps of the United States. This projection has valuable
+qualities for moderate areas of the earth's surface, within which the
+scale is approximately uniform, areas retain nearly their true
+proportions, and great circles and consequently all bearings and
+directions are approximately straight lines. The parallels of latitude
+are arcs of circles with radiuses increasing as we recede from the pole;
+therefore they are not truly parallel and the length of the degree of
+latitude increases either side from the central meridian. The meridians
+converge toward the poles and become slightly curved as we recede from
+the central one; the longitude scale is everywhere correct, but the
+latitude scale is strictly correct only on the central meridian. The
+angles of intersection of parallels and meridians are right angles or
+nearly so. The polyconic projection is not used for very extensive areas
+of the earth's surface, as for instance a hemisphere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24. GNOMONIC CHART OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN, SHOWING
+GREAT CIRCLE ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO HONOLULU
+AND THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.]
+
+#Gnomonic projection.# In this projection the eye is assumed to be at
+the center of the earth and the features are projected upon a plane
+tangent to some point on the earth's surface. It is practicable to use
+this projection for oceanic areas, and it has the very important quality
+that every straight line on it represents a great circle of the earth.
+To obtain the great circle or shortest course between two points it is
+therefore only necessary to draw a straight line between the points on a
+gnomonic chart. Because of the great distortion near the edges this
+projection is not otherwise adapted to navigational use, and it is
+employed only to mark out the general course, and sufficient points are
+then transferred to a mercator chart. The gnomonic chart is therefore
+useful in supplementing the mercator chart, supplying its deficiencies
+as to convenience in marking out great circle courses. The great circle
+course can be derived not only more easily and quickly from the gnomonic
+chart than by computation, but the chart is also to be preferred because
+the course marked out on it will show at once if any obstruction, as an
+island or danger, is met or too high a latitude is reached. A modified
+or composite course can readily be laid out on a gnomonic chart.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25. NORTH POLAR CHART ON ARBITRARY PROJECTION.]
+
+#Arbitrary projection.# The few charts published of the polar regions
+are sometimes on an arbitrary projection, in which the meridians are
+straight lines radiating from the pole and the parallels are equidistant
+circles with the pole as center. The latitude scale is uniform. At some
+distance from the pole the longitude scale becomes very much distorted,
+but the projection is a practicable and convenient one for the immediate
+polar regions. Gnomonic and conical projections are also used for the
+polar charts, differing little from the foregoing for moderate areas.
+
+#Scales.# Charts are published on a variety of scales to suit different
+needs of navigation, and the usual classification depends on scale. In
+addition to the ocean charts covering a single ocean in either one or
+several sheets and intended for navigation on the high seas,
+there are for our Atlantic coast the following series:
+
+Sailing charts, scale about 1/1200000, for general coastwise navigation.
+
+General coast charts, scale 1/400000, for local coastwise navigation.
+
+Coast charts, scale 1/80000, for approaching the coast at any point and
+for inside passages.
+
+Harbor and channel charts, of various large scales from 1/5000 to
+1/60000, for entering harbors and rivers and passing through channels.
+
+The expression of scales by miles to the inch or inches to the mile is
+the more familiar. The expression of scale in the manner used by the
+Coast Survey and by most of the European countries, by standard
+fractions as 1/80000, meaning that any distance on the chart is 1/80000
+of the actual distance on the earth, has some advantages. For instance,
+the relation of these fractions gives at a glance the relation of the
+scales of the charts. Thus a 1/80000 chart is on a scale five times as
+large as a 1/400000 chart.
+
+For the more important harbors charts have been published on several
+different scales to meet various needs. Thus New York Harbor is shown on
+charts of scales of 1/10000, 1/40000, 1/80000, 1/200000, 1/400000 and
+1/1200000, each of course including a different area.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26. NEW YORK HARBOR, PORTIONS OF CHARTS ON FOUR
+DIFFERENT SCALES.]
+
+The selection of suitable publication scales is of prime importance; a
+large scale permits of greater clearness and of showing more detail, but
+on the other hand restricts the area and the points that can be shown on
+a single sheet, or else makes a chart of excessive dimensions. In
+general in chart preparation the scale should be restricted to the
+minimum that can be used to fulfill the particular object and clearly
+represent what is desired. A chart of very large scale is not convenient
+for plotting, and a moving vessel may pass quickly beyond it or into
+range of objects beyond the limits of the chart.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATION OF CHARTS.
+
+
+#Methods of publication.# An ideal process of publication for nautical
+charts would include the following features; rapidity in getting out new
+charts, facility in reprinting and correcting existing charts, clearness
+and sharpness of print, durability of paper and print, and correctness
+of scale. It is difficult to fulfill all these requirements by any
+method as yet developed. In the Coast and Geodetic Survey several
+different processes are in use at present; charts are engraved on copper
+and printed directly from the copper plate, or they are transferred from
+the copper plate to stone and printed from the stone, or a finished
+drawing is made and transferred to stone by photolithography and printed
+from the stone, or an etching is made on copper from a finished drawing
+and printed from a transfer to stone. Charts in other countries are in
+large part printed from engraved plates, excepting some preliminary
+charts by lithography.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27. ENGRAVING A CHART ON A COPPER PLATE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28. ENGRAVING SOUNDINGS ON A COPPER PLATE WITH A
+MACHINE.]
+
+#Copper plate engraving and printing# have long been used in chart
+preparation. A drawing is prepared as a guide for the engraver; this
+must be correct as to all information to be shown but need not be a
+finished drawing. A true projection is ruled upon a copper plate. By
+photography a matrix is made from the drawing and a wax impression taken
+from this matrix. This is then laid down on the copper to fit the
+projection, and the impression is chemically fixed on to the copper. The
+work thus marked out is engraved by hand or by machine. A high degree of
+skill is required in the accuracy and finish necessary for chart
+engraving. Machines have been invented in recent years which can be used
+for portions of the work on copper plates, as for instance for cutting
+the sounding figures, the bottom characteristics, the border and
+projection lines, border divisions, compasses, line ruling, and stipple
+ruling. Stamps and dies have been successfully used for some symbols and
+notes, and roulettes for shading. By means of these various machines,
+many of which are American inventions, the process of chart publication
+from plates has been materially facilitated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29. ELECTROTYPING PLANT FOR ELECTROTYPING CHART
+PLATES.]
+
+When the plate is completed an alto, or raised copy, is made by
+depositing copper on to it in an electrotype vat, and from this alto
+another basso or sunken copy is made by the same process. This latter
+basso is used in printing. A copper plate may be used for about 3000
+impressions, after which it may become too much worn for satisfactory
+chart printing. By printing from a duplicate basso the original plate is
+preserved and additional copies can be made when needed. The use of the
+alto also greatly facilitates matters when a considerable correction to
+the chart is required. All the portions of the chart to be changed can
+be scraped off the alto, and when a new basso is electrotyped from this
+scraped alto all such areas will of course appear as smooth copper, on
+which the new work can be engraved. Numerous small corrections are
+called for on charts, and on copper plates where these are to replace
+old work the latter is removed either by hammering up the back of the
+plate or by scraping its face.
+
+Printing directly from plates is a laborious process. After the press
+bed has been carefully padded to take up inequalities in the plate, the
+surface of the latter is covered with ink and then carefully wiped off
+by hand, leaving the ink only in the engraved lines. The paper, first
+dampened, is laid on the plate, and passes with it beneath the cylinder
+of the press under considerable pressure. The prints are calendered by
+being placed in a hydraulic press under 600 tons pressure. The charts
+are beautifully clear and sharp, not equalled by other methods of
+printing. Owing to the wetting and drying of the paper, the finished
+print is, however, quite appreciably smaller in scale than the plate,
+and the shrinkage is greater in one direction than in the other. The
+average day's work for one press and two men is 75 prints. This is small
+compared with the output practicable with lithographic presses. On the
+other hand a plate can be prepared for printing more readily than a
+lithographic stone. For small editions the plate printing compares well
+in economy with lithographic printing, and the plate can also be printed
+on short notice. Because of changes in aids to navigation and other
+corrections, it is usually desirable to print at one time only a
+sufficient number of copies of a chart to meet current demands, and not
+to carry a large stock on hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30. PRINTING CHARTS FROM COPPER PLATES; FINAL
+CLEANING OF THE PLATE BY HAND; PLATE PRESS ON THE LEFT.]
+
+The copper plates, bassos, and altos make a very convenient and enduring
+means of preserving the chart ready for printing or for further
+correction. A large number of plates can be placed in a small space, and
+if properly cared for they may be stored indefinitely without
+deterioration.
+
+With plate printing it is not practicable to print more than one
+impression on the chart or to use more than one color, and plate-printed
+charts are therefore in black only.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. LITHOGRAPHING PRESSES FOR PRINTING CHARTS;
+LITHOGRAPH STONE ON TRANSFER PRESS.]
+
+#Engraving on stone.# On the United States Lake Survey the charts are
+first engraved on stone, and by a special process the work is then
+transferred to small copper plates, which are preserved. The final
+publication is by lithography, transferring again from the plates to
+stone.
+
+#Photolithography# is a quick method of publishing a chart. It would be
+practicable by this means to reproduce the original survey sheets, but
+ordinarily these are not suitable as to scale and legibility, and it is
+necessary to make a new drawing, usually on tracing vellum. This is
+photographed on to glass plates, on the scale of the proposed chart.
+From these glass negatives positive prints are made on sensitized
+lithographic paper. These prints are fitted together and then inked,
+taking the ink only where the lines appear. This transfer print is then
+laid face down on the lithographic stone and run through a press under
+pressure, the stone absorbing the ink from the paper. The stone is then
+treated so that the inked portion remains slightly raised, and from this
+stone an indefinite number of charts can be printed in a lithographic
+press at the rate of 1000 an hour. The paper is not moistened, and
+consequently there is little distortion or change of scale in prints
+from stone. If desired to shade the land or use another color for any
+other purpose, additional impressions can be made on the same charts
+from other stones. Because of the bulk of the stones, work cannot
+ordinarily be retained on them, but the chart is cleaned off and the
+stones repeatedly used until worn thin. The original drawing as well as
+the negatives is preserved, from which the chart can again be published.
+For republication, the process is, however, not entirely satisfactory;
+the negatives are not always permanent, the work must again be assembled
+and transferred to the stone, changes or corrections are not very
+conveniently made on either drawing or negative, and after repeated
+changes the drawing becomes difficult to use in photolithography.
+Whether the charts are actually printed from copper or stone, there are
+decided advantages therefore in the matter of correction work and future
+editions in having the charts engraved on copper. On the other hand, the
+advantages of the photolithographic process are the ability to publish
+new drawings promptly, to use more than one shade on a chart, to obtain
+prints with little change of scale or distortion, and to print large
+editions rapidly.
+
+#Lithographic printing by transfer from engraved plates.# An impression
+on transfer paper may be taken from an engraved plate and this laid down
+on the stone in a manner similar to that used in laying down the prints
+from the glass negatives in photolithography. Prints are then made from
+the stone the same as in photolithography, but with superior results as
+to clearness. This general process is extensively used in both map and
+chart publishing in this country, as it combines the advantages of the
+plate in preservation of the chart record and facility of correction,
+and the advantages of the lithographic printing in less distortion of
+the printed chart, ability to print more than one shade, and facility
+for large editions. As the transfer from the plate can be readily made
+it is also better applicable to small editions than is photolithography.
+It is, however, not as convenient in the latter respect as plate
+printing, and it does not give a resulting impression equal in clearness
+or durability to the impression directly from the plate.
+
+#Etching on copper# for chart publication has been recently developed in
+the Coast and Geodetic Survey. A finished tracing is made, the surface
+of a smooth copper plate is sensitized, and by exposure to the sun a
+print is made on the sensitized surface. It is essential to use an
+air-exhausted printing frame so as to get good contact between the
+vellum and the plate. The work is then etched into the copper and the
+plate cleaned and touched up, after which it may be used the same as a
+hand-engraved plate, either for transfer to stone or direct plate
+printing. The expense and time required in the etching process are much
+less than for hand engraving. The process has been successfully used for
+a number of harbor charts. The etching of course will be of the same
+scale as the vellum at the time of the print, and vellum varies somewhat
+in scale with weather conditions and age. Unless overcome by the
+substitution of some more invariable material in place of vellum, this
+might be an obstacle to the use of the process for general charts where
+a true scale on the copper plate is desirable because of future work to
+be done on the plate. It must also be taken into account that the
+etching requires a finished tracing in ink, which is not essential for
+the hand engraver; if, however, the chart is first published by
+photolithography, as is the usual practice in the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey, the same tracing is used for both processes.
+
+#Distribution of charts.# Charts published by the government are sold to
+the public at a small price, estimated to cover the cost of paper and
+printing. The charts may be obtained direct from the publishing office
+or from the chart agents who are to be found in all the principal
+seaports. Catalogues are published from time to time giving complete
+lists of the current charts and the main facts regarding them. Index
+maps show graphically the area covered by each chart. The notices to
+mariners contain announcement of new charts or new editions published
+and of charts or editions cancelled, as well as of all corrections.
+
+
+
+
+CORRECTION OF CHARTS.
+
+
+#Need for revision.# The making of the survey and the printing of the
+chart do not complete the problem of the chart maker. Both nature and
+man are constantly changing the facts the representation of which has
+been attempted on the charts, and also the needs of man are always
+varying. The original surveys are made to meet the reasonable
+requirements of the time, but breakwaters and jetties are built, and
+channels and harbors dredged and otherwise improved, and cities built,
+and new paths of commerce are opened which bring vessels into waters
+previously thought of minor importance.
+
+With the increase of commerce and speed of vessels more direct routes
+are demanded for reasons of economy. Inside routes not originally used
+are sometimes developed for defensive reasons. The average draft of the
+larger vessels has also increased remarkably since the modern
+hydrographic surveys were commenced, and surveys once made to insure
+safety for the deepest vessels of that time are now not adequate. The
+average loaded draft of the 20 largest steamships of the world has
+increased as follows: 1848, 19 feet; 1873, 24 feet; 1898, 29 feet;
+1903, 32 feet. The average length of these vessels was 230 feet in 1848,
+390 feet in 1873, 541 feet in 1898, and 640 feet in 1903. The number of
+vessels drawing as much as 26-1/4 feet rose from 36 in 1902 to 185 in
+1904. In 1906 there were 17 vessels afloat, drawing 32 feet and upwards.
+There are now two steamers on the Atlantic 790 feet long, 88 feet beam,
+and 37-1/2 feet draft when fully loaded, and larger vessels are already
+planned.
+
+Great natural agencies are also constantly at work effecting changes in
+features shown on the charts. The action of currents and waves is
+continually cutting away or building the shore, particularly on sandy
+coasts exposed to storms. When surveyed in 1849 Fishing Point on the
+east coast of Maryland was but a bend in the shore line. By 1887 it had
+built out about two miles in a southerly direction, and in 1902 about
+two-thirds of a mile further, curving to the westward. Altogether in
+about half a century this tongue of land has grown out nearly three
+miles.
+
+Rivers are bearing vast quantities of sediment and depositing these near
+their mouths, pushing out the coast line and filling in the bottom. The
+main mouths of the Mississippi are advancing into the Gulf, but at a
+comparatively slow rate. A break from the main river at Cubit's Gap
+just above the head of the passes, however, has done an enormous amount
+of land making, filling in an area of about 50 square miles between 1852
+and 1905.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. FISHING POINT, MARYLAND, FROM SURVEYS OF 1849
+AND 1902, ILLUSTRATING BUILDING OUT OF A POINT ON THE COAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33. GROWTH OF LAND AT CUBITS GAP, MISSISSIPPI DELTA,
+FROM 1852 to 1905.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34. COLUMBIA RIVER ENTRANCE, SHOWING MOVEMENT OF
+SAND ISLAND, SURVEYS OF 1851, 1870 AND 1905.]
+
+The mouth of the Columbia River in Oregon shows an interesting example
+of the movement of an island. The chart of 1851 shows the center of Sand
+Island 3-1/4 miles southeast of Cape Disappointment, the chart of 1870
+shows it 2-3/4 miles southeast, and the chart of 1905 shows it 1-1/4
+miles easterly. This island has thus moved 2 miles northwesterly
+directly across the middle of the river entrance, closing up the former
+north channel. The southern point of the entrance, Clatsop Spit, has
+built out about the same distance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35. CHANGES IN HAULOVER BREAK, NANTUCKET ISLAND,
+1890 TO 1903.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36. MAPS OF BOGOSLOF ISLAND, 1895 AND 1907, SHOWING
+CHANGES DUE TO VOLCANIC ACTION.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Photo by U. S. R. C. Service._
+
+FIG. 37. BOGOSLOF VOLCANO, BERING SEA.]
+
+Volcanic action in well authenticated cases has caused islands to rise
+or disappear. In the present location of Bogoslof Island in Bering Sea
+the early voyagers described a "sail rock." In this position in 1796
+there arose a high island. In 1883 another island appeared near it. In
+1906 a high cone arose between the two, and a continuous island was
+formed over 1-1/2 miles long and 500 feet high. The latest report
+(September, 1907) was that this central peak had suddenly collapsed and
+disappeared. Bogoslof is an active volcano, and the main changes have
+been the result of violent volcanic action. The history of this island
+for over a century past forms a remarkable record of violent
+transformations in the sea.
+
+Earthquakes sometimes cause sudden displacements, horizontal or
+vertical, of sufficient amount to affect the information shown on the
+charts. A careful investigation of the effects of the earthquake in
+Yakutat Bay, Alaska, in September, 1899, showed that the shore was
+raised in some parts with a maximum uplift of 47 feet and depressed in
+other parts, and that at least two reefs and four islets were raised in
+the water area where none appeared before. Undoubtedly there were
+changes in the water depths, but definite information is lacking because
+there had been no previous hydrographic survey. The San Francisco
+earthquake of 1906 caused little vertical displacement, but there were
+horizontal changes of relative position as much as 16 feet; so far as
+known this earthquake did not affect the practical accuracy of the
+charts. Related to earthquake phenomena are the gradual coast movements
+of elevation or subsidence which are taking place but at so slow a rate
+as not to sensibly affect the charts in ordinary intervals of time.
+
+Another agency at work is the coral polyp on the coral reefs; although
+the rate of growth appears to be very slow, the resulting reefs and keys
+are an important feature in tropical seas.
+
+Practically all of the land features shown on charts are likewise
+subject to changes, the more rapid of which are mainly due to the works
+of man.
+
+The changes of channels and of commercial needs cause many alterations
+to be made from time to time in the lights and buoys which are shown on
+the charts.
+
+#Methods of correction.# The problem of keeping a chart sufficiently up
+to date is one of much practical importance and one which must be taken
+into account in planning what should be shown on the chart in the first
+place so as to bring it within the range of practicable revision.
+
+Certain features are corrected at once on the charts as soon as the
+information is received, such as dangers reported, and changes in lights
+and buoys. Where harbor works are in progress the periodic surveys made
+in this country by the Corps of Engineers furnish data which are applied
+promptly to the charts. Reported dangers in channels and bars are
+investigated by special surveys and the information is put on the
+charts. Examinations are made from time to time for the revision of the
+features along the coast line. Complete resurveys have been made, at
+long intervals, of some important portions of the coast where there has
+been evidence of change, and these, when they become available, are
+applied to the charts. All parts of the coast where the exposed portions
+are not of very permanent material will require resurveys at intervals,
+depending on their importance and the rate of change.
+
+Notwithstanding the great progress made in hydrographic surveys, a
+considerable number of rocks and shoals dangerous to navigation and not
+previously shown on the charts are reported, averaging nearly 400 each
+year for the last six years, according to the British reports. Of the
+367 reported in 1906, 11 were discovered by vessels striking them.
+
+Immediate information in the form of _Notices to Mariners_ is published,
+of the more important corrections to charts which can be made by hand.
+These corrections show what charts are affected, and give sufficient
+data for plotting.
+
+In the case of extensive corrections or new surveys a new edition of the
+chart is printed and all existing copies of the previous edition are
+canceled.
+
+It is important that the user of the chart shall make certain that he
+has the latest edition and that all corrections from its date of issue
+have been applied from the _Notices to Mariners_.
+
+It is unfortunately true that owing to failure to take proper account of
+the notices, or to economy, old editions or unconnected charts are
+sometimes used, and in a number of cases the loss of vessels has been
+directly due to this cause. Those responsible for the safe navigation of
+vessels should insist that the latest editions of charts are provided
+and that all charts to be used are inspected and corrected to date.
+
+
+
+
+READING AND USING CHARTS.
+
+
+#Reading charts.# A chart is a representation on paper of hydrographic
+and topographic information by means of various conventional methods and
+symbols. It is evidently important for those making use of charts to
+understand the system and conventions used, and to be able to interpret
+readily the various parts of the chart. The ability to read a chart must
+include an understanding of all its features, such as scale, projection,
+geographic position, directions, depths, plane of reference, aids to
+navigation, tides, currents, elevations, topography, and date of survey
+and publication.
+
+#Scale.# For American and British charts the scale is usually expressed
+by the inches or fractions of an inch to the minute or degree of
+latitude, or by the fractional proportion of a distance on the map to
+the corresponding distance on the earth. These fractions are sometimes
+stated on the British charts, and nearly always on those of the United
+States Coast Survey. The chart catalogues give the scale in one or the
+other form. A familiarity with the meaning of scales is of value in
+selecting the most suitable chart, in judging of the relative uses of
+charts, and in estimating distances. Where the fractional scales are
+stated they furnish a simple means of comparing charts, as, for
+instance, a chart on 1/50000 scale will show all distances just twice as
+long as a chart on 1/100000 scale.
+
+The following are scale equivalents:
+
+  Scale   1/10000 is equivalent to 7.30 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/20000 is equivalent to 3.65 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/40000 is equivalent to 1.82 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/50000 is equivalent to 1.46 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/80000 is equivalent to 0.91 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/100000 is equivalent to 0.73 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/200000 is equivalent to 0.36 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/400000 is equivalent to 0.18 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale 1/1000000 is equivalent to 0.07 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale 1/1200000 is equivalent to 0.06 inch   to one nautical mile.
+
+For use in measuring distances on large scale charts the length of one
+or more nautical miles is usually drawn on the chart, and sometimes
+scales are also given in other units. On British charts the nautical
+mile scale is divided into tenths (that is, cables of 100 fathoms or 600
+feet length); on the American charts into quarters and eighths. Where
+the scale covers more than one mile the fractional divisions are shown
+only for the left-hand mile and the zero of the scale is placed between
+this and the full mile scale, so that with dividers the full miles and
+fraction may readily be taken off. The nautical mile in the United
+States is taken to be the length of a minute of arc of a great circle on
+a sphere whose surface equals that of the earth; this definition makes
+the nautical mile equal 6080.27 feet. Lecky adopts 6080 feet as the
+nautical mile. The length of the actual minute of latitude on the
+earth's surface increases from 6046 feet at the equator to 6108 feet at
+the poles, an increase of about one per cent. It is, however, this
+somewhat variable unit of length which is ordinarily used in scaling
+distances on the sailing charts.
+
+On small scale charts there is usually a border scale entirely around
+the chart, conveniently subdivided; this serves the double purpose of
+facilitating the plotting or reading of positions by latitude and
+longitude and of furnishing a scale of minutes of latitude for use in
+measuring distances. On a mercator chart this scale of course varies
+with the latitude and it must be referred to in the mean latitude of the
+distance to be measured. In general practice the minute of latitude is
+taken as equal to the nautical mile.
+
+#Projection.# On only a few charts is there a statement of the
+projection used. Practically all general sailing charts are on the
+mercator projection, which can be readily recognized by the rectangular
+network of meridians and parallels and the increase with latitude of the
+distance between the parallels. On large scale local and harbor charts
+the kind of projection used is not of importance to navigation, as for
+such limited areas the difference between projections would not affect
+the use of the chart. On certain small scale charts of the United States
+Coast Survey which are on the polyconic projection this fact is stated
+on the chart, and can also be readily recognized by the convergence of
+the meridians and curvature of the parallels. Gnomonic charts intended
+for taking off great circle courses are always described in their titles
+and are also easily recognized by the increased scale and distortion
+toward all the borders. Charts of the polar regions are published on
+several different projections, which are distinguished from the mercator
+by their circular or curved parallels.
+
+#Geographic position.# For large scale and harbor charts the latitude
+and longitude of some point marked on the chart are sometimes stated on
+the face of the chart. For others of these, however, and for smaller
+scale and general charts, positions are obtained by reference to the
+border scale. There is a latitude scale down either side of the chart,
+and a longitude scale across the top and bottom. These scales are
+conveniently subdivided into degrees, minutes, or fractions of a minute.
+The minute is divided into tenths (6´´), sixths (10´´), quarters (15´´),
+or halves (30´´) on various charts.
+
+#Directions# are indicated on charts both by the projection lines and by
+compass roses. Nearly all charts are now oriented with the meridian,
+that is, north is the top of the chart, and on a mercator chart the east
+and west border lines are parallel with the meridians and the north and
+south border lines with the parallels. Formerly many charts were not so
+oriented. Some of these are still in use and can readily be recognized
+by the diagonal or inclined direction of the projection lines with
+respect to the border of the chart. Of course directions must not be
+referred to the border lines of these diagonal charts, and scales along
+such border lines must not be used. Directions with respect to true
+north may always be referred to the projection lines of the chart, but
+on a polyconic or polar chart a direction must not be carried so far
+from any projection line as to introduce error on account of
+convergence of the meridians. Compass roses are placed on charts to
+facilitate the taking off or laying down of directions, though in some
+respects their use is less accurate and convenient than the use of
+protractors, referring to the projection lines. The British charts and
+many of those of the United States Coast Survey have only magnetic
+compasses, with degrees outside and points inside, the former graduated
+to 90°. These are engraved on the chart with the magnetic variation for
+the date of publication, or for a few years in advance, and give the
+annual change in the variation. Because of expense of engraving they can
+be changed on the charts only at intervals of some years, and until this
+is done allowance for the change in variation is to be made if
+important. The German charts and those of the United States Hydrographic
+Office now have a threefold compass, the outer one degrees true, the
+middle degrees magnetic and the inner points magnetic; the degrees in
+both cases are graduated to 360°, reading from north through east,
+south, and west; thus northwest would be stated as 315° instead of N.
+45° W. Small scale charts covering extensive areas have no magnetic
+compasses. They sometimes have true compasses, and usually have the
+isogonic lines, or lines of equal magnetic variation, marked on them,
+from which the variation at any intermediate point can be estimated.
+
+#Depths.# The unit used for depths is always stated plainly on the
+chart, and it is important to note this carefully, as the British,
+American, and Japanese charts use fathoms for some charts and feet for
+others, and most other countries use meters. Some of the earlier charts
+of the United States coast have the depths inside of the 18-foot curve
+in feet and outside of that curve in fathoms.
+
+Depth curves are shown on charts in order to bring clearly to the eye
+the different depth areas and the limits for navigation of vessels of
+various drafts. The shoaler areas are usually indicated by sanding the
+outer limit or the entire area within the depth curve. For the curves
+of greater depths various standard symbols are used which vary slightly
+in the different series but which may readily be recognized by the
+soundings on either side of them. On the British charts the 1 and 3
+fathom curves are usually indicated by sanding the outer edge of the
+areas of these depths respectively; beyond these the standard curves
+shown on these charts are the 5, 10, 20, and 100 fathom curves. Similar
+curves are used on the United States charts. The German charts show the
+2, 4, 6, 10, and 20 meter and various deeper curves, and the French the
+2, 5, 10, and 20 meter and deeper curves. On the United States Lake
+Survey charts the areas included within the 6, 12, and 18 foot curves
+are shaded with a blue tint, heavy along the outer edge, which brings
+out strongly the shoal areas.
+
+Depth curves if clearly shown are a great aid in interpreting the
+hydrography and making plain the shoals and passages. The system of
+curves should always be understood when using a chart, and it may
+sometimes aid the navigator to trace out with a pencil an additional
+curve, if needed, beyond the draft of his vessel. The abbreviations used
+for the bottom characteristics are explained either on the chart or on
+the sheet of chart symbols, and give information which is useful in
+anchoring, and may be helpful in identifying a position by soundings.
+When a sounding is made without the lead reaching bottom, the depth
+obtained is sometimes shown on the chart by a short line and zero above
+the figure, indicating that at the depth stated, bottom was not obtained
+(no bottom). There are a few important symbols shown in the water area
+of charts. The sunken rock symbol indicates a dangerous area, or a
+danger having a moderate depth of water over it, or a rock the least
+water over which is not known; ordinarily on the United States charts
+the least depth will be stated when known, and the symbol omitted. The
+rock awash symbol indicates a rock awash at some stage of the tide,
+unless more definitely stated. The position of a wreck is indicated by a
+special symbol. P. D. (position doubtful) and E. D. (existence doubtful)
+are placed after soundings or rocks or other features which depend on
+some doubtful report not yet verified.
+
+The following are the relations between depth units found on various
+charts:
+
+  1 meter               = 3.281 English feet = 0.547 English fathoms.
+  1 sajene (Russian)    = 7     English feet = 1.167 English fathoms.
+  1 braza (old Spanish) = 5.484 English feet = 0.914 English fathom.
+  1.829 meters          = 6     English feet = 1.000 English fathom.
+
+#Aids to navigation.# Each series of charts has a definite system of
+representing the aids to navigation; these are similar in principle but
+differ as to detail. The characteristics of the lights, light-vessels,
+buoys, and beacons are usually explained by abbreviations placed by the
+side of each, and the entire system of representation is given on the
+explanatory sheet for the charts. Various methods of coloring lights and
+sectors and buoys are in use on different charts. It is evidently of
+importance that the user of the chart should readily understand the
+significance of the navigational aids as shown. For details regarding
+lights it is of course desirable to refer to the light lists; for the
+coasts of the United States detailed buoy lists are also published.
+Range and channel lines when shown are represented by distinctive
+symbols with bearings indicated. Danger ranges for the avoidance of
+shoals are sometimes shown. On the British charts bearings as stated on
+range and channel lines are magnetic; the custom varies on other charts
+and must be carefully noted in each case.
+
+#Plane of reference.# The soundings given on the chart express the depth
+of water when the tide is at the height adopted for the plane of
+reference; this same plane is used in the tide tables, which thus will
+indicate the amount to be added to the soundings when the tide is above
+the plane, or to be subtracted when it is below. In order to be on the
+safe side the plane of reference adopted is always some low stage of the
+tide, so that there is usually more water than shown on the chart.
+
+On the British and German charts the soundings are reduced to the mean
+low water of ordinary spring tides, unless otherwise stated. On the
+charts of the Coast and Geodetic Survey the following are the planes of
+reference: for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the mean of the low
+waters; for the Pacific coast, Alaska, and the Philippines, the mean of
+the lower low waters, except for Puget Sound and Wrangell Narrows, where
+planes two and three feet lower respectively have been adopted.
+According to the Tide Tables for 1908, at New York (Sandy Hook) the tide
+will fall below the plane of reference on 135 days during the year, but
+the extreme low tide will be only one foot below the plane. At Portland,
+Maine, in 1908, the extreme low water is 2.1 feet below the plane, and
+at San Francisco 1.5 feet. Of course when the tide is below the plane of
+reference the amount must be subtracted from the depths shown on the
+chart.
+
+Strong winds and unusual barometric pressure may have a marked effect on
+the height of tide, so that it may differ appreciably from the predicted
+height, which is of course based on normal conditions. At Baltimore and
+at Willets Point observation shows that a heavy wind may reduce the tide
+four feet below the predicted heights.
+
+#Tides.# Information regarding tides is given on all large scale charts,
+and additional information and predictions may be found in the Tide
+Tables. On the charts of the United States coast there is a small tide
+table giving for the high and low waters the time relations to the
+moon's transit and the height relations to the plane of reference. On
+the British charts there is a brief statement as to the tides either
+at the port on the chart or in the general notes; this ordinarily
+gives the interval in hours and minutes between the moon's meridian
+passage and the time of high water for the periods of full and new moon,
+and also the amount in feet that the spring and neap tides rise above
+the plane of reference, and the range of the neap tide. The following is
+an example of such a tide note: "H. W. F. and C. Campbellton IV^h 0^m.
+Springs rise 10 feet, Neaps 7 feet."
+
+At some important ports information as to the state of the tide is given
+to vessels, either by means of signal balls, or by automatic tidal
+indicators, as at the Narrows in New York Harbor, where a large dial
+shows to passing vessels the height of the tide, and an arrow indicates
+whether it is rising or falling.
+
+The tidal information becomes important and must be considered in
+navigation or in anchoring in waters where the available depth at low
+water approximates the draft of the vessel. In the general use of coast
+charts it is also important to observe the effect of the stage of tide
+on the appearance of many features. Rocks rising some feet above low
+water may be entirely submerged at high water. In some areas the aspect
+may be radically changed between high and low water by the baring of
+extensive shoals or reefs.
+
+#Currents.# Information, when available, as to currents is given either
+by a note or by current arrows placed on the chart at the position of
+observation. Additional information as to certain regions is given in
+the United States Tide Tables. Tidal currents, flood and ebb, and
+currents not due to tidal action are distinguished by symbols, and the
+velocity is given in knots, and on some charts is indicated by the
+lengths of the arrows.
+
+Complete and systematic current observations have been made in
+comparatively few localities because of the time and expense necessary
+to get the full information as to the variations of the currents with
+the tides and seasons. Ordinarily therefore the current arrows shown on
+charts indicate only the average direction and velocity, or possibly
+only the conditions existing at the season when the survey was made.
+Oceanic and coast currents are probably much less uniform than might be
+inferred from the current streams drawn on maps and charts. A more
+systematic investigation of ocean currents is required to fulfill the
+needs of navigation.
+
+The tidal currents seldom turn with the tides, and there may be an
+interval of as much as three hours between the time of high tide or
+low tide and slack water. This leads to the apparent anomaly that in
+cases the current may be running with its greatest velocity at the time
+of high or low water, and may be running into a channel for several
+hours after the tide commences to fall. It is therefore, evidently, not
+safe to draw inferences as to currents solely from the tidal heights.
+
+There are passages where the tidal currents become of the greatest
+importance to navigation, as, for instance, in Seymour Narrows on the
+inside route to Alaska, where the current velocity reaches 12 knots and
+the interval of apparent slack water lasts but a few minutes.
+
+#Elevations.# The unit used for elevations is also stated on the face of
+the chart, as also the plane to which elevations are referred. On the
+United States charts this is generally mean high water and on British
+charts the high water of ordinary spring tides. Rocks and islets usually
+have figures shown beside them, either in brackets or underscored, which
+indicate the height above high water. Rocks which are bare at low water
+sometimes have a note "dries" or "bares" so many feet, indicating their
+height above low tide, although they are covered at high tide. The
+British charts in some regions where there is a large range of tide have
+underlined figures in the area between high water and low water
+indicating the heights above low water, or the depths of water over the
+bank at high water, as explained in each case.
+
+#Topography.# The land area on most charts is distinguished from the
+water area by a stipple or tint; on some charts the topographic features
+have, however, been depended upon to bring out the land from the water.
+The solid shore line is the high-water line, and should be clear on the
+chart; the area between high and low water is sanded or otherwise shaded
+on all charts. The relief of the land is represented by hill shading or
+by contour lines which are the successive curves of elevation on the
+land. Topographic symbols are used for some of the more important
+features, such as cliffs, rocky ledges, buildings, bridges, trees,
+roads, etc. It is important for the navigator to understand the
+significance of the hill representation and the symbols, as they will
+aid him in recognizing a coast or island, and in identifying landmarks.
+
+#Date of survey and publication.# There is usually an authority note on
+each chart showing the source of information or date of survey; if on a
+coast subject to change, the latter is important. On the United States
+Coast Survey charts the date of publication of the edition is given,
+and on British and other charts the date of both large and small
+corrections. The chart catalogues give the dates of the last editions,
+or the dates of extensive corrections, and this affords a means of
+seeing whether the copy of the chart in use is the latest edition
+available.
+
+
+
+
+USE OF CHARTS IN NAVIGATION.
+
+
+#Chart working.# In crossing the open and deep portions of the ocean,
+where the only data given may be the projection lines and soundings far
+deeper than can be reached with navigational sounding machines, the
+chart is used to lay out in advance the general course to be followed
+and to plot the positions of the vessel at intervals either as
+determined by observations or, lacking these, by dead reckoning. When
+necessary the courses of the vessel are modified as the plotted
+positions are found to fall one side or the other of the proposed
+general track.
+
+The principal operations on a chart are plotting or taking off positions
+by latitude and longitude, laying down or taking off bearings,
+directions, and courses, plotting or measuring distances, and laying
+down or taking off angles.
+
+To plot a position by its latitude and longitude on a mercator chart,
+set a parallel ruler on the adjacent parallel and then move it to the
+required latitude as shown by the border scale at either side; then with
+a pair of dividers at the upper or lower longitude border scale take the
+distance from the nearest meridian and lay this distance off along the
+edge of the parallel ruler. The latitude and longitude of a point are
+taken from the chart by reversing this process, or with the dividers
+only. A direction is laid down on the chart or read from the chart
+preferably by using some form of protractor and measuring the angle from
+the projection lines. In this country it is more commonly done by
+carrying the direction with a parallel ruler either from or to a compass
+rose printed on the chart. Distances are measured or laid down on a
+mercator chart by using the latitude border scale for the middle
+latitude. On polyconic and other larger scale charts distances are
+measured from the scales printed on the chart. It should be remarked
+that in general where special accuracy is required distances should be
+computed and not scaled from any chart, because of the error due to the
+distortion of paper in printing.
+
+The use of protractors on charts in plotting by angles in the
+three-point problem will be referred to later.
+
+The course to be steered to allow for a set due to current or wind may
+be obtained by a graphical solution on the chart, though it will be
+preferable to do this on other paper, using a larger scale. (Fig. 38.)
+The direction and velocity of the set and the course and speed of the
+ship may be considered as two sides of a parallelogram of forces, of
+which the diagonal is the distance and course made good. To obtain the
+course to steer to reach a given point with a given current and speed of
+vessel, lay down the direction of the destination; from the starting
+point lay off the direction of set and the amount in one hour; from the
+extremity of this describe an arc with radius equal to the speed of the
+vessel in one hour. A line drawn from the extremity of the direction of
+set to the point of intersection of the arc and the course to be made
+good will give the direction of the course to be steered, and the point
+of intersection will also be the estimated position of the vessel at the
+end of the hour's run.
+
+#Methods of locating a vessel.# The principal methods used for locating
+the position of a vessel are by astronomical observations, by dead
+reckoning, by compass bearings, by ranges, by horizontal angles, by
+soundings, by vertical angles, and by sound. The full discussion of
+these methods pertains to navigation and pilotage, and they will be only
+briefly referred to here as to their graphical application to charts.
+
+#Astronomical methods.# There are a number of methods of obtaining the
+position of a vessel by astronomical observations. When the position is
+computed the chart enters into these only in the plotting of the final
+result, so that with one exception these methods will not be referred to
+further here.
+
+The elegant method discovered by an American seaman, Captain Sumner, in
+1843, is in part graphical, to be worked out upon the chart. This method
+is based on the obvious fact that at any instant there is a point on the
+earth having the sun in its zenith and which is the center of circles on
+the earth's surface along the circumference of any one of which the
+sun's altitude is the same at all points. A short portion of such a
+circle may be considered as a straight line and can be determined by
+locating one point and its direction, or two points in it. This is known
+as a Sumner line. (Fig. 39.)
+
+From an observation of the sun's altitude and azimuth and an assumed
+latitude a position is computed and plotted and a line drawn on the
+chart through this position at right angles to the azimuth of the sun as
+taken from the azimuth tables and laid off from a meridian. Another
+method is to compute positions with two assumed latitudes and plot the
+two resulting positions and draw a line through them. The vessel must be
+somewhere on the resulting Sumner line. A good determination may be
+obtained by the intersection of two Sumner lines obtained from two
+observations of the sun with sufficient interval so that there will be a
+change of azimuth of as much as 30 degrees to give a fair intersection.
+Allowance must be made for the movement of the vessel between the two
+observations by drawing a line parallel to the first and at a distance
+equal to the distance made good. An excellent intersection may be
+obtained by observation of the sun, and before or after it of a star in
+the twilight at a different azimuth.
+
+[Illustration: COURSE TO ALLOW FOR SET, GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
+
+FIG. 38.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY INTERSECTION OF SUMNER LINES
+
+FIG. 39.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY COMPASS BEARINGS
+
+FIG. 40.]
+
+Even a single Sumner line, however, furnishes valuable information, as
+it may be combined with other sources of information to obtain an
+approximation to the position. The vessel must be somewhere on this
+line, and this gives a good check on the position by dead reckoning, or
+an intersection may be obtained with a line or bearing of a distant land
+object, or a line of soundings may be compared on the chart with the
+Sumner line.
+
+If an observation is taken when the observed heavenly body is bearing
+abeam, it is evident that the resulting Sumner line will be the
+direction of the course of the vessel, and this fact may be useful in
+shaping the course when nearing the land or a danger.
+
+#Dead reckoning.# When impossible to obtain the position by any other
+means, it is computed or plotted from the last determined position,
+using the courses and distances run as shown by compass and log and
+allowing for effect of current and wind. Because of uncertainties in all
+these elements, positions so obtained may be from five to twenty miles
+in error in a two-hundred-mile run, depending of course to some extent
+on the speed of the vessel.
+
+#Compass bearings.# A compass bearing of a single object, as a
+lighthouse or a tangent to a point of land, laid down on the chart,
+shows that the vessel is somewhere on that line, and when combined with
+other information, as with a Sumner line or the course by dead reckoning
+or the distance by a vertical angle, will give a position whose
+correctness of course depends on the accuracy of the data used. Bearings
+of two objects not in the same direction give two lines on the chart
+whose intersection is the position. This will be very weak if the angle
+of intersection is acute, and will become stronger as it approaches a
+right angle. A bearing of a third object should be taken when
+practicable, as it affords a valuable check in that the three lines
+should intersect in the same point; if they do not do so when plotted
+the error is either in the observations, or the compass, or the
+plotting, or the chart. (Fig. 40). All compass bearings are of course
+dependent upon the accuracy of the compass and the knowledge of its
+errors due to the local magnetic effect of the ship, and also upon the
+correctness with which the magnetic variation from true north is known.
+Bearings of near objects should therefore always be preferred, and those
+of distant objects considered as giving only approximate positions. An
+error of one degree in the bearing of an object 30 miles away will
+deflect the plotted line about one-half mile. Because of the facility
+with which they may be taken compass bearings are much used for inshore
+navigation, but in point of reliability they are inferior to some of the
+other methods.
+
+A single or "danger" bearing of an object is often a valuable guide in
+avoiding a danger. For example, a reef may lie to the westward of a line
+drawn South 10° East from a lighthouse; in approaching a vessel will
+pass safely to the eastward of the reef if the lighthouse is not allowed
+to bear any to the northward of North 10° West. (Fig. 41.)
+
+Two successive bearings of a single object, as, for instance, a
+lighthouse, noting the distance run in the interval, afford a convenient
+and much used means of locating the position with respect to that
+object. Such bearings are drawn on the chart in reversed direction from
+the object. The distance run between the bearings, as read by the log
+and corrected for current if practicable, is scaled off with dividers
+and the course of the vessel is set off with parallel ruler; the latter
+is then moved across the two plotted directions until the distance
+intercepted between them equals that scaled with the dividers, and the
+edge of the ruler then represents the track of the vessel. (Fig. 42.) If
+the angle from the bow, or from the course of the vessel, for the second
+bearing is double that for the first bearing, the distance from the
+object at the second bearing is equal to that run by the vessel in the
+interval, and the use of this simple relation is designated as "doubling
+the angle on the bow." If the angles between the course and the object
+are respectively 45° and 90° when the two bearings are taken on an
+object on the shore, the distance that the ship passes offshore when the
+object is abeam is equal to the distance run between the two bearings;
+this is a much used navigational device, known as the "bow and beam
+bearing" or the "four-point bearing." There is an advantage, however, in
+using bearings at two and four points (or 22.5° and 45°), as these give
+the probable distance that the object will be passed before it is abeam.
+
+#Ranges.# A valuable line of position is obtained by noting when two
+well-situated objects are in range, that is, one back of the other in
+the line of sight from the vessel, as, for instance, a church spire
+appearing behind a lighthouse or a rock in line with a prominent point.
+Such ranges are of course entirely free from compass errors, and should
+be noted whenever there is favorable opportunity. The value of the range
+in plotting will increase with the distance between the objects, and if
+the two are close in proportion to the distance to the vessel the
+direction will be weak owing to the uncertainty in drawing a direction
+through close points. Artificial ranges are often erected as aids to
+navigation, usually to indicate the course to be followed in passing
+through a channel. Ranges afford a valuable guide in avoiding dangers,
+as for example an inspection of the chart may show that if a certain
+lighthouse is kept in line with or open from an islet a dangerous shoal
+will be given a good berth; on coasts not well buoyed such danger ranges
+are sometimes marked on the charts. (Fig. 43.)
+
+[Illustration: DANGER BEARING
+
+FIG. 41.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY SUCCESSIVE BEARINGS TWO AND FOUR POINT
+BEARINGS
+
+FIG. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: RANGE TO AVOID DANGER
+
+FIG. 43.]
+
+#Horizontal sextant angles.# The location of a position by the
+three-point problem, using sextant angles, is much more exact than by
+bearings, but is less used because not so well known and also because
+additional instruments are required and the conditions are not always
+favorable. It is so valuable a method, however, that it should be used,
+when necessary, on every well-equipped vessel. A single horizontal angle
+taken with a sextant between objects, as two lighthouses, defines the
+position of the vessel as somewhere on the circumference of a circle
+passing through the two objects and the vessel. A protractor laid on the
+chart with two of its arms set at the observed angle and passing through
+the two objects, will permit of locating two or more points of this
+circle on the chart. This furnishes a line of position which may be
+combined with other information to locate the vessel. With a compass
+bearing of one of the objects the position may be plotted directly from
+the single angle. Two sextant angles measured at the same instant
+between three objects furnish one of the most accurate means of locating
+the position of a vessel, this being the same method that is ordinarily
+used in hydrographic surveying, known as the three-point problem. (Fig.
+44.) The two angles are conveniently set off on a three-arm protractor,
+which is shifted on the chart until the three arms touch the three
+points, when the position of the center is plotted. A third angle to a
+fourth point furnishes a valuable check in case of doubt. Two angles may
+also be taken to four objects without any common point, and in this case
+portions of the two circles of position are plotted and their
+intersection will be the ship's position.
+
+The value of this method depends largely on the selection of favorably
+located objects, and it is quite important that the principles of the
+three-point problem be understood. If the ship is on or near the
+circumference of a circle which passes through the three objects the
+position will be very weak, and the same is true if the distance between
+any two of the objects is small as compared with the distance from them
+to the vessel. A useful general rule is that the position will be strong
+if the middle one of the three objects is the nearest to the vessel,
+provided that no two of the objects are close together in comparison
+with the distance to the vessel.
+
+A single sextant angle furnishes a means of avoiding a known danger by
+using what is known as the horizontal "danger angle." (Fig. 45.) Note
+two well-defined objects on the coast either side of the danger to be
+avoided and describe a circle through them and passing sufficiently
+outside of the reef to give it a safe berth. With a protractor on the
+chart note the angle between the objects at any point on the outer part
+of this circle. If in passing, the angle at the ship between the two
+objects is not allowed to become greater than this "danger angle" the
+danger will be given a sufficient berth. This method as well as any use
+of sextant angles or bearings depends of course on the accuracy of the
+chart, and caution must be used where it is not certain that the chart
+depends upon an accurate survey.
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY SEXTANT ANGLES THREE POINT PROBLEM
+
+FIG. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: HORIZONTAL DANGER ANGLE
+
+FIG. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: DISTANCE BY VERTICAL ANGLE]
+
+[Illustration: VERTICAL DANGER ANGLE
+
+FIG. 46.]
+
+#Soundings.# Even if objects cannot be seen, due to distance or thick
+weather, the chart furnishes a valuable aid when a vessel has approached
+within the limits where it is practicable to obtain soundings. Modern
+navigational sounding machines permit of obtaining soundings to depths
+of nearly one hundred fathoms without stopping the vessel. A rough check
+is at once obtained by comparing such soundings with those given on the
+chart for the position carried forward by dead reckoning. If a number of
+soundings are taken and plotted on a piece of tracing paper, spaced by
+the log readings to the scale of the chart, and this tracing paper is
+laid over the chart and shifted in the vicinity of the probable position
+until the soundings best agree with those on the chart, a valuable
+verification of position may be obtained. This is particularly the case
+if the area has been well surveyed, and the soundings taken on the
+vessel are accurate, and the configuration of the bottom has marked
+characteristics. For instance, in approaching New York the crossing of
+the 30, 20, and 10 fathom curves will give a fair warning of the
+distance off the Long Island and New Jersey coasts, and soundings across
+such a feature as the submerged Hudson gorge extending to the
+southeastward of Sandy Hook will give a valuable indication of position.
+The taking of soundings should be resorted to even in favorable
+conditions, in approaching shoal water, as a check on other means of
+locating the vessel. Many marine disasters are attributed to failure to
+make sufficient use of the lead, the simplest of navigational aids.
+
+#Vertical angles.# The vertical angle of elevation of an object whose
+height is known will give the distance, and combined with a bearing or
+other information this permits of locating a vessel where better means
+cannot be used. Distance tables are published for this method. (Fig.
+46.) The vertical angle is measured with a sextant and must be the angle
+at the ship between the top of the object and the sea level vertically
+beneath it; for a hill or mountain, therefore, the eye of the observer
+should be near the water. The object should not be so distant that
+curvature becomes appreciable. The "vertical danger angle" is a means of
+avoiding a known danger, on a principle similar to that of the
+horizontal danger angle; that is, the angle of elevation of a known
+object is not permitted to become greater than a fixed amount depending
+on the distance from the object to the danger to be avoided.
+
+#Positions by sound.# In thick weather sound affords a valuable aid to
+the navigator. In narrow passages noting the echo of the whistle from a
+cliff is a method resorted to, as for instance in Puget Sound and along
+the Alaska coast. Fog whistles and bell buoys are maintained at many
+places. Submarine bells have recently been introduced at a number of
+points along the Atlantic coast, and vessels may be equipped to receive
+these submarine signals transmitted through the water, which indicate
+also the general direction from which the sound comes.
+
+#Need of vigilance.# Too great importance cannot be attached to frequent
+verification of positions by the best available means, particularly when
+approaching the land. Neglect of this or overconfidence has caused many
+disasters. A notable instance was the loss of one of the largest Pacific
+steamers on the coast of Japan in March, 1907. In the afternoon of a
+clear day this vessel ran on to a well-known reef about a mile from a
+lighthouse, resulting in the total loss of vessel and cargo valued at
+three and a half million dollars. The captain was so confident of his
+position and that he was giving the reef a sufficient berth that he laid
+down no bearings on the chart and took no soundings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47. FIELD'S PROTRACTOR AND PARALLEL RULER IN USE ON
+A CHART, PLOTTING BEARING OF A LIGHTHOUSE.]
+
+#Instruments.# The principal instruments needed for use with charts are;
+dividers for taking off distances and latitudes and longitudes, parallel
+ruler for transferring directions to or from a compass rose and for
+taking off or plotting the latitude on a mercator chart, protractor of
+180 degrees for reading the angle with the meridian of any direction or
+for laying off on the chart any given angle with the meridian, and
+three-arm or other full-circle protractor for plotting a position by the
+three-point problem.
+
+Parallel rulers on the principle of Field's are strongly recommended for
+chart work, as they combine in a single instrument the advantages of a
+parallel ruler and a 180-degree protractor. Any direction can be read or
+laid off by simply moving the parallel ruler to the nearest projection
+line, which is a process not only more convenient than referring to the
+compass rose printed on the chart but also more accurate because of the
+longer radius. These instruments can also be used the same as a plain
+parallel ruler. Field's parallel rulers are made in two forms, one
+rolling and the other sliding. The former is a single ruler with edge
+graduated 90 degrees either way, and mounted on rollers; it is the most
+rapid instrument for reading or laying off a direction, but it requires
+a smooth surface. The latter is an ordinary two-bar parallel ruler with
+edge when closed graduated 90 degrees either way; it is a very
+serviceable instrument and probably more to be depended upon for
+ordinary use than the rolling form. Some form of combined protractor and
+parallel ruler should be in every navigational equipment, and it is
+unfortunate that these instruments are not better known in this country.
+There are other forms of half-circle protractors which are used on the
+same principle, that is, of bringing the center on to a projection line
+and reading where the line cuts the border graduation of the protractor.
+Thus a semicircular protractor is used with a separate straight edge,
+along which it is slid to the nearest meridian; another form is the
+simple circular protractor with a thread fastened at the center. All
+these forms of protractors, it will be noted, are intended to work from
+the true meridian, and they are usually graduated in degrees only; the
+use of degrees instead of points is becoming much more general in
+navigational work, and reference to the true meridian is also more
+common than formerly.
+
+The standard three-arm protractor, or station pointer, as it is known to
+the English, should be a part of every navigational outfit because of
+its value in locating a position by the three-point problem. A recent
+American invention, Court's three-arm protractor, is an instrument made
+of celluloid for the same purpose. It should not be considered as a
+substitute for the standard metal instrument, but it is a simple, cheap,
+and handy supplement to it, as it may be readily used for small angles
+and short distances where there are mechanical difficulties in working
+with the metal three-arm protractor. Other protractors can be used for
+the three-point problem, as, for instance, Cust's protractor on
+celluloid, on which the angles are drawn in pencil and erased, and the
+tracing-paper protractor.
+
+#Degree of reliance on charts.# The value of a chart must not be judged
+alone from its general appearance, as skill in preparation and
+publication may give a handsome appearance to an incomplete survey. On
+the other hand a thorough survey might through poor preparation result
+in a chart defective either in information or in utility.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48. THREE-ARM PROTRACTOR IN USE ON A CHART, PLOTTING
+POSITION FROM TWO ANGLES.]
+
+The degree of completeness of the soundings, the character of the
+region, and the date of the survey should be taken into account in
+deciding as to the amount of reliance to be placed on the chart. Areas
+where the soundings are not distributed with fair uniformity may be
+assumed not to have been completely surveyed. Caution should be used in
+navigating on charts where the survey is not complete, and even where
+careful surveys exist care must be taken if the bottom is of very
+irregular nature with lumps near the navigable depth, as for instance on
+some of the coral reef coasts. Isolated soundings shoaler than the
+surrounding depths should be avoided, as there may be less water than
+shown. In such a region, unless the whole area is dragged, it is
+impossible to make it entirely certain that all obstructions are
+charted.
+
+While an immense amount of faithful work has been put into the
+preparation of many charts, the user must constantly exercise his own
+judgment as to the reliance to be placed on them. A coast is not to be
+considered as clear unless it is shown to be; buoys may get adrift and
+be in a different position or be gone altogether; fog signals vary in
+distinctness owing to atmospheric conditions; extreme or unusual tides
+may fall below the plane of reference; owing to strong winds the actual
+tide may differ from the predicted tide. Errors sometimes creep in from
+various sources, such as those due to different reference longitudes or
+the use of a corrected longitude for a portion of the chart without
+changing other positions to which the same correction is applicable;
+clerical and printing errors may occur; there are sometimes omissions in
+surveys; a feature may get plotted in two different positions; tide rips
+are reported as breakers and floating objects as rocks or islands, and
+thus many dangers have gotten on the charts which cannot be found again,
+and false reports are sometimes made to shield some one from blame. Most
+of these classes of errors and uncertainties, however, disappear in the
+use of charts of a thoroughly surveyed coast.
+
+#Use the latest editions of charts.# The latest edition of a chart
+should always be used and should be corrected for all notices since its
+issue. Carelessness or false economy in not providing the largest scale
+or the latest chart has been the cause of more than one marine disaster.
+
+The British Board of Trade issue the following official notice to
+shipowners and agents: "The attention of the Board of Trade has
+frequently been called to cases in which British vessels have been
+endangered or wrecked through the masters' attempting to navigate them
+by means of antiquated or otherwise defective charts. The Board of Trade
+desires, therefore, to direct the especial attention of shipowners and
+their agents to the necessity of seeing that the charts taken or sent on
+board their ships are corrected to the time of sailing. Neglect to
+supply a ship with proper charts will be brought prominently before the
+Court of Inquiry in the event of a wreck occurring from that cause."
+
+The following is a translation of a notice in the preface to the
+catalogue of charts published by the German government: "Owners and
+masters of vessels are apprised that cases of marine accidents in which
+the casualty was due to antiquated or erroneous charts, have frequently
+been before the admiralty courts. In consequence of this, the
+'Instructions for the prevention of accidents to steamers and sailing
+vessels,' issued by the Seeberufsgenossenschaft have been amended by the
+following additional paragraph: 'It is obligatory upon every master,
+except when engaged in local coastwise navigation, to keep the Notices
+to Mariners regularly, and with the aid of them to carefully keep his
+charts up to date.'"
+
+The British shipping laws provide that a ship may not be sent to sea in
+such an unseaworthy state that the life of any person is thereby
+endangered, and the House of Lords has defined the term "seaworthy" to
+mean "in a fit state as to repairs, equipment, and crew, and in all
+other respects, to encounter the ordinary perils of the voyage." Proper
+charts and sailing directions are a necessary part of the equipment of a
+vessel, and the courts have frequently inquired into this.
+
+The records of the British courts, however, show that even in recent
+years many ships have been damaged or lost owing directly or indirectly
+to failure to have the latest information on board. The following are
+instances from these records.
+
+In 1890 the steamer _Dunluce_ was lost owing to the use of an old
+edition of the Admiralty chart which showed a depth of 4-1/2 fathoms on
+the Wikesgrund, whereas the later chart showed much less water. In this
+case the master had requested his ship chandler to send him the latest
+chart.
+
+In 1891 the steamer _St. Donats_ got ashore on a patch which was not
+shown on the chart in use, which was privately published in 1881; the
+danger was, however, shown on the Admiralty chart corrected to 1889.
+
+Also in 1891 the steamer _Trent_ was lost on the Missipezza Rock in the
+Adriatic. The ship was navigated by a private chart published in 1890
+which did not show this rock, and by sailing directions published in
+1866.
+
+The steamer _Aboraca_, stranded in the Gulf of Bothnia in 1894, was
+being navigated by a chart corrected to 1881 which did not show that the
+Storkallagrund light-vessel had been moved eight miles.
+
+The steamer _Ravenspur_ was lost on Bilbao Breakwater owing to the use
+of a chart not up to date which did not show the breakwater. In 1898 the
+steamer _Cromarty_ was lost in attempting to enter Ponta Delgada harbor,
+and in 1901 the steamer "Dinnington" was lost by steaming on to the new
+breakwater in Portland harbor; both of these disasters were likewise due
+to the use of old charts which did not show the breakwaters. In these
+three cases the masters of the vessels had authority to obtain the
+necessary charts at the owners' expense.
+
+Not so, however, in the following case from the finding of a British
+marine court in 1877: "The primary cause of the ship's getting on shore
+was due to the master's being guided in his navigation by an obsolete
+Admiralty chart dated September 1, 1852, and corrected to April, 1862,
+and on which no lights are shown to exist either in ... or ... and to
+his not being supplied with the latest sailing directions. The Court,
+considering that the master was obliged to furnish himself with
+chronometer, barometer, sextant, charts, sailing directions, and
+everything necessary for the navigation of his vessel out of his private
+resources, which, under very favorable circumstances, might perhaps
+reach £150 a year, find themselves unable in this instance to pass a
+heavier censure upon him than that he be severely reprimanded."
+
+The loss of the German steamer _Baker_ on the coast of Cuba on January
+31, 1908, was declared by the marine court at Hamburg to be due in part
+to the use of an unofficial chart which did not show the latest surveys
+on that coast.
+
+#Use the largest scale charts.# The largest scale chart available should
+be employed when entering channels, bays, or harbors, as it gives
+information with more clearness and detail, positions may be more
+accurately plotted, and sometimes it is the first corrected for new
+information.
+
+The records of the courts of inquiry also show cases where vessels have
+been wrecked owing to the use of charts of too small scale.
+
+In 1890 the steamer _Lady Ailsa_ was lost on the Plateau du Four. The
+only chart on board for this locality was a general chart of the Bay of
+Biscay, and the stranding was due to the master's mistaking one buoy for
+another. The court found that the chart, although a proper one for
+general use, was not sufficient for the navigation of a vessel in such
+narrow waters and on such a dangerous coast.
+
+The _Zenobia_ was stranded on the San Thomé Bank in 1891. On this vessel
+the owners were to furnish the chronometers and the master the charts
+and sailing directions. The master was, however, apparently satisfied
+with only a general chart of the South Atlantic for navigation on the
+coast of Brazil, and had no sailing directions at all.
+
+#The depth curves# on charts furnish a valuable guide, and if the curves
+are lacking or broken in some parts it is usually a sign that the
+information is incomplete. The 100-fathom curve is a general warning of
+approach to the coast. The 10-fathom curve on rocky coasts should be
+considered as a danger curve, and caution used after crossing it. The
+5-fathom curve is the most important for modern vessels of medium draft,
+as it indicates for them the practical limit of navigation. The 3, 2,
+and 1-fathom curves are a guide to smaller vessels, but have less
+significance than formerly because of the increase of draft of vessels.
+
+#The shrinkage of paper#, especially in plate printing, has been
+referred to. This introduces two possible sources of error: first, the
+shrinkage being different in the two directions, any scale printed on
+the chart will be accurate only when used in a direction parallel to
+itself; second, for the same reason, angles and directions will be
+somewhat distorted. Fortunately these errors are not serious in the
+ordinary navigational use of a chart, but they should not be overlooked
+when accurate plotting or measuring of distances is attempted on a
+plate-printed chart.
+
+The actual shrinkage measured on charts printed from plates varies from
+1/3 inch to 1 inch in a length of chart of 36 inches. On British and
+American plate printed charts the shrinkage is usually from two to
+nearly three times as much in one direction as it is in the other.
+
+#Care of charts.# In order that they may be properly used charts should
+be filed flat and not rolled. They should be systematically arranged so
+that the desired chart can be instantly found. They should be cared for
+and when in bad condition replaced by new copies. They can be most
+conveniently filed in shallow drawers, thus avoiding the placing of many
+charts in a single drawer. The latter is a common fault; it not only
+increases the labor of handling the charts but adds to the liability of
+their injury.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL CHARTS.
+
+
+There are several publications in book and in chart form which are
+either necessary or convenient for use in connection with nautical
+charts. These comprise the coast pilots, notices to mariners, tide
+tables, light and buoy lists, and various special charts.
+
+#Coast pilots#, or sailing directions, are books giving descriptions of
+the main features, as far as of interest to seamen, of the coast and
+adjacent waters, with directions for navigation. They contain much
+miscellaneous information of value to the mariner, especially the
+stranger. Although they contain additional facts which cannot be shown
+on the charts, they are not at all intended to supersede the latter; the
+mariner should in general rely on the charts. The sailing directions can
+be less readily corrected than the charts, and in all cases where they
+differ the charts are to be taken as the guide.
+
+The most extensive series of sailing directions is that published by the
+British Admiralty, comprising fifty-six volumes and including all the
+navigable regions of the world. In the United States the Coast and
+Geodetic Survey publishes ten volumes of coast pilots for the Atlantic,
+Gulf, and Pacific coasts, Porto Rico, and southeastern Alaska, and eight
+volumes of sailing directions for Alaska and the Philippine Islands. The
+United States Hydrographic Office publishes sixteen volumes of sailing
+directions for various parts of the world.
+
+#Notices to Mariners# are published at frequent intervals, giving all
+important corrections, which should be at once applied by hand to the
+charts, such as rocks or shoals discovered and lights and buoys
+established or moved. New charts, new editions, and canceled charts are
+also announced.
+
+These notices should be carefully examined and the necessary corrections
+made on all charts of the sets in use on the vessel. A chart should be
+considered as a growing rather than a finished instrument, and constant
+watchfulness is required to see that it is kept up to date. Neglect of
+this may cause shipwreck, as the following instance shows. Report came
+to Manila in 1904 that there was a low sand islet lying off the very
+poorly charted northeast coast of Samar; this information was promptly
+published in the local Notice to Mariners. About a month later a small
+steamer was sent to land some native constabulary on that coast. The
+captain failed to obtain or observe this notice, and approached the
+coast before daylight on a course which led directly across the sand
+islet. The vessel was driven far up on the sand, where it still lies.
+
+In the United States, weekly Notices to Mariners are published by the
+Department of Commerce and Labor for the coasts under the jurisdiction
+of the United States, and by the Navy Department for all regions. These
+notices are distributed free and can be obtained from chart agents and
+consular officers. In Great Britain the notices are published at
+frequent intervals by the Hydrographic Office, and practically all
+countries issuing charts also issue such notices. Information as to
+important changes in lights and other announcements of navigational
+interest are also sometimes printed in the marine columns of newspapers
+and in nautical periodicals.
+
+#Tide Tables.# Brief information as to the time and height of the tide
+is usually for convenience given on the face of the chart. More complete
+information is published in the Tide Tables, with which every navigator
+should be provided. "The Tide Tables for United States and foreign
+ports," published annually in advance by the United States Coast and
+Geodetic Survey, give complete predictions of the time and height of
+high and low water for each day of the year for 70 of the principal
+ports of the world, and the tidal differences from some principal port
+for 3000 subordinate ports. The other leading nations also publish
+annual tide tables; those of the British government are entitled "Tide
+Tables for British and Irish ports, and also the times of high water for
+the principal places on the globe."
+
+#Light and buoy lists.# Brief information as to all artificial aids to
+navigation is shown on the charts. Every vessel should also have on
+board the latest official light and buoy lists, which give a more
+detailed description than can be placed on the charts.
+
+Light and buoy lists for the coasts of the United States are published
+annually by the Light-House Board. The United States Hydrographic Office
+publishes a "List of Lights of the World" (excepting the United States),
+in three volumes.
+
+The British Hydrographic Office publishes eight volumes of Lists of
+Lights, and these are corrected annually.
+
+#Chart catalogues# are published in connection with all series of
+charts. They give the particulars and price of each chart published, and
+are usually arranged in geographical order, with both alphabetical and
+numerical indexes, for convenience in finding charts either by position,
+name, or number.
+
+#Charts for special purposes.# There are various special charts
+published for the benefit of mariners, although not intended for direct
+use in plotting the course of a vessel or in locating its position. Some
+of the more important of these are mentioned below.
+
+#Gnomonic charts# are intended solely for laying down the great circle
+or shortest practicable courses between points, for which purpose they
+are very convenient. Their use has already been described. The United
+States Hydrographic Office publishes six such charts, for the North
+Atlantic, South Atlantic, Pacific, North Pacific, South Pacific, and
+Indian Oceans.
+
+#Current charts# are published by the British Hydrographic Office for
+the various oceans; these usually show the average ocean currents, but
+for the Atlantic there are monthly and for the Pacific quarterly current
+charts.
+
+#Magnetic variation charts# are published by both the United States and
+British governments. They show on a mercator chart of the world the
+isogonic lines, or lines along which the variation of the needle from
+true north is the same. The lines are drawn for each degree of
+variation. The annual change in the variation is also indicated.
+
+Other magnetic charts are published showing the lines of equal magnetic
+dip, horizontal magnetic force, and vertical magnetic force.
+
+#Meteorological ocean charts# are published by several governments,
+including the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, and give the
+average weather conditions, winds, fogs, currents, ice, tracks of
+storms, and other information. "Pilot charts" of the North Atlantic and
+North Pacific Oceans are issued by the United States Hydrographic Office
+about the first of each month, and give "a forecast of the weather for
+the ensuing and a review of that for the preceding month, together with
+all obtainable information as to the most available sailing and steam
+routes, dangers to navigation, ice, fog, derelicts, etc., and any
+additional information that may be received of value to navigation."
+Mariners in all parts of the world have joined in contributing the
+information which has been used in compiling these pilot charts.
+
+#Track charts# are published by the British and United States
+governments. That of the latter is entitled "Track and distance chart of
+the world, showing the routes traversed by full-powered steamers between
+the principal ports of the world, and the corresponding distances."
+
+#Telegraph charts# are published showing the "telegraphic connections
+afforded by the submarine cables and the principal overland telegraph
+lines."
+
+#Index charts# are outline plans showing the area covered by each chart
+of a series, and furnish a convenient means of finding a chart of any
+desired region or of selecting the most suitable chart for any purpose.
+These index charts are published either in sets, showing all the charts
+of a series, or are bound into the chart catalogues.
+
+#Star charts# are included in navigational series, and are conveniently
+arranged for use on shipboard in identifying the brighter stars. The
+United States Hydrographic Office publishes two, constellations of the
+northern and of the southern hemispheres.
+
+#Explanatory sheets# are published in connection with various series of
+charts, giving explanations of the symbols and abbreviations used and of
+other important features. In the United States the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey has issued a small pamphlet, "Notes on the use of charts," which
+contains explanations of its chart symbols, and the Hydrographic Office
+has published "A manual of conventional symbols and abbreviations in use
+on the official charts of the principal maritime nations."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                     PAGE
+
+  Aids to navigation, 118
+
+  Arbitrary projection, 79
+
+  Astronomical observations, 32
+
+  Astronomical positions, 126
+
+
+  Bearings, position by, 130
+
+  Board of Trade notice, 148
+
+
+  Care of charts, 153
+
+  Catalogues of charts, 157
+
+  Changes in the coast, 98
+
+  Chart making, development of, 6
+
+  Chart publications of various nations, 18
+
+  Charts, earliest nautical, 6
+
+  Charts, loxodromic, 7
+
+  Charts, plain, 8
+
+  Chart schemes, 67
+
+  Chart working, 124
+
+  Coast and Geodetic Survey, United States, 13
+
+  Coast pilots, 154
+
+  Compass bearings, 130
+
+  Compass, nautical use of, 6
+
+  Compass, variation of, 7
+
+  Compilation of information, 67
+
+  Correction of charts, method of, 110
+
+  Cosa, Juan de la, 8
+
+  Current charts, 157
+
+  Currents, 50, 121
+
+
+  Danger angle, horizontal, 136
+
+  Danger bearing, 131
+
+  Danger range, 132
+
+  Dangers, reports of, 56
+
+  Dates on charts, 123
+
+  Dead reckoning, 129
+
+  Depth curves, 116, 152
+
+  Depths, unit for, 19, 116
+
+  Depth units, relation of, 118
+
+  Directions on charts, 115
+
+  Distances, measured on chart, 125
+
+  Distribution of charts, 96
+
+  Doubling angle on bow, 131
+
+  Draft of vessels, 97
+
+  Dragging for dangers, 55
+
+
+  Earthquakes, 109
+
+  Electrotyping plates, 89
+
+  Elevations, 122
+
+  Engraving machines, 89
+
+  Engraving on copper, 84
+
+  Engraving on stone, 93
+
+  Eskimo map, 1
+
+  Etching on copper, 95
+
+  Explanatory sheets, 159
+
+
+  Flattening of the earth, 3
+
+  France, establishment of chart office, 10
+
+
+  Geographic position on charts, 115
+
+  Geography, early, 2
+
+  Germany, contributions to hydrography, 14
+
+  Gnomonic charts, 79, 157
+
+  Gnomonic projection, 74
+
+  Great Britain, contributions to geography, 14
+
+
+  Holland, development of chart making, 10
+
+  Hydrographic Office, British, 13
+
+  Hydrographic Office, United States, 13
+
+  Hydrography, 40
+
+
+  Index charts, 158
+
+  Information on charts, 23
+
+  Instruments used on charts, 141
+
+
+  Lake Survey, United States, 13
+
+  Largest scale chart, 151
+
+  Latest editions of charts, 148
+
+  Light and buoy lists, 156
+
+  Lithographic printing, 94
+
+  Locating a vessel, 126
+
+  Longitude, initial, 19
+
+  Longitude, uncertainties in, 10
+
+
+  Magnetic charts, 157
+
+  Magnetic variation, 56
+
+  Map, earliest, 2
+
+  Map making, development of, 2
+
+  Maps, need of, 1
+
+  Maritime surveys, extension of, 17
+
+  Mercator chart, history, 8
+
+  Mercator projection, 68
+
+  Meteorological charts (pilot charts), 158
+
+
+  Navigation, use of charts in, 124
+
+  Notices to mariners, 111, 155
+
+
+  Paper, shrinkage of, 152
+
+  Parallel rulers, Field's, 141
+
+  Photolithography, 93
+
+  Plane of reference, 20, 119
+
+  Plotting positions, 124
+
+  Polyconic projection, 73
+
+  Printing, plate, 84, 90
+
+  Privately published charts, 21
+
+  Progress of hydrographic surveys, 17
+
+  Projection, explanation of, 114
+
+  Projections, 68, 114
+
+  Protractor, three-arm, 144
+
+  Ptolemy, 3
+
+  Publication of charts, methods, 84
+
+  Purpose of charts, 22
+
+
+  Ranges, 132
+
+  Reading charts, 112
+
+  Reliance on charts, 144
+
+  Reports of dangers, erroneous, 57
+
+  Requirements for charts, 23
+
+  Revision of charts, need of, 97
+
+  Rock, Brooklyn, 50
+
+
+  Sailing directions, early, 4
+
+  Sailing directions, 154
+
+  Scale equivalents, 113
+
+  Scales of charts, 79, 112
+
+  Set, graphical allowance for, 125
+
+  Sextant angles, 132
+
+  Sheets for surveys, 39
+
+  Shrinkage of paper, 152
+
+  Sound, position by, 140
+
+  Sounding machines, 49
+
+  Soundings, position by, 136
+
+  Star charts, 159
+
+  Station pointer, 144
+
+  Steamer for surveying, 49
+
+  Sumner's method, 126
+
+  Supplementary publications, 154
+
+  Surveys on foreign coasts, 14
+
+  Surveys, need of thorough, 31
+
+  Symbols on charts, 20
+
+
+  Telegraph charts, 158
+
+  Three-point problem, 132, 135
+
+  Tides, 50, 120
+
+  Tide tables, 156
+
+  Topography, 39
+
+  Topography on charts, 123
+
+  Track charts, 158
+
+  Triangulation, 32
+
+
+  Uniformity in charts, 21
+
+  Use of charts in navigation, 124
+
+
+  Vertical angles, 139
+
+  Vigias, removal of, 62
+
+  Vigilance, need of, 140
+
+  Volcanic action, 109
+
+
+  Wrecks due to deficient charts, 149
+
+
+
+
+  SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE
+  OF THE
+  PUBLICATIONS
+  OF
+  JOHN WILEY & SONS,
+  NEW YORK.
+  LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED.
+
+  ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS.
+
+
+Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk
+(*) are sold at _net_ prices only. All books are bound in cloth unless
+otherwise stated.
+
+
+AGRICULTURE.
+
+  Armsby's Manual of Cattle-feeding.                            12mo, $1 75
+      Principles of Animal Nutrition.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual:
+      Part I. Propagation, Culture, and Improvement.            12mo,  1 50
+      Part II. Systematic Pomology.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.                      12mo,  1 50
+      Practical Farm Drainage.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  Graves's Forest Mensuration.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  Green's Principles of American Forestry.                      12mo,  1 50
+  Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)     12mo,  2 00
+  Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)         8vo,  5 00
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration.  12mo,  1 50
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of
+        Butter-making.                                           8vo,  1 50
+  Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops.                12mo,  1 50
+  * Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.                                 8vo,  2 50
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Woll's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen.                     16mo,  1 50
+
+
+ARCHITECTURE.
+
+  Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.                      12mo,  1 00
+  Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.         4to,  5 00
+  Birkmire's Planning and Construction of American Theatres.     8vo,  3 00
+      Architectural Iron and Steel.                              8vo,  3 50
+      Compound Rivetée Girders as Applied in Buildings.          8vo,  2 00
+      Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings.        8vo,  3 50
+      Skeleton Construction in Buildings.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Brigg's Modern American School Buildings.                      8vo,  4 00
+  Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings.              8vo,  4 00
+  Freitag's Architectural Engineering.                           8vo,  3 50
+      Fireproofing of Steel Buildings.                           8vo,  2 50
+  French and Ives's Stereotomy.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.                 16mo,  1 00
+      Sanitation of Public Buildings.                           12mo,  1 50
+      Theatre Fires and Panics.                                 12mo,  1 50
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Holly's Carpenters' and Joiners' Handbook.                    18mo,    75
+  Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.            8vo,  2 00
+  Kellaway's How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds.               8vo,  2 00
+  Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket-book.
+        Rewritten Edition.                                16mo, mor.,  5 00
+  Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.                  8vo,  5 00
+      Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses.          8vo,  4 00
+  Monckton's Stair-building.                                     4to,  4 00
+  Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Peabody's Naval Architecture.                                  8vo,  7 50
+  Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.                             8vo,  2 00
+  Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.  16mo, mor.,  4 00
+      * Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Book:
+          * Carpenters' and Woodworkers' Edition.      16mo, morocco,  1 50
+          * Cementworkers and Plasterer's Edition. (In Press.)
+          * Stone- and Brick-mason's Edition.             12mo, mor.,  1 50
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints
+        and Varnish.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.         8vo,  1 50
+  Snow's Principal Species of Wood.                              8vo,  3 50
+  Sondericker's Graphic Statics with Applications to Trusses,
+        Beams, and Arches.                                       8vo,  2 00
+  Towne's Locks and Builders' Hardware.                18mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete
+        Construction.                                            8vo,  3 00
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Air Conditioning, (In Press.)
+  Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron
+        and Steel.                                               8vo,  4 00
+  Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals, Establishment and
+        Maintenance, Suggestions for Hospital Architecture,
+        with Plans for a Small Hospital.                        12mo,  1 25
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                Large 4to,  1 00
+
+
+ARMY AND NAVY.
+
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder, Nitro-cellulose, and the Theory
+        of the Cellulose Molecule.                              12mo,  2 50
+  Chase's Screw Propellers and Marine Propulsion.                8vo,  3 00
+  Cloke's Gunner's Examiner.                                     8vo,  1 50
+  Craig's Azimuth.                                               4to,  3 50
+  Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.             8vo,  3 00
+  * Davis's Elements of Law.                                     8vo,  2 50
+  *   Treatise on the Military Law of United States.             8vo,  7 00
+                                                               Sheep,  7 50
+  De Brack's Cavalry Outposts Duties. (Carr.)          24mo, morocco,  2 00
+  Dietz's Soldier's First Aid Handbook.                16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of
+        Courts-martial.                                   Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Durand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships.                   8vo,  5 00
+  * Dyer's Handbook of Light Artillery.                         12mo,  3 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  * Fiebeger's Text-book on Field Fortification.           Small 8vo,  2 00
+  Hamilton's The Gunner's Catechism.                            18mo,  1 00
+  * Hoff's Elementary Naval Tactics.                             8vo,  1 50
+  Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire.                 8vo,  4 00
+  * Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery.                               8vo,  6 00
+  * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena.
+        Vols. I. and II.                                   8vo, each,  6 00
+  * Mahan's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.)    8vo, half morocco,  7 50
+  Manual for Courts-martial.                           16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Mercur's Attack of Fortified Places.                        12mo,  2 00
+  *   Elements of the Art of War.                                8vo,  4 00
+  Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures--And the Administration
+        of Workshops.                                            8vo,  5 00
+  *   Ordnance and Gunnery. 2 vols.                             12mo,  5 00
+  Murray's Infantry Drill Regulations.                   18mo, paper,    10
+  Nixon's Adjutants' Manual.                                    24mo,  1 00
+  Peabody's Naval Architecture.                                  8vo,  7 50
+  * Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying.                         8vo,  2 50
+  Powell's Army Officer's Examiner.                             12mo,  4 00
+  Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War.            18mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Tupes and Poole's Manual of Bayonet Exercises and
+        Musketry Fencing.                              24mo, leather,    50
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wheeler's Siege Operations and Military Mining.                8vo,  2 00
+  Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+  Young's Simple Elements of Navigation.               16mo, morocco,  2 00
+
+
+ASSAYING.
+
+  Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative
+        Assaying with the Blowpipe.                    12mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory
+        Experiments.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Low's Technical Methods of Ore Analysis.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Miller's Manual of Assaying.                                  12mo,  1 00
+      Cyanide Process.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+
+
+ASTRONOMY.
+
+  Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.                      8vo,  2 50
+  Craig's Azimuth.                                               4to,  3 50
+  Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.             8vo,  3 00
+  Doolittle's Treatise on Practical Astronomy.                   8vo,  4 00
+  Gore's Elements of Geodesy.                                    8vo,  2 50
+  Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.          8vo,  2 50
+  * Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  * White's Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy.  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+BOTANY.
+
+  Davenport's Statistical Methods, with Special
+        Reference to Biological Variation.             16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  Thomé and Bennett's Structural and Physiological Botany.      16mo,  2 25
+  Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider.)       8vo,  2 00
+
+
+CHEMISTRY.
+
+  * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)    12mo,  1 25
+  Adriance's Laboratory Calculations and Specific Gravity
+        Tables.                                                 12mo,  1 25
+  Alexeyeff's General Principles of Organic Synthesis.
+        (Matthews.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel.)              Small 8vo,  3 50
+  Austen's Notes for Chemical Students.                         12mo,  1 50
+  Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder.--Nitro-cellulose, and Theory
+        of the Cellulose Molecule.                              12mo,  2 50
+  Bolduan's Immune Sera.                                        12mo,  1 50
+  * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.               8vo,  1 50
+  Brush and Penfield's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy.       8vo,  4 00
+  * Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)         8vo,  3 00
+  Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis.
+        (Boltwood.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers.                            12mo,  2 00
+      Tests and Reagents.                                        8vo,  3 00
+  Crafts's Short Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis.
+        (Schaeffer.)                                            12mo,  1 50
+  * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)                      12mo,  1 25
+  Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery).
+        (Von Ende.)                                             12mo,  2 50
+  Drechsel's Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.)                     12mo,  1 25
+  Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)               8vo,  4 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)          8vo,  3 00
+  Erdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.)    12mo,  1 25
+  * Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.                 Large 12mo,  2 00
+  Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative
+        Assaying with the Blowpipe.                    12mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.                               12mo,  2 00
+  Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.)  8vo,  5 00
+      Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I.
+        Descriptive. (Wells.)                                    8vo,  3 00
+      Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) 2 vols.            8vo, 12 50
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.                         8vo,  3 00
+  * Getman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry.                   12mo,  2 00
+  Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.                   12mo,  1 25
+  * Gooch and Browning's Outlines of Qualitative Chemical
+        Analysis.                                          Small 8vo,  1 25
+  Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)     12mo,  2 00
+  Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography. (Marshall.) 12mo,  1 25
+  Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)   8vo,  4 00
+  Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)         8vo,  5 00
+  * Haskin's and MacLeod's Organic Chemistry.                   12mo,  2 00
+  Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan.)        12mo,  1 50
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors.)
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Hind's Inorganic Chemistry.                                    8vo,  3 00
+  *   Laboratory Manual for Students.                           12mo,  1 00
+  Holleman's Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.)         8vo,  2 50
+      Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.)         8vo,  2 50
+  *   Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry. (Walker.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments,
+        and Varnishes. (In Press.)
+  Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Iddings's Rock Minerals.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological
+        Chemistry.                                               8vo,  1 25
+  Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals
+        in Thin Sections. (In Press.)
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Ladd's Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis.              12mo,  1 00
+  Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)                        8vo,  3 00
+  * Langworthy and Austen. The Occurrence of Aluminium in
+        Vegetable Products, Animal Products, and Natural Waters. 8vo,  2 00
+  Lassar-Cohn's Application of Some General Reactions to
+        Investigations in Organic Chemistry. (Tingle.)          12mo,  1 00
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                              8vo,  7 50
+  Löb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)         8vo,  3 00
+  Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory
+        Experiments.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Low's Technical Method of Ore Analysis.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Lunge's Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.)                      12mo  1 00
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making. 8vo,  1 50
+  Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)
+  Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory.                12mo,  1 50
+  * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with
+        the Blowpipe.                                           12mo,    60
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.) 3d Edition, Rewritten.                      8vo,  4 00
+      Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)     12mo,  1 25
+  Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.          8vo,  4 00
+  Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds.
+        (Tingle.)                                               12mo,  1 00
+  Miller's Manual of Assaying.                                  12mo,  1 00
+      Cyanide Process.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry.                   12mo,  1 50
+  Morgan's An Outline of the Theory of Solutions and its
+        Results.                                                12mo,  1 00
+      Elements of Physical Chemistry.                           12mo,  3 00
+  *   Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers.              12mo,  5 00
+  Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.   16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Muir's History of Chemical Theories and Laws.                8vo,  4 00
+  Mulliken's General Method for the Identification of Pure
+        Organic Compounds. Vol. I.                         Large 8vo,  5 00
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Ostwald's Conversations on Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey.)     12mo,  1 50
+      "           "       "      "      Part Two. (Turnbull.)   12mo,  2 00
+  * Palmer's Practical Test Book of Chemistry.                  12mo,  1 00
+  * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine.
+        (Fischer.)                                              12mo,  1 25
+  * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and
+        Record of Mineral Tests.                          8vo, paper,    50
+  Pictet's The Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution.
+        (Biddle.)                                                8vo,  5 00
+  Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry. (Austen.)         12mo,  1 50
+  Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with
+        Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.           12mo,  1 25
+  * Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.                              8vo, 25 00
+  Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.                                              8vo,  2 00
+  Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.      8vo,  4 00
+      Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.                 8vo,  4 00
+  Riggs's Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory.         8vo,  1 25
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions.                 8vo,  2 00
+  *   Whys in Pharmacy.                                         12mo,  1 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.
+        (Orndorff.)                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Schimpf's Text-book of Volumetric Analysis.                   12mo,  2 50
+      Essentials of Volumetric Analysis.                        12mo,  1 25
+  *   Qualitative Chemical Analysis.                             8vo,  1 25
+  Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students.        8vo,  2 50
+  Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.           16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.                                 8vo,  2 50
+  * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.                        8vo,  1 50
+  *   Descriptive General Chemistry.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis. (Hall.)                      8vo,  3 00
+      Quantitative Analysis. (Hall.)                             8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.)  12mo,  1 50
+  * Walke's Lectures on Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+    "        "           "       "     "      Vol. II.     Small 8vo,  5 00
+  Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks.         8vo,  2 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-Water.    8vo,  4 00
+  Wells's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis.     8vo,  1 50
+      Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis
+        for Engineering Students.                               12mo,  1 50
+      Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic.                         12mo,  1 25
+  Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic, Pharmaceutical,
+        and Medical Chemistry.                                  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+CIVIL ENGINEERING.
+
+
+BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. RAILWAY
+ENGINEERING.
+
+  Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments.                     12mo,  3 00
+  Bixby's Graphical Computing Table.    Paper 19-1/2 × 24-1/4 inches,    25
+  Breed and Hosmer's Principles and Practice of Surveying.       8vo,  3 00
+  * Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.                      8vo,  2 50
+  * Corthell's Allowable Pressures on Deep Foundations.         12mo,  1 25
+  Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.             8vo,  3 00
+  Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables.                           8vo,  1 00
+  Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.                      12mo,  1 50
+      Practical Farm Drainage.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  * Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Flemer's Phototopographic Methods and Instruments.             8vo,  5 00
+  Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.)               8vo,  3 00
+  Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 2d Edition, Rewritten.    8vo,  3 50
+  French and Ives's Stereotomy.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Goodhue's Municipal Improvements.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Gore's Elements of Geodesy.                                    8vo,  2 50
+  * Hauch and Rice's Tables of Quantities for Preliminary
+        Estimates.                                              12mo,  1 25
+  Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth.                             12mo,  1 25
+  Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge.                             8vo,  2 00
+  * Ives's Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level.
+                                                           16mo, Bds.    25
+  Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying.              16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.    8vo,  2 00
+  Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities.
+        (Truscott and Emory.)                                   12mo,  2 00
+  Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.)         8vo,  5 00
+  *   Descriptive Geometry.                                      8vo,  1 50
+  Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.          8vo,  2 50
+  Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors.        16mo, morocco,  2 00
+  Nugent's Plane Surveying.                                      8vo,  3 50
+  Ogden's Sewer Design.                                         12mo,  2 00
+  Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse.                        8vo,  2 00
+  Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering.           8vo half leather,  7 50
+  Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.                    4to,  5 00
+  Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.      8vo,  4 00
+  Riemer's Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions.
+        (Corning and Peele.)                                     8vo,  3 00
+  Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.         8vo,  1 50
+  Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)           8vo,  2 50
+  Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to
+        Trusses, Beams, and Arches.                              8vo,  2 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Tracy's Plane Surveying.                             16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  * Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book.          16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Venable's Garbage Crematories in America.                      8vo,  2 00
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Warren's Stereotomy--Problems in Stone-cutting.                8vo,  2 50
+  Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of
+        Engineering Instruments.                       16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  Wilson's Topographic Surveying.                                8vo,  3 50
+
+
+BRIDGES AND ROOFS.
+
+  Boller's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron
+        Highway Bridges.                                         8vo,  2 00
+  Burr and Falk's Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof
+        Computations.                                            8vo,  3 00
+      Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges.               8vo,  5 00
+  Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering.  Vol. II.            Small 4to, 10 00
+  Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges.                   4to,  5 00
+  Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Greene's Roof Trusses.                                         8vo,  1 25
+      Bridge Trusses.                                            8vo,  2 50
+      Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses. (In Press.)
+  Howe's Treatise on Arches.                                     8vo,  4 00
+      Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel.           8vo,  2 00
+      Symmetrical Masonry Arches.                                8vo,  2 50
+  Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in
+        the Designing of Modern Framed Structures.         Small 4to, 10 00
+  Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges:
+      Part I.  Stresses in Simple Trusses.                       8vo,  2 50
+      Part II.  Graphic Statics.                                 8vo,  2 50
+      Part III. Bridge Design.                                   8vo,  2 50
+      Part IV. Higher Structures.                                8vo,  2 50
+  Morison's Memphis Bridge.                                      4to, 10 00
+  Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge
+        Engineers.                                     16mo, morocco,  2 00
+  *   Specifications for Steel Bridges.                         12mo,    50
+  Wright's Designing of Draw-spans. Two parts in one volume.     8vo,  3 50
+
+
+HYDRAULICS.
+
+  Barnes's Ice Formation.                                        8vo,  3 00
+  Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein
+        Issuing from an Orifice. (Trautwine.)                    8vo,  2 00
+  Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics.                                8vo,  5 00
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+      Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels.     paper,  1 50
+      Hydraulic Motors.                                          8vo,  2 00
+  Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems.   16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+  Folwell's Water-supply Engineering.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Frizell's Water-power.                                         8vo,  5 00
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+      Water-filtration Works.                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform
+        Flow of Water in Rivers and Other Channels.
+        (Hering and Trautwine.)                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It.                  Large 12mo,  1 50
+      Filtration of Public Water-supply.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works.                 8vo,  2 50
+  Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of
+        Large, Riveted, Metal Conduits.                          8vo,  2 00
+  * Hubbard and Kiersted's Water-works Management and
+        Maintenance.                                             8vo,  4 00
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a
+        Sanitary Standpoint.)                                    8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics.                             8vo,  5 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                   8vo,  4 00
+  Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and
+        Domestic Water-supply                              Large 8vo,  5 00
+  * Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers.                     4to,  6 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 5th Edition,
+        enlarged.                                                4to,  6 00
+      Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895.    4to, 10 00
+  Whipple's Value of Pure Water.                          Large 12mo,  1 00
+  Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables.                         8vo,  1 50
+  Wilson's Irrigation Engineering.                         Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Turbines.                                               8vo,  2 50
+      Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                          8vo,  3 00
+
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
+
+  Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction.                      8vo,  5 00
+      Roads and Pavements.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Black's United States Public Works.                     Oblong 4to,  5 00
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of
+        Engineering.                                             8vo,  7 50
+  Byrne's Highway Construction.                                  8vo,  5 00
+      Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed
+        in Construction.                                        16mo,  3 00
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+  Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.              Small 4to,  7 50
+  * Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.                        8vo,  6 00
+  Johnson's Materials of Construction.                     Large 8vo,  6 00
+  Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Graves's Forest Mensuration.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols.    8vo,  7 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.                  8vo,  5 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Strength of Materials.                                    12mo,  1 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Patron's Practical Treatise on Foundations.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.  16mo, mor.,  4 00
+  * Ries's Clays; Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.        8vo,  5 00
+  Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France.                     12mo,  1 25
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  * Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Snow's Principal Species of Wood.                              8vo,  3 50
+  Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.                                  12mo,  2 00
+  Text-book on Roads and Pavements.                             12mo,  2 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts.                  8vo,  8 00
+      Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and
+        Metallurgy.                                              8vo,  2 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other
+        Alloys and their Constituents.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials.               8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete
+        Construction.                                            8vo,  3 00
+  Waddell's De Pontibus. (A Pocket-book for Bridge
+        Engineers.)                                       16mo, mor.,  2 00
+  *   Specifications for Steel Bridges.                         12mo,    50
+  Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and
+        an Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.               8vo,  2 00
+  Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics.               8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis
+        of Iron and Steel.                                       8vo,  4 00
+
+
+RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
+
+  Andrew's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers.
+                                                 3x5 inches, morocco,  1 25
+  Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.         4to,  5 00
+  Brook's Handbook of Street Railroad Location.        16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Butt's Civil Engineer's Field-book.                  16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Crandall's Transition Curve.                         16mo, morocco,  1 50
+      Railway and Other Earthwork Tables.                        8vo,  1 50
+  Crookett's Methods for Earthwork Computations. (In Press)
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                   16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879).       Paper,  5 00
+  Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards.                           Cardboard,    25
+  Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers'
+        Guide.                                            16mo, mor.,  2 50
+  Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of
+        Excavations and Embankments.                             8vo,  1 00
+  Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers.            16mo,  1 00
+  Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers.         16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers.              16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Raymond's Elements of Railroad Engineering. (In Press.)
+  Searles's Field Engineering.                         16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Railroad Spiral.                                 16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Taylor's Prismoidal Formulæ and Earthwork.                     8vo,  1 50
+  * Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cube Contents
+        of Excavations and Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams.   8vo,  2 00
+      The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves
+        for Railroads.                                 12mo, morocco,  2 50
+      Cross-section Sheet.                                     Paper,    25
+  Webb's Railroad Construction.                        16mo, morocco,  5 00
+      Economics of Railroad Construction.                 Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways.
+                                                           Small 8vo,  5 00
+
+
+DRAWING.
+
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  3 00
+  *     "          "         "     Abridged Ed.                  8vo,  1 50
+  Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.                           8vo, paper,  1 00
+  Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting
+        for Mechanical Engineers.                         Oblong 4to,  2 50
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its
+        Applications.                                            8vo,  2 50
+  Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective.       8vo,  2 00
+  Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.                      8vo,  2 50
+      Advanced Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  2 00
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry.                    8vo,  3 00
+      Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                       8vo,  5 00
+      Mechanical Drawing.                                        4to,  4 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  MacLeod's Descriptive Geometry.                          Small 8vo,  1 50
+  * Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting.              8vo,  1 50
+      Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)                            8vo,  3 50
+  Moyer's Descriptive Geometry.                                  8vo,  2 00
+  Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.                    4to,  5 00
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)   8vo,  2 50
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  * Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.           Oblong 8vo,  1 25
+  Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical
+        Drawing.                                                12mo,  1 00
+      Drafting Instruments and Operations.                      12mo,  1 25
+      Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing.                  12mo,  1 50
+      Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective
+        of Form and Shadow.                                     12mo,  1 00
+      Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry.                    12mo,  1 25
+      Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 50
+      General Problems of Shades and Shadows.                    8vo,  3 00
+      Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.              8vo,  7 50
+      Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry.  8vo,  2 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Herrmann
+        and Klein.)                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Art of Letter
+        Engraving.                                              12mo,  2 00
+  Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Perspective.                        8vo,  2 50
+  Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering.                          8vo,  1 00
+  Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry.       Large 8vo,  3 00
+
+
+ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.
+
+  * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)    12mo,  1 25
+  Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.)    Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical
+        Measurements.                                           12mo,  1 00
+  Benjamin's History of Electricity.                             8vo,  3 00
+      Voltaic Cell.                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis. (In Press.)
+  Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis.
+        (Boltwood.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  * Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy.                    12mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.             8vo,  3 00
+  * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)                      12mo,  1 25
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                   16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage
+        Battery). (Von Ende.)                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)               8vo,  4 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+  Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.)                              8vo,  2 50
+  Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained.                    12mo,  1 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)
+  Holman's Precision of Measurements.                            8vo,  2 00
+      Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments,
+        and Tests.                                         Large 8vo,    75
+  Karapetoff's Experimental Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)
+  Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines.          8vo,  2 00
+  Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)                        8vo,  3 00
+  Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements.
+        (Boudouard--Burgess.)                                   12mo,  3 00
+  Löb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)         8vo,  3 00
+  * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena.
+        Vols. I. and II.                                   8vo, each,  6 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to
+        Sound and Light.                                         8vo,  4 00
+  Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries.
+        (Fishback.)                                             12mo,  2 50
+  Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)
+  * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design. 4to, half morocco, 12 50
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  * Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering.
+        (Haldane Gee--Kinzbrunner.)                              8vo,  2 00
+  Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.        8vo,  2 50
+  Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines.                           8vo,  2 50
+  * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.                        8vo,  1 50
+  Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics.         Small 8vo,  2 00
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+
+
+LAW.
+
+  * Davis's Elements of Law.                                     8vo,  2 50
+  *   Treatise on the Military Law of United States.             8vo,  7 00
+  *                                                            Sheep,  7 50
+  * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure
+        of Courts-martial.                                Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Manual for Courts-martial.                           16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.                        12mo,  2 50
+
+
+MANUFACTURES.
+
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder--Nitro-cellulose and Theory of
+        the Cellulose Molecule.                                 12mo,  2 50
+  Bolland's Iron Founder.                                       12mo,  2 50
+      "The Iron Founder," Supplement.                           12mo,  2 50
+      Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms
+        Used in the Practice of Moulding.                       12mo,  3 00
+  * Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)         8vo,  3 00
+  * Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.                        8vo,  6 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)          8vo,  3 00
+  Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.                       18mo,  1 00
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments,
+        and Varnishes. (In Press.)
+  Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                        Large 8vo,  7 50
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making. 8vo,  1 50
+  Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)
+  Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.          8vo,  4 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures--And the Administration
+        of Workshops.                                            8vo,  5 00
+  Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.                        4to, 10 00
+  Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.   16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.                              8vo, 25 00
+  Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.                             8vo,  2 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's Press-working of Metals.                               8vo,  3 00
+  Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.                                  12mo,  2 00
+  Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.           16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Thurston's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs,
+        Construction and Operation.                              8vo,  5 00
+  Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+   "          "         "         "     "     Vol. II.           8vo,  5 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  West's American Foundry Practice.                             12mo,  2 50
+      Moulder's Text-book.                                      12mo,  2 50
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of
+        Iron and Steel.                                          8vo,  4 00
+
+
+MATHEMATICS.
+
+  Baker's Elliptic Functions.                                    8vo,  1 50
+  Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry.                 12mo,  1 00
+  Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. (In Press.)
+  Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations.                 12mo,  1 50
+  Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra.                  8vo,  1 50
+  * Dickson's College Algebra.                            Large 12mo,  1 50
+  *   Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations.  Large 12mo,  1 25
+  Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its
+        Applications.                                            8vo,  2 50
+  Halsted's Elements of Geometry.                                8vo,  1 75
+      Elementary Synthetic Geometry.                             8vo,  1 50
+  *   Rational Geometry.                                        12mo,  1 50
+  * Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables:
+                                              Vest-pocket size paper,    15
+                                                       100 copies for  5 00
+  *                        Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 × 10 inches,    25
+                                                        10 copies for  2 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on Differential
+        Calculus.                                          Small 8vo,  3 00
+      Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus.        Small 8vo,  1 50
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates.    12mo,  1 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Treatise on Ordinary and Partial
+        Differential Equations.                            Small 8vo,  3 50
+  Johnson's Treatise on the Integral Calculus.             Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Theory of Errors and the Method of
+        Least Squares.                                          12mo,  1 50
+  * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.                    12mo,  3 00
+  Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities.
+        (Truscott and Emory.)                                   12mo,  2 00
+  * Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic
+        and Other Tables.                                        8vo,  3 00
+      Trigonometry and Tables published separately.             Each,  2 00
+  * Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables.               8vo,  1 00
+  Manning's Irrational Numbers and their Representation by
+        Sequences and Series                                    12mo,  1 25
+  Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman
+        and Robert S. Woodward.                          Octavo, each  1 00
+
+    No. 1. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith. No.
+    2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted. No. 3.
+    Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyperbolic Functions,
+    by James McMahon. No. 5. Harmonic Functions, by William E. Byerly.
+    No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis, by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7.
+    Probability and Theory of Errors, by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8.
+    Vector Analysis and Quaternions, by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9.
+    Differential Equations, by William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The
+    Solution of Equations, by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of
+    a Complex Variable, by Thomas S. Fiske.
+
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Method of Least Squares.                            8vo,  2 00
+  Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the
+        Differential Calculus.                               Sm. 8vo,  3 00
+      Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols. in one.  Small 8vo,  3 50
+  * Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real
+        Infinitesimal Analysis of One Variable.                  8vo,  2 00
+  Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry.                       8vo,  2 00
+      Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical.           12mo,  1 00
+
+
+MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
+
+  Bacon's Forge Practice.                                       12mo,  1 50
+  Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  3 00
+  *     "          "         "     Abridged Ed.                  8vo,  1 50
+  Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes.                              12mo,  2 00
+  Carpenter's Experimental Engineering.                          8vo,  6 00
+      Heating and Ventilating Buildings.                         8vo,  4 00
+  Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine.                              Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.                           8vo, paper,  1 00
+  Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting
+        for Mechanical Engineers.                         Oblong 4to,  2 50
+  Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.                       12mo,  1 50
+      Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power.          12mo,  3 00
+      Rope Driving.                                             12mo,  2 00
+  Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Hall's Car Lubrication.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Hutton's The Gas Engine.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Jamison's Mechanical Drawing.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book.            16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.                    8vo,  4 00
+  * Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven,
+        and Dean.)                                               8vo,  4 00
+  MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                 8vo,  5 00
+      Mechanical Drawing.                                        4to,  4 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases.             8vo,  1 50
+  Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)                        8vo,  3 50
+  Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Richards's Compressed Air.                                    12mo,  1 50
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery
+        and Mill Work.                                           8vo,  3 00
+      Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of
+        Energetics.                                             12mo,  1 00
+  Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.                     16mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.         8vo,  7 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission.
+        (Herrmann--Klein.)                                       8vo,  5 00
+      Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann--Klein.)
+                                                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Turbines.                                               8vo,  2 50
+
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
+
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of
+        Engineering. 6th Edition. Reset.                         8vo,  7 50
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Johnson's Materials of Construction.                           8vo,  6 00
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.)            8vo,  7 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Strength of Materials                                     12mo,  1 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering.                  3 vols., 8vo,  8 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other
+        Alloys and their Constituents.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an
+        Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.                  8vo,  2 00
+      Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis
+        of Iron and Steel.                                       8vo,  4 00
+
+
+STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
+
+  Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram.                          12mo,  1 25
+  Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.) 12mo,  1 50
+  Creighton's Steam-engine and other Heat-motors.                8vo,  5 00
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                      16mo, mor.,  5 00
+  Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.                       18mo,  1 00
+  Goss's Locomotive Sparks.                                      8vo,  2 00
+      Locomotive Performance.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy.       12mo,  2 00
+  Hutton's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants.               8vo,  5 00
+      Heat and Heat-engines.                                     8vo,  5 00
+  Kent's Steam boiler Economy.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector.                  8vo,  1 50
+  MacCord's Slide-valves.                                        8vo,  2 00
+  Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.                        4to, 10 00
+  Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator.               12mo,  1 50
+      Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other
+        Vapors.                                                  8vo,  1 00
+      Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines. 8vo,  5 00
+      Valve-gears for Steam-engines.                             8vo,  2 50
+  Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator.                  Large 8vo,  2 50
+  Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and
+        Saturated Vapors. (Osterberg.)                          12mo,  1 25
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management.          12mo,  2 00
+  Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice.          12mo,  2 50
+  Snow's Steam-boiler Practice.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Spangler's Valve-gears.                                        8vo,  2 50
+      Notes on Thermodynamics.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of
+        Steam-engineering.                                       8vo,  3 00
+  Thomas's Steam-turbines.                                       8vo,  3 50
+  Thurston's Handy Tables.                                       8vo,  1 50
+      Manual of the Steam-engine.                       2 vols., 8vo, 10 00
+      Part I. History, Structure, and Theory.                    8vo,  6 00
+      Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation.              8vo,  6 00
+      Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the
+        Indicator and the Prony Brake.                           8vo,  5 00
+      Stationary Steam-engines.                                  8vo,  2 50
+      Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice.        12mo,  1 50
+      Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and
+        Operation.                                               8vo,  5 00
+  Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water.
+        (Patterson.)                                             8vo,  4 00
+  Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.)          8vo,  5 00
+  Whitham's Steam-engine Design.                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines.
+                                                                 8vo,  4 00
+
+
+MECHANICS AND MACHINERY.
+
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Chase's The Art of Pattern-making.                            12mo,  2 50
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+      Notes and Examples in Mechanics.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working.                     12mo,  1 50
+  Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe.                      12mo,  1 50
+  Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.                       12mo,  1 50
+      Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and
+        Schools.                                                12mo,  1 50
+  Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making.                            12mo,  2 00
+  Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of
+        the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.  4to, half morocco,  5 00
+  Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics:
+      Vol. I. Kinematics.                                        8vo,  3 50
+      Vol. II. Statics.                                          8vo,  4 00
+      Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.                    Small 4to,  7 50
+                                Vol. II.                   Small 4to, 10 00
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.                                16mo,  1 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+      Rope Driving.                                             12mo,  2 00
+  Goss's Locomotive Sparks.                                      8vo,  2 00
+      Locomotive Performance.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Hall's Car Lubrication.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)
+  Holly's Art of Saw Filing.                                    18mo,    75
+  James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics
+        of a Particle.                                     Small 8vo,  2 00
+  * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.                    12mo,  3 00
+  Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods.    8vo,  2 00
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.                    8vo,  4 00
+  * Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven,
+        and Dean.)                                               8vo,  4 00
+  MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                 8vo,  5 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  * Martin's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. 1, Statics.           12mo,  1 25
+  *                                  Vol. 2, Kinematics and
+        Kinetics.                                               12mo,  1 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Elements of Mechanics.                                    12mo,  1 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                   8vo,  4 00
+  * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design. 4to, half morocco, 12 50
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Richards's Compressed Air.                                    12mo,  1 50
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.        8vo,  2 50
+  Sanborn's Mechanics: Problems.                          Large 12mo,  1 50
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management.          12mo,  2 00
+  Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (A. W.) Materials of Machines.                        12mo,  1 00
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Sorel's Carbureting and Combustion of Alcohol Engines.
+        (Woodward and Preston.)                            Large 8vo,  3 00
+  Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and
+        Mill Work.                                               8vo,  3 00
+      Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of
+        Energetics.                                             12mo,  1 00
+  Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.                     16mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.         8vo,  7 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission.
+        (Herrmann--Klein.)                                       8vo,  5 00
+      Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann--Klein.)
+                                                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                       8vo,  3 00
+      Principles of Elementary Mechanics.                       12mo,  1 25
+      Turbines.                                                  8vo,  2 50
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                      4to,  1 00
+
+
+MEDICAL.
+
+  * Bolduan's Immune Sera.                                      12mo,  1 50
+  De Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and
+        Collins.)                                         Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.)            8vo,  6 00
+  * Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.          Large 12mo, cloth,  2 00
+  Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)   8vo,  4 00
+  Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.)           12mo,  1 00
+  * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine.
+        (Fischer.)                                              12mo,  1 25
+  * Pozzi-Escot's The Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies.
+        (Cohn.)                                                 12mo,  1 00
+  Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.)                        12mo,  1 00
+  Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.
+        (Orndorff.)                                              8vo,  2 50
+  * Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog.                   8vo,  3 50
+  Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+      * Personal Hygiene.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Wulling's An Elementary Course in Inorganic Pharmaceutical
+        and Medical Chemistry.                                  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+METALLURGY.
+
+  Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis. (In Press.)
+  Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury.
+      Vol. I.  Silver.                                           8vo,  7 50
+      Vol. II. Gold and Mercury.                                 8vo,  7 50
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.          16mo, mor.  3 00
+  * Iles's Lead-smelting.                                       12mo,  2 50
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.                 8vo,  1 50
+  Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements.
+        (Boudouard--Burgess.)                                   12mo,  3 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Miller's Cyanide Process.                                     12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts.           8vo,  8 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys
+        and their Constituents.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+
+
+MINERALOGY.
+
+  Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial
+        Value.                                       Oblong, morocco,  2 50
+  Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Boyd's Map of Southwest Virginia.                 Pocket-book form.  2 00
+  * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.               8vo,  1 50
+  Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.)        8vo,  4 00
+  Chester's Catalogue of Minerals.                        8vo, paper,  1 00
+                                                               Cloth,  1 25
+      Dictionary of the Names of Minerals.                       8vo,  3 50
+  Dana's System of Mineralogy.               Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50
+      First Appendix to Dana's New "System of Mineralogy." Large 8vo,  1 00
+      Text-book of Mineralogy.                                   8vo,  4 00
+      Minerals and How to Study Them.                           12mo,  1 50
+      Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals.        Large 8vo,  1 00
+      Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography.                     12mo,  2 00
+  Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.        12mo,  1 00
+  Eakle's Mineral Tables.                                        8vo,  1 25
+  Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms.                 8vo,  2 50
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.         16mo, mor.,  3 00
+  Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall.)  12mo,  1 25
+  Iddings's Rock Minerals.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals
+        in Thin Sections. (In Press.)
+  * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the
+        Blowpipe.                                               12mo,    60
+  Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals. Their Occurrence and Uses.    8vo,  4 00
+      Stones for Building and Decoration.                        8vo,  5 00
+  * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and
+        Record of Mineral Tests.                          8vo, paper,    50
+      Tables of Minerals.                                        8vo,  1 00
+  * Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters          12mo, morocco,  1 25
+  * Ries's Clays. Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.        8vo,  5 00
+  Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making
+        Minerals. (Iddings.)                                     8vo,  5 00
+  * Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks.         8vo,  2 00
+
+
+MINING.
+
+  Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)
+  Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.                        8vo,  3 00
+      Map of Southwest Virginia.                    Pocket-book form,  2 00
+  Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.        12mo,  1 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals; A Reference Book.         16mo, mor.,  3 00
+  Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the
+        United States.                                          12mo,  2 50
+  Ihlseng's Manual of Mining.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  * Iles's Lead-smelting.                                       12mo,  2 50
+  Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.                 8vo,  1 50
+  Miller's Cyanide Process.                                     12mo,  1 00
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+      Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten.       12mo,  2 50
+      Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation.   12mo,  1 25
+
+
+SANITARY SCIENCE.
+
+  Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.                      12mo,  1 00
+  *   Outlines of Practical Sanitation.                         12mo,  1 25
+  Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.)
+                                                                 8vo,  3 00
+      Water-supply Engineering.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.                               12mo,  2 00
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+      Water-filtration Works.                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.                 16mo,  1 00
+      Sanitation of Public Buildings.                           12mo,  1 50
+  Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                              8vo,  7 50
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint)                                              8vo,  4 00
+      Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)     12mo,  1 25
+  * Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering.                 8vo,  2 00
+  Ogden's Sewer Design.                                         12mo,  2 00
+  Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with
+        Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.           12mo,  1 25
+  * Price's Handbook on Sanitation.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries.                12mo,  1 00
+      Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science.           12mo,  1 00
+      Cost of Shelter.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Richards and Woodman's Air. Water, and Food from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.                                              8vo,  2 00
+  * Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer.                8vo,  1 50
+  Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage.          8vo,  4 00
+      Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.                 8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's Air Conditioning.  (In Press.)
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+  *   Personal Hygiene.                                         12mo,  1 00
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+  Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments
+        (Interstate Pure Food Commission):
+          Tenth Annual Convention Held at Hartford,
+            July 17-20, 1906.                                    8vo,  3 00
+          Eleventh Annual Convention, Held at Jamestown
+            Tri-Centennial Exposition, July 16-19, 1907. (In Press.)
+  Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion
+        of the International Congress of Geologists.       Large 8vo,  1 50
+  Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds.                        8vo,  4 00
+  Gannett's Statistical Abstract of the World.                  24mo,    75
+  Gerhard's The Modern Bath and Bath-houses. (In Press.)
+  Haines's American Railway Management.                         12mo,  2 50
+  Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
+        1824-1894.                                         Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament.                    Large 8vo,  2 00
+  Standage's Decorative Treatment of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc. (In Press.)
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                      4to,  1 00
+  Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy.                     12mo,  1 50
+
+
+HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.
+
+  Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar.                            12mo,  1 25
+  Hebrew Chrestomathy.                                           8vo,  2 00
+  Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament
+        Scriptures. (Tregelles.)             Small 4to, half morocco,  5 00
+  Letteris's Hebrew Bible.                                       8vo,  2 25
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | The following inconsistencies were kept:                     |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Aluminum -- Aluminium                                        |
+  | canceled -- cancelled                                        |
+  | Cubit's Gap -- CUBITS GAP                                    |
+  | Encyclopædia -- Encyclopedia                                 |
+  | Feed-water -- Feed-Water                                     |
+  | Light-House -- lighthouse                                    |
+  | sea-weed -- seaweed                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Punctuation has been corrected without explicit notice.      |
+  | The following changes have been made (c. = catalogue page):  |
+  |                                                              |
+  | p. vii "Nordenskiold" changed to "Nordenskiöld"              |
+  | p.   9 "alsoo" changed to "also".                            |
+  | p. 114 "United States Court Survey" changed to               |
+  |        "United States Coast Survey".                         |
+  | p. 132 "22°.5" changed to "22.5°".                           |
+  | c.   1 "Riveteé" changed to "Rivetée".                       |
+  | c.   3 "Metcalf's" changed to "Metcalfe's".                  |
+  | c.   5 "Matthew's" changed to "Matthews's".                  |
+  | c.  10 "Hermann" changed to "Herrmann".                      |
+  | c.  12 "Maunal" changed to "Manual".                         |
+  | c.  14 "Richard's" changed to "Richards's".                  |
+  | c.  15 "Wehrenfenning's" changed to "Wehrenfennig's".        |
+  | c.  18 "Virignia" changed to "Virginia".                     |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nautical Charts, by G. R. Putnam
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+@media handheld,print {.largeimg {display: none;}}
+
+/* Transcriber's notes */
+.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA;
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+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nautical Charts, by G. R. Putnam
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Nautical Charts
+
+Author: G. R. Putnam
+
+Release Date: November 13, 2013 [EBook #44175]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAUTICAL CHARTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Peter Becker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="600" height="369" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">SURVEYING STEAMER <i>FATHOMER</i> IN MANILA BAY.
+
+(<i>Frontispiece</i>)
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+
+
+<h1>NAUTICAL CHARTS</h1>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br /><br /><br />BY</p>
+
+<p class="center"><big><big>G. R. PUTNAM, M.S.</big></big></p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS<br />
+DIRECTOR OF COAST SURVEYS, PHILIPPINE<br />
+ISLANDS, 1900 TO 1906</small></p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br /><br /><br /><i>FIRST EDITION</i><br />
+<small>FIRST THOUSAND</small></p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br /><br /><br />NEW YORK<br />
+<big>JOHN WILEY &amp; SONS</big><br />
+<span class="smcap">London</span>: CHAPMAN &amp; HALL, <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br />
+1908
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Copyright, 1908,<br />
+by</span><br />
+G. R. PUTNAM</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Stanhope Press</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small><em class="gesperrt">F. H. GILSON COMPANY<br />
+BOSTON, U.S.A.</em></small>
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>In preparing the material for a lecture on Charts for
+Columbia University, the writer was impressed with the
+fact that although nautical charts are mentioned or discussed
+in many publications, there was not found any one
+which covered the general subject of their origin, construction,
+and use. In the countries of the world more
+than a million copies of such charts are now issued
+annually. A considerable portion of the human race is
+interested directly or indirectly, whether as mariners
+or passengers or shippers, in navigation upon the sea.
+Aside from supplying a handbook for those who might
+have a general interest in the subject, it was thought
+that a discussion of charts might lead to further consideration
+of the principles governing their construction.</p>
+
+<p>This paper has intentionally been made as non-technical
+as seemed feasible in treating a somewhat
+technical subject. The writer is indebted to the Coast
+and Geodetic Survey for various illustrative material
+from its archives, and to a number of authors for facts
+or suggestions. A list is appended of books and papers
+which have been freely consulted, bearing on this and
+related subjects.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+<big>G. R. P.</big></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Washington, D.C.</span>, <i>May 24, 1908</i>.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv-v]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a></h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">List of Books or Papers bearing on Nautical Charts and related Subjects</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Charts and Maps</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Collection of Information for Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Preparation of Information for Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Publication of Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Correction of Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Reading and Using Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Use of Charts in Navigation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Publications Supplementing Nautical Charts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vi-vii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_BOOKS_OR_PAPERS_BEARING_ON_NAUTICAL" id="LIST_OF_BOOKS_OR_PAPERS_BEARING_ON_NAUTICAL">LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTICAL
+CHARTS AND RELATED SUBJECTS</a></h2>
+
+
+<p class="booklist">Periplus, an Essay on the Early History of Charts, and Sailing
+Directions. A. E. Nordenskiöld, Stockholm, 1897.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Maps, their Uses and Construction. G. James Morrison, London,
+1902.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Charts and Chart Making. Lieut. John E. Pillsbury, U.S.N., in
+<i>Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute, 1884</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Principal Facts relating to the Earth's Magnetism. L. A. Bauer,
+in U. S. Magnetic Declination Tables, Coast and Geodetic
+Survey, 1903.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Coasts of the World. G. W.
+Littlehales, in Report of the Eighth International Geographic
+Congress, 1904.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Smithsonian Geographical Tables. R. S. Woodward, Washington,
+1906.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Admiralty Charts, Abridged list of. Published by J. D. Potter,
+London, 1907.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Military Topography. Capt. C. B. Hagadorn, U.S.A., West Point,
+1907.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Service Hydrographique de la Marine, Paris, 1900.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">A Manual of Conventional Symbols in Use on Official Charts.
+United States Hydrographic Office, Gustave Herrle, 1903.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Hydrographical Surveying. Admiral W. J. L. Wharton, London,
+1898.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">On the Correction of Charts, Light Lists, and Sailing Directions.
+Published by J. D. Potter, London, 1904.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Notes Relative to the Use of Charts. D. B. Wainwright, Coast
+and Geodetic Survey, 1900.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p>
+<p class="booklist">The Law relating to Charts and Sailing Directions. H. Stuart
+Moore, London, 1904.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Notes bearing on the Navigation of H. M. Ships. Hydrographic
+Office, London, 1900.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">The Relations of Harbors to Modern Shipping. W. H. Wheeler,
+in <i>Engineering News</i>, September 6, 1906, New York.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Wrinkles in Practical Navigation. Capt. S. T. S. Lecky, London,
+1899.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Navigation and Compass Deviations. Commander W. C. P. Muir,
+U.S.N., Annapolis, 1906.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">The Practice of Navigation. Henry Raper, London, 1898.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Lehrbuch der Navigation. Reichs-Marine-Amt, Berlin, 1906.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist"><i>The Nautical Magazine</i>, London.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Dangers and Ice in the North Atlantic Ocean. Bureau of Navigation,
+U. S. Navy Department, 1868.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Reported Dangers in the North Pacific Ocean. U. S. Hydrographic
+Office, 1871.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Pacific Islands, Vol. III, chapter on "Vigias." British Hydrographic
+Office, London, 1900.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Harriman Alaska Expedition, Vol. II, Bogoslof, our Newest Volcano,
+by C. Hart Merriam, New York, 1901.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Expedition to the Aleutian Islands, 1907. T. A. Jaggar, Jr., in
+<i>The Technology Review</i>, 1907, Boston.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Recent Changes in Level in the Yakutat Bay Region, Alaska, by
+R. S. Tarr and Lawrence Martin, in Bulletin of the American
+Geological Society, 1906.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">An Index to the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. W. T. Brigham,
+Honolulu, 1900.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Geography, articles by C. R. Markham, A. R. Clarke, and H. R.
+Mill in Encyclopædia Britannica.</p>
+
+<p class="booklist">Development in Dimensions of vessels, Elmer L. Corthell,
+Tenth International Navigation Congress, 1905.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="likeh1"><a name="NAUTICAL_CHARTS" id="NAUTICAL_CHARTS">NAUTICAL CHARTS</a></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHARTS_AND_MAPS" id="CHARTS_AND_MAPS">CHARTS AND MAPS</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Need of maps.</b> Maps are useful and necessary for
+many purposes. Only by means of a correct map
+or globe can a clear idea of the geography of a region
+be given. An attempt to convey the same information
+by a written description would in comparison be both
+cumbersome and obscure. Even by passing over an
+extensive region a man unaided by instruments will
+obtain only a rather crude notion of the relations, which
+he could clearly see on a good map. The importance
+among the human arts of the making of maps is indicated
+by the references to them in very early historical
+records, and by the skill in map drawing shown by
+some of the primitive peoples of to-day. This skill
+exists particularly among races whose mode of life
+gives them a wide horizon, as for instance the Eskimos.
+An interesting instance of this was the case of Joe, an
+Eskimo guide, who, in 1898, before the surveys of the
+Yukon delta were made, drew a map of the Yukon
+mouths with much more complete information than any
+previously available.</p>
+
+<p>Without attempting to enumerate in detail the special
+uses for maps, in the broader sense they may be said
+to be essential for commercial, engineering, military,
+scientific, educational, and political purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Early geography and map making.</b> The oldest map
+known is a plan of gold mines in Nubia, drawn on a
+papyrus. This is of the thirteenth century <small>B.C.</small>, and
+was found in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest historic times men believed the earth
+to be a flat surface of nearly circular outline, a natural
+inference for those with limited outlook and communication.
+Later the idea was introduced of the ocean as
+a river bounding the earth disk. The spherical theory
+of the earth was, however, early accepted by learned
+men, and was demonstrated by Aristotle (384 to
+322 <small>B.C.</small>), who used as proofs the earth's shadow on the
+moon, and the change in the visibility of the stars in
+traveling north or south. Crates constructed a terrestrial
+globe in the second century <small>B.C.</small></p>
+
+<p>There is no Greek or Latin map extant of earlier
+date than the time of Ptolemy, but there are references
+showing that maps were in use. One of the first of
+such passages in Greek literature is the interesting
+comment of Herodotus written in the fifth century <small>B.C.</small>,
+"but I laugh when I see many who already have drawn
+the circuits of the earth, without any right understanding
+thereof. Thus they draw Oceanus flowing round the
+earth, which is circular, as though turned by a lathe,
+and they make Asia equal to Europe."</p>
+
+<p>A map of the world was drawn by Anaximander,
+560 <small>B.C.</small> A hundred years later Democritus drew a
+map having an oblong shape, and taught that the width
+of the world from east to west was one and a half times
+its extent from north to south, a conclusion based on
+his travels eastward as far as India. This theory,
+which was for a time accepted, has left an enduring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+mark in the words <i>longitude</i> and <i>latitude</i>, originally
+signifying the length and the breadth of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The first application of astronomy to geography was
+made by Pytheas, who about 326 <small>B.C.</small> obtained the latitude
+of Marseilles by an observation of the altitude of the
+sun. Dicearchus in 310 <small>B.C.</small> determined the first parallel
+of latitude by noting places where on the same day the
+sun cast shadows of equal length from pillars of equal
+height. Eratosthenes (276 to 196 <small>B.C.</small>) was the first
+to compute the circumference of the earth from observations
+of the altitude of the sun at Alexandria and at
+Syene in Upper Egypt and an estimation of the distance
+between these two places. Ptolemy, a Greek of Alexandria,
+in the years from 127 to 151 <small>A.D.</small> wrote extensively
+on geographic subjects, and collected into systematic
+form all geographic knowledge then existing; he was
+the greatest geographer of early history.</p>
+
+<p>In the ten centuries which followed, part of the early
+advance in this science was obscured, and the theory
+that the earth was a flat disk surrounded by the sea
+again became prevalent. The voyages of discovery
+of the middle ages, however, led to a rapid development
+of geographic knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>The flattening of the spherical earth was not suspected
+until in 1672 a clock regulated to beat seconds
+at Paris, when taken to Cayenne near the equator was
+found to lose two and one-half minutes a day. Newton
+proved that this was due to the fact that the earth
+is an oblate spheroid. In 1735 accurate measurements
+were undertaken to determine the size and shape of
+the earth. The equatorial diameter has been found
+to be 7926.6 miles and the polar diameter 7899.6 miles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+the difference, or 27 statute miles, being the amount of
+the flattening at the poles.</p>
+
+<p><b>The first sailing directions.</b> The early Greek and
+Roman writers do not allude to charts or maps intended
+especially for the use of seafarers. There are, however,
+extant several peripli or descriptions of the coast. Some
+of these appear certainly to have been intended for use
+as nautical guides, corresponding to the modern sailing
+directions. It is probable that they were explanatory
+of or accompanied by coast charts, now lost.
+They are of interest therefore as being probably the first
+compilations for the guidance of seamen. One of the
+earliest, written apparently in the fifth and fourth
+centuries <small>B.C.</small>, is entitled "Scylax of Caryanda, his
+circumnavigation of the sea of the inhabited part of
+Europe and Asia and Libya." It contains a systematic
+description of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black
+Sea, and part of the west coast of Africa. The following
+are some extracts which indicate the character
+of the work. It is to be noted that no bearings are
+given, and that distances are usually stated by day's
+sail: Africa is referred to as Libya.</p>
+
+<p>"Europe. I shall begin from the Pillars of Hercules
+in Europe and continue to the Pillars of Hercules in
+Libya, and as far as the land of the great Ethiopians.
+The Pillars of Hercules are opposite each other, and are
+distant from each other by one day's sail.... From
+Thonis the voyage to Pharos, a desert island (good
+harborage but no drinking water), is 150 stadia. In
+Pharos are many harbors. But ships water at the
+Marian mere, for it is drinkable.... From Chersonesus
+is one day's sail; but from Naustathmus to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+the harbor of Cyrene, 100 stadia. But from the harbor
+to Cyrene, 80 stadia; for Cyrene is inland. These
+harbors are always fit for putting into. And there are
+other refuges at little islands, and anchorages and many
+beaches, in the district between.... After the isthmus
+is Carthage, a city of the Ph&#339;nicians, and a harbor.
+Sailing along from Hermæa it is half a day to Carthage.
+There are islands off the Hermæan cape, Pontia island
+and Cosyrus. From Hermæa to Cosyrus is a day's
+sail. Beyond the Hermæan cape, towards the rising
+sun, are three islands belonging to this shore, inhabited
+by Carthaginians; the city and harbor of Melite, the
+city of Gaulus, and Lampas; this has two or three
+towers.... The sailing along Libya from the Canopic
+mouth in Egypt to the Pillars of Hercules ... takes
+74 days if one coast round the bays.... From the
+cape of Hermæa extend great reefs, that is, from Libya
+towards Europe, not rising above the sea; it washes
+over them at times.... From Thymiateria one sails
+to cape Soloes, which juts far into the sea. But all
+this district of Libya is very famous and very sacred....
+This whole coasting from the Pillars of Hercules to
+Cerne Island takes twelve days. The parts beyond the
+isle of Cerne are no longer navigable because of shoals,
+mud, and sea-weed. This sea-weed has the width of
+a palm, and is sharp towards the points, so as to prick."</p>
+
+<p>That there were many other similar writings in the
+following centuries is shown by the following quotation
+from Marcianus, in a preface to sailing directions
+written in the fifth century <small>A.D.</small>: "This I write after
+having gone through many sailing directions, and spent
+much time on their examination. For it behooves all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+who are men of education, to scrutinise such attempts
+at learning in this subject, so as neither rashly to believe
+the things that are said, nor incredulously to set their
+private opinions against the careful decisions of others."</p>
+
+<p>The oldest extant sailing directions of the middle
+ages bear date 1306 to 1320.</p>
+
+<p><b>Development of chart making.</b> The application of
+the compass to nautical use in the twelfth century
+<small>A.D.</small> had a marked effect in encouraging voyages of
+exploration, and therefore indirectly on chart making.
+The following, written toward the close of the twelfth
+century, is the first known mention of the use of the
+compass in Europe: "The sailors, moreover, as they sail
+over the sea, when in cloudy weather they cannot longer
+profit by the light of the sun, or when the world is
+wrapped in the darkness of the shades of night, and
+they are ignorant to what part of the horizon the prow
+is directed, place the needle over the magnet, which
+is whirled round in a circle, until, when the motion
+ceases, the point of it (the needle) looks to the north."
+The nautical compass of that time appears to have
+consisted of a magnetized needle, floated in a vessel
+of water by a cork or reed, and having no index
+nor compass card. Peregrinus in 1269 made notable
+improvements in the compass, including a pivot suspension
+for the needle, a graduation, a lubber line,
+and an azimuth bar for sighting on the sun or other
+object.</p>
+
+<p>Nautical charts are known to have been in use since
+the thirteenth century <small>A.D.</small>, but the earliest extant of
+which the date can be fixed is Vesconte's loxodromic
+chart of 1311.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The loxodromic charts first appeared in Italy, and
+were so called from the fact that they were crossed by
+loxodromes (or rhumb lines) radiating from a number
+of crossing points distributed regularly over the map.
+Compass roses carefully drawn were later added at these
+crossing points, the first appearing on a chart of 1375.
+The earliest known mention of the variation of the
+compass from true north was on the first voyage of
+Columbus, who discovered this important fact in 1492,
+and as a consequence his "seamen were terrified and
+dismayed." Before that time it was assumed in Europe
+that the compass pointed "true to the north pole."
+The apparent failure to detect the variation earlier was
+doubtless to some extent due to its small amount at
+that time along the Mediterranean. The earlier charts
+showed both lines and compass roses apparently
+oriented with the true meridian, though there is some
+evidence to indicate that they were actually oriented
+with the magnetic meridian, the designer not recognizing
+any difference. The variation of the compass was first
+marked on a map in 1532 and on a printed chart in
+1595, but the placing of magnetic compasses on charts
+did not become customary until about fifty years ago.
+These early charts were drawn on parchment, using
+bright colors. They were copied by hand, one from
+another, with gradual variations. They had no projections,
+and the draftsmen evidently had no idea of
+the sphericity of the earth. Islands and points were
+usually exaggerated; shallows were indicated, but no
+soundings; no information was given as to the interior
+of the countries; a scale of distances was nearly always
+provided.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Charts were first printed about 1477, and are known
+to have been engraved on copper by 1560.</p>
+
+<p>The maps of Ptolemy were ruled with degree lines,
+but no chart was so provided until 1427; by 1500,
+however, most charts were graduated. Before this
+date it is not known on what projection the charts
+were constructed. On the first graduated charts the
+degree lines were equidistant parallel straight lines
+cutting each other at right angles and thus dividing
+the chart into equal squares or rectangles. These
+were known as "plain charts." This square projection
+had little to commend it save simplicity of construction,
+as in higher latitudes it gave neither directions nor
+distances correctly. The difficulties of its use in navigation
+were early recognized, and nautical works contained
+chapters on "sailing by the plain chart, and the
+uncertainties thereof."</p>
+
+<p>The example of early chart making shown in <a href="#Fig2">Fig. 2</a>
+is of great interest as being the earliest extant chart
+which includes America. This chart was drawn on
+ox-hide in 1500 by Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied
+Columbus on his first voyage as master of his flagship,
+and on his second voyage as cartographer. The chart,
+of which only a portion is shown here, purports to
+cover the entire world; it joins Asia and America as one
+continent, the Pacific Ocean being then still unknown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig2" id="Fig2"></a>
+<img src="images/fig02.jpg" width="600" height="477" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 2. CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN, BY JUAN DE LA COSA, 1500. EARLIEST EXTANT CHART SHOWING AMERICA.</p>
+<p class="largeimg"><a href="images/fig02_1500.jpg">Fig. 2 enlarged</a> (652 kB)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gerhard Krämer, a Flemish map-maker, better
+known by his Latin name of Mercator, in 1569 published
+his famous Universal Map. In this map the
+meridians and parallels were still straight lines intersecting
+at right angles, but the distances between the
+parallels were increased with increasing latitude in
+such proportion that a rhumb line, or line cutting the
+meridians at a constant angle, would appear on the
+map as a straight line. Mercator never explained
+the construction of his chart, and as the above condition
+was not accurately carried out, it is thought that the
+chart was drawn by comparing a terrestrial globe
+with a "plain chart." After examination of a mercator
+chart in 1590, Edward Wright developed the correct
+principles on which such a chart should be
+constructed, and published in 1599 his treatise "The
+Correction of Certain Errors in Navigation." It took
+nearly a century to bring this chart into use, and even
+in the middle of the eighteenth century nautical writers
+complain that "some prefer the plain chart."</p>
+
+<p>The Arcano del Mare, 1646, was the first marine
+atlas in which all the maps were drawn on the mercator
+projection.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
+charts and sailing directions were often bound together
+in large volumes. These usually had quaint titles, not
+overburdened with modesty, of which the following is
+an example: "The Lightning Columne, or Sea-Mirrour,
+containing the Sea-Coasts of the Northern, Eastern,
+and Western Navigation. Setting forth in divers
+necessaire Sea-Cards, all the Ports, Rivers, Bayes,
+Roads, Depths, and Sands. Very curiously placed on
+its due Polus height furnished. With the Discoveries
+of the chief Countries and on what Cours and Distance
+they lay one from another. Never there to fore
+so Clearly laid open, and here and there very diligently
+bettered and augmented for the use of all Seamen.
+As also the situation of the Northerly Countries, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 9-10]</a></span>
+Islands, the Strate Davids, the Isle of Jan Mayen,
+Bears Island, Old Greenland, Spitsbergen and Nova
+Zembla. Adorneth with many Sea-Cards and Discoveries.
+Gathered out of the Experiences and practice
+of divers Pilots and Lovers of the famous Art of
+Navigation. Where unto is added a brief Instruction
+of the Art of Navigation, together with New Tables
+of the Sun's Declination, with a new Almanach. At
+Amsterdam. Printed by Casparus Loots-Man, Bookseller
+in the Loots-Man, upon the Water. Anno 1697.
+With Previlege for fiftheen years."</p>
+
+<p>In 1633 a cartographer was appointed to the States-General
+of Holland, and it was his duty to correct the
+charts from the ships' logs. The Dutch at an early
+date made important progress in publishing charts.
+In 1720 there was established in Paris by order of the
+king, a central chart office ("dépôt des cartes et plans,
+journaux et mémoires concernant la navigation"), and
+in 1737 the first charts were published by this office.
+Detailed surveys of the coast of France were commenced
+in 1816.</p>
+
+<p>In 1740 "the commissioners for the discovery of
+longitude at sea" were authorized by Parliament to
+expend money on the survey of the coasts of Great
+Britain, this commission having been created in 1713.
+Various rewards were offered by this commission,
+including one of £10,000, for the discovery of a method
+of determining the longitude within 60 miles, an interesting
+side light on the uncertainties of navigation at
+that time. Compensated timepieces, which have been
+so important a factor in improving navigation, were
+invented by Harrison about 1761.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig03.jpg" width="600" height="397" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 3. LOXODROMIC CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN, 1565. A PLAIN CHART WITH LATITUDE DEGREES OF EQUAL LENGTH.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 12-13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1795, by an Order in Council, a Hydrographical
+Office was established in London, "to take charge and
+custody of such plans and charts as then were, or should
+thereafter be, deposited in the Admiralty, and to select
+and compile such information as might appear to be
+requisite for the purpose of improving navigation."
+This office had at first one assistant and one draftsman.
+Before that time many charts of a private or semiofficial
+character had been published; the catalogue of
+the East India Company in 1786 included 347 charts.</p>
+
+<p>In 1807 the Congress of the United States authorized
+the President "to cause a survey to be taken of the
+coasts of the United States, in which shall be designated
+the islands and shoals, with the roads or places of
+anchorage, within twenty leagues of any part of the
+shores of the United States; and also the respective
+courses and distances between the principal capes, or
+headlands, together with such other matters as he may
+deem proper for completing an accurate chart of every
+part of the coasts within the extent aforesaid." This
+law was the origin of the present United States Coast
+and Geodetic Survey, now under the Department of
+Commerce and Labor.</p>
+
+<p>In 1841 a systematic survey of the Great Lakes was
+commenced; this is the Survey of the Northern and
+Northwestern Lakes, briefly known as the Lake Survey,
+conducted under the Corps of Engineers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1866 the United States Hydrographic Office was
+established under the Navy Department "for the
+improvement of the means for navigating safely the
+vessels of the Navy, and of the mercantile marine, by
+providing under the authority of the Secretary of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+the Navy, accurate and cheap nautical charts, sailing
+directions, navigators, and manuals of instructions for
+the use of all vessels of the United States, and for the
+benefit and use of navigation generally."</p>
+
+<p><b>Systematic surveying and chart making</b> date back
+little more than a century, and most of the information
+shown on modern charts has been gathered in that
+time. At present all the principal maritime nations of
+the world have made, or are extending, careful surveys
+of their own coasts.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the countries have added valuable contributions
+in the examination of other regions and oceanic
+areas beyond their borders. The maritime and colonial
+interests of Great Britain impelled that nation to carry
+on extensive surveys along coasts whose inhabitants
+were not prepared to do this work in the earlier days;
+the British have made surveys along the coasts of Asia
+and Africa and a part of South America, and the resulting
+charts have been a very important and not sufficiently
+known contribution to commercial intercourse
+among the nations, as well as to geography.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch, French, Spanish, and other European
+governments have made nautical surveys in various
+parts of the world, largely in connection with their own
+colonies, and in recent years much useful work has
+been done by vessels of the German government. The
+United States has also beyond its own territory made
+valuable additions to hydrographic knowledge in the
+work of officers of the Navy in a number of oceanic
+exploring expeditions, and surveys on the coasts of
+Mexico and in the West Indies, and in the explorations
+of Fish Commission vessels.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig04.png" width="600" height="482" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 4. EARLY CHART OF NEW YORK HARBOR, 1737.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 16-17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Extension of maritime surveys.</b> Of the total area of
+the earth's surface, 51,886,000 square miles is land and
+145,054,000 square miles is sea. The oceans thus
+occupy nearly three-fourths of the whole surface, affording
+highways open to the nations. To conduct international
+commerce by water the ships of one country
+must enter the ports of another. Thus both on the
+open sea and in the harbors there is an interest, common
+to seamen of all nationalities, in the advance of marine
+surveys and in the publication of charts.</p>
+
+<p>To keep the coasts properly charted, as well as lighted
+and buoyed, is an obligation devolving on modern
+nations, not only for the benefit of their own commerce
+but for that of other countries.</p>
+
+<p>As shown below, only a small part of the coast line
+of the world is thoroughly surveyed. In the extensive
+ocean areas which are dotted with islands or reefs, a large
+amount of work is required for their sufficient charting,
+although many doubtful areas have been cleared up in
+recent years. Even the parts that are known to be of
+depths so great as to be free from navigational dangers
+should be sounded over sufficiently to develop the general
+configuration of the ocean bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Through international understanding a thorough
+exploration of all the water area of the globe and the
+coasts may in time be effected, and the many doubtful
+spots which still disfigure the charts may be either
+eliminated or definitely located.</p>
+
+<p><b>Present state of progress of hydrographic surveys.</b> A
+comparatively small proportion of the coasts of the
+world can be considered as completely surveyed at the
+present time, and even such regions require much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+additional revision. In the class of more thoroughly
+surveyed coasts should be included the Atlantic and
+most of the Pacific coast of the United States, Porto
+Rico, nearly all the coasts of Europe, Algeria, and
+portions of the coasts of Japan, the Philippine Islands,
+and India.</p>
+
+<p>A large part of the world's coasts has been surveyed
+incompletely, but sufficiently well to permit the publication
+of navigational charts. This is the condition as
+respects most of southeastern Alaska and some other
+portions of the Alaskan coast, British Columbia, most
+of Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, Brazil
+and parts of Chile, the Hawaiian Islands, China, Malay
+Peninsula, Siam, the Dutch East Indies, Australia,
+New Zealand, Persia, Arabia, most of Africa, Iceland,
+northern Scandinavia, and Finland.</p>
+
+<p>Another considerable portion of the coasts has not
+been surveyed, but has been covered by explorations
+which have been embodied in nautical charts of varied
+degrees of incompleteness. In this class are the north
+coast and considerable portions of the south and west
+coasts of Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, Siberia, most of
+the oceanic groups in the Pacific, the northern coasts
+of Europe and North America, Greenland, the west
+coast of South America, Venezuela, and Argentina.</p>
+
+<p>Only a very small proportion of the total length of
+coasts is now entirely unexplored, and such portions
+are confined to the polar regions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chart publications of various nations.</b> There are
+about eighteen nations publishing navigational charts,
+and adding to the information on which charts are
+based. Many of these nations republish to some extent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+the charts prepared by the others. Great Britain has
+kept up a series of charts covering all parts of the world
+and practically including in some form all information
+published elsewhere. This series now (1908) includes
+3725 different charts, of which the annual issue is
+about 600,000 copies. France (1906) publishes 2948
+different charts.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States, charts are published by the
+Coast and Geodetic Survey for the coasts and tidal
+waters of the main country and the insular possessions,
+by the Hydrographic Office for oceanic areas and foreign
+coasts, and by the Lake Survey for the Great Lakes.
+The total number of different charts issued by these
+bureaus is about 2300, and the total annual issue is
+about 225,000 copies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Systems in use on various charts.</b></p>
+
+<p><i>Longitude.</i> The first chart of New York, published
+by the Coast Survey in 1844, was referred to the City
+Hall of New York as the initial longitude, and some
+years ago it was the prevailing custom for each nation
+to use a local initial longitude. While this satisfied
+local pride it led to much geographical and navigational
+confusion. Happily the charts of all countries
+are now referred to Greenwich, with the following
+exceptions:</p>
+
+<p class="exeptlist">
+France refers to Paris, which is 2° 20´ 15´´ E. of Greenwich.<br />
+Spain refers to San Fernando, which is 6° 12´ 20´´ W. of Greenwich.<br />
+Portugal refers to Lisbon, which is 9° 08´ 24´´ W. of Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p><i>Units for depths.</i> The English fathom or foot is used
+for depths on the charts of Great Britain, the United
+States, and Japan. Russia uses the sajene of seven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+English feet. On the modern charts of practically all
+the other countries the meter is used, though on older
+charts various units are found.</p>
+
+<p>In the first group feet are ordinarily found only on
+large scale or local charts of areas with moderate
+depths, and the other charts are in fathoms, except
+that on the earlier charts of the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey feet were used on a sanded surface inside of the
+three-fathom curve and fathoms on the white surface
+outside of that curve. Heights are stated in feet on
+the charts of the first group.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plane of reference.</i> As the depth of water varies
+with the tide, it is necessary for charting purposes to
+adopt some standard plane to which the soundings are
+referred. Practically all countries have adopted for
+this purpose a low stage of the tide, as this is obviously
+on the side of safety; in most cases an extreme low
+water is used, so that the actual depths will seldom,
+owing to the tide, be less than those shown on the chart.
+The definite reference planes used on the American
+charts will be mentioned later.</p>
+
+<p>On nearly all charts heights are referred to mean high
+water, doubtless owing to this being the visible limit of
+the land at high tide. On topographic maps of the
+interior, the heights are referred to mean sea level,
+which plane is of course lower than the preceding by
+one-half the range of tide.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symbols on charts.</i> Fair uniformity as to general
+principles, with differences as to details in carrying
+them out, exists on the various series of charts regarding
+their general arrangement and the more important
+symbols, such as in the shading of land to distinguish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+from water, the use of depth curves, the representation
+of hills by shade or contour, the indication of shoals
+and dangers, and of lighthouses and buoys.</p>
+
+<p><b>Desirability of uniformity in charts.</b> Ships engaged
+in international commerce must enter foreign ports.
+As the information is constantly changing and charts
+are being corrected or improved, it is sometimes
+desirable for the navigator to consult the local foreign
+charts, and it may often be necessary for him to carry
+in his chart room the charts of several different countries.
+There are therefore important advantages in
+international uniformity in chart publication.</p>
+
+<p>There should be a common initial longitude, and as
+the longitude of Greenwich has been so extensively
+adopted, it appears quite probable that its use may
+some day become universal.</p>
+
+<p>A common unit for soundings and heights would be
+very desirable, but the fact that a large group of nations
+has united on the metric system, while a small group
+with great commercial interests retains another system,
+makes the attainment of uniformity difficult.</p>
+
+<p>Substantial agreement as to the use of symbols on
+charts, particularly such as represent aids or dangers
+to navigation, would be desirable and doubtless feasible.</p>
+
+<p><b>Privately published charts.</b> Many of the earlier charts
+were prepared and published by private enterprise, and
+such charts are still published, as, for instance, the so-called
+"blue-back" charts printed in London. These
+charts have usually differed from those published by
+the various governments either in representing the main
+features in a very bold manner with little detail or in
+including a considerable area with many plans on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+single large sheet backed for permanency. An objection
+to the latter is that the durability together with the
+high price tends to keep an old chart in use long after
+it is out of date. It would be financially difficult for
+a private firm to give the service that a government does
+in the matter of correcting the charts and issuing new
+editions, and this is an important consideration in the
+selection of charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Purpose of charts.</b> The main purpose of charts is to
+furnish graphical guides to aid in taking a vessel safely
+from one port to another; they are maps for the use of
+navigators. An experienced mariner may be able to
+steer his vessel over a familiar course without charts,
+but this does not make their publication less necessary.
+Even such an expert pilot doubtless studied the charts
+in the first place; the uncertainties of the sea and
+the changes of information are such that his vessel's
+equipment should include the latest charts, and safety
+requires their examination. The passengers and the
+merchants who intrust their lives or their goods to the
+sea are largely dependent upon the correctness of
+the charts.</p>
+
+<p>Besides their main purpose charts fill many other
+needs, among which are; for preliminary planning of
+harbor improvements and various engineering works,
+for defensive works and other military uses, for the
+fishing interests, and for general information as to the
+coastal regions. Charts will furnish much of interest
+and instruction to the traveler by sea and the dweller
+near the coast, who will learn to read them. Passenger
+steamers should more often for the interest of their
+patrons display charts of the waters traversed. No<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+written or verbal description can give as clear an idea
+of geographical features and relations as a good map
+or chart.</p>
+
+<p>As the charts are revised from time to time, a comparison
+of editions at different dates furnishes a record
+of the changes wrought by nature or man, and this is
+especially useful in studying the action in many harbor
+and river entrances, as well as for historical purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Requirements for charts.</b> As charts are maps of the
+water areas, including the adjoining land, and intended
+primarily for the use of mariners, they differ in important
+respects from topographic maps or general maps,
+even such as include the water areas. The main
+requirements for charts are these; correct and complete
+information, early publication of new data, clear and
+intelligible representation of the information, convenient
+arrangement as navigational instruments, and high
+standard of publication.</p>
+
+<p>The special and sometimes difficult conditions under
+which charts must be used on shipboard call for good
+judgment throughout their preparation. Even the
+paper on which they are printed is of importance, in
+order that they may be sufficiently durable and suitable
+for plotting.</p>
+
+<p><b>Information given on charts.</b> It is evident that it is
+impossible to represent on a chart of any practicable
+scale all the features that exist on the corresponding
+area of the earth's surface. It is essential, therefore,
+that a selection be made of the classes of facts that are
+to be shown, as well as of the detail that is to be used for
+each class. The practical utility of the chart depends
+largely on the good judgment used in this selection. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+the information shown, charts differ from maps principally
+in representing by soundings and curves the
+configuration of the bottom of the water area, and in
+showing ordinarily the topographic features only in the
+vicinity of the coast line.</p>
+
+<p>The convenience of mariners should govern in the selection
+and arrangement of the information to be shown
+on charts, though they may be made useful for other
+purposes so long as this convenience is not lessened.
+The needs and preferences of navigators alone, however,
+differ so much that a reasonable chart must be
+somewhat of a compromise between conflicting views.
+For certain classes of navigation a boldly drawn chart
+showing only the dangers and a few other soundings
+and some landmarks might be useful. For other
+maritime purposes a more detailed chart would be
+valuable. The first, however, would fail to give facts
+often demanded in the navigational use of the chart,
+and the second if carried to an extreme would make a
+chart difficult to use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig05.png" width="600" height="374" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 5. STATE OF ADVANCEMENT OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF THE COASTS OF THE WORLD, 1904.
+
+<i>By G. W. Littlehales.</i>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Shoals and dangers are shown either by the least
+depth or by rock or reef symbols. The characteristic
+soundings are shown on the chart, with abbreviations
+indicating the nature of the bottom. Depth curves
+are drawn, joining together points of like depth, and
+inclosing areas of less depth, on the same principle
+that contours are used on land maps; usually also the
+shoaler spots are made more prominent by sanding
+or tinting the area within them. Lighthouses, buoys,
+and other artificial aids to navigation are represented,
+with descriptive abbreviations. The coast is shown
+by a bold solid line for high water and a dotted line<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 25-29]</a></span>
+for low water. The main topographic features are
+represented for a moderate distance from the coast,
+with such detail as is useful, depending on the scale of
+the chart. Elevations are given in figures for prominent
+summits, islands, and rocks; the general configuration
+of hills and mountains is represented by contours
+on large scale charts or by hachures or shading on
+small scale charts. Rivers, streams, lakes, marshes,
+towns, roads, prominent buildings, and other important
+topographic features are shown by appropriate symbols.
+It is important that objects which may be useful in
+navigation as landmarks, whether natural or artificial,
+be plainly shown and described, if necessary to their
+identification, and that they should not be obscured
+by details of lesser importance. On the larger scale
+charts only, vegetation features, particularly areas
+covered by trees, are represented by symbols. The
+land area is usually clearly distinguished from the
+water area by a tint or stipple. Latitude and longitude
+are given by the projection lines and the subdivided
+border, or sometimes on harbor plans by a note giving
+the position of some one point. Brief information as
+to the time and range of the tides is stated in a note.
+Data regarding currents, whether due to tidal or other
+causes, are given by current arrows placed on the chart,
+or by explanatory notes. Compasses are for convenience
+printed on the charts, and data given as to the
+magnetic variation and its rate of change. On large
+scale charts scales are provided for use in measuring
+distances. Ranges and channel lines are given when
+required. The ports are indicated where storm warning
+signals are displayed. The areas of forbidden anchor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>ages
+are shown, and when important, the positions of
+submarine cables. The lines dividing the high seas
+from inland waters are sometimes stated on United
+States charts. Life saving stations are given, and time
+balls are usually noted. Views of important features
+are shown on some charts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 371px;">
+<img src="images/fig06.jpg" width="371" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 6. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE UNITED STATES COAST AND
+GEODETIC SURVEY.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The layman who looks at the printed chart probably
+does not appreciate the amount or the variety of
+information that must be gathered and sifted and put
+in proper shape for a single chart.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="COLLECTION_OF_INFORMATION_FOR_CHARTS" id="COLLECTION_OF_INFORMATION_FOR_CHARTS">COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Need of thorough surveys.</b> As has been stated, a
+good chart requires that a thorough and correct survey
+be first made of the region to be charted. It is said
+that men are very apt to accept as true anything they
+see on a map. As to the nautical chart the mariner
+is likely to be somewhat more critical, however, and
+it is well that he is. The difficulty of charting an
+invisible surface such as the bottom of the sea is great,
+and the proportion of the navigable waters surveyed
+in sufficient detail to be at all certain of the absence of
+uncharted dangers is small.</p>
+
+<p>The planning of surveys in a new region, such, for
+instance, as the Philippine Islands, presents many
+interesting problems, on the solution of which the
+effectiveness in chart results and the cost of the work
+materially depend. Many local conditions must be
+taken into account. The surveys are made on opposite
+coasts according to the seasonal winds and rainfall.
+In some parts fair-sized steamers are necessary; in
+others launches and small boats can do the work
+more economically. Shore parties with land transportation
+are used for portions of the work where the
+country permits. Natives are employed as far as
+practicable for the classes of work they can do; the
+Filipinos, for instance, make good sailors on the vessels
+and excellent penmen in the office.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a brief outline of the steps of a com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>plete
+survey for charting purposes, according to the present
+practice of the United States Coast and Geodetic
+Survey. These are given in their logical order, though
+in actual work this order must often be departed from.
+In this Survey the methods of control have been of a
+high standard; that is, the main stations have been
+accurately determined and permanently marked and
+described, and this has proven an advantage in the
+joining together of the original surveys and resurveys.</p>
+
+<p><b>Astronomical observations.</b> To locate on the surface
+of the earth the area to be charted, astronomical
+observations are required for the latitude and longitude
+of one or more points. In the best practice the longitude
+of a point is obtained by observing the transits
+of stars to get the local time, and sending time signals
+by telegraph to obtain the difference from the local
+time of some other place whose longitude is known.
+The latitude is observed by measuring the difference
+of zenith distance of pairs of stars crossing the meridian
+north and south of the zenith. The azimuth or true
+direction of some line is also obtained from star
+observations, usually by observations with a theodolite
+on a circumpolar star. Much existing chart work
+depends on positions determined by less accurate
+methods, as, for instance, longitudes obtained by transporting
+chronometers between the known station and
+that to be determined, or by observations of moon culminations,
+and latitudes obtained by direct observations
+of the altitudes of stars with theodolite or sextant.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<img src="images/fig07.jpg" width="369" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 7. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE BRITISH HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig08.jpg" width="600" height="411" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 8. TRIANGULATION OF A BAY, SHOWING LOCATION OF SURVEY SIGNALS AND LANDMARKS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Triangulation.</b> The main framework of the survey
+consists of a series of triangles connecting prominently
+located points which are permanently marked in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 33-39]</a></span>
+ground and the location described so that they can be
+found at a future time. At long intervals in the survey
+base lines are laid out and carefully measured with steel
+tape. Signals are erected over the points, including
+those at the ends of the base line, and angles are then
+measured at the various stations. From the measured
+length of the base and the angles the lengths of the
+sides of the triangles are computed, and from these
+lengths and the latitude and longitude of one point the
+latitudes and longitudes of all the other points are
+obtained. When several astronomically determined
+points are connected by such a triangulation a complication
+arises from what is known as "deflection
+of the plumb line," which is the angular amount by
+which the actual sea-level surface of the earth departs
+from the symmetrical figure of revolution, owing to the
+variations in the density of the earth's outer layers.
+The distance between two points as measured by triangulation
+thus differs from the distance computed from
+the astronomically determined positions. If this irregularity
+were not taken care of by adopting mean positions,
+the discrepancy in joining up different surveys would
+in extreme cases amount to about half a mile.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig09.jpg" width="600" height="361" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 9. TRIANGULATION STATION AND SIGNAL, ON ALASKA COAST.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig10" id="Fig10"></a>
+<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="600" height="385" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 10. MEASURING ANGLES WITH THEODOLITE AT TRIANGULATION
+STATION ON ALASKA COAST.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Survey sheets</b> are next prepared, of suitable size and
+scale. On each sheet a projection is laid down, that is,
+the meridians and parallels are drawn, and all the points
+determined in the triangulation are plotted in their true
+relation. Usually separate sheets are prepared for the
+topography or shore survey and for the hydrography
+or survey of the water area.</p>
+
+<p><b>Topography.</b> The topographic survey of the shore
+and as much of the adjacent area as is required is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+usually made with a plane table, on which the map is
+actually drawn in the field as the work progresses.
+Points are located on the plane table sheet either by
+direct reading of the distance on a stadia rod or by
+intersections from two or more stations. On the plane
+table sheet it is customary to locate the shore or high-water
+line, the low-water line, off-lying rocks, streams,
+rivers, roads, towns, lighthouses, and all prominent
+features near the coast. Elevations are measured with
+the plane table or obtained from the triangulation, and
+are represented on the sheet both by figures and by
+contours, which are lines joining together points of
+the same elevation. For instance, a 100-foot contour
+represents the line where a plane 100 feet above sea
+level would cut the surface of the ground. It is particularly
+important in this topographic work to locate
+accurately objects which are good landmarks and likely
+to be of use to the mariner. In some regions auxiliary
+methods are used in filling in the topography, as, for
+instance, along a difficult coast each feature of importance
+may be located by sextant angles, or a traverse line
+may be run along the shore by the transit and stadia
+method.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="600" height="356" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 11. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY PARTY AT WORK WITH PLANE TABLE
+ON THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="400" height="431" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 12. SURVEY SIGNAL OF IRON PIPE ON THE
+BAR OFF THE MOUTH OF THE YUKON RIVER.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The hydrography,</b> or the survey of the water area, is
+of prime importance for the chart, but in the order of
+prosecution of the work it is convenient but not essential
+that it come after sufficient points have been located
+by the triangulation and topography. A hydrographic
+sheet is prepared on which all the points are plotted
+which will be useful. A system of sounding lines is
+then run over the entire area to be surveyed, locating the
+position of the sounding boat at intervals by sextant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 41-49]</a></span>
+angles on survey signals or by angles from the shore.
+The ordinary method of sounding is to cast a lead from
+a boat and read the depth when the lead touches bottom
+and the line is vertical, and make note of the nature of
+the bottom. There is a systematic spacing between the
+casts of the lead and between the lines passed over by
+the boat, depending on the depth of water and character
+of the bottom. For soundings in deeper water various
+forms of sounding machines are used, with weight
+attached to a wire. For very great depths a small steel
+wire is employed and the weight is detached and left
+on the bottom. The deepest sounding thus far made,
+5269 fathoms, or nearly six miles, was obtained by this
+method in the Pacific Ocean near Guam.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="600" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 13. HYDROGRAPHIC PARTY SOUNDING WITH LAUNCH IN BALTIMORE HARBOR.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 14. THE LUCAS AUTOMATIC SOUNDING MACHINE FOR DEPTHS TO 5000
+FATHOMS, WITH ENGINE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="600" height="359" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 15. THE SIGSBEE SOUNDING MACHINE ON A SURVEYING VESSEL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig16.jpg" width="600" height="171" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 16. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SURVEYING STEAMER <i>FATHOMER</i>, SHOWING GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS.</p>
+<p class="largeimg"><a href="images/fig16_1500.png">Fig. 16 enlarged</a> (58 kB)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The offshore soundings are made from a surveying
+steamer; the inshore work is usually done by a launch
+or small boat.</p>
+
+<p>So far as the navigational use of charts is concerned it
+is important that the hydrography shall show the limiting
+depths and the freedom from dangers, of channels,
+entrances, harbors, and anchorages. It is also desirable
+that the soundings shall be carried off shore at least as
+far as the one-hundred-fathom curve, as with the modern
+forms of navigational sounding machines it is possible
+for vessels under way to obtain soundings to this depth,
+and such soundings may be of value in identifying the
+location of the vessel. For depths greater than one
+hundred fathoms the soundings have less direct value
+to navigation except as proving the absence of shoaler
+areas, but soundings throughout the oceanic regions are
+of great geographical interest as well as of direct practical
+value in the laying of cables.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that the plan of mapping the sea bottom
+by dropping a lead at intervals over its hidden surface
+is far from an ideal one. The lead gives the depth
+only at the point at which it touches the bottom, and
+no information as to the space between the casts except
+such as may be inferred from the relation of successive
+soundings. In numerous cases, after what was considered
+a very thorough survey of a region had been
+made, at some later day a pinnacle rock or other danger
+has been discovered. For instance, a very detailed
+hydrographic survey of Buzzards Bay was made in
+1895; the sounding lines were run at intervals of 50
+to 100 yards, and 91,000 soundings were made for a
+single sheet. Within this area the cruiser <i>Brooklyn</i>
+in 1902 touched a rock which was found to have 18
+feet over it. (<a href="#Fig17">Fig. 17.</a>) The least depth in the vicinity
+developed in the original survey was 31 feet.</p>
+
+<p>For the satisfactory development of hydrographic
+work some invention is much needed which as it
+passes along the bottom will give a continuous depth
+curve. Several devices have successfully accomplished
+this in shoal water, but great credit awaits the inventor
+who designs something of more general application.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig17" id="Fig17"></a>
+<img src="images/fig17.png" width="600" height="446" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 17. PORTION OF ORIGINAL HYDROGRAPHIC SHEET, BUZZARDS BAY, ON SCALE
+1-10000, SHOWING AREA CLOSELY SOUNDED IN 1895, WHERE THE <i>BROOKLYN</i>
+STRUCK IN 1902.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Tides and currents.</b> Information must be obtained
+as to the movement of the water, both vertical and
+horizontal. The rise and fall of the tide are obtained
+by tide gauges, either automatic, which draw a continuous
+tidal curve on a roll of paper, or simple tide
+staffs, which must be read at intervals. The currents,
+whether due to the tides or other movements, are
+measured by noting the movement of partially sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 51-55]</a></span>merged
+floats. Less accurate but useful information
+as to currents is obtained from the logs of vessels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig18.png" width="600" height="190" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 18. DRAGGING FOR DANGERS WITH A LONG WIRE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Dragging for dangers</b> has long been resorted to for
+the investigation of isolated spots. A valuable and
+successful means has been employed recently of making
+sure that an area is free from shoals or rocks
+having less than a certain depth. This is done by
+dragging through the water a wire from 500 to 1400
+feet long, and suspended at the required depth, with
+suitable buoys and weights, and kept taut by the angle
+of pull. If, for instance, the wire is set at a depth of
+30 feet it will indicate the presence of any obstruction
+of less depth by catching on it and upsetting the buoys,
+and such spots are at once marked and investigated.
+Considerable work has been done with such drags in
+the last few years on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts
+and on the Great Lakes. This is of course a somewhat
+tedious process and gives no information as to depths
+greater than that for which the wire is set, but the
+experience already had indicates its great value. It
+will probably be found desirable in time to thus drag all
+water areas important to navigation where the depth
+is near the draft of vessels and the irregular nature of
+the bottom gives indication of dangers. In extensive
+dragging operations near Key West and in Jericho Bay,
+Maine, a number of shoals have been picked up which
+were not found in the original surveys.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable instance of the value of the drag was
+the recent discovery of a rock in Blue Hill Bay on the
+coast of Maine. This rock has but 7 feet of water
+over it, and is only 6 feet in diameter at the top. It is
+surrounded by depths of 78 feet, from which it rises<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+nearly perpendicularly. The original survey gave no
+indication of a danger here, and its existence was not
+suspected until it was discovered with the wire drag.</p>
+
+<p>Another method of dragging that has been employed
+is by means of a pipe suspended beneath a ship's
+bottom.</p>
+
+<p><b>Magnetic variation.</b> As the compass is a universal
+navigational instrument, information as to the magnetic
+variation is needed for the charts. The angle between
+the direction of the magnetic needle and the true north
+is measured at various points on both land and sea,
+and at some stations these observations are repeated
+after a number of years. From these results magnetic
+maps are made, from which both the variation and
+its annual change may be taken.</p>
+
+<p><b>Reports of dangers.</b> Aside from the more systematic
+surveys as outlined above, much information has
+been placed on the charts from other sources. On
+the earlier charts and on those of more remote regions
+at the present day much of the work has been sketched
+rather than surveyed. Even in the better surveyed
+portions reports come in as to dangers or other matters
+not shown, and if of importance and the report appears
+to be reliable these are sometimes at once put on the
+chart pending further investigation, or in other cases
+an examination is first made.</p>
+
+<p>Shoals, rocks, and even islands have in numerous
+instances been shown on the charts which no one has
+been able to find again, and many of them after
+repeated searches have been removed. The same
+island or danger has sometimes been charted in two
+or more different positions as reported at various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+times. The treatment of such cases is one of the
+serious and interesting problems of the chart maker.
+It is generally less harmful to show a danger which
+does not exist than to omit one which does exist. On
+the other hand a non-existing danger shown on a chart
+may be the cause of actual expense and loss of time
+in compelling a vessel needlessly to go out of its
+course.</p>
+
+<p>It is surprising to note with what lack of care and of
+sufficient evidence reports of dangers at sea have sometimes
+been made, and how incomplete are many of the
+reports even when the existence of the danger is beyond
+question. It is unfortunately true that some of these
+reports are the result of effort to escape blame for accident
+by throwing the fault on the chart. Many such
+reports also result from various illusory appearances.
+A large tree covered with weeds, an overturned iceberg
+strewn with earth and stones, a floating ice-pan covered
+with earth, the swollen carcass of a dead whale, a whale
+with clinging barnacles and seaweed, reflections from
+the clouds, marine animalculæ, vegetable growth, scum,
+floating volcanic matter, and partially submerged wrecks
+covered with barnacles, have been mistaken for islands,
+shoals, or reefs. A school of jumping fish has given the
+appearance of breakers or caused a sound like surf, and
+tide rips have been mistaken for breakers. Raper very
+properly calls attention to the obligation upon every
+seaman of carefully investigating doubtful cases and
+making reliable reports. "Of the dangers to which
+navigation is exposed none is more formidable than a
+reef or a shoal in the open sea; not only from the almost
+certain fate of the ship and her crew that have the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+misfortune to strike upon it, but also from the anxiety
+with which the navigation of all vessels, within even a
+long distance, must be conducted, on account of the
+uncertainty to which their own reckonings are ever open.
+No commander of a vessel, therefore, who might meet
+unexpectedly with any such danger, could be excused,
+except by urgent circumstances, from taking the necessary
+steps both for ascertaining its true position, and for
+giving a description as complete as a prudent regard to
+his own safety allowed."</p>
+
+<p>As to the older doubtful dangers now shown on the
+oceanic charts, it is estimated that the positions may be
+considered as uncertain by 10 miles in latitude and
+30 miles in longitude, and areas of this extent must be
+searched to determine definitely the question of their
+existence.</p>
+
+<p>The following are interesting or typical cases of
+reported dangers:</p>
+
+<p>The master of an Italian bark in September, 1874,
+reported sighting a large rock in latitude 40° N. and
+longitude 62° 18´ W. Fortunately for the charts there
+were two independent reports from other vessels in the
+same month of sighting a partially submerged wreck
+in this vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish steamer <i>Carmen</i> was wrecked in 1891
+by running on a rock off the southwest coast of Leyte;
+the rock was reported to lie one mile off shore, a dangerous
+position for vessels using Canigao Channel. A
+survey made in 1903 showed 58 feet of water in this
+location, and that Carmen Rock on which the vessel
+struck was really within one-fourth mile of the beach.
+The rock had, however, for twelve years been shown on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+the charts in a position which made it an obstruction
+to navigation.</p>
+
+<p>The ship <i>Minerva</i> in 1834 was reported to have
+struck a rock near the middle of the broad entrance to
+Balayan Bay; the fact that this occurred at 2 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>
+indicated a very doubtful position, but it was stated
+that an American ship had previously been wrecked on
+the same rock. It consequently appeared as a danger
+on the charts for seventy-one years, when a survey
+showed no depth of less than 190 fathoms in this vicinity,
+and it was removed from the charts.</p>
+
+<p>A British steamer was wrecked in San Bernardino
+Strait in 1905; the master reported that he was in a
+position where the chart showed 51 fathoms, and that
+he was 1<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> miles distant from Calantas Rock, and on
+these grounds the finding of the official inquiry was that
+"no blame can be attached to the master, officers, or any
+of the crew for the casualty." Very shortly after the
+disaster, the surveying steamer <i>Pathfinder</i> definitely
+located the wreck and made a survey of the vicinity.
+The previous chart of Calantas Reef was found to be
+fairly correct, and the stranding was determined to have
+occurred well within this reef in a position where the
+chart showed soundings of 3<span class="fraction"><span>3</span><span>4</span></span> to 4<span class="fraction"><span>3</span><span>4</span></span> fathoms, and
+<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> mile from Calantas Rock, which rises 5 feet above
+high water.</p>
+
+<p>A transport entering San Bernardino Strait a few
+years ago ran on a rock and was damaged; the position
+was reported as about two miles southeast of San
+Bernardino Island and near the middle of the passage.
+The rock was not put on the charts, as prompt investigation
+showed 50 fathoms of water in this vicinity, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+that in all probability the transport actually touched a
+small reef making out from the island.</p>
+
+<p>The master of the brig <i>Helen</i> reported that his vessel
+was wrecked on a reef lying six miles from Rockall.
+When surveyed Helen Reef was found to be about
+one-third this distance from Rockall.</p>
+
+<p>An island has been reported in eight different positions,
+ranging in latitude from 30° 29´ to 30° 42´ N.
+and in longitude from 139° 37´ to 140° 38´ E.</p>
+
+<p>There have been a number of reports of islands
+in the area from latitude 40° 00´ to 40° 30´ N. and longitude
+150° 30´ to 151° 00´ W. The master of the bark
+<i>Washington</i> reported in 1867: "On my passage
+from the Sandwich Islands to the northwest coast
+of the United States, when in latitude 40° 00´ N., in a
+dense fog, I perceived the sea to be discolored. Soundings
+at first gave great depths, but diminished gradually
+to 9 fathoms, when through the mist an island was
+seen, along which I sailed 40 miles. It was covered
+with birds, and the sea swarmed with seal and sea
+elephants." A United States vessel searched in this
+vicinity without seeing any indication of land, and
+obtained soundings of 2600 fathoms. A British ship
+in 1858 searched for fourteen days over this area without
+finding anything. Searches were also made in 1860
+and 1867 without success, and the present charts
+show no islands in this part of the Pacific.</p>
+
+<p>In a number of cases erroneous positions have been
+due simply to blunders. Thus Lots Wife, first seen
+by Captain Meares in 1788, was shown on his chart in
+latitude 29° 50´ N., longitude 156° 00´ E., and stated
+in his book to be in latitude 29° 50´ N. and longitude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+142° 23´ E. Massachusetts Island by one report was
+in longitude 177° 05´ E. and by another in 167° 05´ E.
+The apparent blunder of 10° is now immaterial, as the
+island has disappeared from the charts altogether.
+The Knox Islands were placed by the Wilkes Exploring
+Expedition in latitude 5° 59´ 15´´ N., longitude 172° 02´
+33´´ E. The old British charts showed islands of this
+name also in latitude 5° 59´ N., longitude 172° 03´ W.,
+the longitude being doubtless transposed. In the case
+of Starbuck Island, discovered south of the equator, the
+latitude was apparently transposed, as on old charts
+it was also shown in the position, latitude 5° 40´ N.,
+longitude 156° 55´ W.</p>
+
+<p>A pinnacle rock can sometimes be located only with
+great difficulty even when known to exist. Rodger
+Rock, on which the bark <i>Ellen</i> struck and was
+damaged, lies in latitude 0° 41´ 15´´ N. and longitude
+107° 31´ E. It has but three feet over it at low tide. The
+British surveying ship <i>Rifleman</i> searched four days
+before finding it, although the plotted tracks showed
+that she and her boats had passed very close to it.
+This indicates that great caution must be used in
+removing a reported danger from the charts.</p>
+
+<p>The old charts of the Atlantic indicated a danger
+30 to 45 miles to the southwest of Cape St. Vincent.
+This danger was omitted from the charts about 1786
+owing to lack of confirmation. Later, in 1813 and 1821,
+it was reported that vessels were lost or damaged by
+striking this rock. Soundings of over a thousand
+fathoms are now shown on the chart in this vicinity
+and the rock no longer appears.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of a Pacific Ocean chart of about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+forty years ago with one of the present time (<a href="#Fig19">Fig. 19</a>)
+illustrates in a striking manner how many doubtful
+dangers, or vigias, have gotten on the charts and how
+after laborious search many of them have now been
+removed. This condition was especially true of the
+Pacific, owing to the numerous reports of an indefinite
+nature from whaling ships, among whose captains
+there was a saying "that they do not care where their
+ship is, so long as there are plenty of whales in sight."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig19" id="Fig19"></a>
+<img src="images/fig19a.png" width="600" height="455" alt="" />
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig19b.png" width="600" height="460" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 19. PORTION OF CHARTS OF 1869 AND 1903, OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN WEST OF
+THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, TO ILLUSTRATE THE REMOVAL OF DOUBTFUL DANGERS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64-65]</a><br /></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig20.png" width="600" height="429" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 20. PORTION OF CHART OF PONCE HARBOR, SCALE 1-20000, TO SHOW
+SELECTION OF SOUNDINGS FROM ORIGINAL SURVEY GIVEN BELOW.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig21.png" width="600" height="396" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 21. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY OF SAME PORTION OF PONCE HARBOR, REDUCED
+TO ONE-HALF SCALE OF ORIGINAL SHEET.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PREPARATION_OF_INFORMATION_FOR_CHARTS" id="PREPARATION_OF_INFORMATION_FOR_CHARTS">PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Chart schemes.</b> Before commencing the preparation
+of a chart it is necessary to arrange a definite scheme
+for it, and the usefulness of the chart will depend
+materially on this preliminary plan, in which must
+be outlined its scale, size, limits, and features to be
+represented. New charts have sometimes been prepared
+simply to fit the surveys as they progressed or
+to fill immediate or local requirements. It is, however,
+desirable that general plans for series or groups of
+charts be made, and with changing needs, information,
+and conditions it is sometimes necessary that existing
+schemes be modified.</p>
+
+<p><b>Compilation of information.</b> Considerable work must
+usually be done to get the field records in shape for
+the published chart. The soundings must be plotted
+and the characteristic depths selected. Only a part of
+the soundings that are made can be shown on the
+original sheet and only a small part of these are used on
+the final chart. A selection is made showing the least
+soundings on shoals and bars, the channel depths, and
+the characteristic soundings in anchorages and other
+areas. The original surveys are generally made on a
+considerably larger scale than that on which the chart
+is published, in order that the soundings may be more
+thoroughly plotted. The sheets must then be reduced
+to the scale of publication, and this can conveniently be
+done by means of photography or with a pantograph.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The best judgment is required in selecting the
+important features to be shown on the chart and
+omitting the less important and not essential features
+which might tend to obscure the others. In charts of
+new regions where complete surveys are lacking, care
+must be exercised in weighing, combining, and adjusting
+information from various sources and which is,
+perhaps, more or less conflicting.</p>
+
+<p><b>Projections.</b> The surface of the earth being curved,
+there is no possible system of projection by which it can
+be represented on a flat sheet of paper in an ideally
+satisfactory way. Numerous methods of projecting the
+earth's surface upon a plane have been proposed and
+many of them are actually used for various purposes.
+In general each projection has qualities which are
+valuable for certain uses, and deficiencies which make
+it less valuable in other ways. Only four of the different
+projections need be mentioned here as of special
+interest in chart construction.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mercator projection.</b> This is a rectangular projection
+in which the meridians are straight lines spaced at equal
+intervals and the parallels are straight lines so spaced
+as to satisfy the condition that a rhumb line, or line on
+the earth cutting successive meridians at the same angle,
+shall appear on the developed projection as a straight
+line preserving the same angle with respect to the
+meridians.</p>
+
+<p>This projection may be considered as the unrolling
+upon a plane of the surface of a cylinder tangent to the
+earth along the equator, and upon which the various
+features of the earth's surface have been projected in
+such manner as to satisfy the above requirement.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On this projection there is a constant distance between
+the meridians, whereas on the earth they
+actually converge toward the poles. The distance
+between the parallels increases in passing toward the
+poles, approximately in the proportion of the secant
+of the latitude. For each small portion of the map
+the relative proportions are maintained as on the
+earth.</p>
+
+<p>Some characteristics of the mercator projection are
+these: The meridians and parallels are all straight lines
+and perpendicular to each other; there is no convergence
+of the meridians; the minute of longitude is a constant
+distance on the map; the minute of latitude increases in
+length from the equator toward the poles but locally
+retains its true proportion to the minute of longitude;
+areas and distances increase in scale with the latitude
+so that a given scale is strictly correct only for one
+latitude; great circles and consequently lines of sight
+are curved lines excepting the meridians and the equator;
+rhumb lines or lines having a constant angle with the
+meridians are straight, and for the same angle are
+parallel in all parts of the chart. These qualities are
+all rigid and the projection can therefore be used for all
+areas, small or large, up to the extent of the earth's
+surface, except that it cannot be extended to the poles,
+as there the length of the minute of latitude would
+become infinite.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting fact regarding a rhumb line oblique
+to the meridians is that it is a spiral continually
+approaching but never reaching the pole; this spiral
+makes an infinite number of revolutions around the
+pole, and yet it has a finite length for the reason that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+the length of each revolution diminishes as the number
+of revolutions increases.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig22.png" width="600" height="397" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 22. MERCATOR PROJECTION OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN, SHOWING GREAT
+CIRCLE ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO HONOLULU
+AND THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mercator projection has been extensively used
+for nautical charts, for which it presents important
+mechanical advantages, in that adjacent charts can be
+joined on all their edges while still oriented with the
+meridian; all charts are similar; the border may be
+conveniently subdivided, giving a longitude scale applicable
+to any part of the chart, but a latitude scale that
+may be used in the same latitude only; courses are
+laid down as straight lines and can be transferred with
+parallel rulers from one part of the chart to another
+without error. On a mercator chart an island in
+latitude 60° would appear four times as large as an
+island of the same actual area at the equator, but
+this distortion of areas, while it gives erroneous impressions
+on charts of great extent in latitude, does not seriously
+affect the use of the chart for nautical purposes.
+Areas may also be correctly measured on a mercator
+map by taking each projection quadrilateral separately,
+subdividing it if necessary, and using the published
+tables of areas of quadrilaterals in different latitudes.
+Although distance scales vary with the latitude, distances
+can be taken from this chart with fair correctness
+by the use of the latitude border scale for the middle
+latitude, subdividing the total distance if there is much
+range of latitude. The inability to take off the great
+circle or shortest course directly from the mercator
+chart is from a navigational point of view a defect,
+but the most convenient solution for this appears to
+be the supplementary use of a gnomonic chart as will
+be described. The fact that lines of sight are not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 71-73]</a></span>
+straight lines on this projection is another defect, as
+by the plotting of bearings and angles on approaching
+the land the positions of vessels are located on the
+chart; fortunately, however, the error due to this cause
+usually falls within the other uncertainties involved in
+locating a ship; if need be it would be practicable to
+allow for this curvature. In the polar regions, however,
+the faults of the mercator projection become so
+much exaggerated that it is not used for navigational
+purposes, but because of the absence of commercial
+navigation there this is a minor matter in the general
+question of chart projection. For the plotting of original
+surveys the mercator projection is not suited and is
+not used, for the reasons above mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig23.png" width="600" height="450" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 23. POLYCONIC PROJECTION OF PORTION OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tables of "meridional parts" are published which
+give the distance in terms of minutes of longitude from
+the equator to the various parallels; with these tables
+a mercator projection may readily be constructed.</p>
+
+<p>Airy proposed a graphical method of sweeping the
+arc of a great circle on to a mercator chart, and tables
+are published for this purpose. The method is only
+approximate and is limited in application, and the
+supplementary use of a gnomonic chart would appear
+to be preferable.</p>
+
+<p><b>Polyconic projection.</b> In plotting the original surveys
+it is essential that a projection be used which will for the
+area included on a survey sheet show the points in their
+correct relation both as to direction and distance.
+These conditions are substantially fulfilled by several
+projections, of which the polyconic is used in the
+United States. If a hollow cone were placed so that
+it would either be tangent to the earth's surface along<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+one of the parallels of latitude or cut it along two
+parallels, and the points projected on to this cone, and
+the cone then unrolled and laid out flat, the result
+would be a conical projection, of which there are several
+variations. If successive tangent cones be used and
+each parallel of latitude be developed as the circumference
+of the base of a right cone tangent to the spheroid
+along that parallel, the result is the polyconic projection,
+which has been used for field sheets and for the large
+scale charts, as well as for the topographic maps of the
+United States. This projection has valuable qualities
+for moderate areas of the earth's surface, within which
+the scale is approximately uniform, areas retain nearly
+their true proportions, and great circles and consequently
+all bearings and directions are approximately
+straight lines. The parallels of latitude are arcs of
+circles with radiuses increasing as we recede from the
+pole; therefore they are not truly parallel and the length
+of the degree of latitude increases either side from the
+central meridian. The meridians converge toward the
+poles and become slightly curved as we recede from
+the central one; the longitude scale is everywhere correct,
+but the latitude scale is strictly correct only on the
+central meridian. The angles of intersection of parallels
+and meridians are right angles or nearly so. The
+polyconic projection is not used for very extensive areas
+of the earth's surface, as for instance a hemisphere.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig24.png" width="600" height="406" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 24. GNOMONIC CHART OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN, SHOWING GREAT CIRCLE
+ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO HONOLULU AND
+THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Gnomonic projection.</b> In this projection the eye is
+assumed to be at the center of the earth and the features
+are projected upon a plane tangent to some point on
+the earth's surface. It is practicable to use this projection
+for oceanic areas, and it has the very important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 75-79]</a></span>
+quality that every straight line on it represents a great
+circle of the earth. To obtain the great circle or
+shortest course between two points it is therefore only
+necessary to draw a straight line between the points
+on a gnomonic chart. Because of the great distortion
+near the edges this projection is not otherwise adapted
+to navigational use, and it is employed only to mark
+out the general course, and sufficient points are then
+transferred to a mercator chart. The gnomonic chart
+is therefore useful in supplementing the mercator chart,
+supplying its deficiencies as to convenience in marking
+out great circle courses. The great circle course can
+be derived not only more easily and quickly from the
+gnomonic chart than by computation, but the chart is
+also to be preferred because the course marked out on
+it will show at once if any obstruction, as an island or
+danger, is met or too high a latitude is reached. A
+modified or composite course can readily be laid out
+on a gnomonic chart.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 596px;">
+<img src="images/fig25.png" width="596" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 25. NORTH POLAR CHART ON ARBITRARY PROJECTION.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Arbitrary projection.</b> The few charts published of
+the polar regions are sometimes on an arbitrary projection,
+in which the meridians are straight lines radiating
+from the pole and the parallels are equidistant
+circles with the pole as center. The latitude scale is
+uniform. At some distance from the pole the longitude
+scale becomes very much distorted, but the projection
+is a practicable and convenient one for the immediate
+polar regions. Gnomonic and conical projections are
+also used for the polar charts, differing little from the
+foregoing for moderate areas.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scales.</b> Charts are published on a variety of scales
+to suit different needs of navigation, and the usual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+classification depends on scale. In addition to the
+ocean charts covering a single ocean in either one or
+several sheets and intended for navigation on the high
+seas, there are for our Atlantic coast the following series:</p>
+
+<p>Sailing charts, scale about <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>1200000</span></span>, for general coastwise
+navigation.</p>
+
+<p>General coast charts, scale <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>400000</span></span>, for local coastwise
+navigation.</p>
+
+<p>Coast charts, scale <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span>, for approaching the coast
+at any point and for inside passages.</p>
+
+<p>Harbor and channel charts, of various large scales
+from <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>5000</span></span> to <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>60000</span></span>, for entering harbors and rivers and
+passing through channels.</p>
+
+<p>The expression of scales by miles to the inch or inches
+to the mile is the more familiar. The expression of
+scale in the manner used by the Coast Survey and by
+most of the European countries, by standard fractions
+as <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span>, meaning that any distance on the chart is
+<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span> of the actual distance on the earth, has some
+advantages. For instance, the relation of these fractions
+gives at a glance the relation of the scales of the
+charts. Thus a <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span> chart is on a scale five times as
+large as a <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>400000</span></span> chart.</p>
+
+<p>For the more important harbors charts have been
+published on several different scales to meet various
+needs. Thus New York Harbor is shown on charts of
+scales of <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>10000</span></span>, <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>40000</span></span>, <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span>, <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>200000</span></span>, <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>400000</span></span> and
+<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>1200000</span></span>, each of course including a different area.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 374px;">
+<img src="images/fig26.png" width="374" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 26. NEW YORK HARBOR, PORTIONS OF CHARTS ON FOUR DIFFERENT SCALES.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The selection of suitable publication scales is of
+prime importance; a large scale permits of greater
+clearness and of showing more detail, but on the other
+hand restricts the area and the points that can be shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 81-83]</a></span>
+on a single sheet, or else makes a chart of excessive
+dimensions. In general in chart preparation the scale
+should be restricted to the minimum that can be used
+to fulfill the particular object and clearly represent
+what is desired. A chart of very large scale is not
+convenient for plotting, and a moving vessel may pass
+quickly beyond it or into range of objects beyond the
+limits of the chart.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PUBLICATION_OF_CHARTS" id="PUBLICATION_OF_CHARTS">PUBLICATION OF CHARTS.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Methods of publication.</b> An ideal process of publication
+for nautical charts would include the following
+features; rapidity in getting out new charts, facility
+in reprinting and correcting existing charts, clearness
+and sharpness of print, durability of paper and print,
+and correctness of scale. It is difficult to fulfill all these
+requirements by any method as yet developed. In the
+Coast and Geodetic Survey several different processes
+are in use at present; charts are engraved on copper
+and printed directly from the copper plate, or they are
+transferred from the copper plate to stone and printed
+from the stone, or a finished drawing is made and
+transferred to stone by photolithography and printed
+from the stone, or an etching is made on copper from a
+finished drawing and printed from a transfer to stone.
+Charts in other countries are in large part printed from
+engraved plates, excepting some preliminary charts by
+lithography.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="600" height="425" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 27. ENGRAVING A CHART ON A COPPER PLATE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig28.jpg" width="600" height="417" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 28. ENGRAVING SOUNDINGS ON A COPPER PLATE WITH A MACHINE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Copper plate engraving and printing</b> have long been
+used in chart preparation. A drawing is prepared as
+a guide for the engraver; this must be correct as to all
+information to be shown but need not be a finished
+drawing. A true projection is ruled upon a copper
+plate. By photography a matrix is made from the
+drawing and a wax impression taken from this matrix.
+This is then laid down on the copper to fit the projection,
+and the impression is chemically fixed on to the copper.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 85-89]</a></span>
+The work thus marked out is engraved by hand or by
+machine. A high degree of skill is required in the
+accuracy and finish necessary for chart engraving.
+Machines have been invented in recent years which can
+be used for portions of the work on copper plates, as
+for instance for cutting the sounding figures, the
+bottom characteristics, the border and projection lines,
+border divisions, compasses, line ruling, and stipple
+ruling. Stamps and dies have been successfully used
+for some symbols and notes, and roulettes for shading.
+By means of these various machines, many of which are
+American inventions, the process of chart publication
+from plates has been materially facilitated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig29.jpg" width="600" height="411" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 29. ELECTROTYPING PLANT FOR ELECTROTYPING CHART PLATES.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the plate is completed an alto, or raised copy,
+is made by depositing copper on to it in an electrotype
+vat, and from this alto another basso or sunken copy is
+made by the same process. This latter basso is used
+in printing. A copper plate may be used for about
+3000 impressions, after which it may become too much
+worn for satisfactory chart printing. By printing from
+a duplicate basso the original plate is preserved and
+additional copies can be made when needed. The
+use of the alto also greatly facilitates matters when a
+considerable correction to the chart is required. All
+the portions of the chart to be changed can be scraped
+off the alto, and when a new basso is electrotyped from
+this scraped alto all such areas will of course appear
+as smooth copper, on which the new work can be
+engraved. Numerous small corrections are called for
+on charts, and on copper plates where these are to
+replace old work the latter is removed either by hammering
+up the back of the plate or by scraping its face.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Printing directly from plates is a laborious process.
+After the press bed has been carefully padded to take
+up inequalities in the plate, the surface of the latter
+is covered with ink and then carefully wiped off by
+hand, leaving the ink only in the engraved lines. The
+paper, first dampened, is laid on the plate, and passes
+with it beneath the cylinder of the press under considerable
+pressure. The prints are calendered by being
+placed in a hydraulic press under 600 tons pressure.
+The charts are beautifully clear and sharp, not equalled
+by other methods of printing. Owing to the wetting
+and drying of the paper, the finished print is, however,
+quite appreciably smaller in scale than the plate, and
+the shrinkage is greater in one direction than in the
+other. The average day's work for one press and two
+men is 75 prints. This is small compared with the
+output practicable with lithographic presses. On the
+other hand a plate can be prepared for printing more
+readily than a lithographic stone. For small editions
+the plate printing compares well in economy with
+lithographic printing, and the plate can also be printed
+on short notice. Because of changes in aids to navigation
+and other corrections, it is usually desirable to
+print at one time only a sufficient number of copies
+of a chart to meet current demands, and not to carry
+a large stock on hand.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig30.jpg" width="600" height="427" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 30. PRINTING CHARTS FROM COPPER PLATES; FINAL CLEANING OF THE PLATE
+BY HAND; PLATE PRESS ON THE LEFT.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The copper plates, bassos, and altos make a very
+convenient and enduring means of preserving the
+chart ready for printing or for further correction. A
+large number of plates can be placed in a small space,
+and if properly cared for they may be stored indefinitely
+without deterioration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 91-93]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With plate printing it is not practicable to print
+more than one impression on the chart or to use more
+than one color, and plate-printed charts are therefore
+in black only.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig31.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 31. LITHOGRAPHING PRESSES FOR PRINTING CHARTS; LITHOGRAPH STONE
+ON TRANSFER PRESS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Engraving on stone.</b> On the United States Lake
+Survey the charts are first engraved on stone, and by
+a special process the work is then transferred to small
+copper plates, which are preserved. The final publication
+is by lithography, transferring again from the
+plates to stone.</p>
+
+<p><b>Photolithography</b> is a quick method of publishing
+a chart. It would be practicable by this means to
+reproduce the original survey sheets, but ordinarily
+these are not suitable as to scale and legibility, and
+it is necessary to make a new drawing, usually on
+tracing vellum. This is photographed on to glass
+plates, on the scale of the proposed chart. From these
+glass negatives positive prints are made on sensitized
+lithographic paper. These prints are fitted together
+and then inked, taking the ink only where the lines
+appear. This transfer print is then laid face down
+on the lithographic stone and run through a press
+under pressure, the stone absorbing the ink from the
+paper. The stone is then treated so that the inked
+portion remains slightly raised, and from this stone an
+indefinite number of charts can be printed in a lithographic
+press at the rate of 1000 an hour. The paper
+is not moistened, and consequently there is little distortion
+or change of scale in prints from stone. If desired
+to shade the land or use another color for any other
+purpose, additional impressions can be made on the
+same charts from other stones. Because of the bulk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+of the stones, work cannot ordinarily be retained on
+them, but the chart is cleaned off and the stones
+repeatedly used until worn thin. The original drawing
+as well as the negatives is preserved, from which the
+chart can again be published. For republication, the
+process is, however, not entirely satisfactory; the
+negatives are not always permanent, the work must
+again be assembled and transferred to the stone,
+changes or corrections are not very conveniently made
+on either drawing or negative, and after repeated
+changes the drawing becomes difficult to use in
+photolithography. Whether the charts are actually
+printed from copper or stone, there are decided advantages
+therefore in the matter of correction work and
+future editions in having the charts engraved on copper.
+On the other hand, the advantages of the photolithographic
+process are the ability to publish new drawings
+promptly, to use more than one shade on a chart, to
+obtain prints with little change of scale or distortion,
+and to print large editions rapidly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lithographic printing by transfer from engraved
+plates.</b> An impression on transfer paper may be taken
+from an engraved plate and this laid down on the stone
+in a manner similar to that used in laying down the
+prints from the glass negatives in photolithography.
+Prints are then made from the stone the same as
+in photolithography, but with superior results as to
+clearness. This general process is extensively used
+in both map and chart publishing in this country, as
+it combines the advantages of the plate in preservation
+of the chart record and facility of correction, and the
+advantages of the lithographic printing in less distortion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+of the printed chart, ability to print more than one shade,
+and facility for large editions. As the transfer from
+the plate can be readily made it is also better applicable
+to small editions than is photolithography. It is, however,
+not as convenient in the latter respect as plate
+printing, and it does not give a resulting impression
+equal in clearness or durability to the impression directly
+from the plate.</p>
+
+<p><b>Etching on copper</b> for chart publication has been
+recently developed in the Coast and Geodetic Survey.
+A finished tracing is made, the surface of a smooth copper
+plate is sensitized, and by exposure to the sun a
+print is made on the sensitized surface. It is essential
+to use an air-exhausted printing frame so as to get
+good contact between the vellum and the plate. The
+work is then etched into the copper and the plate
+cleaned and touched up, after which it may be used the
+same as a hand-engraved plate, either for transfer to
+stone or direct plate printing. The expense and time
+required in the etching process are much less than for
+hand engraving. The process has been successfully used
+for a number of harbor charts. The etching of course
+will be of the same scale as the vellum at the time of
+the print, and vellum varies somewhat in scale with
+weather conditions and age. Unless overcome by the
+substitution of some more invariable material in place
+of vellum, this might be an obstacle to the use of the
+process for general charts where a true scale on the
+copper plate is desirable because of future work to be
+done on the plate. It must also be taken into account
+that the etching requires a finished tracing in ink, which
+is not essential for the hand engraver; if, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+the chart is first published by photolithography, as is the
+usual practice in the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the
+same tracing is used for both processes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Distribution of charts.</b> Charts published by the
+government are sold to the public at a small price,
+estimated to cover the cost of paper and printing. The
+charts may be obtained direct from the publishing
+office or from the chart agents who are to be found in
+all the principal seaports. Catalogues are published
+from time to time giving complete lists of the current
+charts and the main facts regarding them. Index maps
+show graphically the area covered by each chart. The
+notices to mariners contain announcement of new charts
+or new editions published and of charts or editions
+cancelled, as well as of all corrections.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CORRECTION_OF_CHARTS" id="CORRECTION_OF_CHARTS">CORRECTION OF CHARTS.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Need for revision.</b> The making of the survey and the
+printing of the chart do not complete the problem of the
+chart maker. Both nature and man are constantly
+changing the facts the representation of which has been
+attempted on the charts, and also the needs of man are
+always varying. The original surveys are made to
+meet the reasonable requirements of the time, but
+breakwaters and jetties are built, and channels and
+harbors dredged and otherwise improved, and cities
+built, and new paths of commerce are opened which
+bring vessels into waters previously thought of minor
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>With the increase of commerce and speed of vessels
+more direct routes are demanded for reasons of economy.
+Inside routes not originally used are sometimes
+developed for defensive reasons. The average draft of
+the larger vessels has also increased remarkably since
+the modern hydrographic surveys were commenced,
+and surveys once made to insure safety for the deepest
+vessels of that time are now not adequate. The average
+loaded draft of the 20 largest steamships of the world
+has increased as follows: 1848, 19 feet; 1873, 24 feet;
+1898, 29 feet; 1903, 32 feet. The average length of
+these vessels was 230 feet in 1848, 390 feet in 1873,
+541 feet in 1898, and 640 feet in 1903. The number of
+vessels drawing as much as 26<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>4</span></span> feet rose from 36 in
+1902 to 185 in 1904. In 1906 there were 17 vessels<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+afloat, drawing 32 feet and upwards. There are now
+two steamers on the Atlantic 790 feet long, 88 feet beam,
+and 37<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> feet draft when fully loaded, and larger vessels
+are already planned.</p>
+
+<p>Great natural agencies are also constantly at work
+effecting changes in features shown on the charts.
+The action of currents and waves is continually cutting
+away or building the shore, particularly on sandy
+coasts exposed to storms. When surveyed in 1849
+Fishing Point on the east coast of Maryland was but
+a bend in the shore line. By 1887 it had built out
+about two miles in a southerly direction, and in 1902
+about two-thirds of a mile further, curving to the westward.
+Altogether in about half a century this tongue
+of land has grown out nearly three miles.</p>
+
+<p>Rivers are bearing vast quantities of sediment and
+depositing these near their mouths, pushing out the
+coast line and filling in the bottom. The main mouths
+of the Mississippi are advancing into the Gulf, but at
+a comparatively slow rate. A break from the main
+river at Cubit's Gap just above the head of the passes,
+however, has done an enormous amount of land
+making, filling in an area of about 50 square miles
+between 1852 and 1905.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;">
+<img src="images/fig32.png" width="449" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 32. FISHING POINT, MARYLAND, FROM SURVEYS OF 1849 AND 1902, ILLUSTRATING
+BUILDING OUT OF A POINT ON THE COAST.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;">
+<img src="images/fig33.png" width="387" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 33. GROWTH OF LAND AT CUBITS GAP, MISSISSIPPI DELTA, FROM 1852 to 1905.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig34.jpg" width="600" height="423" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 34. COLUMBIA RIVER ENTRANCE, SHOWING MOVEMENT OF SAND ISLAND,
+SURVEYS OF 1851, 1870 AND 1905.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mouth of the Columbia River in Oregon shows
+an interesting example of the movement of an island.
+The chart of 1851 shows the center of Sand Island
+3<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>4</span></span> miles southeast of Cape Disappointment, the chart
+of 1870 shows it 2<span class="fraction"><span>3</span><span>4</span></span> miles southeast, and the chart
+of 1905 shows it 1<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>4</span></span> miles easterly. This island has
+thus moved 2 miles northwesterly directly across the
+middle of the river entrance, closing up the former<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 99-109]</a></span>
+north channel. The southern point of the entrance,
+Clatsop Spit, has built out about the same distance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig35.png" width="600" height="584" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 35. CHANGES IN HAULOVER BREAK, NANTUCKET ISLAND, 1890 TO 1903.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig36.png" width="600" height="323" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 36. MAPS OF BOGOSLOF ISLAND, 1895 AND 1907, SHOWING CHANGES DUE
+TO VOLCANIC ACTION.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;">
+<img src="images/fig37.jpg" width="480" height="335" alt="" />
+<div style="text-align: right;"><i><small>Photo by U. S. R. C. Service.</small></i></div>
+<p class="caption">
+FIG. 37. BOGOSLOF VOLCANO, BERING SEA.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Volcanic action in well authenticated cases has
+caused islands to rise or disappear. In the present
+location of Bogoslof Island in Bering Sea the early
+voyagers described a "sail rock." In this position in
+1796 there arose a high island. In 1883 another island
+appeared near it. In 1906 a high cone arose between
+the two, and a continuous island was formed over
+1<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> miles long and 500 feet high. The latest report
+(September, 1907) was that this central peak had suddenly
+collapsed and disappeared. Bogoslof is an active
+volcano, and the main changes have been the result
+of violent volcanic action. The history of this island
+for over a century past forms a remarkable record of
+violent transformations in the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Earthquakes sometimes cause sudden displacements,
+horizontal or vertical, of sufficient amount to affect the
+information shown on the charts. A careful investigation
+of the effects of the earthquake in Yakutat Bay,
+Alaska, in September, 1899, showed that the shore
+was raised in some parts with a maximum uplift
+of 47 feet and depressed in other parts, and that at
+least two reefs and four islets were raised in the water
+area where none appeared before. Undoubtedly there
+were changes in the water depths, but definite information
+is lacking because there had been no previous
+hydrographic survey. The San Francisco earthquake
+of 1906 caused little vertical displacement, but there
+were horizontal changes of relative position as much
+as 16 feet; so far as known this earthquake did not
+affect the practical accuracy of the charts. Related<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+to earthquake phenomena are the gradual coast movements
+of elevation or subsidence which are taking
+place but at so slow a rate as not to sensibly affect the
+charts in ordinary intervals of time.</p>
+
+<p>Another agency at work is the coral polyp on the
+coral reefs; although the rate of growth appears to be
+very slow, the resulting reefs and keys are an important
+feature in tropical seas.</p>
+
+<p>Practically all of the land features shown on charts
+are likewise subject to changes, the more rapid of
+which are mainly due to the works of man.</p>
+
+<p>The changes of channels and of commercial needs
+cause many alterations to be made from time to time
+in the lights and buoys which are shown on the charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Methods of correction.</b> The problem of keeping a
+chart sufficiently up to date is one of much practical
+importance and one which must be taken into account
+in planning what should be shown on the chart in the
+first place so as to bring it within the range of practicable
+revision.</p>
+
+<p>Certain features are corrected at once on the charts
+as soon as the information is received, such as dangers
+reported, and changes in lights and buoys. Where
+harbor works are in progress the periodic surveys made
+in this country by the Corps of Engineers furnish data
+which are applied promptly to the charts. Reported
+dangers in channels and bars are investigated by special
+surveys and the information is put on the charts.
+Examinations are made from time to time for the
+revision of the features along the coast line. Complete
+resurveys have been made, at long intervals, of some
+important portions of the coast where there has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+evidence of change, and these, when they become
+available, are applied to the charts. All parts of the
+coast where the exposed portions are not of very
+permanent material will require resurveys at intervals,
+depending on their importance and the rate of change.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the great progress made in hydrographic
+surveys, a considerable number of rocks and
+shoals dangerous to navigation and not previously
+shown on the charts are reported, averaging nearly 400
+each year for the last six years, according to the British
+reports. Of the 367 reported in 1906, 11 were discovered
+by vessels striking them.</p>
+
+<p>Immediate information in the form of <i>Notices to
+Mariners</i> is published, of the more important corrections
+to charts which can be made by hand. These corrections
+show what charts are affected, and give sufficient
+data for plotting.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of extensive corrections or new surveys
+a new edition of the chart is printed and all existing
+copies of the previous edition are canceled.</p>
+
+<p>It is important that the user of the chart shall make
+certain that he has the latest edition and that all corrections
+from its date of issue have been applied from the
+<i>Notices to Mariners</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is unfortunately true that owing to failure to take
+proper account of the notices, or to economy, old
+editions or unconnected charts are sometimes used, and
+in a number of cases the loss of vessels has been directly
+due to this cause. Those responsible for the safe
+navigation of vessels should insist that the latest editions
+of charts are provided and that all charts to be used are
+inspected and corrected to date.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="READING_AND_USING_CHARTS" id="READING_AND_USING_CHARTS">READING AND USING CHARTS.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Reading charts.</b> A chart is a representation on paper
+of hydrographic and topographic information by means
+of various conventional methods and symbols. It is
+evidently important for those making use of charts
+to understand the system and conventions used, and
+to be able to interpret readily the various parts of
+the chart. The ability to read a chart must include
+an understanding of all its features, such as scale,
+projection, geographic position, directions, depths,
+plane of reference, aids to navigation, tides, currents,
+elevations, topography, and date of survey and
+publication.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scale.</b> For American and British charts the scale is
+usually expressed by the inches or fractions of an inch
+to the minute or degree of latitude, or by the fractional
+proportion of a distance on the map to the corresponding
+distance on the earth. These fractions are sometimes
+stated on the British charts, and nearly always
+on those of the United States Coast Survey. The chart
+catalogues give the scale in one or the other form. A
+familiarity with the meaning of scales is of value in
+selecting the most suitable chart, in judging of the
+relative uses of charts, and in estimating distances.
+Where the fractional scales are stated they furnish a
+simple means of comparing charts, as, for instance, a
+chart on <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>50000</span></span> scale will show all distances just twice
+as long as a chart on <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>100000</span></span> scale.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following are scale equivalents:</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Scale equivalents">
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>10000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 7.30 inches</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>20000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 3.65 inches</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>40000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 1.82 inches</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>50000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 1.46 inches</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>80000</span></span></td><td align="left"> is equivalent to 0.91 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>100000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 0.73 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>200000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 0.36 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>400000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 0.18 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>1000000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 0.07 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale</td><td align="center"><span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>1200000</span></span></td><td align="left">is equivalent to 0.06 inch</td><td align="left">to one nautical mile.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>For use in measuring distances on large scale charts
+the length of one or more nautical miles is usually
+drawn on the chart, and sometimes scales are also given
+in other units. On British charts the nautical mile
+scale is divided into tenths (that is, cables of 100 fathoms
+or 600 feet length); on the American charts into quarters
+and eighths. Where the scale covers more than one
+mile the fractional divisions are shown only for the left-hand
+mile and the zero of the scale is placed between this
+and the full mile scale, so that with dividers the full
+miles and fraction may readily be taken off. The
+nautical mile in the United States is taken to be the
+length of a minute of arc of a great circle on a sphere
+whose surface equals that of the earth; this definition
+makes the nautical mile equal 6080.27 feet. Lecky
+adopts 6080 feet as the nautical mile. The length of
+the actual minute of latitude on the earth's surface
+increases from 6046 feet at the equator to 6108 feet at
+the poles, an increase of about one per cent. It is,
+however, this somewhat variable unit of length which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+is ordinarily used in scaling distances on the sailing
+charts.</p>
+
+<p>On small scale charts there is usually a border scale
+entirely around the chart, conveniently subdivided; this
+serves the double purpose of facilitating the plotting or
+reading of positions by latitude and longitude and of
+furnishing a scale of minutes of latitude for use in
+measuring distances. On a mercator chart this scale of
+course varies with the latitude and it must be referred
+to in the mean latitude of the distance to be measured.
+In general practice the minute of latitude is taken as
+equal to the nautical mile.</p>
+
+<p><b>Projection.</b> On only a few charts is there a statement
+of the projection used. Practically all general sailing
+charts are on the mercator projection, which can be
+readily recognized by the rectangular network of meridians
+and parallels and the increase with latitude of the
+distance between the parallels. On large scale local
+and harbor charts the kind of projection used is not of
+importance to navigation, as for such limited areas
+the difference between projections would not affect the
+use of the chart. On certain small scale charts of the
+United States Coast Survey which are on the polyconic
+projection this fact is stated on the chart, and can also
+be readily recognized by the convergence of the meridians
+and curvature of the parallels. Gnomonic charts
+intended for taking off great circle courses are always
+described in their titles and are also easily recognized
+by the increased scale and distortion toward all the
+borders. Charts of the polar regions are published
+on several different projections, which are distinguished
+from the mercator by their circular or curved parallels.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Geographic position.</b> For large scale and harbor
+charts the latitude and longitude of some point marked
+on the chart are sometimes stated on the face of the
+chart. For others of these, however, and for smaller
+scale and general charts, positions are obtained by
+reference to the border scale. There is a latitude
+scale down either side of the chart, and a longitude
+scale across the top and bottom. These scales are
+conveniently subdivided into degrees, minutes, or
+fractions of a minute. The minute is divided into
+tenths (6´´), sixths (10´´), quarters (15´´), or halves
+(30´´) on various charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Directions</b> are indicated on charts both by the projection
+lines and by compass roses. Nearly all charts are
+now oriented with the meridian, that is, north is the
+top of the chart, and on a mercator chart the east and
+west border lines are parallel with the meridians and
+the north and south border lines with the parallels.
+Formerly many charts were not so oriented. Some
+of these are still in use and can readily be recognized
+by the diagonal or inclined direction of the
+projection lines with respect to the border of the chart.
+Of course directions must not be referred to the border
+lines of these diagonal charts, and scales along such
+border lines must not be used. Directions with respect
+to true north may always be referred to the projection
+lines of the chart, but on a polyconic or polar chart
+a direction must not be carried so far from any projection
+line as to introduce error on account of convergence
+of the meridians. Compass roses are placed on charts
+to facilitate the taking off or laying down of directions,
+though in some respects their use is less accurate and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+convenient than the use of protractors, referring to
+the projection lines. The British charts and many of
+those of the United States Coast Survey have only
+magnetic compasses, with degrees outside and points
+inside, the former graduated to 90°. These are engraved
+on the chart with the magnetic variation for the date
+of publication, or for a few years in advance, and give
+the annual change in the variation. Because of expense
+of engraving they can be changed on the charts only
+at intervals of some years, and until this is done allowance
+for the change in variation is to be made if
+important. The German charts and those of the
+United States Hydrographic Office now have a threefold
+compass, the outer one degrees true, the middle
+degrees magnetic and the inner points magnetic; the
+degrees in both cases are graduated to 360°, reading
+from north through east, south, and west; thus northwest
+would be stated as 315° instead of N. 45° W.
+Small scale charts covering extensive areas have no
+magnetic compasses. They sometimes have true compasses,
+and usually have the isogonic lines, or lines of
+equal magnetic variation, marked on them, from which
+the variation at any intermediate point can be estimated.</p>
+
+<p><b>Depths.</b> The unit used for depths is always stated
+plainly on the chart, and it is important to note this
+carefully, as the British, American, and Japanese charts
+use fathoms for some charts and feet for others, and
+most other countries use meters. Some of the earlier
+charts of the United States coast have the depths inside
+of the 18-foot curve in feet and outside of that curve in
+fathoms.</p>
+
+<p>Depth curves are shown on charts in order to bring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+clearly to the eye the different depth areas and the
+limits for navigation of vessels of various drafts. The
+shoaler areas are usually indicated by sanding the outer
+limit or the entire area within the depth curve. For
+the curves of greater depths various standard symbols
+are used which vary slightly in the different series
+but which may readily be recognized by the soundings
+on either side of them. On the British charts the
+1 and 3 fathom curves are usually indicated by sanding
+the outer edge of the areas of these depths respectively;
+beyond these the standard curves shown on these
+charts are the 5, 10, 20, and 100 fathom curves. Similar
+curves are used on the United States charts. The
+German charts show the 2, 4, 6, 10, and 20 meter and
+various deeper curves, and the French the 2, 5, 10, and
+20 meter and deeper curves. On the United States
+Lake Survey charts the areas included within the 6, 12,
+and 18 foot curves are shaded with a blue tint, heavy
+along the outer edge, which brings out strongly the
+shoal areas.</p>
+
+<p>Depth curves if clearly shown are a great aid in interpreting
+the hydrography and making plain the shoals
+and passages. The system of curves should always be
+understood when using a chart, and it may sometimes
+aid the navigator to trace out with a pencil an additional
+curve, if needed, beyond the draft of his vessel. The
+abbreviations used for the bottom characteristics are
+explained either on the chart or on the sheet of chart
+symbols, and give information which is useful in
+anchoring, and may be helpful in identifying a position
+by soundings. When a sounding is made without the
+lead reaching bottom, the depth obtained is sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+shown on the chart by a short line and zero above the
+figure, indicating that at the depth stated, bottom was
+not obtained (no bottom). There are a few important
+symbols shown in the water area of charts. The
+sunken rock symbol indicates a dangerous area, or a
+danger having a moderate depth of water over it, or a
+rock the least water over which is not known; ordinarily
+on the United States charts the least depth will be stated
+when known, and the symbol omitted. The rock
+awash symbol indicates a rock awash at some stage of
+the tide, unless more definitely stated. The position
+of a wreck is indicated by a special symbol. P. D.
+(position doubtful) and E. D. (existence doubtful) are
+placed after soundings or rocks or other features which
+depend on some doubtful report not yet verified.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the relations between depth units
+found on various charts:</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="relations between depth units">
+<tr><td align="left">1 meter</td><td align="left">= 3.281</td><td align="left">English feet =</td><td align="left">0.547 English fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1 sajene (Russian)</td><td align="left">= 7</td><td align="left">English feet =</td><td align="left">1.167 English fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1 braza (old Spanish)</td><td align="left">= 5.484</td><td align="left">English feet =</td><td align="left">0.914 English fathom.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1.829 meters</td><td align="left">= 6</td><td align="left">English feet =</td><td align="left">1.000 English fathom.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><b>Aids to navigation.</b> Each series of charts has a
+definite system of representing the aids to navigation;
+these are similar in principle but differ as to detail. The
+characteristics of the lights, light-vessels, buoys, and
+beacons are usually explained by abbreviations placed
+by the side of each, and the entire system of representation
+is given on the explanatory sheet for the charts.
+Various methods of coloring lights and sectors and
+buoys are in use on different charts. It is evidently of
+importance that the user of the chart should readily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+understand the significance of the navigational aids as
+shown. For details regarding lights it is of course
+desirable to refer to the light lists; for the coasts of the
+United States detailed buoy lists are also published.
+Range and channel lines when shown are represented
+by distinctive symbols with bearings indicated. Danger
+ranges for the avoidance of shoals are sometimes shown.
+On the British charts bearings as stated on range and
+channel lines are magnetic; the custom varies on other
+charts and must be carefully noted in each case.</p>
+
+<p><b>Plane of reference.</b> The soundings given on the
+chart express the depth of water when the tide is at the
+height adopted for the plane of reference; this same
+plane is used in the tide tables, which thus will indicate
+the amount to be added to the soundings when the tide
+is above the plane, or to be subtracted when it is below.
+In order to be on the safe side the plane of reference
+adopted is always some low stage of the tide, so that
+there is usually more water than shown on the chart.</p>
+
+<p>On the British and German charts the soundings are
+reduced to the mean low water of ordinary spring tides,
+unless otherwise stated. On the charts of the Coast
+and Geodetic Survey the following are the planes of
+reference: for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the mean
+of the low waters; for the Pacific coast, Alaska, and the
+Philippines, the mean of the lower low waters, except
+for Puget Sound and Wrangell Narrows, where planes
+two and three feet lower respectively have been adopted.
+According to the Tide Tables for 1908, at New York
+(Sandy Hook) the tide will fall below the plane of
+reference on 135 days during the year, but the extreme
+low tide will be only one foot below the plane. At<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+Portland, Maine, in 1908, the extreme low water is 2.1
+feet below the plane, and at San Francisco 1.5 feet. Of
+course when the tide is below the plane of reference the
+amount must be subtracted from the depths shown on
+the chart.</p>
+
+<p>Strong winds and unusual barometric pressure may
+have a marked effect on the height of tide, so that it may
+differ appreciably from the predicted height, which is of
+course based on normal conditions. At Baltimore and
+at Willets Point observation shows that a heavy wind
+may reduce the tide four feet below the predicted heights.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tides.</b> Information regarding tides is given on all
+large scale charts, and additional information and predictions
+may be found in the Tide Tables. On the
+charts of the United States coast there is a small tide
+table giving for the high and low waters the time relations
+to the moon's transit and the height relations to
+the plane of reference. On the British charts there is
+a brief statement as to the tides either at the port on
+the chart or in the general notes; this ordinarily gives
+the interval in hours and minutes between the moon's
+meridian passage and the time of high water for the
+periods of full and new moon, and also the amount in
+feet that the spring and neap tides rise above the plane
+of reference, and the range of the neap tide. The
+following is an example of such a tide note: "H. W. F.
+and C. Campbellton IV<sup>h</sup> 0<sup>m</sup>. Springs rise 10 feet,
+Neaps 7 feet."</p>
+
+<p>At some important ports information as to the state
+of the tide is given to vessels, either by means of signal
+balls, or by automatic tidal indicators, as at the Narrows
+in New York Harbor, where a large dial shows to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+passing vessels the height of the tide, and an arrow
+indicates whether it is rising or falling.</p>
+
+<p>The tidal information becomes important and must
+be considered in navigation or in anchoring in waters
+where the available depth at low water approximates
+the draft of the vessel. In the general use of coast
+charts it is also important to observe the effect of the
+stage of tide on the appearance of many features.
+Rocks rising some feet above low water may be entirely
+submerged at high water. In some areas the aspect
+may be radically changed between high and low water
+by the baring of extensive shoals or reefs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Currents.</b> Information, when available, as to currents
+is given either by a note or by current arrows
+placed on the chart at the position of observation.
+Additional information as to certain regions is given
+in the United States Tide Tables. Tidal currents,
+flood and ebb, and currents not due to tidal action are
+distinguished by symbols, and the velocity is given
+in knots, and on some charts is indicated by the lengths
+of the arrows.</p>
+
+<p>Complete and systematic current observations have
+been made in comparatively few localities because of
+the time and expense necessary to get the full information
+as to the variations of the currents with the tides
+and seasons. Ordinarily therefore the current arrows
+shown on charts indicate only the average direction
+and velocity, or possibly only the conditions existing
+at the season when the survey was made. Oceanic
+and coast currents are probably much less uniform
+than might be inferred from the current streams
+drawn on maps and charts. A more systematic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+investigation of ocean currents is required to fulfill
+the needs of navigation.</p>
+
+<p>The tidal currents seldom turn with the tides, and
+there may be an interval of as much as three hours
+between the time of high tide or low tide and slack
+water. This leads to the apparent anomaly that in
+cases the current may be running with its greatest
+velocity at the time of high or low water, and may be
+running into a channel for several hours after the tide
+commences to fall. It is therefore, evidently, not safe
+to draw inferences as to currents solely from the tidal
+heights.</p>
+
+<p>There are passages where the tidal currents become of
+the greatest importance to navigation, as, for instance,
+in Seymour Narrows on the inside route to Alaska,
+where the current velocity reaches 12 knots and the
+interval of apparent slack water lasts but a few
+minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elevations.</b> The unit used for elevations is also
+stated on the face of the chart, as also the plane to
+which elevations are referred. On the United States
+charts this is generally mean high water and on British
+charts the high water of ordinary spring tides. Rocks
+and islets usually have figures shown beside them,
+either in brackets or underscored, which indicate the
+height above high water. Rocks which are bare at
+low water sometimes have a note "dries" or "bares"
+so many feet, indicating their height above low tide,
+although they are covered at high tide. The British
+charts in some regions where there is a large range of
+tide have underlined figures in the area between high
+water and low water indicating the heights above low<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+water, or the depths of water over the bank at high
+water, as explained in each case.</p>
+
+<p><b>Topography.</b> The land area on most charts is
+distinguished from the water area by a stipple or tint;
+on some charts the topographic features have, however,
+been depended upon to bring out the land from the
+water. The solid shore line is the high-water line,
+and should be clear on the chart; the area between
+high and low water is sanded or otherwise shaded on
+all charts. The relief of the land is represented by
+hill shading or by contour lines which are the successive
+curves of elevation on the land. Topographic
+symbols are used for some of the more important
+features, such as cliffs, rocky ledges, buildings, bridges,
+trees, roads, etc. It is important for the navigator
+to understand the significance of the hill representation
+and the symbols, as they will aid him in recognizing a
+coast or island, and in identifying landmarks.</p>
+
+<p><b>Date of survey and publication.</b> There is usually an
+authority note on each chart showing the source of
+information or date of survey; if on a coast subject to
+change, the latter is important. On the United States
+Coast Survey charts the date of publication of the
+edition is given, and on British and other charts the
+date of both large and small corrections. The chart
+catalogues give the dates of the last editions, or the
+dates of extensive corrections, and this affords a means
+of seeing whether the copy of the chart in use is the
+latest edition available.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="USE_OF_CHARTS_IN_NAVIGATION" id="USE_OF_CHARTS_IN_NAVIGATION">USE OF CHARTS IN NAVIGATION.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Chart working.</b> In crossing the open and deep portions
+of the ocean, where the only data given may be
+the projection lines and soundings far deeper than can
+be reached with navigational sounding machines, the
+chart is used to lay out in advance the general course
+to be followed and to plot the positions of the vessel at
+intervals either as determined by observations or, lacking
+these, by dead reckoning. When necessary the
+courses of the vessel are modified as the plotted positions
+are found to fall one side or the other of the proposed
+general track.</p>
+
+<p>The principal operations on a chart are plotting or
+taking off positions by latitude and longitude, laying
+down or taking off bearings, directions, and courses,
+plotting or measuring distances, and laying down or
+taking off angles.</p>
+
+<p>To plot a position by its latitude and longitude on
+a mercator chart, set a parallel ruler on the adjacent
+parallel and then move it to the required latitude as
+shown by the border scale at either side; then with a
+pair of dividers at the upper or lower longitude border
+scale take the distance from the nearest meridian and
+lay this distance off along the edge of the parallel ruler.
+The latitude and longitude of a point are taken from the
+chart by reversing this process, or with the dividers
+only. A direction is laid down on the chart or read
+from the chart preferably by using some form of pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>tractor
+and measuring the angle from the projection
+lines. In this country it is more commonly done by
+carrying the direction with a parallel ruler either from
+or to a compass rose printed on the chart. Distances
+are measured or laid down on a mercator chart by using
+the latitude border scale for the middle latitude. On
+polyconic and other larger scale charts distances are
+measured from the scales printed on the chart. It
+should be remarked that in general where special
+accuracy is required distances should be computed and
+not scaled from any chart, because of the error due to
+the distortion of paper in printing.</p>
+
+<p>The use of protractors on charts in plotting by
+angles in the three-point problem will be referred to
+later.</p>
+
+<p>The course to be steered to allow for a set due to
+current or wind may be obtained by a graphical solution
+on the chart, though it will be preferable to do this on
+other paper, using a larger scale. (<a href="#Fig38">Fig. 38.</a>) The direction
+and velocity of the set and the course and speed of the
+ship may be considered as two sides of a parallelogram of
+forces, of which the diagonal is the distance and course
+made good. To obtain the course to steer to reach a
+given point with a given current and speed of vessel,
+lay down the direction of the destination; from the
+starting point lay off the direction of set and the amount
+in one hour; from the extremity of this describe an arc
+with radius equal to the speed of the vessel in one hour.
+A line drawn from the extremity of the direction of
+set to the point of intersection of the arc and the course
+to be made good will give the direction of the course to
+be steered, and the point of intersection will also be the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+estimated position of the vessel at the end of the hour's
+run.</p>
+
+<p><b>Methods of locating a vessel.</b> The principal methods
+used for locating the position of a vessel are by astronomical
+observations, by dead reckoning, by compass
+bearings, by ranges, by horizontal angles, by soundings,
+by vertical angles, and by sound. The full discussion
+of these methods pertains to navigation and pilotage,
+and they will be only briefly referred to here as to their
+graphical application to charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Astronomical methods.</b> There are a number of
+methods of obtaining the position of a vessel by astronomical
+observations. When the position is computed
+the chart enters into these only in the plotting of the
+final result, so that with one exception these methods
+will not be referred to further here.</p>
+
+<p>The elegant method discovered by an American seaman,
+Captain Sumner, in 1843, is in part graphical, to
+be worked out upon the chart. This method is based
+on the obvious fact that at any instant there is a point
+on the earth having the sun in its zenith and which is
+the center of circles on the earth's surface along the
+circumference of any one of which the sun's altitude is
+the same at all points. A short portion of such a circle
+may be considered as a straight line and can be determined
+by locating one point and its direction, or two
+points in it. This is known as a Sumner line. (<a href="#Fig39">Fig. 39.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>From an observation of the sun's altitude and azimuth
+and an assumed latitude a position is computed
+and plotted and a line drawn on the chart through this
+position at right angles to the azimuth of the sun as
+taken from the azimuth tables and laid off from a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 127-129]</a></span>
+meridian. Another method is to compute positions with
+two assumed latitudes and plot the two resulting positions
+and draw a line through them. The vessel must
+be somewhere on the resulting Sumner line. A good
+determination may be obtained by the intersection of
+two Sumner lines obtained from two observations of
+the sun with sufficient interval so that there will be a
+change of azimuth of as much as 30 degrees to give a fair
+intersection. Allowance must be made for the movement
+of the vessel between the two observations by
+drawing a line parallel to the first and at a distance
+equal to the distance made good. An excellent intersection
+may be obtained by observation of the sun, and
+before or after it of a star in the twilight at a different
+azimuth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig38" id="Fig38"></a>
+<img src="images/fig38.png" width="400" height="354" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">COURSE TO ALLOW FOR SET,
+GRAPHICAL SOLUTION<br /><br />
+FIG. 38.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig39" id="Fig39"></a>
+<img src="images/fig39.png" width="400" height="378" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">POSITION BY INTERSECTION
+OF SUMNER LINES<br /><br />
+
+FIG. 39.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig40" id="Fig40"></a>
+<img src="images/fig40.png" width="400" height="376" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">POSITION BY COMPASS BEARINGS<br /><br />
+
+FIG. 40.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even a single Sumner line, however, furnishes valuable
+information, as it may be combined with other
+sources of information to obtain an approximation to
+the position. The vessel must be somewhere on this
+line, and this gives a good check on the position by dead
+reckoning, or an intersection may be obtained with a
+line or bearing of a distant land object, or a line of
+soundings may be compared on the chart with the
+Sumner line.</p>
+
+<p>If an observation is taken when the observed heavenly
+body is bearing abeam, it is evident that the resulting
+Sumner line will be the direction of the course of the
+vessel, and this fact may be useful in shaping the course
+when nearing the land or a danger.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dead reckoning.</b> When impossible to obtain the
+position by any other means, it is computed or plotted
+from the last determined position, using the courses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+and distances run as shown by compass and log and
+allowing for effect of current and wind. Because of
+uncertainties in all these elements, positions so obtained
+may be from five to twenty miles in error in a two-hundred-mile
+run, depending of course to some extent
+on the speed of the vessel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Compass bearings.</b> A compass bearing of a single
+object, as a lighthouse or a tangent to a point of land,
+laid down on the chart, shows that the vessel is somewhere
+on that line, and when combined with other
+information, as with a Sumner line or the course by dead
+reckoning or the distance by a vertical angle, will give
+a position whose correctness of course depends on the
+accuracy of the data used. Bearings of two objects not
+in the same direction give two lines on the chart whose
+intersection is the position. This will be very weak
+if the angle of intersection is acute, and will become
+stronger as it approaches a right angle. A bearing of
+a third object should be taken when practicable, as it
+affords a valuable check in that the three lines should
+intersect in the same point; if they do not do so when
+plotted the error is either in the observations, or the
+compass, or the plotting, or the chart. (<a href="#Fig40">Fig. 40</a>). All
+compass bearings are of course dependent upon the
+accuracy of the compass and the knowledge of its errors
+due to the local magnetic effect of the ship, and also
+upon the correctness with which the magnetic variation
+from true north is known. Bearings of near objects
+should therefore always be preferred, and those of distant
+objects considered as giving only approximate positions.
+An error of one degree in the bearing of an object
+30 miles away will deflect the plotted line about one-half<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+mile. Because of the facility with which they may be
+taken compass bearings are much used for inshore
+navigation, but in point of reliability they are inferior
+to some of the other methods.</p>
+
+<p>A single or "danger" bearing of an object is often
+a valuable guide in avoiding a danger. For example,
+a reef may lie to the westward of a line drawn South
+10° East from a lighthouse; in approaching a vessel
+will pass safely to the eastward of the reef if the lighthouse
+is not allowed to bear any to the northward of
+North 10° West. (<a href="#Fig41">Fig. 41.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>Two successive bearings of a single object, as, for
+instance, a lighthouse, noting the distance run in the
+interval, afford a convenient and much used means
+of locating the position with respect to that object.
+Such bearings are drawn on the chart in reversed
+direction from the object. The distance run between
+the bearings, as read by the log and corrected for
+current if practicable, is scaled off with dividers and
+the course of the vessel is set off with parallel ruler;
+the latter is then moved across the two plotted directions
+until the distance intercepted between them equals that
+scaled with the dividers, and the edge of the ruler then
+represents the track of the vessel. (<a href="#Fig42">Fig. 42.</a>) If the angle
+from the bow, or from the course of the vessel, for the
+second bearing is double that for the first bearing, the
+distance from the object at the second bearing is equal
+to that run by the vessel in the interval, and the use of
+this simple relation is designated as "doubling the angle
+on the bow." If the angles between the course and
+the object are respectively 45° and 90° when the two
+bearings are taken on an object on the shore, the dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>tance
+that the ship passes offshore when the object
+is abeam is equal to the distance run between the two
+bearings; this is a much used navigational device,
+known as the "bow and beam bearing" or the "four-point
+bearing." There is an advantage, however,
+in using bearings at two and four points (or 22.5°
+and 45°), as these give the probable distance that the
+object will be passed before it is abeam.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ranges.</b> A valuable line of position is obtained by
+noting when two well-situated objects are in range,
+that is, one back of the other in the line of sight from
+the vessel, as, for instance, a church spire appearing
+behind a lighthouse or a rock in line with a prominent
+point. Such ranges are of course entirely free from
+compass errors, and should be noted whenever there is
+favorable opportunity. The value of the range in plotting
+will increase with the distance between the objects,
+and if the two are close in proportion to the distance
+to the vessel the direction will be weak owing to the
+uncertainty in drawing a direction through close points.
+Artificial ranges are often erected as aids to navigation,
+usually to indicate the course to be followed in passing
+through a channel. Ranges afford a valuable guide in
+avoiding dangers, as for example an inspection of the
+chart may show that if a certain lighthouse is kept in line
+with or open from an islet a dangerous shoal will be given
+a good berth; on coasts not well buoyed such danger
+ranges are sometimes marked on the charts. (<a href="#Fig43">Fig. 43.</a>)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 236px;">
+<a name="Fig41" id="Fig41"></a>
+<img src="images/fig41.png" width="236" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">DANGER BEARING<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 41.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<a name="Fig42" id="Fig42"></a>
+<img src="images/fig42.png" width="278" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">POSITION BY SUCCESSIVE BEARINGS
+TWO AND FOUR POINT BEARINGS<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 42.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 183px;">
+<a name="Fig43" id="Fig43"></a>
+<img src="images/fig43.png" width="183" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">RANGE TO AVOID DANGER<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 43.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Horizontal sextant angles.</b> The location of a position
+by the three-point problem, using sextant angles,
+is much more exact than by bearings, but is less used
+because not so well known and also because additional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 133-135]</a></span>
+instruments are required and the conditions are not
+always favorable. It is so valuable a method, however,
+that it should be used, when necessary, on every well-equipped
+vessel. A single horizontal angle taken
+with a sextant between objects, as two lighthouses,
+defines the position of the vessel as somewhere on the
+circumference of a circle passing through the two
+objects and the vessel. A protractor laid on the
+chart with two of its arms set at the observed angle
+and passing through the two objects, will permit of
+locating two or more points of this circle on the chart.
+This furnishes a line of position which may be combined
+with other information to locate the vessel.
+With a compass bearing of one of the objects the
+position may be plotted directly from the single angle.
+Two sextant angles measured at the same instant
+between three objects furnish one of the most accurate
+means of locating the position of a vessel, this being
+the same method that is ordinarily used in hydrographic
+surveying, known as the three-point problem. (<a href="#Fig44">Fig. 44.</a>)
+The two angles are conveniently set off on a three-arm
+protractor, which is shifted on the chart until the three
+arms touch the three points, when the position of the
+center is plotted. A third angle to a fourth point
+furnishes a valuable check in case of doubt. Two
+angles may also be taken to four objects without any
+common point, and in this case portions of the two
+circles of position are plotted and their intersection
+will be the ship's position.</p>
+
+<p>The value of this method depends largely on the
+selection of favorably located objects, and it is quite
+important that the principles of the three-point problem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+be understood. If the ship is on or near the circumference
+of a circle which passes through the three
+objects the position will be very weak, and the same
+is true if the distance between any two of the objects
+is small as compared with the distance from them to
+the vessel. A useful general rule is that the position
+will be strong if the middle one of the three objects
+is the nearest to the vessel, provided that no two of
+the objects are close together in comparison with the
+distance to the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>A single sextant angle furnishes a means of avoiding a
+known danger by using what is known as the horizontal
+"danger angle." (<a href="#Fig45">Fig. 45.</a>) Note two well-defined objects
+on the coast either side of the danger to be avoided and
+describe a circle through them and passing sufficiently
+outside of the reef to give it a safe berth. With a protractor
+on the chart note the angle between the objects
+at any point on the outer part of this circle. If in
+passing, the angle at the ship between the two objects
+is not allowed to become greater than this "danger
+angle" the danger will be given a sufficient berth. This
+method as well as any use of sextant angles or bearings
+depends of course on the accuracy of the chart, and
+caution must be used where it is not certain that the
+chart depends upon an accurate survey.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig44" id="Fig44"></a>
+<img src="images/fig44.png" width="400" height="359" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">POSITION BY SEXTANT ANGLES
+THREE POINT PROBLEM<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 44.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<a name="Fig45" id="Fig45"></a>
+<img src="images/fig45.png" width="251" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">HORIZONTAL DANGER ANGLE<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 45.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig46" id="Fig46"></a>
+<img src="images/fig46a.png" width="400" height="60" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">DISTANCE BY VERTICAL ANGLE</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<img src="images/fig46.png" width="320" height="297" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">VERTICAL DANGER ANGLE<br />
+<br />
+FIG. 46.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Soundings.</b> Even if objects cannot be seen, due to
+distance or thick weather, the chart furnishes a valuable
+aid when a vessel has approached within the limits
+where it is practicable to obtain soundings. Modern
+navigational sounding machines permit of obtaining
+soundings to depths of nearly one hundred fathoms
+without stopping the vessel. A rough check is at once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 137-139]</a></span>
+obtained by comparing such soundings with those
+given on the chart for the position carried forward by
+dead reckoning. If a number of soundings are taken
+and plotted on a piece of tracing paper, spaced by the
+log readings to the scale of the chart, and this tracing
+paper is laid over the chart and shifted in the vicinity
+of the probable position until the soundings best agree
+with those on the chart, a valuable verification of position
+may be obtained. This is particularly the case if
+the area has been well surveyed, and the soundings
+taken on the vessel are accurate, and the configuration
+of the bottom has marked characteristics. For instance,
+in approaching New York the crossing of the 30, 20, and
+10 fathom curves will give a fair warning of the distance
+off the Long Island and New Jersey coasts, and soundings
+across such a feature as the submerged Hudson
+gorge extending to the southeastward of Sandy Hook
+will give a valuable indication of position. The taking
+of soundings should be resorted to even in favorable
+conditions, in approaching shoal water, as a check on
+other means of locating the vessel. Many marine
+disasters are attributed to failure to make sufficient use
+of the lead, the simplest of navigational aids.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vertical angles.</b> The vertical angle of elevation of an
+object whose height is known will give the distance, and
+combined with a bearing or other information this permits
+of locating a vessel where better means cannot be
+used. Distance tables are published for this method.
+(<a href="#Fig46">Fig. 46.</a>) The vertical angle is measured with a sextant
+and must be the angle at the ship between the top of the
+object and the sea level vertically beneath it; for a hill
+or mountain, therefore, the eye of the observer should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+be near the water. The object should not be so distant
+that curvature becomes appreciable. The "vertical
+danger angle" is a means of avoiding a known danger,
+on a principle similar to that of the horizontal danger
+angle; that is, the angle of elevation of a known object
+is not permitted to become greater than a fixed amount
+depending on the distance from the object to the danger
+to be avoided.</p>
+
+<p><b>Positions by sound.</b> In thick weather sound affords
+a valuable aid to the navigator. In narrow passages
+noting the echo of the whistle from a cliff is a method
+resorted to, as for instance in Puget Sound and along
+the Alaska coast. Fog whistles and bell buoys are
+maintained at many places. Submarine bells have
+recently been introduced at a number of points along
+the Atlantic coast, and vessels may be equipped to receive
+these submarine signals transmitted through the water,
+which indicate also the general direction from which
+the sound comes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Need of vigilance.</b> Too great importance cannot be
+attached to frequent verification of positions by the best
+available means, particularly when approaching the
+land. Neglect of this or overconfidence has caused
+many disasters. A notable instance was the loss of one
+of the largest Pacific steamers on the coast of Japan in
+March, 1907. In the afternoon of a clear day this
+vessel ran on to a well-known reef about a mile from a
+lighthouse, resulting in the total loss of vessel and cargo
+valued at three and a half million dollars. The captain
+was so confident of his position and that he was giving
+the reef a sufficient berth that he laid down no bearings
+on the chart and took no soundings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;">
+<img src="images/fig47.jpg" width="475" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 47. FIELD'S PROTRACTOR AND PARALLEL RULER IN USE ON A CHART,
+PLOTTING BEARING OF A LIGHTHOUSE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span><b>Instruments.</b> The principal instruments needed for
+use with charts are; dividers for taking off distances and
+latitudes and longitudes, parallel ruler for transferring
+directions to or from a compass rose and for taking off
+or plotting the latitude on a mercator chart, protractor of
+180 degrees for reading the angle with the meridian of any
+direction or for laying off on the chart any given angle with
+the meridian, and three-arm or other full-circle protractor
+for plotting a position by the three-point problem.</p>
+
+<p>Parallel rulers on the principle of Field's are strongly
+recommended for chart work, as they combine in a
+single instrument the advantages of a parallel ruler
+and a 180-degree protractor. Any direction can be
+read or laid off by simply moving the parallel ruler
+to the nearest projection line, which is a process not
+only more convenient than referring to the compass
+rose printed on the chart but also more accurate
+because of the longer radius. These instruments
+can also be used the same as a plain parallel ruler.
+Field's parallel rulers are made in two forms, one rolling
+and the other sliding. The former is a single ruler
+with edge graduated 90 degrees either way, and
+mounted on rollers; it is the most rapid instrument
+for reading or laying off a direction, but it requires
+a smooth surface. The latter is an ordinary two-bar
+parallel ruler with edge when closed graduated
+90 degrees either way; it is a very serviceable instrument
+and probably more to be depended upon for ordinary
+use than the rolling form. Some form of combined
+protractor and parallel ruler should be in every navigational
+equipment, and it is unfortunate that these
+instruments are not better known in this country.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+There are other forms of half-circle protractors which
+are used on the same principle, that is, of bringing
+the center on to a projection line and reading where
+the line cuts the border graduation of the protractor.
+Thus a semicircular protractor is used with a separate
+straight edge, along which it is slid to the nearest
+meridian; another form is the simple circular protractor
+with a thread fastened at the center. All these
+forms of protractors, it will be noted, are intended to
+work from the true meridian, and they are usually
+graduated in degrees only; the use of degrees instead
+of points is becoming much more general in navigational
+work, and reference to the true meridian is also more
+common than formerly.</p>
+
+<p>The standard three-arm protractor, or station
+pointer, as it is known to the English, should be a part
+of every navigational outfit because of its value in
+locating a position by the three-point problem. A
+recent American invention, Court's three-arm protractor,
+is an instrument made of celluloid for the
+same purpose. It should not be considered as a
+substitute for the standard metal instrument, but it
+is a simple, cheap, and handy supplement to it, as it
+may be readily used for small angles and short distances
+where there are mechanical difficulties in working
+with the metal three-arm protractor. Other protractors
+can be used for the three-point problem, as, for
+instance, Cust's protractor on celluloid, on which the
+angles are drawn in pencil and erased, and the tracing-paper
+protractor.</p>
+
+<p><b>Degree of reliance on charts.</b> The value of a chart
+must not be judged alone from its general appearance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 145-147]</a></span>
+as skill in preparation and publication may give a
+handsome appearance to an incomplete survey. On
+the other hand a thorough survey might through poor
+preparation result in a chart defective either in information
+or in utility.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;">
+<img src="images/fig48.jpg" width="475" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 48. THREE-ARM PROTRACTOR IN USE ON A CHART, PLOTTING POSITION FROM
+TWO ANGLES.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The degree of completeness of the soundings, the
+character of the region, and the date of the survey
+should be taken into account in deciding as to the
+amount of reliance to be placed on the chart. Areas
+where the soundings are not distributed with fair
+uniformity may be assumed not to have been completely
+surveyed. Caution should be used in navigating on
+charts where the survey is not complete, and even where
+careful surveys exist care must be taken if the bottom
+is of very irregular nature with lumps near the navigable
+depth, as for instance on some of the coral
+reef coasts. Isolated soundings shoaler than the surrounding
+depths should be avoided, as there may be
+less water than shown. In such a region, unless the
+whole area is dragged, it is impossible to make it
+entirely certain that all obstructions are charted.</p>
+
+<p>While an immense amount of faithful work has
+been put into the preparation of many charts, the
+user must constantly exercise his own judgment as to
+the reliance to be placed on them. A coast is not
+to be considered as clear unless it is shown to be; buoys
+may get adrift and be in a different position or be
+gone altogether; fog signals vary in distinctness owing
+to atmospheric conditions; extreme or unusual tides
+may fall below the plane of reference; owing to strong
+winds the actual tide may differ from the predicted
+tide. Errors sometimes creep in from various sources,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+such as those due to different reference longitudes
+or the use of a corrected longitude for a portion of the
+chart without changing other positions to which the
+same correction is applicable; clerical and printing
+errors may occur; there are sometimes omissions in
+surveys; a feature may get plotted in two different
+positions; tide rips are reported as breakers and
+floating objects as rocks or islands, and thus many
+dangers have gotten on the charts which cannot be
+found again, and false reports are sometimes made to
+shield some one from blame. Most of these classes
+of errors and uncertainties, however, disappear in the
+use of charts of a thoroughly surveyed coast.</p>
+
+<p><b>Use the latest editions of charts.</b> The latest edition
+of a chart should always be used and should be corrected
+for all notices since its issue. Carelessness or false
+economy in not providing the largest scale or the latest
+chart has been the cause of more than one marine
+disaster.</p>
+
+<p>The British Board of Trade issue the following
+official notice to shipowners and agents: "The attention
+of the Board of Trade has frequently been called to
+cases in which British vessels have been endangered or
+wrecked through the masters' attempting to navigate
+them by means of antiquated or otherwise defective
+charts. The Board of Trade desires, therefore, to
+direct the especial attention of shipowners and their
+agents to the necessity of seeing that the charts taken or
+sent on board their ships are corrected to the time of
+sailing. Neglect to supply a ship with proper charts
+will be brought prominently before the Court of Inquiry
+in the event of a wreck occurring from that cause."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following is a translation of a notice in the
+preface to the catalogue of charts published by the
+German government: "Owners and masters of vessels
+are apprised that cases of marine accidents in which the
+casualty was due to antiquated or erroneous charts,
+have frequently been before the admiralty courts. In
+consequence of this, the 'Instructions for the prevention
+of accidents to steamers and sailing vessels,' issued by
+the Seeberufsgenossenschaft have been amended by the
+following additional paragraph: 'It is obligatory upon
+every master, except when engaged in local coastwise
+navigation, to keep the Notices to Mariners regularly,
+and with the aid of them to carefully keep his charts
+up to date.'"</p>
+
+<p>The British shipping laws provide that a ship may
+not be sent to sea in such an unseaworthy state that the
+life of any person is thereby endangered, and the House
+of Lords has defined the term "seaworthy" to mean "in
+a fit state as to repairs, equipment, and crew, and in all
+other respects, to encounter the ordinary perils of the
+voyage." Proper charts and sailing directions are a
+necessary part of the equipment of a vessel, and the
+courts have frequently inquired into this.</p>
+
+<p>The records of the British courts, however, show that
+even in recent years many ships have been damaged
+or lost owing directly or indirectly to failure to have
+the latest information on board. The following are
+instances from these records.</p>
+
+<p>In 1890 the steamer <i>Dunluce</i> was lost owing to the
+use of an old edition of the Admiralty chart which
+showed a depth of 4<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> fathoms on the Wikesgrund,
+whereas the later chart showed much less water. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+this case the master had requested his ship chandler to
+send him the latest chart.</p>
+
+<p>In 1891 the steamer <i>St. Donats</i> got ashore on a
+patch which was not shown on the chart in use, which
+was privately published in 1881; the danger was, however,
+shown on the Admiralty chart corrected to 1889.</p>
+
+<p>Also in 1891 the steamer <i>Trent</i> was lost on the
+Missipezza Rock in the Adriatic. The ship was navigated
+by a private chart published in 1890 which did
+not show this rock, and by sailing directions published
+in 1866.</p>
+
+<p>The steamer <i>Aboraca</i>, stranded in the Gulf of
+Bothnia in 1894, was being navigated by a chart corrected
+to 1881 which did not show that the Storkallagrund
+light-vessel had been moved eight miles.</p>
+
+<p>The steamer <i>Ravenspur</i> was lost on Bilbao Breakwater
+owing to the use of a chart not up to date which
+did not show the breakwater. In 1898 the steamer
+<i>Cromarty</i> was lost in attempting to enter Ponta
+Delgada harbor, and in 1901 the steamer "Dinnington"
+was lost by steaming on to the new breakwater in
+Portland harbor; both of these disasters were likewise
+due to the use of old charts which did not show the
+breakwaters. In these three cases the masters of the
+vessels had authority to obtain the necessary charts at
+the owners' expense.</p>
+
+<p>Not so, however, in the following case from the
+finding of a British marine court in 1877: "The primary
+cause of the ship's getting on shore was due to the
+master's being guided in his navigation by an obsolete
+Admiralty chart dated September 1, 1852, and corrected
+to April, 1862, and on which no lights are shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+to exist either in ... or ... and to his not being
+supplied with the latest sailing directions. The Court,
+considering that the master was obliged to furnish
+himself with chronometer, barometer, sextant, charts,
+sailing directions, and everything necessary for the
+navigation of his vessel out of his private resources,
+which, under very favorable circumstances, might perhaps
+reach £150 a year, find themselves unable in this
+instance to pass a heavier censure upon him than that
+he be severely reprimanded."</p>
+
+<p>The loss of the German steamer <i>Baker</i> on the coast
+of Cuba on January 31, 1908, was declared by the
+marine court at Hamburg to be due in part to the use
+of an unofficial chart which did not show the latest
+surveys on that coast.</p>
+
+<p><b>Use the largest scale charts.</b> The largest scale chart
+available should be employed when entering channels,
+bays, or harbors, as it gives information with more
+clearness and detail, positions may be more accurately
+plotted, and sometimes it is the first corrected for new
+information.</p>
+
+<p>The records of the courts of inquiry also show
+cases where vessels have been wrecked owing to the use
+of charts of too small scale.</p>
+
+<p>In 1890 the steamer <i>Lady Ailsa</i> was lost on the
+Plateau du Four. The only chart on board for this
+locality was a general chart of the Bay of Biscay,
+and the stranding was due to the master's mistaking
+one buoy for another. The court found that the
+chart, although a proper one for general use, was not
+sufficient for the navigation of a vessel in such narrow
+waters and on such a dangerous coast.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Zenobia</i> was stranded on the San Thomé
+Bank in 1891. On this vessel the owners were to
+furnish the chronometers and the master the charts
+and sailing directions. The master was, however,
+apparently satisfied with only a general chart of the
+South Atlantic for navigation on the coast of Brazil,
+and had no sailing directions at all.</p>
+
+<p><b>The depth curves</b> on charts furnish a valuable guide,
+and if the curves are lacking or broken in some parts
+it is usually a sign that the information is incomplete.
+The 100-fathom curve is a general warning of approach
+to the coast. The 10-fathom curve on rocky coasts
+should be considered as a danger curve, and caution
+used after crossing it. The 5-fathom curve is the
+most important for modern vessels of medium draft,
+as it indicates for them the practical limit of navigation.
+The 3, 2, and 1-fathom curves are a guide to
+smaller vessels, but have less significance than formerly
+because of the increase of draft of vessels.</p>
+
+<p><b>The shrinkage of paper</b>, especially in plate printing,
+has been referred to. This introduces two possible
+sources of error: first, the shrinkage being different
+in the two directions, any scale printed on the chart
+will be accurate only when used in a direction parallel
+to itself; second, for the same reason, angles and
+directions will be somewhat distorted. Fortunately
+these errors are not serious in the ordinary navigational
+use of a chart, but they should not be overlooked when
+accurate plotting or measuring of distances is attempted
+on a plate-printed chart.</p>
+
+<p>The actual shrinkage measured on charts printed
+from plates varies from <span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>3</span></span> inch to 1 inch in a length<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+of chart of 36 inches. On British and American plate
+printed charts the shrinkage is usually from two to
+nearly three times as much in one direction as it is in
+the other.</p>
+
+<p><b>Care of charts.</b> In order that they may be properly
+used charts should be filed flat and not rolled. They
+should be systematically arranged so that the desired
+chart can be instantly found. They should be cared
+for and when in bad condition replaced by new copies.
+They can be most conveniently filed in shallow drawers,
+thus avoiding the placing of many charts in a single
+drawer. The latter is a common fault; it not only
+increases the labor of handling the charts but adds
+to the liability of their injury.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PUBLICATIONS_SUPPLEMENTING_NAUTICAL" id="PUBLICATIONS_SUPPLEMENTING_NAUTICAL">PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL
+CHARTS.</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>There are several publications in book and in chart
+form which are either necessary or convenient for use
+in connection with nautical charts. These comprise
+the coast pilots, notices to mariners, tide tables, light
+and buoy lists, and various special charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coast pilots</b>, or sailing directions, are books giving
+descriptions of the main features, as far as of interest
+to seamen, of the coast and adjacent waters, with
+directions for navigation. They contain much miscellaneous
+information of value to the mariner, especially
+the stranger. Although they contain additional facts
+which cannot be shown on the charts, they are not at
+all intended to supersede the latter; the mariner should
+in general rely on the charts. The sailing directions
+can be less readily corrected than the charts, and in all
+cases where they differ the charts are to be taken as the
+guide.</p>
+
+<p>The most extensive series of sailing directions is
+that published by the British Admiralty, comprising
+fifty-six volumes and including all the navigable regions
+of the world. In the United States the Coast and
+Geodetic Survey publishes ten volumes of coast pilots
+for the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts, Porto Rico,
+and southeastern Alaska, and eight volumes of sailing
+directions for Alaska and the Philippine Islands.
+The United States Hydrographic Office publishes six<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>teen
+volumes of sailing directions for various parts of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p><b>Notices to Mariners</b> are published at frequent intervals,
+giving all important corrections, which should be
+at once applied by hand to the charts, such as rocks
+or shoals discovered and lights and buoys established
+or moved. New charts, new editions, and canceled
+charts are also announced.</p>
+
+<p>These notices should be carefully examined and the
+necessary corrections made on all charts of the sets in
+use on the vessel. A chart should be considered as a
+growing rather than a finished instrument, and constant
+watchfulness is required to see that it is kept up to
+date. Neglect of this may cause shipwreck, as the following
+instance shows. Report came to Manila in
+1904 that there was a low sand islet lying off the very
+poorly charted northeast coast of Samar; this information
+was promptly published in the local Notice to
+Mariners. About a month later a small steamer was
+sent to land some native constabulary on that coast.
+The captain failed to obtain or observe this notice,
+and approached the coast before daylight on a course
+which led directly across the sand islet. The vessel
+was driven far up on the sand, where it still lies.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States, weekly Notices to Mariners
+are published by the Department of Commerce and
+Labor for the coasts under the jurisdiction of the
+United States, and by the Navy Department for all
+regions. These notices are distributed free and can
+be obtained from chart agents and consular officers.
+In Great Britain the notices are published at frequent
+intervals by the Hydrographic Office, and practically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+all countries issuing charts also issue such notices.
+Information as to important changes in lights and
+other announcements of navigational interest are also
+sometimes printed in the marine columns of newspapers
+and in nautical periodicals.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tide Tables.</b> Brief information as to the time and
+height of the tide is usually for convenience given on
+the face of the chart. More complete information is
+published in the Tide Tables, with which every navigator
+should be provided. "The Tide Tables for
+United States and foreign ports," published annually
+in advance by the United States Coast and Geodetic
+Survey, give complete predictions of the time and
+height of high and low water for each day of the year
+for 70 of the principal ports of the world, and the tidal
+differences from some principal port for 3000 subordinate
+ports. The other leading nations also publish
+annual tide tables; those of the British government
+are entitled "Tide Tables for British and Irish ports,
+and also the times of high water for the principal
+places on the globe."</p>
+
+<p><b>Light and buoy lists.</b> Brief information as to all
+artificial aids to navigation is shown on the charts.
+Every vessel should also have on board the latest
+official light and buoy lists, which give a more detailed
+description than can be placed on the charts.</p>
+
+<p>Light and buoy lists for the coasts of the United States
+are published annually by the Light-House Board.
+The United States Hydrographic Office publishes a
+"List of Lights of the World" (excepting the United
+States), in three volumes.</p>
+
+<p>The British Hydrographic Office publishes eight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+volumes of Lists of Lights, and these are corrected
+annually.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chart catalogues</b> are published in connection with
+all series of charts. They give the particulars and
+price of each chart published, and are usually arranged
+in geographical order, with both alphabetical and
+numerical indexes, for convenience in finding charts
+either by position, name, or number.</p>
+
+<p><b>Charts for special purposes.</b> There are various
+special charts published for the benefit of mariners,
+although not intended for direct use in plotting the
+course of a vessel or in locating its position. Some
+of the more important of these are mentioned below.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gnomonic charts</b> are intended solely for laying down
+the great circle or shortest practicable courses between
+points, for which purpose they are very convenient.
+Their use has already been described. The United
+States Hydrographic Office publishes six such charts,
+for the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, Pacific, North
+Pacific, South Pacific, and Indian Oceans.</p>
+
+<p><b>Current charts</b> are published by the British Hydrographic
+Office for the various oceans; these usually
+show the average ocean currents, but for the Atlantic
+there are monthly and for the Pacific quarterly current
+charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Magnetic variation charts</b> are published by both the
+United States and British governments. They show
+on a mercator chart of the world the isogonic lines,
+or lines along which the variation of the needle from
+true north is the same. The lines are drawn for each
+degree of variation. The annual change in the variation
+is also indicated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Other magnetic charts are published showing the
+lines of equal magnetic dip, horizontal magnetic force,
+and vertical magnetic force.</p>
+
+<p><b>Meteorological ocean charts</b> are published by several
+governments, including the United States, Great
+Britain, and Germany, and give the average weather
+conditions, winds, fogs, currents, ice, tracks of storms,
+and other information. "Pilot charts" of the North
+Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans are issued by the
+United States Hydrographic Office about the first of
+each month, and give "a forecast of the weather for the
+ensuing and a review of that for the preceding month,
+together with all obtainable information as to the most
+available sailing and steam routes, dangers to navigation,
+ice, fog, derelicts, etc., and any additional information
+that may be received of value to navigation." Mariners
+in all parts of the world have joined in contributing
+the information which has been used in compiling
+these pilot charts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Track charts</b> are published by the British and
+United States governments. That of the latter is
+entitled "Track and distance chart of the world, showing
+the routes traversed by full-powered steamers
+between the principal ports of the world, and the
+corresponding distances."</p>
+
+<p><b>Telegraph charts</b> are published showing the "telegraphic
+connections afforded by the submarine cables
+and the principal overland telegraph lines."</p>
+
+<p><b>Index charts</b> are outline plans showing the area
+covered by each chart of a series, and furnish a convenient
+means of finding a chart of any desired region
+or of selecting the most suitable chart for any purpose.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+These index charts are published either in sets, showing
+all the charts of a series, or are bound into the chart
+catalogues.</p>
+
+<p><b>Star charts</b> are included in navigational series,
+and are conveniently arranged for use on shipboard
+in identifying the brighter stars. The United States
+Hydrographic Office publishes two, constellations of
+the northern and of the southern hemispheres.</p>
+
+<p><b>Explanatory sheets</b> are published in connection
+with various series of charts, giving explanations of
+the symbols and abbreviations used and of other
+important features. In the United States the Coast
+and Geodetic Survey has issued a small pamphlet,
+"Notes on the use of charts," which contains explanations
+of its chart symbols, and the Hydrographic Office
+has published "A manual of conventional symbols and
+abbreviations in use on the official charts of the principal
+maritime nations."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Index">
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Aids to navigation,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Arbitrary projection,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Astronomical observations,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Astronomical positions,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bearings, position by,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Board of Trade notice,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Care of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Catalogues of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Changes in the coast,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chart making, development of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chart publications of various nations,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charts, earliest nautical,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charts, loxodromic,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charts, plain,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chart schemes,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chart working,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Coast and Geodetic Survey, United States,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Coast pilots,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Compass bearings,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Compass, nautical use of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Compass, variation of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Compilation of information,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Correction of charts, method of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cosa, Juan de la,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Current charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Currents,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Danger angle, horizontal,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Danger bearing,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Danger range,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dangers, reports of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dates on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dead reckoning,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Depth curves,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Depths, unit for,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Depth units, relation of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Directions on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Distances, measured on chart,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Distribution of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Doubling angle on bow,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Draft of vessels,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dragging for dangers,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Earthquakes,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Electrotyping plates,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Elevations,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Engraving machines,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Engraving on copper,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Engraving on stone,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Eskimo map,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Etching on copper,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Explanatory sheets,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flattening of the earth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">France, establishment of chart office,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Geographic position on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Geography, early,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Germany, contributions to hydrography,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gnomonic charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gnomonic projection,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Great Britain, contributions to geography,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Holland, development of chart making,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hydrographic Office, British,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hydrographic Office, United States,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>Hydrography,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Index charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Information on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Instruments used on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lake Survey, United States,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Largest scale chart,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Latest editions of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Light and buoy lists,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lithographic printing,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Locating a vessel,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Longitude, initial,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Longitude, uncertainties in,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Magnetic charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Magnetic variation,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Map, earliest,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Map making, development of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Maps, need of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Maritime surveys, extension of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mercator chart, history,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mercator projection,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Meteorological charts (pilot charts),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Navigation, use of charts in,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Notices to mariners,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Paper, shrinkage of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Parallel rulers, Field's,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Photolithography,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Plane of reference,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Plotting positions,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Polyconic projection,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Printing, plate,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Privately published charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Progress of hydrographic surveys,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Projection, explanation of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Projections,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Protractor, three-arm,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ptolemy,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Publication of charts, methods,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Purpose of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ranges,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reading charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reliance on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reports of dangers, erroneous,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Requirements for charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Revision of charts, need of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rock, Brooklyn,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sailing directions, early,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sailing directions,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scale equivalents,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scales of charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Set, graphical allowance for,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sextant angles,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sheets for surveys,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shrinkage of paper,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sound, position by,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sounding machines,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Soundings, position by,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Star charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Station pointer,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Steamer for surveying,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sumner's method,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Supplementary publications,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Surveys on foreign coasts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Surveys, need of thorough,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Symbols on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Telegraph charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Three-point problem,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tides,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tide tables,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Topography,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Topography on charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Track charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Triangulation,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Uniformity in charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Use of charts in navigation,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vertical angles,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vigias, removal of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vigilance, need of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Volcanic action,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wrecks due to deficient charts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_1" id="Catalogue_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<big><big><big>SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE</big></big></big><br />
+OF THE<br />
+<big><big>PUBLICATIONS</big></big><br />
+OF<br />
+<big><big><big>JOHN WILEY &amp; SONS,</big></big></big><br />
+<span class="smcap">New York.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap"><big>London: CHAPMAN &amp; HALL, Limited.</big></span><br />
+<br />
+ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p>Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk (*) are sold
+at <i>net</i> prices only. All books are bound in cloth unless otherwise stated.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>AGRICULTURE.</big></p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="AGRICULTURE books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Armsby's Manual of Cattle-feeding.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;$1&nbsp;75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Principles of Animal Nutrition.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Propagation, Culture, and Improvement.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1 50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Systematic Pomology.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"> 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Practical Farm Drainage.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Graves's Forest Mensuration.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Green's Principles of American Forestry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Woll's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>ARCHITECTURE.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ARCHITECTURE books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Birkmire's Planning and Construction of American Theatres.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Architectural Iron and Steel.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Compound Rivetée Girders as Applied in Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Skeleton Construction in Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Brigg's Modern American School Buildings.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_2" id="Catalogue_2">[2]</a></span>Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Freitag's Architectural Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fireproofing of Steel Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">French and Ives's Stereotomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sanitation of Public Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Theatre Fires and Panics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Greene's Structural Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Holly's Carpenters' and Joiners' Handbook.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kellaway's How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket-book. Rewritten Edition.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Monckton's Stair-building.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Peabody's Naval Architecture.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">* Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Book:</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">* Carpenters' and Woodworkers' Edition.</span></td><td class="tdr">16mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td class="tdr">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">* Cementworkers and Plasterer's Edition. (In Press.)</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">* Stone- and Brick-mason's Edition.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Snow's Principal Species of Wood.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sondericker's Graphic Statics with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Towne's Locks and Builders' Hardware.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Architecture.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Contracts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Air Conditioning, (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance, Suggestions for Hospital Architecture with Plans for a Small Hospital.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>ARMY AND NAVY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ARMY AND NAVY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bernadou's Smokeless Powder, Nitro-cellulose, and the Theory of the Cellulose Molecule.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Chase's Screw Propellers and Marine Propulsion.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Cloke's Gunner's Examiner.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Craig's Azimuth.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Davis's Elements of Law.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; Treatise on the Military Law of United States.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">De Brack's Cavalry Outposts Duties. (Carr.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">24mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dietz's Soldier's First Aid Handbook.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_3" id="Catalogue_3">[3]</a></span>Durand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Dyer's Handbook of Light Artillery.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Eissler's Modern High Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Fiebeger's Text-book on Field Fortification.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hamilton's The Gunner's Catechism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Hoff's Elementary Naval Tactics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, each,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Mahan's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, half morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Manual for Courts-martial.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Mercur's Attack of Fortified Places.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; Elements of the Art of War.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures&mdash;And the Administration of Workshops.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; Ordnance and Gunnery. 2 vols.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Murray's Infantry Drill Regulations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Nixon's Adjutants' Manual.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">24mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Peabody's Naval Architecture.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Powell's Army Officer's Examiner.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Tupes and Poole's Manual of Bayonet Exercises and Musketry Fencing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">24mo, leather,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weaver's Military Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wheeler's Siege Operations and Military Mining.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Young's Simple Elements of Navigation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>ASSAYING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ASSAYING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Low's Technical Methods of Ore Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Miller's Manual of Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cyanide Process.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Cyanide Processes.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chlorination Process.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>ASTRONOMY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ASTRONOMY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Craig's Azimuth.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Doolittle's Treatise on Practical Astronomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gore's Elements of Geodesy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* White's Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_4" id="Catalogue_4">[4]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>BOTANY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="BOTANY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Davenport's Statistical Methods, with Special Reference to Biological Variation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thomé and Bennett's Structural and Physiological Botany.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>CHEMISTRY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="CHEMISTRY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Adriance's Laboratory Calculations and Specific Gravity Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Alexeyeff's General Principles of Organic Synthesis. (Matthews.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Austen's Notes for Chemical Students.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bernadou's Smokeless Powder.&mdash;Nitro-cellulose, and Theory of the Cellulose Molecule.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bolduan's Immune Sera.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Brush and Penfield's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tests and Reagents.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crafts's Short Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Schaeffer.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (Von Ende.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Drechsel's Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Eissler's Modern High Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Erdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I. Descriptive. (Wells.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) 2 vols.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;12&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fuertes's Water and Public Health.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Getman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Gooch and Browning's Outlines of Qualitative Chemical Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography. (Marshall.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Haskin's and MacLeod's Organic Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hind's Inorganic Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Laboratory Manual for Students.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Holleman's Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry. (Walker.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_5" id="Catalogue_5">[5]</a></span>Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Iddings's Rock Minerals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Keep's Cast Iron.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ladd's Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Langworthy and Austen. The Occurrence of Aluminium in Vegetable Products, Animal Products, and Natural Waters.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lassar-Cohn's Application of Some General Reactions to Investigations in Organic Chemistry. (Tingle.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Löb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Low's Technical Method of Ore Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lunge's Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">60</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.) 3d Edition, Rewritten.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds. (Tingle.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Miller's Manual of Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cyanide Process.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Morgan's An Outline of the Theory of Solutions and its Results.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elements of Physical Chemistry.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Muir's History of Chemical Theories and Laws.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mulliken's General Method for the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ostwald's Conversations on Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="visibility:hidden;">Ostw</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ld's Convers</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">tions o</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;"> Chem</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">istry. </span> Part Two. (Turnbull.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Palmer's Practical Test Book of Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Pictet's The Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution. (Biddle.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry. (Austen.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Standpoint.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Riggs's Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_6" id="Catalogue_6">[6]</a></span>Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Whys in Pharmacy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Schimpf's Text-book of Volumetric Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Essentials of Volumetric Analysis.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Qualitative Chemical Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Descriptive General Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis. (Hall.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quantitative Analysis. (Hall.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Walke's Lectures on Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="visibility:hidden;">Wa</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">e's Beet</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">sugar Manua</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">cture a</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">d Refn</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ing. </span>Vol. II.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weaver's Military Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-Water.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wells's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering Students.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Cyanide Processes.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chlorination Process.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic, Pharmaceutical, and Medical Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>CIVIL ENGINEERING.</big></p>
+
+
+<p class="center">BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
+RAILWAY ENGINEERING.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="CIVIL ENGINEERING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bixby's Graphical Computing Table.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Paper 19<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>2</span></span> × 24<span class="fraction"><span>1</span><span>4</span></span> inches,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Breed and Hosmer's Principles and Practice of Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Corthell's Allowable Pressures on Deep Foundations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Practical Farm Drainage.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Flemer's Phototopographic Methods and Instruments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 2d Edition, Rewritten.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">French and Ives's Stereotomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goodhue's Municipal Improvements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gore's Elements of Geodesy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Hauch and Rice's Tables of Quantities for Preliminary Estimates.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_7" id="Catalogue_7">[7]</a></span>Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Ives's Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, Bds.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Descriptive Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Nugent's Plane Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ogden's Sewer Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo half leather,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Riemer's Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Tracy's Plane Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Venable's Garbage Crematories in America.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Architecture.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Contracts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Warren's Stereotomy&mdash;Problems in Stone-cutting.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Topographic Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>BRIDGES AND ROOFS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="BRIDGES AND ROOFS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Boller's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Burr and Falk's Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Greene's Roof Trusses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bridge Trusses.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Howe's Treatise on Arches.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Symmetrical Masonry Arches.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of Modern Framed Structures.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Graphic Statics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part III. Bridge Design.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part IV. Higher Structures.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_8" id="Catalogue_8">[8]</a></span>Morison's Memphis Bridge.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Specifications for Steel Bridges.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wright's Designing of Draw-spans. Two parts in one volume.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>HYDRAULICS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="HYDRAULICS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Barnes's Ice Formation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from an Orifice. (Trautwine.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Church's Mechanics of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hydraulic Motors.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Folwell's Water-supply Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Frizell's Water-power.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fuertes's Water and Public Health.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Water-filtration Works.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Filtration of Public Water-supply.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal Conduits.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Hubbard and Kiersted's Water-works Management and Maintenance.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water-supply</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 5th Edition, enlarged.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Whipple's Value of Pure Water.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Irrigation Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Turbines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Roads and Pavements.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Black's United States Public Works.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Oblong&nbsp;4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Byrne's Highway Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Church's Mechanics of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_9" id="Catalogue_9">[9]</a></span>Johnson's Materials of Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Graves's Forest Mensuration.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Greene's Structural Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Keep's Cast Iron.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lanza's Applied Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maurer's Technical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Strength of Materials.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Patron's Practical Treatise on Foundations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Ries's Clays; Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Materials of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Snow's Principal Species of Wood.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Text-book on Roads and Pavements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Iron and Steel.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Construction.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Waddell's De Pontibus. (A Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Specifications for Steel Bridges.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>RAILWAY ENGINEERING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="RAILWAY ENGINEERING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Andrew's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3x5&nbsp;inches,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Brook's Handbook of Street Railroad Location.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Butt's Civil Engineer's Field-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crandall's Transition Curve.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Railway and Other Earthwork Tables.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crookett's Methods for Earthwork Computations. (In Press)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879).</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cardboard,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Embankments.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Raymond's Elements of Railroad Engineering. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_10" id="Catalogue_10">[10]</a></span>Searles's Field Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Railroad Spiral.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Taylor's Prismoidal Formulæ and Earthwork.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cube Contents of Excavations and Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cross-section Sheet.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Webb's Railroad Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Economics of Railroad Construction.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>DRAWING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="DRAWING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">*<span style="visibility:hidden;"> Bart</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ett's Mecha</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ical Draw</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ing. </span>Abridged Ed.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Oblong 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Durley's Kinematics of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Advanced Mechanical Drawing.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jones's Machine Design:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mechanical Drawing.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Velocity Diagrams.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacLeod's Descriptive Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Moyer's Descriptive Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Oblong 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Drafting Instruments and Operations.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and Shadow.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">General Problems of Shades and Shadows.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Herrmann and Klein.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Art of Letter Engraving.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_11" id="Catalogue_11">[11]</a></span>Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Perspective.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measurements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Benjamin's History of Electricity.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Voltaic Cell.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (Von Ende.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Holman's Precision of Measurements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Karapetoff's Experimental Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard&mdash;Burgess.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Löb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, each,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (Fishback.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to, half morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;12&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee&mdash;Kinzbrunner.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>LAW.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="LAW books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Davis's Elements of Law.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Treatise on the Military Law of United States.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">*</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large&nbsp;12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Manual for Courts-martial.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Architecture.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sheep,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Law of Contracts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_12" id="Catalogue_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MANUFACTURES.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MANUFACTURES books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bernadou's Smokeless Powder&mdash;Nitro-cellulose and Theory of the Cellulose Molecule.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bolland's Iron Founder.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">"The Iron Founder," Supplement.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used in the Practice of Moulding.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Eissler's Modern High Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Keep's Cast Iron.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures&mdash;And the Administration of Workshops.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;25&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Press-working of Metals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction and Operation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="visibility:hidden;">Wa</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">e's Beet</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">sugar Manu</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">acture a</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">d Refin</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ng. </span>Vol. II.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weaver's Military Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">West's American Foundry Practice.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Moulder's Text-book.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MATHEMATICS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MATHEMATICS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Baker's Elliptic Functions.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Dickson's College Algebra.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Halsted's Elements of Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elementary Synthetic Geometry.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Rational Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_13" id="Catalogue_13">[13]</a></span>* Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">100&nbsp;copies&nbsp;for</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 × 10 inches,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10 copies for</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (W. W.) Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (W. W.) Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's Treatise on the Integral Calculus.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (W. W.) Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Trigonometry and Tables published separately.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Each,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Manning's Irrational Numbers and their Representation by Sequences and Series</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman and Robert S. Woodward.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Octavo, each</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>No. 1. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith.
+No. 2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted.
+No. 3. Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyperbolic
+Functions, by James McMahon. No. 5. Harmonic Functions,
+by William E. Byerly. No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis,
+by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7. Probability and Theory of Errors,
+by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8. Vector Analysis and Quaternions,
+by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9. Differential Equations, by
+William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The Solution of Equations,
+by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of a Complex Variable,
+by Thomas S. Fiske.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MATHEMATICS books (continued)">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maurer's Technical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Method of Least Squares.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sm. 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols. in one.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small&nbsp;8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real Infinitesimal Analysis of One Variable.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.</big></p>
+
+<p class="center">MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bacon's Forge Practice.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">*<span style="visibility:hidden;"> Bart</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ett's Mech</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">ancal Dra</span>"<span style="visibility:hidden;">wng. </span>Abridged Ed.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Carpenter's Experimental Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Heating and Ventilating Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Oblong 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_14" id="Catalogue_14">[14]</a></span>Durley's Kinematics of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rope Driving.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hall's Car Lubrication.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hutton's The Gas Engine.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jamison's Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jones's Machine Design:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mechanical Drawing.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Velocity Diagrams.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richards's Compressed Air.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill Work.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann&mdash;Klein.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann&mdash;Klein.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Turbines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edition. Reset.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Church's Mechanics of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Greene's Structural Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's Materials of Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Keep's Cast Iron.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lanza's Applied Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maurer's Technical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Strength of Materials</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Materials of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Materials of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;vols.,&nbsp;8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Iron and Steel.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_15" id="Catalogue_15">[15]</a></span>Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Creighton's Steam-engine and other Heat-motors.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goss's Locomotive Sparks.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Locomotive Performance.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hutton's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Heat and Heat-engines.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kent's Steam boiler Economy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacCord's Slide-valves.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Valve-gears for Steam-engines.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors. (Osterberg.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large&nbsp;12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Snow's Steam-boiler Practice.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spangler's Valve-gears.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Notes on Thermodynamics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thomas's Steam-turbines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Handy Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of the Steam-engine.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2 vols., 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. History, Structure, and Theory.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and the Prony Brake.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stationary Steam-engines.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and Operation.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water. (Patterson.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Whitham's Steam-engine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MECHANICS AND MACHINERY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MECHANICS AND MACHINERY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Chase's The Art of Pattern-making.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_16" id="Catalogue_16">[16]</a></span>Church's Mechanics of Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Notes and Examples in Mechanics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and Schools.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to, half morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. I. Kinematics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. II. Statics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span style="visibility:hidden;">Mechanics of Engineering.</span> Vol. II.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;10&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Durley's Kinematics of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rope Driving.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goss's Locomotive Sparks.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Locomotive Performance.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Greene's Structural Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hall's Car Lubrication.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Holly's Art of Saw Filing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">18mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Jones's Machine Design:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lanza's Applied Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Velocity Diagrams.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Martin's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. 1, Statics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* <span style="visibility:hidden">Martin's Text Book on Mechanics,</span> Vol. 2, Kinematics and Kinetics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Maurer's Technical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Elements of Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to, half morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richards's Compressed Air.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sanborn's Mechanics: Problems.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's (A. W.) Materials of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sorel's Carbureting and Combustion of Alcohol Engines. (Woodward and Preston.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_17" id="Catalogue_17">[17]</a></span>Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill Work.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Herrmann&mdash;Klein.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann&mdash;Klein.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Principles of Elementary Mechanics.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Turbines.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MEDICAL.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MEDICAL books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Bolduan's Immune Sera.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">De Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">6&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large&nbsp;12mo,&nbsp;cloth,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Pozzi-Escot's The Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies. (Cohn.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">* Personal Hygiene.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wulling's An Elementary Course in Inorganic Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>METALLURGY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="METALLURGY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. I. Silver.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. II. Gold and Mercury.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,&nbsp;mor.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Iles's Lead-smelting.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Keep's Cast Iron.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard&mdash;Burgess.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Miller's Cyanide Process.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Smith's Materials of Machines.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part II. Iron and Steel.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MINERALOGY.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MINERALOGY books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial Value.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Oblong, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_18" id="Catalogue_18">[18]</a></span>Boyd's Map of Southwest Virginia.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Pocket-book form.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Chester's Catalogue of Minerals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cloth,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dictionary of the Names of Minerals.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Dana's System of Mineralogy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo, half leather,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;12&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">First Appendix to Dana's New "System of Mineralogy."</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Text-book of Mineralogy.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minerals and How to Study Them.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Eakle's Mineral Tables.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Iddings's Rock Minerals.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">60</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals. Their Occurrence and Uses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stones for Building and Decoration.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo, paper,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tables of Minerals.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo, morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Ries's Clays. Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals. (Iddings.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MINING.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MINING books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Map of Southwest Virginia.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Pocket-book form,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Eissler's Modern High Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goesel's Minerals and Metals; A Reference Book.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo, mor.,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the United States.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ihlseng's Manual of Mining.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Iles's Lead-smelting.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Miller's Cyanide Process.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Weaver's Military Explosives.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Cyanide Processes.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chlorination Process.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>SANITARY SCIENCE.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="SANITARY SCIENCE books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Outlines of Practical Sanitation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Water-supply Engineering.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Catalogue_19" id="Catalogue_19">[19]</a></span>Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fuertes's Water and Public Health.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Water-filtration Works.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sanitation of Public Buildings.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Mason's Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ogden's Sewer Design.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Price's Handbook on Sanitation.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cost of Shelter.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Richards and Woodman's Air. Water, and Food from a Sanitary Standpoint.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson's Air Conditioning. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">7&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">16mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">* &nbsp; &nbsp; Personal Hygiene.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>MISCELLANEOUS.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MISCELLANEOUS books">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments (Interstate Pure Food Commission):</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Tenth Annual Convention Held at Hartford, July 17-20, 1906.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Eleventh Annual Convention, Held at Jamestown Tri-Centennial Exposition, July 16-19, 1907. (In Press.)</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the International Congress of Geologists.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large&nbsp;8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gannett's Statistical Abstract of the World.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">24mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gerhard's The Modern Bath and Bath-houses. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Haines's American Railway Management.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1894.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">3&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Large 8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Standage's Decorative Treatment of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc. (In Press.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">4to,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1&nbsp;50</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.</big></p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">12mo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hebrew Chrestomathy.</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures. (Tregelles.)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Small&nbsp;4to,&nbsp;half&nbsp;morocco,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">5&nbsp;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Letteris's Hebrew Bible.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">8vo,</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">2&nbsp;25</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<div class='transnote'><h2>Transcriber's Notes:</h2>
+The following inconsistencies were kept:
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Aluminum -- Aluminium</li>
+<li>canceled -- cancelled</li>
+<li>Cubit's Gap -- CUBITS GAP</li>
+<li>Encyclopædia -- Encyclopedia</li>
+<li>Feed-water -- Feed-Water</li>
+<li>Light-House -- lighthouse</li>
+<li>sea-weed -- seaweed</li>
+</ul>
+Punctuation has been corrected without explicit notice.
+The following changes have been made (c. = catalogue page):
+<ul class="index">
+<li>p. vii "Nordenskiold" changed to "Nordenskiöld"</li>
+<li>p.   9 "alsoo" changed to "also".</li>
+<li>p. 114 "United States Court Survey" changed to "United States Coast Survey".</li>
+<li>p. 132 "22°.5" changed to "22.5°".</li>
+<li>c.   1 "Riveteé" changed to "Rivetée".</li>
+<li>c.   3 "Metcalf's" changed to "Metcalfe's".</li>
+<li>c.   5 "Matthew's" changed to "Matthews's".</li>
+<li>c.  10 "Hermann" changed to "Herrmann".</li>
+<li>c.  12 "Maunal" changed to "Manual".</li>
+<li>c.  14 "Richard's" changed to "Richards's".</li>
+<li>c.  15 "Wehrenfenning's" changed to "Wehrenfennig's".</li>
+<li>c.  18 "Virignia" changed to "Virginia".</li>
+
+</ul>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nautical Charts, by G. R. Putnam
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@@ -0,0 +1,4877 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nautical Charts, by G. R. Putnam
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Nautical Charts
+
+Author: G. R. Putnam
+
+Release Date: November 13, 2013 [EBook #44175]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAUTICAL CHARTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Peter Becker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.              |
+  | Passages in bold are indicated by #bold#.                    |
+  | Superscript text is preceded by a caret, like N^o.           |
+  | [oe] represents the oe-ligature.                             |
+  | Small-caps text has been converted to UPPERCASE.             |
+  | Changes in the text are listed at the end of the book.       |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SURVEYING STEAMER _FATHOMER_ IN MANILA BAY.
+
+  (_Frontispiece_)
+]
+
+
+
+
+                            NAUTICAL CHARTS
+
+                                  BY
+
+                          G. R. PUTNAM, M.S.
+
+           MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
+                 DIRECTOR OF COAST SURVEYS, PHILIPPINE
+                         ISLANDS, 1900 TO 1906
+
+                             _FIRST EDITION_
+                             FIRST THOUSAND
+
+                                NEW YORK
+                           JOHN WILEY & SONS
+                    LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
+                                  1908
+
+
+                             COPYRIGHT, 1908,
+                                   BY
+                              G. R. PUTNAM
+
+
+                             Stanhope Press
+
+                          F. H. GILSON COMPANY
+                             BOSTON, U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In preparing the material for a lecture on Charts for Columbia
+University, the writer was impressed with the fact that although
+nautical charts are mentioned or discussed in many publications, there
+was not found any one which covered the general subject of their origin,
+construction, and use. In the countries of the world more than a million
+copies of such charts are now issued annually. A considerable portion of
+the human race is interested directly or indirectly, whether as mariners
+or passengers or shippers, in navigation upon the sea. Aside from
+supplying a handbook for those who might have a general interest in the
+subject, it was thought that a discussion of charts might lead to
+further consideration of the principles governing their construction.
+
+This paper has intentionally been made as non-technical as seemed
+feasible in treating a somewhat technical subject. The writer is
+indebted to the Coast and Geodetic Survey for various illustrative
+material from its archives, and to a number of authors for facts or
+suggestions. A list is appended of books and papers which have been
+freely consulted, bearing on this and related subjects.
+
+  G. R. P.
+
+  WASHINGTON, D.C., _May 24, 1908_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                        PAGE
+
+  LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTICAL CHARTS
+  AND RELATED SUBJECTS                                   vii
+
+  CHARTS AND MAPS                                          1
+
+  COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS                    31
+
+  PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS                   67
+
+  PUBLICATION OF CHARTS                                   84
+
+  CORRECTION OF CHARTS                                    97
+
+  READING AND USING CHARTS                               112
+
+  USE OF CHARTS IN NAVIGATION                            124
+
+  PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL CHARTS             154
+
+  INDEX                                                  161
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTICAL CHARTS AND RELATED SUBJECTS
+
+
+    Periplus, an Essay on the Early History of Charts, and Sailing
+    Directions. A. E. Nordenskioeld, Stockholm, 1897.
+
+    Maps, their Uses and Construction. G. James Morrison, London,
+    1902.
+
+    Charts and Chart Making. Lieut. John E. Pillsbury, U.S.N., in
+    _Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute, 1884_.
+
+    Principal Facts relating to the Earth's Magnetism. L. A. Bauer, in
+    U. S. Magnetic Declination Tables, Coast and Geodetic Survey,
+    1903.
+
+    Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Coasts of the World. G. W.
+    Littlehales, in Report of the Eighth International Geographic
+    Congress, 1904.
+
+    Smithsonian Geographical Tables. R. S. Woodward, Washington, 1906.
+
+    Admiralty Charts, Abridged list of. Published by J. D. Potter,
+    London, 1907.
+
+    Military Topography. Capt. C. B. Hagadorn, U.S.A., West Point,
+    1907.
+
+    Service Hydrographique de la Marine, Paris, 1900.
+
+    A Manual of Conventional Symbols in Use on Official Charts. United
+    States Hydrographic Office, Gustave Herrle, 1903.
+
+    Hydrographical Surveying. Admiral W. J. L. Wharton, London, 1898.
+
+    On the Correction of Charts, Light Lists, and Sailing Directions.
+    Published by J. D. Potter, London, 1904.
+
+    Notes Relative to the Use of Charts. D. B. Wainwright, Coast and
+    Geodetic Survey, 1900.
+
+    The Law relating to Charts and Sailing Directions. H. Stuart
+    Moore, London, 1904.
+
+    Notes bearing on the Navigation of H. M. Ships. Hydrographic
+    Office, London, 1900.
+
+    The Relations of Harbors to Modern Shipping. W. H. Wheeler, in
+    _Engineering News_, September 6, 1906, New York.
+
+    Wrinkles in Practical Navigation. Capt. S. T. S. Lecky, London,
+    1899.
+
+    Navigation and Compass Deviations. Commander W. C. P. Muir,
+    U.S.N., Annapolis, 1906.
+
+    The Practice of Navigation. Henry Raper, London, 1898.
+
+    Lehrbuch der Navigation. Reichs-Marine-Amt, Berlin, 1906.
+
+    _The Nautical Magazine_, London.
+
+    Dangers and Ice in the North Atlantic Ocean. Bureau of Navigation,
+    U. S. Navy Department, 1868.
+
+    Reported Dangers in the North Pacific Ocean. U. S. Hydrographic
+    Office, 1871.
+
+    Pacific Islands, Vol. III, chapter on "Vigias." British
+    Hydrographic Office, London, 1900.
+
+    Harriman Alaska Expedition, Vol. II, Bogoslof, our Newest Volcano,
+    by C. Hart Merriam, New York, 1901.
+
+    Expedition to the Aleutian Islands, 1907. T. A. Jaggar, Jr., in
+    _The Technology Review_, 1907, Boston.
+
+    Recent Changes in Level in the Yakutat Bay Region, Alaska, by R.
+    S. Tarr and Lawrence Martin, in Bulletin of the American
+    Geological Society, 1906.
+
+    An Index to the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. W. T. Brigham,
+    Honolulu, 1900.
+
+    Geography, articles by C. R. Markham, A. R. Clarke, and H. R. Mill
+    in Encyclopaedia Britannica.
+
+    Development in Dimensions of vessels, Elmer L. Corthell, Tenth
+    International Navigation Congress, 1905.
+
+
+
+
+NAUTICAL CHARTS
+
+
+
+
+CHARTS AND MAPS
+
+
+#Need of maps.# Maps are useful and necessary for many purposes. Only by
+means of a correct map or globe can a clear idea of the geography of a
+region be given. An attempt to convey the same information by a written
+description would in comparison be both cumbersome and obscure. Even by
+passing over an extensive region a man unaided by instruments will
+obtain only a rather crude notion of the relations, which he could
+clearly see on a good map. The importance among the human arts of the
+making of maps is indicated by the references to them in very early
+historical records, and by the skill in map drawing shown by some of
+the primitive peoples of to-day. This skill exists particularly among
+races whose mode of life gives them a wide horizon, as for instance the
+Eskimos. An interesting instance of this was the case of Joe, an Eskimo
+guide, who, in 1898, before the surveys of the Yukon delta were made,
+drew a map of the Yukon mouths with much more complete information than
+any previously available.
+
+Without attempting to enumerate in detail the special uses for maps, in
+the broader sense they may be said to be essential for commercial,
+engineering, military, scientific, educational, and political purposes.
+
+#Early geography and map making.# The oldest map known is a plan of gold
+mines in Nubia, drawn on a papyrus. This is of the thirteenth century
+B.C., and was found in Egypt.
+
+In the earliest historic times men believed the earth to be a flat
+surface of nearly circular outline, a natural inference for those with
+limited outlook and communication. Later the idea was introduced of the
+ocean as a river bounding the earth disk. The spherical theory of the
+earth was, however, early accepted by learned men, and was demonstrated
+by Aristotle (384 to 322 B.C.), who used as proofs the earth's shadow on
+the moon, and the change in the visibility of the stars in traveling
+north or south. Crates constructed a terrestrial globe in the second
+century B.C.
+
+There is no Greek or Latin map extant of earlier date than the time of
+Ptolemy, but there are references showing that maps were in use. One of
+the first of such passages in Greek literature is the interesting
+comment of Herodotus written in the fifth century B.C., "but I laugh
+when I see many who already have drawn the circuits of the earth,
+without any right understanding thereof. Thus they draw Oceanus flowing
+round the earth, which is circular, as though turned by a lathe, and
+they make Asia equal to Europe."
+
+A map of the world was drawn by Anaximander, 560 B.C. A hundred years
+later Democritus drew a map having an oblong shape, and taught that the
+width of the world from east to west was one and a half times its extent
+from north to south, a conclusion based on his travels eastward as far
+as India. This theory, which was for a time accepted, has left an
+enduring mark in the words _longitude_ and _latitude_, originally
+signifying the length and the breadth of the earth.
+
+The first application of astronomy to geography was made by Pytheas, who
+about 326 B.C. obtained the latitude of Marseilles by an observation of
+the altitude of the sun. Dicearchus in 310 B.C. determined the first
+parallel of latitude by noting places where on the same day the sun cast
+shadows of equal length from pillars of equal height. Eratosthenes (276
+to 196 B.C.) was the first to compute the circumference of the earth
+from observations of the altitude of the sun at Alexandria and at Syene
+in Upper Egypt and an estimation of the distance between these two
+places. Ptolemy, a Greek of Alexandria, in the years from 127 to 151
+A.D. wrote extensively on geographic subjects, and collected into
+systematic form all geographic knowledge then existing; he was the
+greatest geographer of early history.
+
+In the ten centuries which followed, part of the early advance in this
+science was obscured, and the theory that the earth was a flat disk
+surrounded by the sea again became prevalent. The voyages of discovery
+of the middle ages, however, led to a rapid development of geographic
+knowledge.
+
+The flattening of the spherical earth was not suspected until in 1672 a
+clock regulated to beat seconds at Paris, when taken to Cayenne near the
+equator was found to lose two and one-half minutes a day. Newton proved
+that this was due to the fact that the earth is an oblate spheroid. In
+1735 accurate measurements were undertaken to determine the size and
+shape of the earth. The equatorial diameter has been found to be 7926.6
+miles and the polar diameter 7899.6 miles, the difference, or 27
+statute miles, being the amount of the flattening at the poles.
+
+#The first sailing directions.# The early Greek and Roman writers do not
+allude to charts or maps intended especially for the use of seafarers.
+There are, however, extant several peripli or descriptions of the coast.
+Some of these appear certainly to have been intended for use as nautical
+guides, corresponding to the modern sailing directions. It is probable
+that they were explanatory of or accompanied by coast charts, now lost.
+They are of interest therefore as being probably the first compilations
+for the guidance of seamen. One of the earliest, written apparently in
+the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., is entitled "Scylax of Caryanda,
+his circumnavigation of the sea of the inhabited part of Europe and Asia
+and Libya." It contains a systematic description of the coasts of the
+Mediterranean, Black Sea, and part of the west coast of Africa. The
+following are some extracts which indicate the character of the work. It
+is to be noted that no bearings are given, and that distances are
+usually stated by day's sail: Africa is referred to as Libya.
+
+"Europe. I shall begin from the Pillars of Hercules in Europe and
+continue to the Pillars of Hercules in Libya, and as far as the land of
+the great Ethiopians. The Pillars of Hercules are opposite each other,
+and are distant from each other by one day's sail.... From Thonis the
+voyage to Pharos, a desert island (good harborage but no drinking
+water), is 150 stadia. In Pharos are many harbors. But ships water at
+the Marian mere, for it is drinkable.... From Chersonesus is one day's
+sail; but from Naustathmus to the harbor of Cyrene, 100 stadia. But from
+the harbor to Cyrene, 80 stadia; for Cyrene is inland. These harbors are
+always fit for putting into. And there are other refuges at little
+islands, and anchorages and many beaches, in the district between....
+After the isthmus is Carthage, a city of the Ph[oe]nicians, and a
+harbor. Sailing along from Hermaea it is half a day to Carthage. There
+are islands off the Hermaean cape, Pontia island and Cosyrus. From Hermaea
+to Cosyrus is a day's sail. Beyond the Hermaean cape, towards the rising
+sun, are three islands belonging to this shore, inhabited by
+Carthaginians; the city and harbor of Melite, the city of Gaulus, and
+Lampas; this has two or three towers.... The sailing along Libya from
+the Canopic mouth in Egypt to the Pillars of Hercules ... takes 74 days
+if one coast round the bays.... From the cape of Hermaea extend great
+reefs, that is, from Libya towards Europe, not rising above the sea; it
+washes over them at times.... From Thymiateria one sails to cape
+Soloes, which juts far into the sea. But all this district of Libya is
+very famous and very sacred.... This whole coasting from the Pillars of
+Hercules to Cerne Island takes twelve days. The parts beyond the isle of
+Cerne are no longer navigable because of shoals, mud, and sea-weed. This
+sea-weed has the width of a palm, and is sharp towards the points, so as
+to prick."
+
+That there were many other similar writings in the following centuries
+is shown by the following quotation from Marcianus, in a preface to
+sailing directions written in the fifth century A.D.: "This I write
+after having gone through many sailing directions, and spent much time
+on their examination. For it behooves all who are men of education, to
+scrutinise such attempts at learning in this subject, so as neither
+rashly to believe the things that are said, nor incredulously to set
+their private opinions against the careful decisions of others."
+
+The oldest extant sailing directions of the middle ages bear date 1306
+to 1320.
+
+#Development of chart making.# The application of the compass to
+nautical use in the twelfth century A.D. had a marked effect in
+encouraging voyages of exploration, and therefore indirectly on chart
+making. The following, written toward the close of the twelfth century,
+is the first known mention of the use of the compass in Europe: "The
+sailors, moreover, as they sail over the sea, when in cloudy weather
+they cannot longer profit by the light of the sun, or when the world is
+wrapped in the darkness of the shades of night, and they are ignorant to
+what part of the horizon the prow is directed, place the needle over the
+magnet, which is whirled round in a circle, until, when the motion
+ceases, the point of it (the needle) looks to the north." The nautical
+compass of that time appears to have consisted of a magnetized needle,
+floated in a vessel of water by a cork or reed, and having no index nor
+compass card. Peregrinus in 1269 made notable improvements in the
+compass, including a pivot suspension for the needle, a graduation, a
+lubber line, and an azimuth bar for sighting on the sun or other object.
+
+Nautical charts are known to have been in use since the thirteenth
+century A.D., but the earliest extant of which the date can be fixed is
+Vesconte's loxodromic chart of 1311.
+
+The loxodromic charts first appeared in Italy, and were so called from
+the fact that they were crossed by loxodromes (or rhumb lines) radiating
+from a number of crossing points distributed regularly over the map.
+Compass roses carefully drawn were later added at these crossing points,
+the first appearing on a chart of 1375. The earliest known mention
+of the variation of the compass from true north was on the first voyage
+of Columbus, who discovered this important fact in 1492, and as a
+consequence his "seamen were terrified and dismayed." Before that time
+it was assumed in Europe that the compass pointed "true to the north
+pole." The apparent failure to detect the variation earlier was
+doubtless to some extent due to its small amount at that time along the
+Mediterranean. The earlier charts showed both lines and compass roses
+apparently oriented with the true meridian, though there is some
+evidence to indicate that they were actually oriented with the magnetic
+meridian, the designer not recognizing any difference. The variation of
+the compass was first marked on a map in 1532 and on a printed chart in
+1595, but the placing of magnetic compasses on charts did not become
+customary until about fifty years ago. These early charts were drawn on
+parchment, using bright colors. They were copied by hand, one from
+another, with gradual variations. They had no projections, and the
+draftsmen evidently had no idea of the sphericity of the earth. Islands
+and points were usually exaggerated; shallows were indicated, but no
+soundings; no information was given as to the interior of the countries;
+a scale of distances was nearly always provided.
+
+Charts were first printed about 1477, and are known to have been
+engraved on copper by 1560.
+
+The maps of Ptolemy were ruled with degree lines, but no chart was so
+provided until 1427; by 1500, however, most charts were graduated.
+Before this date it is not known on what projection the charts were
+constructed. On the first graduated charts the degree lines were
+equidistant parallel straight lines cutting each other at right angles
+and thus dividing the chart into equal squares or rectangles. These were
+known as "plain charts." This square projection had little to commend it
+save simplicity of construction, as in higher latitudes it gave neither
+directions nor distances correctly. The difficulties of its use in
+navigation were early recognized, and nautical works contained chapters
+on "sailing by the plain chart, and the uncertainties thereof."
+
+The example of early chart making shown in Fig. 2 is of great interest
+as being the earliest extant chart which includes America. This chart
+was drawn on ox-hide in 1500 by Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied
+Columbus on his first voyage as master of his flagship, and on his
+second voyage as cartographer. The chart, of which only a portion is
+shown here, purports to cover the entire world; it joins Asia and
+America as one continent, the Pacific Ocean being then still unknown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN,]
+
+Gerhard Kraemer, a Flemish map-maker, better known by his Latin name of
+Mercator, in 1569 published his famous Universal Map. In this map the
+meridians and parallels were still straight lines intersecting at right
+angles, but the distances between the parallels were increased with
+increasing latitude in such proportion that a rhumb line, or line
+cutting the meridians at a constant angle, would appear on the map as a
+straight line. Mercator never explained the construction of his chart,
+and as the above condition was not accurately carried out, it is thought
+that the chart was drawn by comparing a terrestrial globe with a "plain
+chart." After examination of a mercator chart in 1590, Edward Wright
+developed the correct principles on which such a chart should be
+constructed, and published in 1599 his treatise "The Correction of
+Certain Errors in Navigation." It took nearly a century to bring this
+chart into use, and even in the middle of the eighteenth century
+nautical writers complain that "some prefer the plain chart."
+
+[Illustration: BY JUAN DE LA COSA, 1500. EARLIEST EXTANT CHART SHOWING
+AMERICA.]
+
+The Arcano del Mare, 1646, was the first marine atlas in which all the
+maps were drawn on the mercator projection.
+
+In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries charts and
+sailing directions were often bound together in large volumes. These
+usually had quaint titles, not overburdened with modesty, of which the
+following is an example: "The Lightning Columne, or Sea-Mirrour,
+containing the Sea-Coasts of the Northern, Eastern, and Western
+Navigation. Setting forth in divers necessaire Sea-Cards, all the Ports,
+Rivers, Bayes, Roads, Depths, and Sands. Very curiously placed on its
+due Polus height furnished. With the Discoveries of the chief Countries
+and on what Cours and Distance they lay one from another. Never there to
+fore so Clearly laid open, and here and there very diligently bettered
+and augmented for the use of all Seamen. As also the situation of the
+Northerly Countries, as Islands, the Strate Davids, the Isle of Jan
+Mayen, Bears Island, Old Greenland, Spitsbergen and Nova Zembla.
+Adorneth with many Sea-Cards and Discoveries. Gathered out of the
+Experiences and practice of divers Pilots and Lovers of the famous Art
+of Navigation. Where unto is added a brief Instruction of the Art of
+Navigation, together with New Tables of the Sun's Declination, with a
+new Almanach. At Amsterdam. Printed by Casparus Loots-Man, Bookseller in
+the Loots-Man, upon the Water. Anno 1697. With Previlege for fiftheen
+years."
+
+In 1633 a cartographer was appointed to the States-General of Holland,
+and it was his duty to correct the charts from the ships' logs. The
+Dutch at an early date made important progress in publishing charts. In
+1720 there was established in Paris by order of the king, a central
+chart office ("depot des cartes et plans, journaux et memoires
+concernant la navigation"), and in 1737 the first charts were published
+by this office. Detailed surveys of the coast of France were commenced
+in 1816.
+
+In 1740 "the commissioners for the discovery of longitude at sea" were
+authorized by Parliament to expend money on the survey of the coasts of
+Great Britain, this commission having been created in 1713. Various
+rewards were offered by this commission, including one of L10,000, for
+the discovery of a method of determining the longitude within 60 miles,
+an interesting side light on the uncertainties of navigation at that
+time. Compensated timepieces, which have been so important a factor in
+improving navigation, were invented by Harrison about 1761.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. LOXODROMIC CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN, 1565. A
+PLAIN CHART WITH LATITUDE DEGREES OF EQUAL LENGTH.]
+
+In 1795, by an Order in Council, a Hydrographical Office was established
+in London, "to take charge and custody of such plans and charts as then
+were, or should thereafter be, deposited in the Admiralty, and to select
+and compile such information as might appear to be requisite for the
+purpose of improving navigation." This office had at first one assistant
+and one draftsman. Before that time many charts of a private or
+semiofficial character had been published; the catalogue of the East
+India Company in 1786 included 347 charts.
+
+In 1807 the Congress of the United States authorized the President "to
+cause a survey to be taken of the coasts of the United States, in which
+shall be designated the islands and shoals, with the roads or places of
+anchorage, within twenty leagues of any part of the shores of the United
+States; and also the respective courses and distances between the
+principal capes, or headlands, together with such other matters as he
+may deem proper for completing an accurate chart of every part of the
+coasts within the extent aforesaid." This law was the origin of the
+present United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, now under the
+Department of Commerce and Labor.
+
+In 1841 a systematic survey of the Great Lakes was commenced; this is
+the Survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes, briefly known as the
+Lake Survey, conducted under the Corps of Engineers.
+
+In 1866 the United States Hydrographic Office was established under the
+Navy Department "for the improvement of the means for navigating safely
+the vessels of the Navy, and of the mercantile marine, by providing
+under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, accurate and cheap
+nautical charts, sailing directions, navigators, and manuals of
+instructions for the use of all vessels of the United States, and for
+the benefit and use of navigation generally."
+
+#Systematic surveying and chart making# date back little more than a
+century, and most of the information shown on modern charts has been
+gathered in that time. At present all the principal maritime nations of
+the world have made, or are extending, careful surveys of their own
+coasts.
+
+Several of the countries have added valuable contributions in the
+examination of other regions and oceanic areas beyond their borders. The
+maritime and colonial interests of Great Britain impelled that nation to
+carry on extensive surveys along coasts whose inhabitants were not
+prepared to do this work in the earlier days; the British have made
+surveys along the coasts of Asia and Africa and a part of South America,
+and the resulting charts have been a very important and not sufficiently
+known contribution to commercial intercourse among the nations, as well
+as to geography.
+
+The Dutch, French, Spanish, and other European governments have made
+nautical surveys in various parts of the world, largely in connection
+with their own colonies, and in recent years much useful work has been
+done by vessels of the German government. The United States has also
+beyond its own territory made valuable additions to hydrographic
+knowledge in the work of officers of the Navy in a number of oceanic
+exploring expeditions, and surveys on the coasts of Mexico and in the
+West Indies, and in the explorations of Fish Commission vessels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. EARLY CHART OF NEW YORK HARBOR, 1737.]
+
+#Extension of maritime surveys.# Of the total area of the earth's
+surface, 51,886,000 square miles is land and 145,054,000 square miles is
+sea. The oceans thus occupy nearly three-fourths of the whole surface,
+affording highways open to the nations. To conduct international
+commerce by water the ships of one country must enter the ports of
+another. Thus both on the open sea and in the harbors there is an
+interest, common to seamen of all nationalities, in the advance of
+marine surveys and in the publication of charts.
+
+To keep the coasts properly charted, as well as lighted and buoyed, is
+an obligation devolving on modern nations, not only for the benefit of
+their own commerce but for that of other countries.
+
+As shown below, only a small part of the coast line of the world is
+thoroughly surveyed. In the extensive ocean areas which are dotted with
+islands or reefs, a large amount of work is required for their
+sufficient charting, although many doubtful areas have been cleared up
+in recent years. Even the parts that are known to be of depths so great
+as to be free from navigational dangers should be sounded over
+sufficiently to develop the general configuration of the ocean bottom.
+
+Through international understanding a thorough exploration of all the
+water area of the globe and the coasts may in time be effected, and the
+many doubtful spots which still disfigure the charts may be either
+eliminated or definitely located.
+
+#Present state of progress of hydrographic surveys.# A comparatively
+small proportion of the coasts of the world can be considered as
+completely surveyed at the present time, and even such regions require
+much additional revision. In the class of more thoroughly surveyed
+coasts should be included the Atlantic and most of the Pacific coast of
+the United States, Porto Rico, nearly all the coasts of Europe, Algeria,
+and portions of the coasts of Japan, the Philippine Islands, and India.
+
+A large part of the world's coasts has been surveyed incompletely, but
+sufficiently well to permit the publication of navigational charts. This
+is the condition as respects most of southeastern Alaska and some other
+portions of the Alaskan coast, British Columbia, most of Mexico, Central
+America, the West Indies, Brazil and parts of Chile, the Hawaiian
+Islands, China, Malay Peninsula, Siam, the Dutch East Indies, Australia,
+New Zealand, Persia, Arabia, most of Africa, Iceland, northern
+Scandinavia, and Finland.
+
+Another considerable portion of the coasts has not been surveyed, but
+has been covered by explorations which have been embodied in nautical
+charts of varied degrees of incompleteness. In this class are the north
+coast and considerable portions of the south and west coasts of Alaska,
+the Aleutian Islands, Siberia, most of the oceanic groups in the
+Pacific, the northern coasts of Europe and North America, Greenland, the
+west coast of South America, Venezuela, and Argentina.
+
+Only a very small proportion of the total length of coasts is now
+entirely unexplored, and such portions are confined to the polar
+regions.
+
+#Chart publications of various nations.# There are about eighteen
+nations publishing navigational charts, and adding to the information on
+which charts are based. Many of these nations republish to some extent
+the charts prepared by the others. Great Britain has kept up a series of
+charts covering all parts of the world and practically including in some
+form all information published elsewhere. This series now (1908)
+includes 3725 different charts, of which the annual issue is about
+600,000 copies. France (1906) publishes 2948 different charts.
+
+In the United States, charts are published by the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey for the coasts and tidal waters of the main country and the
+insular possessions, by the Hydrographic Office for oceanic areas and
+foreign coasts, and by the Lake Survey for the Great Lakes. The total
+number of different charts issued by these bureaus is about 2300, and
+the total annual issue is about 225,000 copies.
+
+#Systems in use on various charts.#
+
+_Longitude._ The first chart of New York, published by the Coast Survey
+in 1844, was referred to the City Hall of New York as the initial
+longitude, and some years ago it was the prevailing custom for each
+nation to use a local initial longitude. While this satisfied local
+pride it led to much geographical and navigational confusion. Happily
+the charts of all countries are now referred to Greenwich, with the
+following exceptions:
+
+  France refers to Paris, which is 2 deg. 20' 15'' E. of Greenwich.
+  Spain refers to San Fernando, which is 6 deg. 12' 20'' W. of Greenwich.
+  Portugal refers to Lisbon, which is 9 deg. 08' 24'' W. of Greenwich.
+
+_Units for depths._ The English fathom or foot is used for depths on the
+charts of Great Britain, the United States, and Japan. Russia uses the
+sajene of seven English feet. On the modern charts of practically all
+the other countries the meter is used, though on older charts various
+units are found.
+
+In the first group feet are ordinarily found only on large scale or
+local charts of areas with moderate depths, and the other charts are in
+fathoms, except that on the earlier charts of the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey feet were used on a sanded surface inside of the three-fathom
+curve and fathoms on the white surface outside of that curve. Heights
+are stated in feet on the charts of the first group.
+
+_Plane of reference._ As the depth of water varies with the tide, it is
+necessary for charting purposes to adopt some standard plane to which
+the soundings are referred. Practically all countries have adopted for
+this purpose a low stage of the tide, as this is obviously on the side
+of safety; in most cases an extreme low water is used, so that the
+actual depths will seldom, owing to the tide, be less than those shown
+on the chart. The definite reference planes used on the American charts
+will be mentioned later.
+
+On nearly all charts heights are referred to mean high water, doubtless
+owing to this being the visible limit of the land at high tide. On
+topographic maps of the interior, the heights are referred to mean sea
+level, which plane is of course lower than the preceding by one-half the
+range of tide.
+
+_Symbols on charts._ Fair uniformity as to general principles, with
+differences as to details in carrying them out, exists on the various
+series of charts regarding their general arrangement and the more
+important symbols, such as in the shading of land to distinguish from
+water, the use of depth curves, the representation of hills by shade or
+contour, the indication of shoals and dangers, and of lighthouses and
+buoys.
+
+#Desirability of uniformity in charts.# Ships engaged in international
+commerce must enter foreign ports. As the information is constantly
+changing and charts are being corrected or improved, it is sometimes
+desirable for the navigator to consult the local foreign charts, and it
+may often be necessary for him to carry in his chart room the charts of
+several different countries. There are therefore important advantages in
+international uniformity in chart publication.
+
+There should be a common initial longitude, and as the longitude of
+Greenwich has been so extensively adopted, it appears quite probable
+that its use may some day become universal.
+
+A common unit for soundings and heights would be very desirable, but the
+fact that a large group of nations has united on the metric system,
+while a small group with great commercial interests retains another
+system, makes the attainment of uniformity difficult.
+
+Substantial agreement as to the use of symbols on charts, particularly
+such as represent aids or dangers to navigation, would be desirable and
+doubtless feasible.
+
+#Privately published charts.# Many of the earlier charts were prepared
+and published by private enterprise, and such charts are still
+published, as, for instance, the so-called "blue-back" charts printed in
+London. These charts have usually differed from those published by the
+various governments either in representing the main features in a very
+bold manner with little detail or in including a considerable area with
+many plans on a single large sheet backed for permanency. An objection
+to the latter is that the durability together with the high price tends
+to keep an old chart in use long after it is out of date. It would be
+financially difficult for a private firm to give the service that a
+government does in the matter of correcting the charts and issuing new
+editions, and this is an important consideration in the selection of
+charts.
+
+#Purpose of charts.# The main purpose of charts is to furnish graphical
+guides to aid in taking a vessel safely from one port to another; they
+are maps for the use of navigators. An experienced mariner may be able
+to steer his vessel over a familiar course without charts, but this does
+not make their publication less necessary. Even such an expert pilot
+doubtless studied the charts in the first place; the uncertainties of
+the sea and the changes of information are such that his vessel's
+equipment should include the latest charts, and safety requires their
+examination. The passengers and the merchants who intrust their lives or
+their goods to the sea are largely dependent upon the correctness of the
+charts.
+
+Besides their main purpose charts fill many other needs, among which
+are; for preliminary planning of harbor improvements and various
+engineering works, for defensive works and other military uses, for the
+fishing interests, and for general information as to the coastal
+regions. Charts will furnish much of interest and instruction to the
+traveler by sea and the dweller near the coast, who will learn to read
+them. Passenger steamers should more often for the interest of their
+patrons display charts of the waters traversed. No written or verbal
+description can give as clear an idea of geographical features and
+relations as a good map or chart.
+
+As the charts are revised from time to time, a comparison of editions at
+different dates furnishes a record of the changes wrought by nature or
+man, and this is especially useful in studying the action in many harbor
+and river entrances, as well as for historical purposes.
+
+#Requirements for charts.# As charts are maps of the water areas,
+including the adjoining land, and intended primarily for the use of
+mariners, they differ in important respects from topographic maps or
+general maps, even such as include the water areas. The main
+requirements for charts are these; correct and complete information,
+early publication of new data, clear and intelligible representation of
+the information, convenient arrangement as navigational instruments, and
+high standard of publication.
+
+The special and sometimes difficult conditions under which charts must
+be used on shipboard call for good judgment throughout their
+preparation. Even the paper on which they are printed is of importance,
+in order that they may be sufficiently durable and suitable for
+plotting.
+
+#Information given on charts.# It is evident that it is impossible to
+represent on a chart of any practicable scale all the features that
+exist on the corresponding area of the earth's surface. It is
+essential, therefore, that a selection be made of the classes of facts
+that are to be shown, as well as of the detail that is to be used for
+each class. The practical utility of the chart depends largely on the
+good judgment used in this selection. In the information shown, charts
+differ from maps principally in representing by soundings and curves the
+configuration of the bottom of the water area, and in showing ordinarily
+the topographic features only in the vicinity of the coast line.
+
+The convenience of mariners should govern in the selection and
+arrangement of the information to be shown on charts, though they may be
+made useful for other purposes so long as this convenience is not
+lessened. The needs and preferences of navigators alone, however, differ
+so much that a reasonable chart must be somewhat of a compromise between
+conflicting views. For certain classes of navigation a boldly drawn
+chart showing only the dangers and a few other soundings and some
+landmarks might be useful. For other maritime purposes a more detailed
+chart would be valuable. The first, however, would fail to give facts
+often demanded in the navigational use of the chart, and the second if
+carried to an extreme would make a chart difficult to use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. STATE OF ADVANCEMENT OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF
+THE COASTS OF THE WORLD, 1904.
+
+  _By G. W. Littlehales._
+]
+
+Shoals and dangers are shown either by the least depth or by rock or
+reef symbols. The characteristic soundings are shown on the chart, with
+abbreviations indicating the nature of the bottom. Depth curves are
+drawn, joining together points of like depth, and inclosing areas of
+less depth, on the same principle that contours are used on land maps;
+usually also the shoaler spots are made more prominent by sanding or
+tinting the area within them. Lighthouses, buoys, and other artificial
+aids to navigation are represented, with descriptive abbreviations. The
+coast is shown by a bold solid line for high water and a dotted line for
+low water. The main topographic features are represented for a moderate
+distance from the coast, with such detail as is useful, depending on the
+scale of the chart. Elevations are given in figures for prominent
+summits, islands, and rocks; the general configuration of hills and
+mountains is represented by contours on large scale charts or by
+hachures or shading on small scale charts. Rivers, streams, lakes,
+marshes, towns, roads, prominent buildings, and other important
+topographic features are shown by appropriate symbols. It is important
+that objects which may be useful in navigation as landmarks, whether
+natural or artificial, be plainly shown and described, if necessary to
+their identification, and that they should not be obscured by details of
+lesser importance. On the larger scale charts only, vegetation features,
+particularly areas covered by trees, are represented by symbols. The
+land area is usually clearly distinguished from the water area by a tint
+or stipple. Latitude and longitude are given by the projection
+lines and the subdivided border, or sometimes on harbor plans by a note
+giving the position of some one point. Brief information as to the time
+and range of the tides is stated in a note. Data regarding currents,
+whether due to tidal or other causes, are given by current arrows placed
+on the chart, or by explanatory notes. Compasses are for convenience
+printed on the charts, and data given as to the magnetic variation and
+its rate of change. On large scale charts scales are provided for use in
+measuring distances. Ranges and channel lines are given when required.
+The ports are indicated where storm warning signals are displayed. The
+areas of forbidden anchorages are shown, and when important, the
+positions of submarine cables. The lines dividing the high seas from
+inland waters are sometimes stated on United States charts. Life saving
+stations are given, and time balls are usually noted. Views of important
+features are shown on some charts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE UNITED STATES COAST
+AND GEODETIC SURVEY.]
+
+The layman who looks at the printed chart probably does not appreciate
+the amount or the variety of information that must be gathered and
+sifted and put in proper shape for a single chart.
+
+
+
+
+COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS
+
+
+#Need of thorough surveys.# As has been stated, a good chart requires
+that a thorough and correct survey be first made of the region to be
+charted. It is said that men are very apt to accept as true anything
+they see on a map. As to the nautical chart the mariner is likely to be
+somewhat more critical, however, and it is well that he is. The
+difficulty of charting an invisible surface such as the bottom of the
+sea is great, and the proportion of the navigable waters surveyed in
+sufficient detail to be at all certain of the absence of uncharted
+dangers is small.
+
+The planning of surveys in a new region, such, for instance, as the
+Philippine Islands, presents many interesting problems, on the solution
+of which the effectiveness in chart results and the cost of the work
+materially depend. Many local conditions must be taken into account. The
+surveys are made on opposite coasts according to the seasonal winds and
+rainfall. In some parts fair-sized steamers are necessary; in others
+launches and small boats can do the work more economically. Shore
+parties with land transportation are used for portions of the work where
+the country permits. Natives are employed as far as practicable for the
+classes of work they can do; the Filipinos, for instance, make good
+sailors on the vessels and excellent penmen in the office.
+
+The following is a brief outline of the steps of a complete survey for
+charting purposes, according to the present practice of the United
+States Coast and Geodetic Survey. These are given in their logical
+order, though in actual work this order must often be departed from. In
+this Survey the methods of control have been of a high standard; that
+is, the main stations have been accurately determined and permanently
+marked and described, and this has proven an advantage in the
+joining together of the original surveys and resurveys.
+
+#Astronomical observations.# To locate on the surface of the earth the
+area to be charted, astronomical observations are required for the
+latitude and longitude of one or more points. In the best practice the
+longitude of a point is obtained by observing the transits of stars to
+get the local time, and sending time signals by telegraph to obtain the
+difference from the local time of some other place whose longitude is
+known. The latitude is observed by measuring the difference of zenith
+distance of pairs of stars crossing the meridian north and south of the
+zenith. The azimuth or true direction of some line is also obtained from
+star observations, usually by observations with a theodolite on a
+circumpolar star. Much existing chart work depends on positions
+determined by less accurate methods, as, for instance, longitudes
+obtained by transporting chronometers between the known station and that
+to be determined, or by observations of moon culminations, and latitudes
+obtained by direct observations of the altitudes of stars with
+theodolite or sextant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE BRITISH
+HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. TRIANGULATION OF A BAY, SHOWING LOCATION OF
+SURVEY SIGNALS AND LANDMARKS.]
+
+#Triangulation.# The main framework of the survey consists of a series
+of triangles connecting prominently located points which are permanently
+marked in the ground and the location described so that they can be
+found at a future time. At long intervals in the survey base lines are
+laid out and carefully measured with steel tape. Signals are erected
+over the points, including those at the ends of the base line, and
+angles are then measured at the various stations. From the measured
+length of the base and the angles the lengths of the sides of the
+triangles are computed, and from these lengths and the latitude and
+longitude of one point the latitudes and longitudes of all the other
+points are obtained. When several astronomically determined points are
+connected by such a triangulation a complication arises from what is
+known as "deflection of the plumb line," which is the angular amount by
+which the actual sea-level surface of the earth departs from the
+symmetrical figure of revolution, owing to the variations in the density
+of the earth's outer layers. The distance between two points as measured
+by triangulation thus differs from the distance computed from the
+astronomically determined positions. If this irregularity were not taken
+care of by adopting mean positions, the discrepancy in joining up
+different surveys would in extreme cases amount to about half a mile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. TRIANGULATION STATION AND SIGNAL, ON ALASKA
+COAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. MEASURING ANGLES WITH THEODOLITE AT
+TRIANGULATION STATION ON ALASKA COAST.]
+
+#Survey sheets# are next prepared, of suitable size and scale. On each
+sheet a projection is laid down, that is, the meridians and parallels
+are drawn, and all the points determined in the triangulation are
+plotted in their true relation. Usually separate sheets are prepared for
+the topography or shore survey and for the hydrography or survey of the
+water area.
+
+#Topography.# The topographic survey of the shore and as much of the
+adjacent area as is required is usually made with a plane table, on
+which the map is actually drawn in the field as the work progresses.
+Points are located on the plane table sheet either by direct reading of
+the distance on a stadia rod or by intersections from two or more
+stations. On the plane table sheet it is customary to locate the shore
+or high-water line, the low-water line, off-lying rocks, streams,
+rivers, roads, towns, lighthouses, and all prominent features near the
+coast. Elevations are measured with the plane table or obtained from the
+triangulation, and are represented on the sheet both by figures and by
+contours, which are lines joining together points of the same elevation.
+For instance, a 100-foot contour represents the line where a plane 100
+feet above sea level would cut the surface of the ground. It is
+particularly important in this topographic work to locate accurately
+objects which are good landmarks and likely to be of use to the mariner.
+In some regions auxiliary methods are used in filling in the topography,
+as, for instance, along a difficult coast each feature of importance may
+be located by sextant angles, or a traverse line may be run along the
+shore by the transit and stadia method.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY PARTY AT WORK WITH PLANE
+TABLE ON THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. SURVEY SIGNAL OF IRON PIPE ON THE BAR OFF THE
+MOUTH OF THE YUKON RIVER.]
+
+#The hydrography,# or the survey of the water area, is of prime
+importance for the chart, but in the order of prosecution of the work it
+is convenient but not essential that it come after sufficient points
+have been located by the triangulation and topography. A hydrographic
+sheet is prepared on which all the points are plotted which will be
+useful. A system of sounding lines is then run over the entire area to
+be surveyed, locating the position of the sounding boat at intervals by
+sextant angles on survey signals or by angles from the shore. The
+ordinary method of sounding is to cast a lead from a boat and read the
+depth when the lead touches bottom and the line is vertical, and make
+note of the nature of the bottom. There is a systematic spacing between
+the casts of the lead and between the lines passed over by the boat,
+depending on the depth of water and character of the bottom. For
+soundings in deeper water various forms of sounding machines are used,
+with weight attached to a wire. For very great depths a small steel wire
+is employed and the weight is detached and left on the bottom. The
+deepest sounding thus far made, 5269 fathoms, or nearly six miles, was
+obtained by this method in the Pacific Ocean near Guam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. HYDROGRAPHIC PARTY SOUNDING WITH LAUNCH IN
+BALTIMORE HARBOR.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. THE LUCAS AUTOMATIC SOUNDING MACHINE FOR DEPTHS
+TO 5000 FATHOMS, WITH ENGINE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. THE SIGSBEE SOUNDING MACHINE ON A SURVEYING
+VESSEL.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SURVEYING STEAMER
+_FATHOMER_, SHOWING GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS.]
+
+The offshore soundings are made from a surveying steamer; the inshore
+work is usually done by a launch or small boat.
+
+So far as the navigational use of charts is concerned it is important
+that the hydrography shall show the limiting depths and the freedom from
+dangers, of channels, entrances, harbors, and anchorages. It is also
+desirable that the soundings shall be carried off shore at least as far
+as the one-hundred-fathom curve, as with the modern forms of
+navigational sounding machines it is possible for vessels under way to
+obtain soundings to this depth, and such soundings may be of value in
+identifying the location of the vessel. For depths greater than one
+hundred fathoms the soundings have less direct value to navigation
+except as proving the absence of shoaler areas, but soundings throughout
+the oceanic regions are of great geographical interest as well as of
+direct practical value in the laying of cables.
+
+It is obvious that the plan of mapping the sea bottom by dropping a lead
+at intervals over its hidden surface is far from an ideal one. The lead
+gives the depth only at the point at which it touches the bottom, and no
+information as to the space between the casts except such as may be
+inferred from the relation of successive soundings. In numerous cases,
+after what was considered a very thorough survey of a region had been
+made, at some later day a pinnacle rock or other danger has been
+discovered. For instance, a very detailed hydrographic survey of
+Buzzards Bay was made in 1895; the sounding lines were run at intervals
+of 50 to 100 yards, and 91,000 soundings were made for a single sheet.
+Within this area the cruiser _Brooklyn_ in 1902 touched a rock which
+was found to have 18 feet over it. (Fig. 17.) The least depth in the
+vicinity developed in the original survey was 31 feet.
+
+For the satisfactory development of hydrographic work some invention is
+much needed which as it passes along the bottom will give a continuous
+depth curve. Several devices have successfully accomplished this in
+shoal water, but great credit awaits the inventor who designs something
+of more general application.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17. PORTION OF ORIGINAL HYDROGRAPHIC SHEET, BUZZARDS
+BAY, ON SCALE 1-10000, SHOWING AREA CLOSELY SOUNDED IN 1895, WHERE THE
+_BROOKLYN_ STRUCK IN 1902.]
+
+#Tides and currents.# Information must be obtained as to the movement of
+the water, both vertical and horizontal. The rise and fall of the tide
+are obtained by tide gauges, either automatic, which draw a continuous
+tidal curve on a roll of paper, or simple tide staffs, which must be
+read at intervals. The currents, whether due to the tides or other
+movements, are measured by noting the movement of partially submerged
+floats. Less accurate but useful information as to currents is obtained
+from the logs of vessels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18. DRAGGING FOR DANGERS WITH A LONG WIRE.]
+
+#Dragging for dangers# has long been resorted to for the investigation
+of isolated spots. A valuable and successful means has been employed
+recently of making sure that an area is free from shoals or rocks having
+less than a certain depth. This is done by dragging through the water a
+wire from 500 to 1400 feet long, and suspended at the required depth,
+with suitable buoys and weights, and kept taut by the angle of pull. If,
+for instance, the wire is set at a depth of 30 feet it will indicate the
+presence of any obstruction of less depth by catching on it and
+upsetting the buoys, and such spots are at once marked and investigated.
+Considerable work has been done with such drags in the last few years on
+the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and on the Great Lakes. This is of course a
+somewhat tedious process and gives no information as to depths greater
+than that for which the wire is set, but the experience already had
+indicates its great value. It will probably be found desirable in time
+to thus drag all water areas important to navigation where the depth is
+near the draft of vessels and the irregular nature of the bottom gives
+indication of dangers. In extensive dragging operations near Key West
+and in Jericho Bay, Maine, a number of shoals have been picked up which
+were not found in the original surveys.
+
+A remarkable instance of the value of the drag was the recent discovery
+of a rock in Blue Hill Bay on the coast of Maine. This rock has but 7
+feet of water over it, and is only 6 feet in diameter at the top. It is
+surrounded by depths of 78 feet, from which it rises nearly
+perpendicularly. The original survey gave no indication of a danger
+here, and its existence was not suspected until it was discovered with
+the wire drag.
+
+Another method of dragging that has been employed is by means of a pipe
+suspended beneath a ship's bottom.
+
+#Magnetic variation.# As the compass is a universal navigational
+instrument, information as to the magnetic variation is needed for the
+charts. The angle between the direction of the magnetic needle and the
+true north is measured at various points on both land and sea, and at
+some stations these observations are repeated after a number of years.
+From these results magnetic maps are made, from which both the variation
+and its annual change may be taken.
+
+#Reports of dangers.# Aside from the more systematic surveys as outlined
+above, much information has been placed on the charts from other
+sources. On the earlier charts and on those of more remote regions at
+the present day much of the work has been sketched rather than surveyed.
+Even in the better surveyed portions reports come in as to dangers or
+other matters not shown, and if of importance and the report appears to
+be reliable these are sometimes at once put on the chart pending further
+investigation, or in other cases an examination is first made.
+
+Shoals, rocks, and even islands have in numerous instances been shown on
+the charts which no one has been able to find again, and many of them
+after repeated searches have been removed. The same island or danger has
+sometimes been charted in two or more different positions as reported at
+various times. The treatment of such cases is one of the serious and
+interesting problems of the chart maker. It is generally less harmful to
+show a danger which does not exist than to omit one which does exist. On
+the other hand a non-existing danger shown on a chart may be the cause
+of actual expense and loss of time in compelling a vessel needlessly to
+go out of its course.
+
+It is surprising to note with what lack of care and of sufficient
+evidence reports of dangers at sea have sometimes been made, and how
+incomplete are many of the reports even when the existence of the danger
+is beyond question. It is unfortunately true that some of these reports
+are the result of effort to escape blame for accident by throwing the
+fault on the chart. Many such reports also result from various illusory
+appearances. A large tree covered with weeds, an overturned iceberg
+strewn with earth and stones, a floating ice-pan covered with earth, the
+swollen carcass of a dead whale, a whale with clinging barnacles and
+seaweed, reflections from the clouds, marine animalculae, vegetable
+growth, scum, floating volcanic matter, and partially submerged wrecks
+covered with barnacles, have been mistaken for islands, shoals, or
+reefs. A school of jumping fish has given the appearance of breakers or
+caused a sound like surf, and tide rips have been mistaken for breakers.
+Raper very properly calls attention to the obligation upon every seaman
+of carefully investigating doubtful cases and making reliable reports.
+"Of the dangers to which navigation is exposed none is more formidable
+than a reef or a shoal in the open sea; not only from the almost certain
+fate of the ship and her crew that have the misfortune to strike upon
+it, but also from the anxiety with which the navigation of all vessels,
+within even a long distance, must be conducted, on account of the
+uncertainty to which their own reckonings are ever open. No commander of
+a vessel, therefore, who might meet unexpectedly with any such danger,
+could be excused, except by urgent circumstances, from taking the
+necessary steps both for ascertaining its true position, and for giving
+a description as complete as a prudent regard to his own safety
+allowed."
+
+As to the older doubtful dangers now shown on the oceanic charts, it is
+estimated that the positions may be considered as uncertain by 10 miles
+in latitude and 30 miles in longitude, and areas of this extent must be
+searched to determine definitely the question of their existence.
+
+The following are interesting or typical cases of reported dangers:
+
+The master of an Italian bark in September, 1874, reported sighting a
+large rock in latitude 40 deg. N. and longitude 62 deg. 18' W. Fortunately for
+the charts there were two independent reports from other vessels in the
+same month of sighting a partially submerged wreck in this vicinity.
+
+The Spanish steamer _Carmen_ was wrecked in 1891 by running on a rock
+off the southwest coast of Leyte; the rock was reported to lie one mile
+off shore, a dangerous position for vessels using Canigao Channel. A
+survey made in 1903 showed 58 feet of water in this location, and
+that Carmen Rock on which the vessel struck was really within one-fourth
+mile of the beach. The rock had, however, for twelve years been shown on
+the charts in a position which made it an obstruction to navigation.
+
+The ship _Minerva_ in 1834 was reported to have struck a rock near the
+middle of the broad entrance to Balayan Bay; the fact that this occurred
+at 2 A.M. indicated a very doubtful position, but it was stated that an
+American ship had previously been wrecked on the same rock. It
+consequently appeared as a danger on the charts for seventy-one years,
+when a survey showed no depth of less than 190 fathoms in this vicinity,
+and it was removed from the charts.
+
+A British steamer was wrecked in San Bernardino Strait in 1905; the
+master reported that he was in a position where the chart showed 51
+fathoms, and that he was 1-1/2 miles distant from Calantas Rock, and on
+these grounds the finding of the official inquiry was that "no blame can
+be attached to the master, officers, or any of the crew for the
+casualty." Very shortly after the disaster, the surveying steamer
+_Pathfinder_ definitely located the wreck and made a survey of the
+vicinity. The previous chart of Calantas Reef was found to be fairly
+correct, and the stranding was determined to have occurred well within
+this reef in a position where the chart showed soundings of 3-3/4 to
+4-3/4 fathoms, and 1/2 mile from Calantas Rock, which rises 5 feet above
+high water.
+
+A transport entering San Bernardino Strait a few years ago ran on a rock
+and was damaged; the position was reported as about two miles southeast
+of San Bernardino Island and near the middle of the passage. The rock
+was not put on the charts, as prompt investigation showed 50 fathoms of
+water in this vicinity, and that in all probability the transport
+actually touched a small reef making out from the island.
+
+The master of the brig _Helen_ reported that his vessel was wrecked on a
+reef lying six miles from Rockall. When surveyed Helen Reef was found to
+be about one-third this distance from Rockall.
+
+An island has been reported in eight different positions, ranging in
+latitude from 30 deg. 29' to 30 deg. 42' N. and in longitude from 139 deg. 37' to
+140 deg. 38' E.
+
+There have been a number of reports of islands in the area from latitude
+40 deg. 00' to 40 deg. 30' N. and longitude 150 deg. 30' to 151 deg. 00' W. The master
+of the bark _Washington_ reported in 1867: "On my passage from the
+Sandwich Islands to the northwest coast of the United States, when in
+latitude 40 deg. 00' N., in a dense fog, I perceived the sea to be
+discolored. Soundings at first gave great depths, but diminished
+gradually to 9 fathoms, when through the mist an island was seen, along
+which I sailed 40 miles. It was covered with birds, and the sea swarmed
+with seal and sea elephants." A United States vessel searched in
+this vicinity without seeing any indication of land, and obtained
+soundings of 2600 fathoms. A British ship in 1858 searched for fourteen
+days over this area without finding anything. Searches were also made in
+1860 and 1867 without success, and the present charts show no islands in
+this part of the Pacific.
+
+In a number of cases erroneous positions have been due simply to
+blunders. Thus Lots Wife, first seen by Captain Meares in 1788, was
+shown on his chart in latitude 29 deg. 50' N., longitude 156 deg. 00' E., and
+stated in his book to be in latitude 29 deg. 50' N. and longitude 142 deg. 23'
+E. Massachusetts Island by one report was in longitude 177 deg. 05' E. and
+by another in 167 deg. 05' E. The apparent blunder of 10 deg. is now immaterial,
+as the island has disappeared from the charts altogether. The Knox
+Islands were placed by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition in latitude 5 deg.
+59' 15'' N., longitude 172 deg. 02' 33'' E. The old British charts showed
+islands of this name also in latitude 5 deg. 59' N., longitude 172 deg. 03' W.,
+the longitude being doubtless transposed. In the case of Starbuck
+Island, discovered south of the equator, the latitude was apparently
+transposed, as on old charts it was also shown in the position, latitude
+5 deg. 40' N., longitude 156 deg. 55' W.
+
+A pinnacle rock can sometimes be located only with great difficulty even
+when known to exist. Rodger Rock, on which the bark _Ellen_ struck and
+was damaged, lies in latitude 0 deg. 41' 15'' N. and longitude 107 deg. 31' E.
+It has but three feet over it at low tide. The British surveying ship
+_Rifleman_ searched four days before finding it, although the plotted
+tracks showed that she and her boats had passed very close to it. This
+indicates that great caution must be used in removing a reported danger
+from the charts.
+
+The old charts of the Atlantic indicated a danger 30 to 45 miles to the
+southwest of Cape St. Vincent. This danger was omitted from the charts
+about 1786 owing to lack of confirmation. Later, in 1813 and 1821, it
+was reported that vessels were lost or damaged by striking this rock.
+Soundings of over a thousand fathoms are now shown on the chart in this
+vicinity and the rock no longer appears.
+
+A comparison of a Pacific Ocean chart of about forty years ago with one
+of the present time (Fig. 19) illustrates in a striking manner how many
+doubtful dangers, or vigias, have gotten on the charts and how after
+laborious search many of them have now been removed. This condition was
+especially true of the Pacific, owing to the numerous reports of an
+indefinite nature from whaling ships, among whose captains there was a
+saying "that they do not care where their ship is, so long as there are
+plenty of whales in sight."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19. PORTION OF CHARTS OF 1869 AND 1903, OF THE
+PACIFIC OCEAN WEST OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, TO ILLUSTRATE THE REMOVAL OF
+DOUBTFUL DANGERS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. PORTION OF CHART OF PONCE HARBOR, SCALE 1-20000,
+TO SHOW SELECTION OF SOUNDINGS FROM ORIGINAL SURVEY GIVEN BELOW.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY OF SAME PORTION OF PONCE
+HARBOR, REDUCED TO ONE-HALF SCALE OF ORIGINAL SHEET.]
+
+
+
+
+PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS.
+
+
+#Chart schemes.# Before commencing the preparation of a chart it is
+necessary to arrange a definite scheme for it, and the usefulness of the
+chart will depend materially on this preliminary plan, in which must be
+outlined its scale, size, limits, and features to be represented. New
+charts have sometimes been prepared simply to fit the surveys as they
+progressed or to fill immediate or local requirements. It is, however,
+desirable that general plans for series or groups of charts be made, and
+with changing needs, information, and conditions it is sometimes
+necessary that existing schemes be modified.
+
+#Compilation of information.# Considerable work must usually be done to
+get the field records in shape for the published chart. The soundings
+must be plotted and the characteristic depths selected. Only a part of
+the soundings that are made can be shown on the original sheet and only
+a small part of these are used on the final chart. A selection is made
+showing the least soundings on shoals and bars, the channel depths, and
+the characteristic soundings in anchorages and other areas. The original
+surveys are generally made on a considerably larger scale than that on
+which the chart is published, in order that the soundings may be more
+thoroughly plotted. The sheets must then be reduced to the scale of
+publication, and this can conveniently be done by means of photography
+or with a pantograph.
+
+The best judgment is required in selecting the important features
+to be shown on the chart and omitting the less important and not
+essential features which might tend to obscure the others. In charts of
+new regions where complete surveys are lacking, care must be exercised
+in weighing, combining, and adjusting information from various sources
+and which is, perhaps, more or less conflicting.
+
+#Projections.# The surface of the earth being curved, there is no
+possible system of projection by which it can be represented on a flat
+sheet of paper in an ideally satisfactory way. Numerous methods of
+projecting the earth's surface upon a plane have been proposed and many
+of them are actually used for various purposes. In general each
+projection has qualities which are valuable for certain uses, and
+deficiencies which make it less valuable in other ways. Only four of the
+different projections need be mentioned here as of special interest in
+chart construction.
+
+#Mercator projection.# This is a rectangular projection in which the
+meridians are straight lines spaced at equal intervals and the parallels
+are straight lines so spaced as to satisfy the condition that a rhumb
+line, or line on the earth cutting successive meridians at the same
+angle, shall appear on the developed projection as a straight line
+preserving the same angle with respect to the meridians.
+
+This projection may be considered as the unrolling upon a plane of the
+surface of a cylinder tangent to the earth along the equator, and upon
+which the various features of the earth's surface have been projected in
+such manner as to satisfy the above requirement.
+
+On this projection there is a constant distance between the meridians,
+whereas on the earth they actually converge toward the poles. The
+distance between the parallels increases in passing toward the poles,
+approximately in the proportion of the secant of the latitude. For each
+small portion of the map the relative proportions are maintained as on
+the earth.
+
+Some characteristics of the mercator projection are these: The meridians
+and parallels are all straight lines and perpendicular to each other;
+there is no convergence of the meridians; the minute of longitude is a
+constant distance on the map; the minute of latitude increases in length
+from the equator toward the poles but locally retains its true
+proportion to the minute of longitude; areas and distances increase in
+scale with the latitude so that a given scale is strictly correct only
+for one latitude; great circles and consequently lines of sight are
+curved lines excepting the meridians and the equator; rhumb lines or
+lines having a constant angle with the meridians are straight, and for
+the same angle are parallel in all parts of the chart. These qualities
+are all rigid and the projection can therefore be used for all areas,
+small or large, up to the extent of the earth's surface, except that it
+cannot be extended to the poles, as there the length of the minute of
+latitude would become infinite.
+
+An interesting fact regarding a rhumb line oblique to the meridians is
+that it is a spiral continually approaching but never reaching the pole;
+this spiral makes an infinite number of revolutions around the pole, and
+yet it has a finite length for the reason that the length of each
+revolution diminishes as the number of revolutions increases.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. MERCATOR PROJECTION OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN,
+SHOWING GREAT CIRCLE ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO
+HONOLULU AND THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.]
+
+The mercator projection has been extensively used for nautical charts,
+for which it presents important mechanical advantages, in that adjacent
+charts can be joined on all their edges while still oriented with the
+meridian; all charts are similar; the border may be conveniently
+subdivided, giving a longitude scale applicable to any part of the
+chart, but a latitude scale that may be used in the same latitude only;
+courses are laid down as straight lines and can be transferred with
+parallel rulers from one part of the chart to another without error. On
+a mercator chart an island in latitude 60 deg. would appear four times as
+large as an island of the same actual area at the equator, but this
+distortion of areas, while it gives erroneous impressions on charts of
+great extent in latitude, does not seriously affect the use of the chart
+for nautical purposes. Areas may also be correctly measured on a
+mercator map by taking each projection quadrilateral separately,
+subdividing it if necessary, and using the published tables of areas of
+quadrilaterals in different latitudes. Although distance scales vary
+with the latitude, distances can be taken from this chart with fair
+correctness by the use of the latitude border scale for the middle
+latitude, subdividing the total distance if there is much range of
+latitude. The inability to take off the great circle or shortest course
+directly from the mercator chart is from a navigational point of view a
+defect, but the most convenient solution for this appears to be the
+supplementary use of a gnomonic chart as will be described. The fact
+that lines of sight are not straight lines on this projection is another
+defect, as by the plotting of bearings and angles on approaching the
+land the positions of vessels are located on the chart; fortunately,
+however, the error due to this cause usually falls within the other
+uncertainties involved in locating a ship; if need be it would be
+practicable to allow for this curvature. In the polar regions, however,
+the faults of the mercator projection become so much exaggerated that it
+is not used for navigational purposes, but because of the absence of
+commercial navigation there this is a minor matter in the general
+question of chart projection. For the plotting of original surveys the
+mercator projection is not suited and is not used, for the reasons above
+mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23. POLYCONIC PROJECTION OF PORTION OF NORTH PACIFIC
+OCEAN.]
+
+Tables of "meridional parts" are published which give the distance in
+terms of minutes of longitude from the equator to the various parallels;
+with these tables a mercator projection may readily be constructed.
+
+Airy proposed a graphical method of sweeping the arc of a great circle
+on to a mercator chart, and tables are published for this purpose. The
+method is only approximate and is limited in application, and the
+supplementary use of a gnomonic chart would appear to be preferable.
+
+#Polyconic projection.# In plotting the original surveys it is essential
+that a projection be used which will for the area included on a survey
+sheet show the points in their correct relation both as to direction and
+distance. These conditions are substantially fulfilled by several
+projections, of which the polyconic is used in the United States. If a
+hollow cone were placed so that it would either be tangent to the
+earth's surface along one of the parallels of latitude or cut it along
+two parallels, and the points projected on to this cone, and the cone
+then unrolled and laid out flat, the result would be a conical
+projection, of which there are several variations. If successive tangent
+cones be used and each parallel of latitude be developed as the
+circumference of the base of a right cone tangent to the spheroid along
+that parallel, the result is the polyconic projection, which has been
+used for field sheets and for the large scale charts, as well as for the
+topographic maps of the United States. This projection has valuable
+qualities for moderate areas of the earth's surface, within which the
+scale is approximately uniform, areas retain nearly their true
+proportions, and great circles and consequently all bearings and
+directions are approximately straight lines. The parallels of latitude
+are arcs of circles with radiuses increasing as we recede from the pole;
+therefore they are not truly parallel and the length of the degree of
+latitude increases either side from the central meridian. The meridians
+converge toward the poles and become slightly curved as we recede from
+the central one; the longitude scale is everywhere correct, but the
+latitude scale is strictly correct only on the central meridian. The
+angles of intersection of parallels and meridians are right angles or
+nearly so. The polyconic projection is not used for very extensive areas
+of the earth's surface, as for instance a hemisphere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24. GNOMONIC CHART OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN, SHOWING
+GREAT CIRCLE ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO HONOLULU
+AND THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO.]
+
+#Gnomonic projection.# In this projection the eye is assumed to be at
+the center of the earth and the features are projected upon a plane
+tangent to some point on the earth's surface. It is practicable to use
+this projection for oceanic areas, and it has the very important quality
+that every straight line on it represents a great circle of the earth.
+To obtain the great circle or shortest course between two points it is
+therefore only necessary to draw a straight line between the points on a
+gnomonic chart. Because of the great distortion near the edges this
+projection is not otherwise adapted to navigational use, and it is
+employed only to mark out the general course, and sufficient points are
+then transferred to a mercator chart. The gnomonic chart is therefore
+useful in supplementing the mercator chart, supplying its deficiencies
+as to convenience in marking out great circle courses. The great circle
+course can be derived not only more easily and quickly from the gnomonic
+chart than by computation, but the chart is also to be preferred because
+the course marked out on it will show at once if any obstruction, as an
+island or danger, is met or too high a latitude is reached. A modified
+or composite course can readily be laid out on a gnomonic chart.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25. NORTH POLAR CHART ON ARBITRARY PROJECTION.]
+
+#Arbitrary projection.# The few charts published of the polar regions
+are sometimes on an arbitrary projection, in which the meridians are
+straight lines radiating from the pole and the parallels are equidistant
+circles with the pole as center. The latitude scale is uniform. At some
+distance from the pole the longitude scale becomes very much distorted,
+but the projection is a practicable and convenient one for the immediate
+polar regions. Gnomonic and conical projections are also used for the
+polar charts, differing little from the foregoing for moderate areas.
+
+#Scales.# Charts are published on a variety of scales to suit different
+needs of navigation, and the usual classification depends on scale. In
+addition to the ocean charts covering a single ocean in either one or
+several sheets and intended for navigation on the high seas,
+there are for our Atlantic coast the following series:
+
+Sailing charts, scale about 1/1200000, for general coastwise navigation.
+
+General coast charts, scale 1/400000, for local coastwise navigation.
+
+Coast charts, scale 1/80000, for approaching the coast at any point and
+for inside passages.
+
+Harbor and channel charts, of various large scales from 1/5000 to
+1/60000, for entering harbors and rivers and passing through channels.
+
+The expression of scales by miles to the inch or inches to the mile is
+the more familiar. The expression of scale in the manner used by the
+Coast Survey and by most of the European countries, by standard
+fractions as 1/80000, meaning that any distance on the chart is 1/80000
+of the actual distance on the earth, has some advantages. For instance,
+the relation of these fractions gives at a glance the relation of the
+scales of the charts. Thus a 1/80000 chart is on a scale five times as
+large as a 1/400000 chart.
+
+For the more important harbors charts have been published on several
+different scales to meet various needs. Thus New York Harbor is shown on
+charts of scales of 1/10000, 1/40000, 1/80000, 1/200000, 1/400000 and
+1/1200000, each of course including a different area.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26. NEW YORK HARBOR, PORTIONS OF CHARTS ON FOUR
+DIFFERENT SCALES.]
+
+The selection of suitable publication scales is of prime importance; a
+large scale permits of greater clearness and of showing more detail, but
+on the other hand restricts the area and the points that can be shown on
+a single sheet, or else makes a chart of excessive dimensions. In
+general in chart preparation the scale should be restricted to the
+minimum that can be used to fulfill the particular object and clearly
+represent what is desired. A chart of very large scale is not convenient
+for plotting, and a moving vessel may pass quickly beyond it or into
+range of objects beyond the limits of the chart.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATION OF CHARTS.
+
+
+#Methods of publication.# An ideal process of publication for nautical
+charts would include the following features; rapidity in getting out new
+charts, facility in reprinting and correcting existing charts, clearness
+and sharpness of print, durability of paper and print, and correctness
+of scale. It is difficult to fulfill all these requirements by any
+method as yet developed. In the Coast and Geodetic Survey several
+different processes are in use at present; charts are engraved on copper
+and printed directly from the copper plate, or they are transferred from
+the copper plate to stone and printed from the stone, or a finished
+drawing is made and transferred to stone by photolithography and printed
+from the stone, or an etching is made on copper from a finished drawing
+and printed from a transfer to stone. Charts in other countries are in
+large part printed from engraved plates, excepting some preliminary
+charts by lithography.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27. ENGRAVING A CHART ON A COPPER PLATE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28. ENGRAVING SOUNDINGS ON A COPPER PLATE WITH A
+MACHINE.]
+
+#Copper plate engraving and printing# have long been used in chart
+preparation. A drawing is prepared as a guide for the engraver; this
+must be correct as to all information to be shown but need not be a
+finished drawing. A true projection is ruled upon a copper plate. By
+photography a matrix is made from the drawing and a wax impression taken
+from this matrix. This is then laid down on the copper to fit the
+projection, and the impression is chemically fixed on to the copper. The
+work thus marked out is engraved by hand or by machine. A high degree of
+skill is required in the accuracy and finish necessary for chart
+engraving. Machines have been invented in recent years which can be used
+for portions of the work on copper plates, as for instance for cutting
+the sounding figures, the bottom characteristics, the border and
+projection lines, border divisions, compasses, line ruling, and stipple
+ruling. Stamps and dies have been successfully used for some symbols and
+notes, and roulettes for shading. By means of these various machines,
+many of which are American inventions, the process of chart publication
+from plates has been materially facilitated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29. ELECTROTYPING PLANT FOR ELECTROTYPING CHART
+PLATES.]
+
+When the plate is completed an alto, or raised copy, is made by
+depositing copper on to it in an electrotype vat, and from this alto
+another basso or sunken copy is made by the same process. This latter
+basso is used in printing. A copper plate may be used for about 3000
+impressions, after which it may become too much worn for satisfactory
+chart printing. By printing from a duplicate basso the original plate is
+preserved and additional copies can be made when needed. The use of the
+alto also greatly facilitates matters when a considerable correction to
+the chart is required. All the portions of the chart to be changed can
+be scraped off the alto, and when a new basso is electrotyped from this
+scraped alto all such areas will of course appear as smooth copper, on
+which the new work can be engraved. Numerous small corrections are
+called for on charts, and on copper plates where these are to replace
+old work the latter is removed either by hammering up the back of the
+plate or by scraping its face.
+
+Printing directly from plates is a laborious process. After the press
+bed has been carefully padded to take up inequalities in the plate, the
+surface of the latter is covered with ink and then carefully wiped off
+by hand, leaving the ink only in the engraved lines. The paper, first
+dampened, is laid on the plate, and passes with it beneath the cylinder
+of the press under considerable pressure. The prints are calendered by
+being placed in a hydraulic press under 600 tons pressure. The charts
+are beautifully clear and sharp, not equalled by other methods of
+printing. Owing to the wetting and drying of the paper, the finished
+print is, however, quite appreciably smaller in scale than the plate,
+and the shrinkage is greater in one direction than in the other. The
+average day's work for one press and two men is 75 prints. This is small
+compared with the output practicable with lithographic presses. On the
+other hand a plate can be prepared for printing more readily than a
+lithographic stone. For small editions the plate printing compares well
+in economy with lithographic printing, and the plate can also be printed
+on short notice. Because of changes in aids to navigation and other
+corrections, it is usually desirable to print at one time only a
+sufficient number of copies of a chart to meet current demands, and not
+to carry a large stock on hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30. PRINTING CHARTS FROM COPPER PLATES; FINAL
+CLEANING OF THE PLATE BY HAND; PLATE PRESS ON THE LEFT.]
+
+The copper plates, bassos, and altos make a very convenient and enduring
+means of preserving the chart ready for printing or for further
+correction. A large number of plates can be placed in a small space, and
+if properly cared for they may be stored indefinitely without
+deterioration.
+
+With plate printing it is not practicable to print more than one
+impression on the chart or to use more than one color, and plate-printed
+charts are therefore in black only.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. LITHOGRAPHING PRESSES FOR PRINTING CHARTS;
+LITHOGRAPH STONE ON TRANSFER PRESS.]
+
+#Engraving on stone.# On the United States Lake Survey the charts are
+first engraved on stone, and by a special process the work is then
+transferred to small copper plates, which are preserved. The final
+publication is by lithography, transferring again from the plates to
+stone.
+
+#Photolithography# is a quick method of publishing a chart. It would be
+practicable by this means to reproduce the original survey sheets, but
+ordinarily these are not suitable as to scale and legibility, and it is
+necessary to make a new drawing, usually on tracing vellum. This is
+photographed on to glass plates, on the scale of the proposed chart.
+From these glass negatives positive prints are made on sensitized
+lithographic paper. These prints are fitted together and then inked,
+taking the ink only where the lines appear. This transfer print is then
+laid face down on the lithographic stone and run through a press under
+pressure, the stone absorbing the ink from the paper. The stone is then
+treated so that the inked portion remains slightly raised, and from this
+stone an indefinite number of charts can be printed in a lithographic
+press at the rate of 1000 an hour. The paper is not moistened, and
+consequently there is little distortion or change of scale in prints
+from stone. If desired to shade the land or use another color for any
+other purpose, additional impressions can be made on the same charts
+from other stones. Because of the bulk of the stones, work cannot
+ordinarily be retained on them, but the chart is cleaned off and the
+stones repeatedly used until worn thin. The original drawing as well as
+the negatives is preserved, from which the chart can again be published.
+For republication, the process is, however, not entirely satisfactory;
+the negatives are not always permanent, the work must again be assembled
+and transferred to the stone, changes or corrections are not very
+conveniently made on either drawing or negative, and after repeated
+changes the drawing becomes difficult to use in photolithography.
+Whether the charts are actually printed from copper or stone, there are
+decided advantages therefore in the matter of correction work and future
+editions in having the charts engraved on copper. On the other hand, the
+advantages of the photolithographic process are the ability to publish
+new drawings promptly, to use more than one shade on a chart, to obtain
+prints with little change of scale or distortion, and to print large
+editions rapidly.
+
+#Lithographic printing by transfer from engraved plates.# An impression
+on transfer paper may be taken from an engraved plate and this laid down
+on the stone in a manner similar to that used in laying down the prints
+from the glass negatives in photolithography. Prints are then made from
+the stone the same as in photolithography, but with superior results as
+to clearness. This general process is extensively used in both map and
+chart publishing in this country, as it combines the advantages of the
+plate in preservation of the chart record and facility of correction,
+and the advantages of the lithographic printing in less distortion of
+the printed chart, ability to print more than one shade, and facility
+for large editions. As the transfer from the plate can be readily made
+it is also better applicable to small editions than is photolithography.
+It is, however, not as convenient in the latter respect as plate
+printing, and it does not give a resulting impression equal in clearness
+or durability to the impression directly from the plate.
+
+#Etching on copper# for chart publication has been recently developed in
+the Coast and Geodetic Survey. A finished tracing is made, the surface
+of a smooth copper plate is sensitized, and by exposure to the sun a
+print is made on the sensitized surface. It is essential to use an
+air-exhausted printing frame so as to get good contact between the
+vellum and the plate. The work is then etched into the copper and the
+plate cleaned and touched up, after which it may be used the same as a
+hand-engraved plate, either for transfer to stone or direct plate
+printing. The expense and time required in the etching process are much
+less than for hand engraving. The process has been successfully used for
+a number of harbor charts. The etching of course will be of the same
+scale as the vellum at the time of the print, and vellum varies somewhat
+in scale with weather conditions and age. Unless overcome by the
+substitution of some more invariable material in place of vellum, this
+might be an obstacle to the use of the process for general charts where
+a true scale on the copper plate is desirable because of future work to
+be done on the plate. It must also be taken into account that the
+etching requires a finished tracing in ink, which is not essential for
+the hand engraver; if, however, the chart is first published by
+photolithography, as is the usual practice in the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey, the same tracing is used for both processes.
+
+#Distribution of charts.# Charts published by the government are sold to
+the public at a small price, estimated to cover the cost of paper and
+printing. The charts may be obtained direct from the publishing office
+or from the chart agents who are to be found in all the principal
+seaports. Catalogues are published from time to time giving complete
+lists of the current charts and the main facts regarding them. Index
+maps show graphically the area covered by each chart. The notices to
+mariners contain announcement of new charts or new editions published
+and of charts or editions cancelled, as well as of all corrections.
+
+
+
+
+CORRECTION OF CHARTS.
+
+
+#Need for revision.# The making of the survey and the printing of the
+chart do not complete the problem of the chart maker. Both nature and
+man are constantly changing the facts the representation of which has
+been attempted on the charts, and also the needs of man are always
+varying. The original surveys are made to meet the reasonable
+requirements of the time, but breakwaters and jetties are built, and
+channels and harbors dredged and otherwise improved, and cities built,
+and new paths of commerce are opened which bring vessels into waters
+previously thought of minor importance.
+
+With the increase of commerce and speed of vessels more direct routes
+are demanded for reasons of economy. Inside routes not originally used
+are sometimes developed for defensive reasons. The average draft of the
+larger vessels has also increased remarkably since the modern
+hydrographic surveys were commenced, and surveys once made to insure
+safety for the deepest vessels of that time are now not adequate. The
+average loaded draft of the 20 largest steamships of the world has
+increased as follows: 1848, 19 feet; 1873, 24 feet; 1898, 29 feet;
+1903, 32 feet. The average length of these vessels was 230 feet in 1848,
+390 feet in 1873, 541 feet in 1898, and 640 feet in 1903. The number of
+vessels drawing as much as 26-1/4 feet rose from 36 in 1902 to 185 in
+1904. In 1906 there were 17 vessels afloat, drawing 32 feet and upwards.
+There are now two steamers on the Atlantic 790 feet long, 88 feet beam,
+and 37-1/2 feet draft when fully loaded, and larger vessels are already
+planned.
+
+Great natural agencies are also constantly at work effecting changes in
+features shown on the charts. The action of currents and waves is
+continually cutting away or building the shore, particularly on sandy
+coasts exposed to storms. When surveyed in 1849 Fishing Point on the
+east coast of Maryland was but a bend in the shore line. By 1887 it had
+built out about two miles in a southerly direction, and in 1902 about
+two-thirds of a mile further, curving to the westward. Altogether in
+about half a century this tongue of land has grown out nearly three
+miles.
+
+Rivers are bearing vast quantities of sediment and depositing these near
+their mouths, pushing out the coast line and filling in the bottom. The
+main mouths of the Mississippi are advancing into the Gulf, but at a
+comparatively slow rate. A break from the main river at Cubit's Gap
+just above the head of the passes, however, has done an enormous amount
+of land making, filling in an area of about 50 square miles between 1852
+and 1905.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. FISHING POINT, MARYLAND, FROM SURVEYS OF 1849
+AND 1902, ILLUSTRATING BUILDING OUT OF A POINT ON THE COAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33. GROWTH OF LAND AT CUBITS GAP, MISSISSIPPI DELTA,
+FROM 1852 to 1905.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34. COLUMBIA RIVER ENTRANCE, SHOWING MOVEMENT OF
+SAND ISLAND, SURVEYS OF 1851, 1870 AND 1905.]
+
+The mouth of the Columbia River in Oregon shows an interesting example
+of the movement of an island. The chart of 1851 shows the center of Sand
+Island 3-1/4 miles southeast of Cape Disappointment, the chart of 1870
+shows it 2-3/4 miles southeast, and the chart of 1905 shows it 1-1/4
+miles easterly. This island has thus moved 2 miles northwesterly
+directly across the middle of the river entrance, closing up the former
+north channel. The southern point of the entrance, Clatsop Spit, has
+built out about the same distance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35. CHANGES IN HAULOVER BREAK, NANTUCKET ISLAND,
+1890 TO 1903.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36. MAPS OF BOGOSLOF ISLAND, 1895 AND 1907, SHOWING
+CHANGES DUE TO VOLCANIC ACTION.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Photo by U. S. R. C. Service._
+
+FIG. 37. BOGOSLOF VOLCANO, BERING SEA.]
+
+Volcanic action in well authenticated cases has caused islands to rise
+or disappear. In the present location of Bogoslof Island in Bering Sea
+the early voyagers described a "sail rock." In this position in 1796
+there arose a high island. In 1883 another island appeared near it. In
+1906 a high cone arose between the two, and a continuous island was
+formed over 1-1/2 miles long and 500 feet high. The latest report
+(September, 1907) was that this central peak had suddenly collapsed and
+disappeared. Bogoslof is an active volcano, and the main changes have
+been the result of violent volcanic action. The history of this island
+for over a century past forms a remarkable record of violent
+transformations in the sea.
+
+Earthquakes sometimes cause sudden displacements, horizontal or
+vertical, of sufficient amount to affect the information shown on the
+charts. A careful investigation of the effects of the earthquake in
+Yakutat Bay, Alaska, in September, 1899, showed that the shore was
+raised in some parts with a maximum uplift of 47 feet and depressed in
+other parts, and that at least two reefs and four islets were raised in
+the water area where none appeared before. Undoubtedly there were
+changes in the water depths, but definite information is lacking because
+there had been no previous hydrographic survey. The San Francisco
+earthquake of 1906 caused little vertical displacement, but there were
+horizontal changes of relative position as much as 16 feet; so far as
+known this earthquake did not affect the practical accuracy of the
+charts. Related to earthquake phenomena are the gradual coast movements
+of elevation or subsidence which are taking place but at so slow a rate
+as not to sensibly affect the charts in ordinary intervals of time.
+
+Another agency at work is the coral polyp on the coral reefs; although
+the rate of growth appears to be very slow, the resulting reefs and keys
+are an important feature in tropical seas.
+
+Practically all of the land features shown on charts are likewise
+subject to changes, the more rapid of which are mainly due to the works
+of man.
+
+The changes of channels and of commercial needs cause many alterations
+to be made from time to time in the lights and buoys which are shown on
+the charts.
+
+#Methods of correction.# The problem of keeping a chart sufficiently up
+to date is one of much practical importance and one which must be taken
+into account in planning what should be shown on the chart in the first
+place so as to bring it within the range of practicable revision.
+
+Certain features are corrected at once on the charts as soon as the
+information is received, such as dangers reported, and changes in lights
+and buoys. Where harbor works are in progress the periodic surveys made
+in this country by the Corps of Engineers furnish data which are applied
+promptly to the charts. Reported dangers in channels and bars are
+investigated by special surveys and the information is put on the
+charts. Examinations are made from time to time for the revision of the
+features along the coast line. Complete resurveys have been made, at
+long intervals, of some important portions of the coast where there has
+been evidence of change, and these, when they become available, are
+applied to the charts. All parts of the coast where the exposed portions
+are not of very permanent material will require resurveys at intervals,
+depending on their importance and the rate of change.
+
+Notwithstanding the great progress made in hydrographic surveys, a
+considerable number of rocks and shoals dangerous to navigation and not
+previously shown on the charts are reported, averaging nearly 400 each
+year for the last six years, according to the British reports. Of the
+367 reported in 1906, 11 were discovered by vessels striking them.
+
+Immediate information in the form of _Notices to Mariners_ is published,
+of the more important corrections to charts which can be made by hand.
+These corrections show what charts are affected, and give sufficient
+data for plotting.
+
+In the case of extensive corrections or new surveys a new edition of the
+chart is printed and all existing copies of the previous edition are
+canceled.
+
+It is important that the user of the chart shall make certain that he
+has the latest edition and that all corrections from its date of issue
+have been applied from the _Notices to Mariners_.
+
+It is unfortunately true that owing to failure to take proper account of
+the notices, or to economy, old editions or unconnected charts are
+sometimes used, and in a number of cases the loss of vessels has been
+directly due to this cause. Those responsible for the safe navigation of
+vessels should insist that the latest editions of charts are provided
+and that all charts to be used are inspected and corrected to date.
+
+
+
+
+READING AND USING CHARTS.
+
+
+#Reading charts.# A chart is a representation on paper of hydrographic
+and topographic information by means of various conventional methods and
+symbols. It is evidently important for those making use of charts to
+understand the system and conventions used, and to be able to interpret
+readily the various parts of the chart. The ability to read a chart must
+include an understanding of all its features, such as scale, projection,
+geographic position, directions, depths, plane of reference, aids to
+navigation, tides, currents, elevations, topography, and date of survey
+and publication.
+
+#Scale.# For American and British charts the scale is usually expressed
+by the inches or fractions of an inch to the minute or degree of
+latitude, or by the fractional proportion of a distance on the map to
+the corresponding distance on the earth. These fractions are sometimes
+stated on the British charts, and nearly always on those of the United
+States Coast Survey. The chart catalogues give the scale in one or the
+other form. A familiarity with the meaning of scales is of value in
+selecting the most suitable chart, in judging of the relative uses of
+charts, and in estimating distances. Where the fractional scales are
+stated they furnish a simple means of comparing charts, as, for
+instance, a chart on 1/50000 scale will show all distances just twice as
+long as a chart on 1/100000 scale.
+
+The following are scale equivalents:
+
+  Scale   1/10000 is equivalent to 7.30 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/20000 is equivalent to 3.65 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/40000 is equivalent to 1.82 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/50000 is equivalent to 1.46 inches to one nautical mile.
+  Scale   1/80000 is equivalent to 0.91 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/100000 is equivalent to 0.73 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/200000 is equivalent to 0.36 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale  1/400000 is equivalent to 0.18 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale 1/1000000 is equivalent to 0.07 inch   to one nautical mile.
+  Scale 1/1200000 is equivalent to 0.06 inch   to one nautical mile.
+
+For use in measuring distances on large scale charts the length of one
+or more nautical miles is usually drawn on the chart, and sometimes
+scales are also given in other units. On British charts the nautical
+mile scale is divided into tenths (that is, cables of 100 fathoms or 600
+feet length); on the American charts into quarters and eighths. Where
+the scale covers more than one mile the fractional divisions are shown
+only for the left-hand mile and the zero of the scale is placed between
+this and the full mile scale, so that with dividers the full miles and
+fraction may readily be taken off. The nautical mile in the United
+States is taken to be the length of a minute of arc of a great circle on
+a sphere whose surface equals that of the earth; this definition makes
+the nautical mile equal 6080.27 feet. Lecky adopts 6080 feet as the
+nautical mile. The length of the actual minute of latitude on the
+earth's surface increases from 6046 feet at the equator to 6108 feet at
+the poles, an increase of about one per cent. It is, however, this
+somewhat variable unit of length which is ordinarily used in scaling
+distances on the sailing charts.
+
+On small scale charts there is usually a border scale entirely around
+the chart, conveniently subdivided; this serves the double purpose of
+facilitating the plotting or reading of positions by latitude and
+longitude and of furnishing a scale of minutes of latitude for use in
+measuring distances. On a mercator chart this scale of course varies
+with the latitude and it must be referred to in the mean latitude of the
+distance to be measured. In general practice the minute of latitude is
+taken as equal to the nautical mile.
+
+#Projection.# On only a few charts is there a statement of the
+projection used. Practically all general sailing charts are on the
+mercator projection, which can be readily recognized by the rectangular
+network of meridians and parallels and the increase with latitude of the
+distance between the parallels. On large scale local and harbor charts
+the kind of projection used is not of importance to navigation, as for
+such limited areas the difference between projections would not affect
+the use of the chart. On certain small scale charts of the United States
+Coast Survey which are on the polyconic projection this fact is stated
+on the chart, and can also be readily recognized by the convergence of
+the meridians and curvature of the parallels. Gnomonic charts intended
+for taking off great circle courses are always described in their titles
+and are also easily recognized by the increased scale and distortion
+toward all the borders. Charts of the polar regions are published on
+several different projections, which are distinguished from the mercator
+by their circular or curved parallels.
+
+#Geographic position.# For large scale and harbor charts the latitude
+and longitude of some point marked on the chart are sometimes stated on
+the face of the chart. For others of these, however, and for smaller
+scale and general charts, positions are obtained by reference to the
+border scale. There is a latitude scale down either side of the chart,
+and a longitude scale across the top and bottom. These scales are
+conveniently subdivided into degrees, minutes, or fractions of a minute.
+The minute is divided into tenths (6''), sixths (10''), quarters (15''),
+or halves (30'') on various charts.
+
+#Directions# are indicated on charts both by the projection lines and by
+compass roses. Nearly all charts are now oriented with the meridian,
+that is, north is the top of the chart, and on a mercator chart the east
+and west border lines are parallel with the meridians and the north and
+south border lines with the parallels. Formerly many charts were not so
+oriented. Some of these are still in use and can readily be recognized
+by the diagonal or inclined direction of the projection lines with
+respect to the border of the chart. Of course directions must not be
+referred to the border lines of these diagonal charts, and scales along
+such border lines must not be used. Directions with respect to true
+north may always be referred to the projection lines of the chart, but
+on a polyconic or polar chart a direction must not be carried so far
+from any projection line as to introduce error on account of
+convergence of the meridians. Compass roses are placed on charts to
+facilitate the taking off or laying down of directions, though in some
+respects their use is less accurate and convenient than the use of
+protractors, referring to the projection lines. The British charts and
+many of those of the United States Coast Survey have only magnetic
+compasses, with degrees outside and points inside, the former graduated
+to 90 deg.. These are engraved on the chart with the magnetic variation for
+the date of publication, or for a few years in advance, and give the
+annual change in the variation. Because of expense of engraving they can
+be changed on the charts only at intervals of some years, and until this
+is done allowance for the change in variation is to be made if
+important. The German charts and those of the United States Hydrographic
+Office now have a threefold compass, the outer one degrees true, the
+middle degrees magnetic and the inner points magnetic; the degrees in
+both cases are graduated to 360 deg., reading from north through east,
+south, and west; thus northwest would be stated as 315 deg. instead of N.
+45 deg. W. Small scale charts covering extensive areas have no magnetic
+compasses. They sometimes have true compasses, and usually have the
+isogonic lines, or lines of equal magnetic variation, marked on them,
+from which the variation at any intermediate point can be estimated.
+
+#Depths.# The unit used for depths is always stated plainly on the
+chart, and it is important to note this carefully, as the British,
+American, and Japanese charts use fathoms for some charts and feet for
+others, and most other countries use meters. Some of the earlier charts
+of the United States coast have the depths inside of the 18-foot curve
+in feet and outside of that curve in fathoms.
+
+Depth curves are shown on charts in order to bring clearly to the eye
+the different depth areas and the limits for navigation of vessels of
+various drafts. The shoaler areas are usually indicated by sanding the
+outer limit or the entire area within the depth curve. For the curves
+of greater depths various standard symbols are used which vary slightly
+in the different series but which may readily be recognized by the
+soundings on either side of them. On the British charts the 1 and 3
+fathom curves are usually indicated by sanding the outer edge of the
+areas of these depths respectively; beyond these the standard curves
+shown on these charts are the 5, 10, 20, and 100 fathom curves. Similar
+curves are used on the United States charts. The German charts show the
+2, 4, 6, 10, and 20 meter and various deeper curves, and the French the
+2, 5, 10, and 20 meter and deeper curves. On the United States Lake
+Survey charts the areas included within the 6, 12, and 18 foot curves
+are shaded with a blue tint, heavy along the outer edge, which brings
+out strongly the shoal areas.
+
+Depth curves if clearly shown are a great aid in interpreting the
+hydrography and making plain the shoals and passages. The system of
+curves should always be understood when using a chart, and it may
+sometimes aid the navigator to trace out with a pencil an additional
+curve, if needed, beyond the draft of his vessel. The abbreviations used
+for the bottom characteristics are explained either on the chart or on
+the sheet of chart symbols, and give information which is useful in
+anchoring, and may be helpful in identifying a position by soundings.
+When a sounding is made without the lead reaching bottom, the depth
+obtained is sometimes shown on the chart by a short line and zero above
+the figure, indicating that at the depth stated, bottom was not obtained
+(no bottom). There are a few important symbols shown in the water area
+of charts. The sunken rock symbol indicates a dangerous area, or a
+danger having a moderate depth of water over it, or a rock the least
+water over which is not known; ordinarily on the United States charts
+the least depth will be stated when known, and the symbol omitted. The
+rock awash symbol indicates a rock awash at some stage of the tide,
+unless more definitely stated. The position of a wreck is indicated by a
+special symbol. P. D. (position doubtful) and E. D. (existence doubtful)
+are placed after soundings or rocks or other features which depend on
+some doubtful report not yet verified.
+
+The following are the relations between depth units found on various
+charts:
+
+  1 meter               = 3.281 English feet = 0.547 English fathoms.
+  1 sajene (Russian)    = 7     English feet = 1.167 English fathoms.
+  1 braza (old Spanish) = 5.484 English feet = 0.914 English fathom.
+  1.829 meters          = 6     English feet = 1.000 English fathom.
+
+#Aids to navigation.# Each series of charts has a definite system of
+representing the aids to navigation; these are similar in principle but
+differ as to detail. The characteristics of the lights, light-vessels,
+buoys, and beacons are usually explained by abbreviations placed by the
+side of each, and the entire system of representation is given on the
+explanatory sheet for the charts. Various methods of coloring lights and
+sectors and buoys are in use on different charts. It is evidently of
+importance that the user of the chart should readily understand the
+significance of the navigational aids as shown. For details regarding
+lights it is of course desirable to refer to the light lists; for the
+coasts of the United States detailed buoy lists are also published.
+Range and channel lines when shown are represented by distinctive
+symbols with bearings indicated. Danger ranges for the avoidance of
+shoals are sometimes shown. On the British charts bearings as stated on
+range and channel lines are magnetic; the custom varies on other charts
+and must be carefully noted in each case.
+
+#Plane of reference.# The soundings given on the chart express the depth
+of water when the tide is at the height adopted for the plane of
+reference; this same plane is used in the tide tables, which thus will
+indicate the amount to be added to the soundings when the tide is above
+the plane, or to be subtracted when it is below. In order to be on the
+safe side the plane of reference adopted is always some low stage of the
+tide, so that there is usually more water than shown on the chart.
+
+On the British and German charts the soundings are reduced to the mean
+low water of ordinary spring tides, unless otherwise stated. On the
+charts of the Coast and Geodetic Survey the following are the planes of
+reference: for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the mean of the low
+waters; for the Pacific coast, Alaska, and the Philippines, the mean of
+the lower low waters, except for Puget Sound and Wrangell Narrows, where
+planes two and three feet lower respectively have been adopted.
+According to the Tide Tables for 1908, at New York (Sandy Hook) the tide
+will fall below the plane of reference on 135 days during the year, but
+the extreme low tide will be only one foot below the plane. At Portland,
+Maine, in 1908, the extreme low water is 2.1 feet below the plane, and
+at San Francisco 1.5 feet. Of course when the tide is below the plane of
+reference the amount must be subtracted from the depths shown on the
+chart.
+
+Strong winds and unusual barometric pressure may have a marked effect on
+the height of tide, so that it may differ appreciably from the predicted
+height, which is of course based on normal conditions. At Baltimore and
+at Willets Point observation shows that a heavy wind may reduce the tide
+four feet below the predicted heights.
+
+#Tides.# Information regarding tides is given on all large scale charts,
+and additional information and predictions may be found in the Tide
+Tables. On the charts of the United States coast there is a small tide
+table giving for the high and low waters the time relations to the
+moon's transit and the height relations to the plane of reference. On
+the British charts there is a brief statement as to the tides either
+at the port on the chart or in the general notes; this ordinarily
+gives the interval in hours and minutes between the moon's meridian
+passage and the time of high water for the periods of full and new moon,
+and also the amount in feet that the spring and neap tides rise above
+the plane of reference, and the range of the neap tide. The following is
+an example of such a tide note: "H. W. F. and C. Campbellton IV^h 0^m.
+Springs rise 10 feet, Neaps 7 feet."
+
+At some important ports information as to the state of the tide is given
+to vessels, either by means of signal balls, or by automatic tidal
+indicators, as at the Narrows in New York Harbor, where a large dial
+shows to passing vessels the height of the tide, and an arrow indicates
+whether it is rising or falling.
+
+The tidal information becomes important and must be considered in
+navigation or in anchoring in waters where the available depth at low
+water approximates the draft of the vessel. In the general use of coast
+charts it is also important to observe the effect of the stage of tide
+on the appearance of many features. Rocks rising some feet above low
+water may be entirely submerged at high water. In some areas the aspect
+may be radically changed between high and low water by the baring of
+extensive shoals or reefs.
+
+#Currents.# Information, when available, as to currents is given either
+by a note or by current arrows placed on the chart at the position of
+observation. Additional information as to certain regions is given in
+the United States Tide Tables. Tidal currents, flood and ebb, and
+currents not due to tidal action are distinguished by symbols, and the
+velocity is given in knots, and on some charts is indicated by the
+lengths of the arrows.
+
+Complete and systematic current observations have been made in
+comparatively few localities because of the time and expense necessary
+to get the full information as to the variations of the currents with
+the tides and seasons. Ordinarily therefore the current arrows shown on
+charts indicate only the average direction and velocity, or possibly
+only the conditions existing at the season when the survey was made.
+Oceanic and coast currents are probably much less uniform than might be
+inferred from the current streams drawn on maps and charts. A more
+systematic investigation of ocean currents is required to fulfill the
+needs of navigation.
+
+The tidal currents seldom turn with the tides, and there may be an
+interval of as much as three hours between the time of high tide or
+low tide and slack water. This leads to the apparent anomaly that in
+cases the current may be running with its greatest velocity at the time
+of high or low water, and may be running into a channel for several
+hours after the tide commences to fall. It is therefore, evidently, not
+safe to draw inferences as to currents solely from the tidal heights.
+
+There are passages where the tidal currents become of the greatest
+importance to navigation, as, for instance, in Seymour Narrows on the
+inside route to Alaska, where the current velocity reaches 12 knots and
+the interval of apparent slack water lasts but a few minutes.
+
+#Elevations.# The unit used for elevations is also stated on the face of
+the chart, as also the plane to which elevations are referred. On the
+United States charts this is generally mean high water and on British
+charts the high water of ordinary spring tides. Rocks and islets usually
+have figures shown beside them, either in brackets or underscored, which
+indicate the height above high water. Rocks which are bare at low water
+sometimes have a note "dries" or "bares" so many feet, indicating their
+height above low tide, although they are covered at high tide. The
+British charts in some regions where there is a large range of tide have
+underlined figures in the area between high water and low water
+indicating the heights above low water, or the depths of water over the
+bank at high water, as explained in each case.
+
+#Topography.# The land area on most charts is distinguished from the
+water area by a stipple or tint; on some charts the topographic features
+have, however, been depended upon to bring out the land from the water.
+The solid shore line is the high-water line, and should be clear on the
+chart; the area between high and low water is sanded or otherwise shaded
+on all charts. The relief of the land is represented by hill shading or
+by contour lines which are the successive curves of elevation on the
+land. Topographic symbols are used for some of the more important
+features, such as cliffs, rocky ledges, buildings, bridges, trees,
+roads, etc. It is important for the navigator to understand the
+significance of the hill representation and the symbols, as they will
+aid him in recognizing a coast or island, and in identifying landmarks.
+
+#Date of survey and publication.# There is usually an authority note on
+each chart showing the source of information or date of survey; if on a
+coast subject to change, the latter is important. On the United States
+Coast Survey charts the date of publication of the edition is given,
+and on British and other charts the date of both large and small
+corrections. The chart catalogues give the dates of the last editions,
+or the dates of extensive corrections, and this affords a means of
+seeing whether the copy of the chart in use is the latest edition
+available.
+
+
+
+
+USE OF CHARTS IN NAVIGATION.
+
+
+#Chart working.# In crossing the open and deep portions of the ocean,
+where the only data given may be the projection lines and soundings far
+deeper than can be reached with navigational sounding machines, the
+chart is used to lay out in advance the general course to be followed
+and to plot the positions of the vessel at intervals either as
+determined by observations or, lacking these, by dead reckoning. When
+necessary the courses of the vessel are modified as the plotted
+positions are found to fall one side or the other of the proposed
+general track.
+
+The principal operations on a chart are plotting or taking off positions
+by latitude and longitude, laying down or taking off bearings,
+directions, and courses, plotting or measuring distances, and laying
+down or taking off angles.
+
+To plot a position by its latitude and longitude on a mercator chart,
+set a parallel ruler on the adjacent parallel and then move it to the
+required latitude as shown by the border scale at either side; then with
+a pair of dividers at the upper or lower longitude border scale take the
+distance from the nearest meridian and lay this distance off along the
+edge of the parallel ruler. The latitude and longitude of a point are
+taken from the chart by reversing this process, or with the dividers
+only. A direction is laid down on the chart or read from the chart
+preferably by using some form of protractor and measuring the angle from
+the projection lines. In this country it is more commonly done by
+carrying the direction with a parallel ruler either from or to a compass
+rose printed on the chart. Distances are measured or laid down on a
+mercator chart by using the latitude border scale for the middle
+latitude. On polyconic and other larger scale charts distances are
+measured from the scales printed on the chart. It should be remarked
+that in general where special accuracy is required distances should be
+computed and not scaled from any chart, because of the error due to the
+distortion of paper in printing.
+
+The use of protractors on charts in plotting by angles in the
+three-point problem will be referred to later.
+
+The course to be steered to allow for a set due to current or wind may
+be obtained by a graphical solution on the chart, though it will be
+preferable to do this on other paper, using a larger scale. (Fig. 38.)
+The direction and velocity of the set and the course and speed of the
+ship may be considered as two sides of a parallelogram of forces, of
+which the diagonal is the distance and course made good. To obtain the
+course to steer to reach a given point with a given current and speed of
+vessel, lay down the direction of the destination; from the starting
+point lay off the direction of set and the amount in one hour; from the
+extremity of this describe an arc with radius equal to the speed of the
+vessel in one hour. A line drawn from the extremity of the direction of
+set to the point of intersection of the arc and the course to be made
+good will give the direction of the course to be steered, and the point
+of intersection will also be the estimated position of the vessel at the
+end of the hour's run.
+
+#Methods of locating a vessel.# The principal methods used for locating
+the position of a vessel are by astronomical observations, by dead
+reckoning, by compass bearings, by ranges, by horizontal angles, by
+soundings, by vertical angles, and by sound. The full discussion of
+these methods pertains to navigation and pilotage, and they will be only
+briefly referred to here as to their graphical application to charts.
+
+#Astronomical methods.# There are a number of methods of obtaining the
+position of a vessel by astronomical observations. When the position is
+computed the chart enters into these only in the plotting of the final
+result, so that with one exception these methods will not be referred to
+further here.
+
+The elegant method discovered by an American seaman, Captain Sumner, in
+1843, is in part graphical, to be worked out upon the chart. This method
+is based on the obvious fact that at any instant there is a point on the
+earth having the sun in its zenith and which is the center of circles on
+the earth's surface along the circumference of any one of which the
+sun's altitude is the same at all points. A short portion of such a
+circle may be considered as a straight line and can be determined by
+locating one point and its direction, or two points in it. This is known
+as a Sumner line. (Fig. 39.)
+
+From an observation of the sun's altitude and azimuth and an assumed
+latitude a position is computed and plotted and a line drawn on the
+chart through this position at right angles to the azimuth of the sun as
+taken from the azimuth tables and laid off from a meridian. Another
+method is to compute positions with two assumed latitudes and plot the
+two resulting positions and draw a line through them. The vessel must be
+somewhere on the resulting Sumner line. A good determination may be
+obtained by the intersection of two Sumner lines obtained from two
+observations of the sun with sufficient interval so that there will be a
+change of azimuth of as much as 30 degrees to give a fair intersection.
+Allowance must be made for the movement of the vessel between the two
+observations by drawing a line parallel to the first and at a distance
+equal to the distance made good. An excellent intersection may be
+obtained by observation of the sun, and before or after it of a star in
+the twilight at a different azimuth.
+
+[Illustration: COURSE TO ALLOW FOR SET, GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
+
+FIG. 38.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY INTERSECTION OF SUMNER LINES
+
+FIG. 39.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY COMPASS BEARINGS
+
+FIG. 40.]
+
+Even a single Sumner line, however, furnishes valuable information, as
+it may be combined with other sources of information to obtain an
+approximation to the position. The vessel must be somewhere on this
+line, and this gives a good check on the position by dead reckoning, or
+an intersection may be obtained with a line or bearing of a distant land
+object, or a line of soundings may be compared on the chart with the
+Sumner line.
+
+If an observation is taken when the observed heavenly body is bearing
+abeam, it is evident that the resulting Sumner line will be the
+direction of the course of the vessel, and this fact may be useful in
+shaping the course when nearing the land or a danger.
+
+#Dead reckoning.# When impossible to obtain the position by any other
+means, it is computed or plotted from the last determined position,
+using the courses and distances run as shown by compass and log and
+allowing for effect of current and wind. Because of uncertainties in all
+these elements, positions so obtained may be from five to twenty miles
+in error in a two-hundred-mile run, depending of course to some extent
+on the speed of the vessel.
+
+#Compass bearings.# A compass bearing of a single object, as a
+lighthouse or a tangent to a point of land, laid down on the chart,
+shows that the vessel is somewhere on that line, and when combined with
+other information, as with a Sumner line or the course by dead reckoning
+or the distance by a vertical angle, will give a position whose
+correctness of course depends on the accuracy of the data used. Bearings
+of two objects not in the same direction give two lines on the chart
+whose intersection is the position. This will be very weak if the angle
+of intersection is acute, and will become stronger as it approaches a
+right angle. A bearing of a third object should be taken when
+practicable, as it affords a valuable check in that the three lines
+should intersect in the same point; if they do not do so when plotted
+the error is either in the observations, or the compass, or the
+plotting, or the chart. (Fig. 40). All compass bearings are of course
+dependent upon the accuracy of the compass and the knowledge of its
+errors due to the local magnetic effect of the ship, and also upon the
+correctness with which the magnetic variation from true north is known.
+Bearings of near objects should therefore always be preferred, and those
+of distant objects considered as giving only approximate positions. An
+error of one degree in the bearing of an object 30 miles away will
+deflect the plotted line about one-half mile. Because of the facility
+with which they may be taken compass bearings are much used for inshore
+navigation, but in point of reliability they are inferior to some of the
+other methods.
+
+A single or "danger" bearing of an object is often a valuable guide in
+avoiding a danger. For example, a reef may lie to the westward of a line
+drawn South 10 deg. East from a lighthouse; in approaching a vessel will
+pass safely to the eastward of the reef if the lighthouse is not allowed
+to bear any to the northward of North 10 deg. West. (Fig. 41.)
+
+Two successive bearings of a single object, as, for instance, a
+lighthouse, noting the distance run in the interval, afford a convenient
+and much used means of locating the position with respect to that
+object. Such bearings are drawn on the chart in reversed direction from
+the object. The distance run between the bearings, as read by the log
+and corrected for current if practicable, is scaled off with dividers
+and the course of the vessel is set off with parallel ruler; the latter
+is then moved across the two plotted directions until the distance
+intercepted between them equals that scaled with the dividers, and the
+edge of the ruler then represents the track of the vessel. (Fig. 42.) If
+the angle from the bow, or from the course of the vessel, for the second
+bearing is double that for the first bearing, the distance from the
+object at the second bearing is equal to that run by the vessel in the
+interval, and the use of this simple relation is designated as "doubling
+the angle on the bow." If the angles between the course and the object
+are respectively 45 deg. and 90 deg. when the two bearings are taken on an
+object on the shore, the distance that the ship passes offshore when the
+object is abeam is equal to the distance run between the two bearings;
+this is a much used navigational device, known as the "bow and beam
+bearing" or the "four-point bearing." There is an advantage, however, in
+using bearings at two and four points (or 22.5 deg. and 45 deg.), as these give
+the probable distance that the object will be passed before it is abeam.
+
+#Ranges.# A valuable line of position is obtained by noting when two
+well-situated objects are in range, that is, one back of the other in
+the line of sight from the vessel, as, for instance, a church spire
+appearing behind a lighthouse or a rock in line with a prominent point.
+Such ranges are of course entirely free from compass errors, and should
+be noted whenever there is favorable opportunity. The value of the range
+in plotting will increase with the distance between the objects, and if
+the two are close in proportion to the distance to the vessel the
+direction will be weak owing to the uncertainty in drawing a direction
+through close points. Artificial ranges are often erected as aids to
+navigation, usually to indicate the course to be followed in passing
+through a channel. Ranges afford a valuable guide in avoiding dangers,
+as for example an inspection of the chart may show that if a certain
+lighthouse is kept in line with or open from an islet a dangerous shoal
+will be given a good berth; on coasts not well buoyed such danger ranges
+are sometimes marked on the charts. (Fig. 43.)
+
+[Illustration: DANGER BEARING
+
+FIG. 41.]
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY SUCCESSIVE BEARINGS TWO AND FOUR POINT
+BEARINGS
+
+FIG. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: RANGE TO AVOID DANGER
+
+FIG. 43.]
+
+#Horizontal sextant angles.# The location of a position by the
+three-point problem, using sextant angles, is much more exact than by
+bearings, but is less used because not so well known and also because
+additional instruments are required and the conditions are not always
+favorable. It is so valuable a method, however, that it should be used,
+when necessary, on every well-equipped vessel. A single horizontal angle
+taken with a sextant between objects, as two lighthouses, defines the
+position of the vessel as somewhere on the circumference of a circle
+passing through the two objects and the vessel. A protractor laid on the
+chart with two of its arms set at the observed angle and passing through
+the two objects, will permit of locating two or more points of this
+circle on the chart. This furnishes a line of position which may be
+combined with other information to locate the vessel. With a compass
+bearing of one of the objects the position may be plotted directly from
+the single angle. Two sextant angles measured at the same instant
+between three objects furnish one of the most accurate means of locating
+the position of a vessel, this being the same method that is ordinarily
+used in hydrographic surveying, known as the three-point problem. (Fig.
+44.) The two angles are conveniently set off on a three-arm protractor,
+which is shifted on the chart until the three arms touch the three
+points, when the position of the center is plotted. A third angle to a
+fourth point furnishes a valuable check in case of doubt. Two angles may
+also be taken to four objects without any common point, and in this case
+portions of the two circles of position are plotted and their
+intersection will be the ship's position.
+
+The value of this method depends largely on the selection of favorably
+located objects, and it is quite important that the principles of the
+three-point problem be understood. If the ship is on or near the
+circumference of a circle which passes through the three objects the
+position will be very weak, and the same is true if the distance between
+any two of the objects is small as compared with the distance from them
+to the vessel. A useful general rule is that the position will be strong
+if the middle one of the three objects is the nearest to the vessel,
+provided that no two of the objects are close together in comparison
+with the distance to the vessel.
+
+A single sextant angle furnishes a means of avoiding a known danger by
+using what is known as the horizontal "danger angle." (Fig. 45.) Note
+two well-defined objects on the coast either side of the danger to be
+avoided and describe a circle through them and passing sufficiently
+outside of the reef to give it a safe berth. With a protractor on the
+chart note the angle between the objects at any point on the outer part
+of this circle. If in passing, the angle at the ship between the two
+objects is not allowed to become greater than this "danger angle" the
+danger will be given a sufficient berth. This method as well as any use
+of sextant angles or bearings depends of course on the accuracy of the
+chart, and caution must be used where it is not certain that the chart
+depends upon an accurate survey.
+
+[Illustration: POSITION BY SEXTANT ANGLES THREE POINT PROBLEM
+
+FIG. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: HORIZONTAL DANGER ANGLE
+
+FIG. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: DISTANCE BY VERTICAL ANGLE]
+
+[Illustration: VERTICAL DANGER ANGLE
+
+FIG. 46.]
+
+#Soundings.# Even if objects cannot be seen, due to distance or thick
+weather, the chart furnishes a valuable aid when a vessel has approached
+within the limits where it is practicable to obtain soundings. Modern
+navigational sounding machines permit of obtaining soundings to depths
+of nearly one hundred fathoms without stopping the vessel. A rough check
+is at once obtained by comparing such soundings with those given on the
+chart for the position carried forward by dead reckoning. If a number of
+soundings are taken and plotted on a piece of tracing paper, spaced by
+the log readings to the scale of the chart, and this tracing paper is
+laid over the chart and shifted in the vicinity of the probable position
+until the soundings best agree with those on the chart, a valuable
+verification of position may be obtained. This is particularly the case
+if the area has been well surveyed, and the soundings taken on the
+vessel are accurate, and the configuration of the bottom has marked
+characteristics. For instance, in approaching New York the crossing of
+the 30, 20, and 10 fathom curves will give a fair warning of the
+distance off the Long Island and New Jersey coasts, and soundings across
+such a feature as the submerged Hudson gorge extending to the
+southeastward of Sandy Hook will give a valuable indication of position.
+The taking of soundings should be resorted to even in favorable
+conditions, in approaching shoal water, as a check on other means of
+locating the vessel. Many marine disasters are attributed to failure to
+make sufficient use of the lead, the simplest of navigational aids.
+
+#Vertical angles.# The vertical angle of elevation of an object whose
+height is known will give the distance, and combined with a bearing or
+other information this permits of locating a vessel where better means
+cannot be used. Distance tables are published for this method. (Fig.
+46.) The vertical angle is measured with a sextant and must be the angle
+at the ship between the top of the object and the sea level vertically
+beneath it; for a hill or mountain, therefore, the eye of the observer
+should be near the water. The object should not be so distant that
+curvature becomes appreciable. The "vertical danger angle" is a means of
+avoiding a known danger, on a principle similar to that of the
+horizontal danger angle; that is, the angle of elevation of a known
+object is not permitted to become greater than a fixed amount depending
+on the distance from the object to the danger to be avoided.
+
+#Positions by sound.# In thick weather sound affords a valuable aid to
+the navigator. In narrow passages noting the echo of the whistle from a
+cliff is a method resorted to, as for instance in Puget Sound and along
+the Alaska coast. Fog whistles and bell buoys are maintained at many
+places. Submarine bells have recently been introduced at a number of
+points along the Atlantic coast, and vessels may be equipped to receive
+these submarine signals transmitted through the water, which indicate
+also the general direction from which the sound comes.
+
+#Need of vigilance.# Too great importance cannot be attached to frequent
+verification of positions by the best available means, particularly when
+approaching the land. Neglect of this or overconfidence has caused many
+disasters. A notable instance was the loss of one of the largest Pacific
+steamers on the coast of Japan in March, 1907. In the afternoon of a
+clear day this vessel ran on to a well-known reef about a mile from a
+lighthouse, resulting in the total loss of vessel and cargo valued at
+three and a half million dollars. The captain was so confident of his
+position and that he was giving the reef a sufficient berth that he laid
+down no bearings on the chart and took no soundings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47. FIELD'S PROTRACTOR AND PARALLEL RULER IN USE ON
+A CHART, PLOTTING BEARING OF A LIGHTHOUSE.]
+
+#Instruments.# The principal instruments needed for use with charts are;
+dividers for taking off distances and latitudes and longitudes, parallel
+ruler for transferring directions to or from a compass rose and for
+taking off or plotting the latitude on a mercator chart, protractor of
+180 degrees for reading the angle with the meridian of any direction or
+for laying off on the chart any given angle with the meridian, and
+three-arm or other full-circle protractor for plotting a position by the
+three-point problem.
+
+Parallel rulers on the principle of Field's are strongly recommended for
+chart work, as they combine in a single instrument the advantages of a
+parallel ruler and a 180-degree protractor. Any direction can be read or
+laid off by simply moving the parallel ruler to the nearest projection
+line, which is a process not only more convenient than referring to the
+compass rose printed on the chart but also more accurate because of the
+longer radius. These instruments can also be used the same as a plain
+parallel ruler. Field's parallel rulers are made in two forms, one
+rolling and the other sliding. The former is a single ruler with edge
+graduated 90 degrees either way, and mounted on rollers; it is the most
+rapid instrument for reading or laying off a direction, but it requires
+a smooth surface. The latter is an ordinary two-bar parallel ruler with
+edge when closed graduated 90 degrees either way; it is a very
+serviceable instrument and probably more to be depended upon for
+ordinary use than the rolling form. Some form of combined protractor and
+parallel ruler should be in every navigational equipment, and it is
+unfortunate that these instruments are not better known in this country.
+There are other forms of half-circle protractors which are used on the
+same principle, that is, of bringing the center on to a projection line
+and reading where the line cuts the border graduation of the protractor.
+Thus a semicircular protractor is used with a separate straight edge,
+along which it is slid to the nearest meridian; another form is the
+simple circular protractor with a thread fastened at the center. All
+these forms of protractors, it will be noted, are intended to work from
+the true meridian, and they are usually graduated in degrees only; the
+use of degrees instead of points is becoming much more general in
+navigational work, and reference to the true meridian is also more
+common than formerly.
+
+The standard three-arm protractor, or station pointer, as it is known to
+the English, should be a part of every navigational outfit because of
+its value in locating a position by the three-point problem. A recent
+American invention, Court's three-arm protractor, is an instrument made
+of celluloid for the same purpose. It should not be considered as a
+substitute for the standard metal instrument, but it is a simple, cheap,
+and handy supplement to it, as it may be readily used for small angles
+and short distances where there are mechanical difficulties in working
+with the metal three-arm protractor. Other protractors can be used for
+the three-point problem, as, for instance, Cust's protractor on
+celluloid, on which the angles are drawn in pencil and erased, and the
+tracing-paper protractor.
+
+#Degree of reliance on charts.# The value of a chart must not be judged
+alone from its general appearance, as skill in preparation and
+publication may give a handsome appearance to an incomplete survey. On
+the other hand a thorough survey might through poor preparation result
+in a chart defective either in information or in utility.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48. THREE-ARM PROTRACTOR IN USE ON A CHART, PLOTTING
+POSITION FROM TWO ANGLES.]
+
+The degree of completeness of the soundings, the character of the
+region, and the date of the survey should be taken into account in
+deciding as to the amount of reliance to be placed on the chart. Areas
+where the soundings are not distributed with fair uniformity may be
+assumed not to have been completely surveyed. Caution should be used in
+navigating on charts where the survey is not complete, and even where
+careful surveys exist care must be taken if the bottom is of very
+irregular nature with lumps near the navigable depth, as for instance on
+some of the coral reef coasts. Isolated soundings shoaler than the
+surrounding depths should be avoided, as there may be less water than
+shown. In such a region, unless the whole area is dragged, it is
+impossible to make it entirely certain that all obstructions are
+charted.
+
+While an immense amount of faithful work has been put into the
+preparation of many charts, the user must constantly exercise his own
+judgment as to the reliance to be placed on them. A coast is not to be
+considered as clear unless it is shown to be; buoys may get adrift and
+be in a different position or be gone altogether; fog signals vary in
+distinctness owing to atmospheric conditions; extreme or unusual tides
+may fall below the plane of reference; owing to strong winds the actual
+tide may differ from the predicted tide. Errors sometimes creep in from
+various sources, such as those due to different reference longitudes or
+the use of a corrected longitude for a portion of the chart without
+changing other positions to which the same correction is applicable;
+clerical and printing errors may occur; there are sometimes omissions in
+surveys; a feature may get plotted in two different positions; tide rips
+are reported as breakers and floating objects as rocks or islands, and
+thus many dangers have gotten on the charts which cannot be found again,
+and false reports are sometimes made to shield some one from blame. Most
+of these classes of errors and uncertainties, however, disappear in the
+use of charts of a thoroughly surveyed coast.
+
+#Use the latest editions of charts.# The latest edition of a chart
+should always be used and should be corrected for all notices since its
+issue. Carelessness or false economy in not providing the largest scale
+or the latest chart has been the cause of more than one marine disaster.
+
+The British Board of Trade issue the following official notice to
+shipowners and agents: "The attention of the Board of Trade has
+frequently been called to cases in which British vessels have been
+endangered or wrecked through the masters' attempting to navigate them
+by means of antiquated or otherwise defective charts. The Board of Trade
+desires, therefore, to direct the especial attention of shipowners and
+their agents to the necessity of seeing that the charts taken or sent on
+board their ships are corrected to the time of sailing. Neglect to
+supply a ship with proper charts will be brought prominently before the
+Court of Inquiry in the event of a wreck occurring from that cause."
+
+The following is a translation of a notice in the preface to the
+catalogue of charts published by the German government: "Owners and
+masters of vessels are apprised that cases of marine accidents in which
+the casualty was due to antiquated or erroneous charts, have frequently
+been before the admiralty courts. In consequence of this, the
+'Instructions for the prevention of accidents to steamers and sailing
+vessels,' issued by the Seeberufsgenossenschaft have been amended by the
+following additional paragraph: 'It is obligatory upon every master,
+except when engaged in local coastwise navigation, to keep the Notices
+to Mariners regularly, and with the aid of them to carefully keep his
+charts up to date.'"
+
+The British shipping laws provide that a ship may not be sent to sea in
+such an unseaworthy state that the life of any person is thereby
+endangered, and the House of Lords has defined the term "seaworthy" to
+mean "in a fit state as to repairs, equipment, and crew, and in all
+other respects, to encounter the ordinary perils of the voyage." Proper
+charts and sailing directions are a necessary part of the equipment of a
+vessel, and the courts have frequently inquired into this.
+
+The records of the British courts, however, show that even in recent
+years many ships have been damaged or lost owing directly or indirectly
+to failure to have the latest information on board. The following are
+instances from these records.
+
+In 1890 the steamer _Dunluce_ was lost owing to the use of an old
+edition of the Admiralty chart which showed a depth of 4-1/2 fathoms on
+the Wikesgrund, whereas the later chart showed much less water. In this
+case the master had requested his ship chandler to send him the latest
+chart.
+
+In 1891 the steamer _St. Donats_ got ashore on a patch which was not
+shown on the chart in use, which was privately published in 1881; the
+danger was, however, shown on the Admiralty chart corrected to 1889.
+
+Also in 1891 the steamer _Trent_ was lost on the Missipezza Rock in the
+Adriatic. The ship was navigated by a private chart published in 1890
+which did not show this rock, and by sailing directions published in
+1866.
+
+The steamer _Aboraca_, stranded in the Gulf of Bothnia in 1894, was
+being navigated by a chart corrected to 1881 which did not show that the
+Storkallagrund light-vessel had been moved eight miles.
+
+The steamer _Ravenspur_ was lost on Bilbao Breakwater owing to the use
+of a chart not up to date which did not show the breakwater. In 1898 the
+steamer _Cromarty_ was lost in attempting to enter Ponta Delgada harbor,
+and in 1901 the steamer "Dinnington" was lost by steaming on to the new
+breakwater in Portland harbor; both of these disasters were likewise due
+to the use of old charts which did not show the breakwaters. In these
+three cases the masters of the vessels had authority to obtain the
+necessary charts at the owners' expense.
+
+Not so, however, in the following case from the finding of a British
+marine court in 1877: "The primary cause of the ship's getting on shore
+was due to the master's being guided in his navigation by an obsolete
+Admiralty chart dated September 1, 1852, and corrected to April, 1862,
+and on which no lights are shown to exist either in ... or ... and to
+his not being supplied with the latest sailing directions. The Court,
+considering that the master was obliged to furnish himself with
+chronometer, barometer, sextant, charts, sailing directions, and
+everything necessary for the navigation of his vessel out of his private
+resources, which, under very favorable circumstances, might perhaps
+reach L150 a year, find themselves unable in this instance to pass a
+heavier censure upon him than that he be severely reprimanded."
+
+The loss of the German steamer _Baker_ on the coast of Cuba on January
+31, 1908, was declared by the marine court at Hamburg to be due in part
+to the use of an unofficial chart which did not show the latest surveys
+on that coast.
+
+#Use the largest scale charts.# The largest scale chart available should
+be employed when entering channels, bays, or harbors, as it gives
+information with more clearness and detail, positions may be more
+accurately plotted, and sometimes it is the first corrected for new
+information.
+
+The records of the courts of inquiry also show cases where vessels have
+been wrecked owing to the use of charts of too small scale.
+
+In 1890 the steamer _Lady Ailsa_ was lost on the Plateau du Four. The
+only chart on board for this locality was a general chart of the Bay of
+Biscay, and the stranding was due to the master's mistaking one buoy for
+another. The court found that the chart, although a proper one for
+general use, was not sufficient for the navigation of a vessel in such
+narrow waters and on such a dangerous coast.
+
+The _Zenobia_ was stranded on the San Thome Bank in 1891. On this vessel
+the owners were to furnish the chronometers and the master the charts
+and sailing directions. The master was, however, apparently satisfied
+with only a general chart of the South Atlantic for navigation on the
+coast of Brazil, and had no sailing directions at all.
+
+#The depth curves# on charts furnish a valuable guide, and if the curves
+are lacking or broken in some parts it is usually a sign that the
+information is incomplete. The 100-fathom curve is a general warning of
+approach to the coast. The 10-fathom curve on rocky coasts should be
+considered as a danger curve, and caution used after crossing it. The
+5-fathom curve is the most important for modern vessels of medium draft,
+as it indicates for them the practical limit of navigation. The 3, 2,
+and 1-fathom curves are a guide to smaller vessels, but have less
+significance than formerly because of the increase of draft of vessels.
+
+#The shrinkage of paper#, especially in plate printing, has been
+referred to. This introduces two possible sources of error: first, the
+shrinkage being different in the two directions, any scale printed on
+the chart will be accurate only when used in a direction parallel to
+itself; second, for the same reason, angles and directions will be
+somewhat distorted. Fortunately these errors are not serious in the
+ordinary navigational use of a chart, but they should not be overlooked
+when accurate plotting or measuring of distances is attempted on a
+plate-printed chart.
+
+The actual shrinkage measured on charts printed from plates varies from
+1/3 inch to 1 inch in a length of chart of 36 inches. On British and
+American plate printed charts the shrinkage is usually from two to
+nearly three times as much in one direction as it is in the other.
+
+#Care of charts.# In order that they may be properly used charts should
+be filed flat and not rolled. They should be systematically arranged so
+that the desired chart can be instantly found. They should be cared for
+and when in bad condition replaced by new copies. They can be most
+conveniently filed in shallow drawers, thus avoiding the placing of many
+charts in a single drawer. The latter is a common fault; it not only
+increases the labor of handling the charts but adds to the liability of
+their injury.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL CHARTS.
+
+
+There are several publications in book and in chart form which are
+either necessary or convenient for use in connection with nautical
+charts. These comprise the coast pilots, notices to mariners, tide
+tables, light and buoy lists, and various special charts.
+
+#Coast pilots#, or sailing directions, are books giving descriptions of
+the main features, as far as of interest to seamen, of the coast and
+adjacent waters, with directions for navigation. They contain much
+miscellaneous information of value to the mariner, especially the
+stranger. Although they contain additional facts which cannot be shown
+on the charts, they are not at all intended to supersede the latter; the
+mariner should in general rely on the charts. The sailing directions can
+be less readily corrected than the charts, and in all cases where they
+differ the charts are to be taken as the guide.
+
+The most extensive series of sailing directions is that published by the
+British Admiralty, comprising fifty-six volumes and including all the
+navigable regions of the world. In the United States the Coast and
+Geodetic Survey publishes ten volumes of coast pilots for the Atlantic,
+Gulf, and Pacific coasts, Porto Rico, and southeastern Alaska, and eight
+volumes of sailing directions for Alaska and the Philippine Islands. The
+United States Hydrographic Office publishes sixteen volumes of sailing
+directions for various parts of the world.
+
+#Notices to Mariners# are published at frequent intervals, giving all
+important corrections, which should be at once applied by hand to the
+charts, such as rocks or shoals discovered and lights and buoys
+established or moved. New charts, new editions, and canceled charts are
+also announced.
+
+These notices should be carefully examined and the necessary corrections
+made on all charts of the sets in use on the vessel. A chart should be
+considered as a growing rather than a finished instrument, and constant
+watchfulness is required to see that it is kept up to date. Neglect of
+this may cause shipwreck, as the following instance shows. Report came
+to Manila in 1904 that there was a low sand islet lying off the very
+poorly charted northeast coast of Samar; this information was promptly
+published in the local Notice to Mariners. About a month later a small
+steamer was sent to land some native constabulary on that coast. The
+captain failed to obtain or observe this notice, and approached the
+coast before daylight on a course which led directly across the sand
+islet. The vessel was driven far up on the sand, where it still lies.
+
+In the United States, weekly Notices to Mariners are published by the
+Department of Commerce and Labor for the coasts under the jurisdiction
+of the United States, and by the Navy Department for all regions. These
+notices are distributed free and can be obtained from chart agents and
+consular officers. In Great Britain the notices are published at
+frequent intervals by the Hydrographic Office, and practically all
+countries issuing charts also issue such notices. Information as to
+important changes in lights and other announcements of navigational
+interest are also sometimes printed in the marine columns of newspapers
+and in nautical periodicals.
+
+#Tide Tables.# Brief information as to the time and height of the tide
+is usually for convenience given on the face of the chart. More complete
+information is published in the Tide Tables, with which every navigator
+should be provided. "The Tide Tables for United States and foreign
+ports," published annually in advance by the United States Coast and
+Geodetic Survey, give complete predictions of the time and height of
+high and low water for each day of the year for 70 of the principal
+ports of the world, and the tidal differences from some principal port
+for 3000 subordinate ports. The other leading nations also publish
+annual tide tables; those of the British government are entitled "Tide
+Tables for British and Irish ports, and also the times of high water for
+the principal places on the globe."
+
+#Light and buoy lists.# Brief information as to all artificial aids to
+navigation is shown on the charts. Every vessel should also have on
+board the latest official light and buoy lists, which give a more
+detailed description than can be placed on the charts.
+
+Light and buoy lists for the coasts of the United States are published
+annually by the Light-House Board. The United States Hydrographic Office
+publishes a "List of Lights of the World" (excepting the United States),
+in three volumes.
+
+The British Hydrographic Office publishes eight volumes of Lists of
+Lights, and these are corrected annually.
+
+#Chart catalogues# are published in connection with all series of
+charts. They give the particulars and price of each chart published, and
+are usually arranged in geographical order, with both alphabetical and
+numerical indexes, for convenience in finding charts either by position,
+name, or number.
+
+#Charts for special purposes.# There are various special charts
+published for the benefit of mariners, although not intended for direct
+use in plotting the course of a vessel or in locating its position. Some
+of the more important of these are mentioned below.
+
+#Gnomonic charts# are intended solely for laying down the great circle
+or shortest practicable courses between points, for which purpose they
+are very convenient. Their use has already been described. The United
+States Hydrographic Office publishes six such charts, for the North
+Atlantic, South Atlantic, Pacific, North Pacific, South Pacific, and
+Indian Oceans.
+
+#Current charts# are published by the British Hydrographic Office for
+the various oceans; these usually show the average ocean currents, but
+for the Atlantic there are monthly and for the Pacific quarterly current
+charts.
+
+#Magnetic variation charts# are published by both the United States and
+British governments. They show on a mercator chart of the world the
+isogonic lines, or lines along which the variation of the needle from
+true north is the same. The lines are drawn for each degree of
+variation. The annual change in the variation is also indicated.
+
+Other magnetic charts are published showing the lines of equal magnetic
+dip, horizontal magnetic force, and vertical magnetic force.
+
+#Meteorological ocean charts# are published by several governments,
+including the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, and give the
+average weather conditions, winds, fogs, currents, ice, tracks of
+storms, and other information. "Pilot charts" of the North Atlantic and
+North Pacific Oceans are issued by the United States Hydrographic Office
+about the first of each month, and give "a forecast of the weather for
+the ensuing and a review of that for the preceding month, together with
+all obtainable information as to the most available sailing and steam
+routes, dangers to navigation, ice, fog, derelicts, etc., and any
+additional information that may be received of value to navigation."
+Mariners in all parts of the world have joined in contributing the
+information which has been used in compiling these pilot charts.
+
+#Track charts# are published by the British and United States
+governments. That of the latter is entitled "Track and distance chart of
+the world, showing the routes traversed by full-powered steamers between
+the principal ports of the world, and the corresponding distances."
+
+#Telegraph charts# are published showing the "telegraphic connections
+afforded by the submarine cables and the principal overland telegraph
+lines."
+
+#Index charts# are outline plans showing the area covered by each chart
+of a series, and furnish a convenient means of finding a chart of any
+desired region or of selecting the most suitable chart for any purpose.
+These index charts are published either in sets, showing all the charts
+of a series, or are bound into the chart catalogues.
+
+#Star charts# are included in navigational series, and are conveniently
+arranged for use on shipboard in identifying the brighter stars. The
+United States Hydrographic Office publishes two, constellations of the
+northern and of the southern hemispheres.
+
+#Explanatory sheets# are published in connection with various series of
+charts, giving explanations of the symbols and abbreviations used and of
+other important features. In the United States the Coast and Geodetic
+Survey has issued a small pamphlet, "Notes on the use of charts," which
+contains explanations of its chart symbols, and the Hydrographic Office
+has published "A manual of conventional symbols and abbreviations in use
+on the official charts of the principal maritime nations."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                     PAGE
+
+  Aids to navigation, 118
+
+  Arbitrary projection, 79
+
+  Astronomical observations, 32
+
+  Astronomical positions, 126
+
+
+  Bearings, position by, 130
+
+  Board of Trade notice, 148
+
+
+  Care of charts, 153
+
+  Catalogues of charts, 157
+
+  Changes in the coast, 98
+
+  Chart making, development of, 6
+
+  Chart publications of various nations, 18
+
+  Charts, earliest nautical, 6
+
+  Charts, loxodromic, 7
+
+  Charts, plain, 8
+
+  Chart schemes, 67
+
+  Chart working, 124
+
+  Coast and Geodetic Survey, United States, 13
+
+  Coast pilots, 154
+
+  Compass bearings, 130
+
+  Compass, nautical use of, 6
+
+  Compass, variation of, 7
+
+  Compilation of information, 67
+
+  Correction of charts, method of, 110
+
+  Cosa, Juan de la, 8
+
+  Current charts, 157
+
+  Currents, 50, 121
+
+
+  Danger angle, horizontal, 136
+
+  Danger bearing, 131
+
+  Danger range, 132
+
+  Dangers, reports of, 56
+
+  Dates on charts, 123
+
+  Dead reckoning, 129
+
+  Depth curves, 116, 152
+
+  Depths, unit for, 19, 116
+
+  Depth units, relation of, 118
+
+  Directions on charts, 115
+
+  Distances, measured on chart, 125
+
+  Distribution of charts, 96
+
+  Doubling angle on bow, 131
+
+  Draft of vessels, 97
+
+  Dragging for dangers, 55
+
+
+  Earthquakes, 109
+
+  Electrotyping plates, 89
+
+  Elevations, 122
+
+  Engraving machines, 89
+
+  Engraving on copper, 84
+
+  Engraving on stone, 93
+
+  Eskimo map, 1
+
+  Etching on copper, 95
+
+  Explanatory sheets, 159
+
+
+  Flattening of the earth, 3
+
+  France, establishment of chart office, 10
+
+
+  Geographic position on charts, 115
+
+  Geography, early, 2
+
+  Germany, contributions to hydrography, 14
+
+  Gnomonic charts, 79, 157
+
+  Gnomonic projection, 74
+
+  Great Britain, contributions to geography, 14
+
+
+  Holland, development of chart making, 10
+
+  Hydrographic Office, British, 13
+
+  Hydrographic Office, United States, 13
+
+  Hydrography, 40
+
+
+  Index charts, 158
+
+  Information on charts, 23
+
+  Instruments used on charts, 141
+
+
+  Lake Survey, United States, 13
+
+  Largest scale chart, 151
+
+  Latest editions of charts, 148
+
+  Light and buoy lists, 156
+
+  Lithographic printing, 94
+
+  Locating a vessel, 126
+
+  Longitude, initial, 19
+
+  Longitude, uncertainties in, 10
+
+
+  Magnetic charts, 157
+
+  Magnetic variation, 56
+
+  Map, earliest, 2
+
+  Map making, development of, 2
+
+  Maps, need of, 1
+
+  Maritime surveys, extension of, 17
+
+  Mercator chart, history, 8
+
+  Mercator projection, 68
+
+  Meteorological charts (pilot charts), 158
+
+
+  Navigation, use of charts in, 124
+
+  Notices to mariners, 111, 155
+
+
+  Paper, shrinkage of, 152
+
+  Parallel rulers, Field's, 141
+
+  Photolithography, 93
+
+  Plane of reference, 20, 119
+
+  Plotting positions, 124
+
+  Polyconic projection, 73
+
+  Printing, plate, 84, 90
+
+  Privately published charts, 21
+
+  Progress of hydrographic surveys, 17
+
+  Projection, explanation of, 114
+
+  Projections, 68, 114
+
+  Protractor, three-arm, 144
+
+  Ptolemy, 3
+
+  Publication of charts, methods, 84
+
+  Purpose of charts, 22
+
+
+  Ranges, 132
+
+  Reading charts, 112
+
+  Reliance on charts, 144
+
+  Reports of dangers, erroneous, 57
+
+  Requirements for charts, 23
+
+  Revision of charts, need of, 97
+
+  Rock, Brooklyn, 50
+
+
+  Sailing directions, early, 4
+
+  Sailing directions, 154
+
+  Scale equivalents, 113
+
+  Scales of charts, 79, 112
+
+  Set, graphical allowance for, 125
+
+  Sextant angles, 132
+
+  Sheets for surveys, 39
+
+  Shrinkage of paper, 152
+
+  Sound, position by, 140
+
+  Sounding machines, 49
+
+  Soundings, position by, 136
+
+  Star charts, 159
+
+  Station pointer, 144
+
+  Steamer for surveying, 49
+
+  Sumner's method, 126
+
+  Supplementary publications, 154
+
+  Surveys on foreign coasts, 14
+
+  Surveys, need of thorough, 31
+
+  Symbols on charts, 20
+
+
+  Telegraph charts, 158
+
+  Three-point problem, 132, 135
+
+  Tides, 50, 120
+
+  Tide tables, 156
+
+  Topography, 39
+
+  Topography on charts, 123
+
+  Track charts, 158
+
+  Triangulation, 32
+
+
+  Uniformity in charts, 21
+
+  Use of charts in navigation, 124
+
+
+  Vertical angles, 139
+
+  Vigias, removal of, 62
+
+  Vigilance, need of, 140
+
+  Volcanic action, 109
+
+
+  Wrecks due to deficient charts, 149
+
+
+
+
+  SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE
+  OF THE
+  PUBLICATIONS
+  OF
+  JOHN WILEY & SONS,
+  NEW YORK.
+  LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED.
+
+  ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS.
+
+
+Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk
+(*) are sold at _net_ prices only. All books are bound in cloth unless
+otherwise stated.
+
+
+AGRICULTURE.
+
+  Armsby's Manual of Cattle-feeding.                            12mo, $1 75
+      Principles of Animal Nutrition.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual:
+      Part I. Propagation, Culture, and Improvement.            12mo,  1 50
+      Part II. Systematic Pomology.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.                      12mo,  1 50
+      Practical Farm Drainage.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  Graves's Forest Mensuration.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  Green's Principles of American Forestry.                      12mo,  1 50
+  Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)     12mo,  2 00
+  Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)         8vo,  5 00
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration.  12mo,  1 50
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of
+        Butter-making.                                           8vo,  1 50
+  Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops.                12mo,  1 50
+  * Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.                                 8vo,  2 50
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Woll's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen.                     16mo,  1 50
+
+
+ARCHITECTURE.
+
+  Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.                      12mo,  1 00
+  Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.         4to,  5 00
+  Birkmire's Planning and Construction of American Theatres.     8vo,  3 00
+      Architectural Iron and Steel.                              8vo,  3 50
+      Compound Rivetee Girders as Applied in Buildings.          8vo,  2 00
+      Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings.        8vo,  3 50
+      Skeleton Construction in Buildings.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Brigg's Modern American School Buildings.                      8vo,  4 00
+  Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings.              8vo,  4 00
+  Freitag's Architectural Engineering.                           8vo,  3 50
+      Fireproofing of Steel Buildings.                           8vo,  2 50
+  French and Ives's Stereotomy.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.                 16mo,  1 00
+      Sanitation of Public Buildings.                           12mo,  1 50
+      Theatre Fires and Panics.                                 12mo,  1 50
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Holly's Carpenters' and Joiners' Handbook.                    18mo,    75
+  Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.            8vo,  2 00
+  Kellaway's How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds.               8vo,  2 00
+  Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket-book.
+        Rewritten Edition.                                16mo, mor.,  5 00
+  Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.                  8vo,  5 00
+      Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses.          8vo,  4 00
+  Monckton's Stair-building.                                     4to,  4 00
+  Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Peabody's Naval Architecture.                                  8vo,  7 50
+  Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.                             8vo,  2 00
+  Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.  16mo, mor.,  4 00
+      * Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Book:
+          * Carpenters' and Woodworkers' Edition.      16mo, morocco,  1 50
+          * Cementworkers and Plasterer's Edition. (In Press.)
+          * Stone- and Brick-mason's Edition.             12mo, mor.,  1 50
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints
+        and Varnish.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.         8vo,  1 50
+  Snow's Principal Species of Wood.                              8vo,  3 50
+  Sondericker's Graphic Statics with Applications to Trusses,
+        Beams, and Arches.                                       8vo,  2 00
+  Towne's Locks and Builders' Hardware.                18mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete
+        Construction.                                            8vo,  3 00
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Air Conditioning, (In Press.)
+  Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron
+        and Steel.                                               8vo,  4 00
+  Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals, Establishment and
+        Maintenance, Suggestions for Hospital Architecture,
+        with Plans for a Small Hospital.                        12mo,  1 25
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                Large 4to,  1 00
+
+
+ARMY AND NAVY.
+
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder, Nitro-cellulose, and the Theory
+        of the Cellulose Molecule.                              12mo,  2 50
+  Chase's Screw Propellers and Marine Propulsion.                8vo,  3 00
+  Cloke's Gunner's Examiner.                                     8vo,  1 50
+  Craig's Azimuth.                                               4to,  3 50
+  Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.             8vo,  3 00
+  * Davis's Elements of Law.                                     8vo,  2 50
+  *   Treatise on the Military Law of United States.             8vo,  7 00
+                                                               Sheep,  7 50
+  De Brack's Cavalry Outposts Duties. (Carr.)          24mo, morocco,  2 00
+  Dietz's Soldier's First Aid Handbook.                16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of
+        Courts-martial.                                   Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Durand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships.                   8vo,  5 00
+  * Dyer's Handbook of Light Artillery.                         12mo,  3 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  * Fiebeger's Text-book on Field Fortification.           Small 8vo,  2 00
+  Hamilton's The Gunner's Catechism.                            18mo,  1 00
+  * Hoff's Elementary Naval Tactics.                             8vo,  1 50
+  Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire.                 8vo,  4 00
+  * Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery.                               8vo,  6 00
+  * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena.
+        Vols. I. and II.                                   8vo, each,  6 00
+  * Mahan's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.)    8vo, half morocco,  7 50
+  Manual for Courts-martial.                           16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Mercur's Attack of Fortified Places.                        12mo,  2 00
+  *   Elements of the Art of War.                                8vo,  4 00
+  Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures--And the Administration
+        of Workshops.                                            8vo,  5 00
+  *   Ordnance and Gunnery. 2 vols.                             12mo,  5 00
+  Murray's Infantry Drill Regulations.                   18mo, paper,    10
+  Nixon's Adjutants' Manual.                                    24mo,  1 00
+  Peabody's Naval Architecture.                                  8vo,  7 50
+  * Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying.                         8vo,  2 50
+  Powell's Army Officer's Examiner.                             12mo,  4 00
+  Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War.            18mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Tupes and Poole's Manual of Bayonet Exercises and
+        Musketry Fencing.                              24mo, leather,    50
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wheeler's Siege Operations and Military Mining.                8vo,  2 00
+  Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+  Young's Simple Elements of Navigation.               16mo, morocco,  2 00
+
+
+ASSAYING.
+
+  Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative
+        Assaying with the Blowpipe.                    12mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory
+        Experiments.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Low's Technical Methods of Ore Analysis.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Miller's Manual of Assaying.                                  12mo,  1 00
+      Cyanide Process.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+
+
+ASTRONOMY.
+
+  Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.                      8vo,  2 50
+  Craig's Azimuth.                                               4to,  3 50
+  Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.             8vo,  3 00
+  Doolittle's Treatise on Practical Astronomy.                   8vo,  4 00
+  Gore's Elements of Geodesy.                                    8vo,  2 50
+  Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.          8vo,  2 50
+  * Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  * White's Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy.  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+BOTANY.
+
+  Davenport's Statistical Methods, with Special
+        Reference to Biological Variation.             16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  Thome and Bennett's Structural and Physiological Botany.      16mo,  2 25
+  Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider.)       8vo,  2 00
+
+
+CHEMISTRY.
+
+  * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)    12mo,  1 25
+  Adriance's Laboratory Calculations and Specific Gravity
+        Tables.                                                 12mo,  1 25
+  Alexeyeff's General Principles of Organic Synthesis.
+        (Matthews.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel.)              Small 8vo,  3 50
+  Austen's Notes for Chemical Students.                         12mo,  1 50
+  Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder.--Nitro-cellulose, and Theory
+        of the Cellulose Molecule.                              12mo,  2 50
+  Bolduan's Immune Sera.                                        12mo,  1 50
+  * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.               8vo,  1 50
+  Brush and Penfield's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy.       8vo,  4 00
+  * Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)         8vo,  3 00
+  Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis.
+        (Boltwood.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers.                            12mo,  2 00
+      Tests and Reagents.                                        8vo,  3 00
+  Crafts's Short Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis.
+        (Schaeffer.)                                            12mo,  1 50
+  * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)                      12mo,  1 25
+  Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery).
+        (Von Ende.)                                             12mo,  2 50
+  Drechsel's Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.)                     12mo,  1 25
+  Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)               8vo,  4 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)          8vo,  3 00
+  Erdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.)    12mo,  1 25
+  * Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.                 Large 12mo,  2 00
+  Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative
+        Assaying with the Blowpipe.                    12mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.                               12mo,  2 00
+  Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.)  8vo,  5 00
+      Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I.
+        Descriptive. (Wells.)                                    8vo,  3 00
+      Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) 2 vols.            8vo, 12 50
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying.                         8vo,  3 00
+  * Getman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry.                   12mo,  2 00
+  Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.                   12mo,  1 25
+  * Gooch and Browning's Outlines of Qualitative Chemical
+        Analysis.                                          Small 8vo,  1 25
+  Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)     12mo,  2 00
+  Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography. (Marshall.) 12mo,  1 25
+  Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)   8vo,  4 00
+  Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)         8vo,  5 00
+  * Haskin's and MacLeod's Organic Chemistry.                   12mo,  2 00
+  Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan.)        12mo,  1 50
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors.)
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Hind's Inorganic Chemistry.                                    8vo,  3 00
+  *   Laboratory Manual for Students.                           12mo,  1 00
+  Holleman's Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.)         8vo,  2 50
+      Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.)         8vo,  2 50
+  *   Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry. (Walker.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments,
+        and Varnishes. (In Press.)
+  Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Iddings's Rock Minerals.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological
+        Chemistry.                                               8vo,  1 25
+  Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals
+        in Thin Sections. (In Press.)
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Ladd's Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis.              12mo,  1 00
+  Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)                        8vo,  3 00
+  * Langworthy and Austen. The Occurrence of Aluminium in
+        Vegetable Products, Animal Products, and Natural Waters. 8vo,  2 00
+  Lassar-Cohn's Application of Some General Reactions to
+        Investigations in Organic Chemistry. (Tingle.)          12mo,  1 00
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                              8vo,  7 50
+  Loeb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)         8vo,  3 00
+  Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory
+        Experiments.                                             8vo,  3 00
+  Low's Technical Method of Ore Analysis.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Lunge's Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.)                      12mo  1 00
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making. 8vo,  1 50
+  Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)
+  Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory.                12mo,  1 50
+  * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with
+        the Blowpipe.                                           12mo,    60
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.) 3d Edition, Rewritten.                      8vo,  4 00
+      Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)     12mo,  1 25
+  Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.          8vo,  4 00
+  Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds.
+        (Tingle.)                                               12mo,  1 00
+  Miller's Manual of Assaying.                                  12mo,  1 00
+      Cyanide Process.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry.                   12mo,  1 50
+  Morgan's An Outline of the Theory of Solutions and its
+        Results.                                                12mo,  1 00
+      Elements of Physical Chemistry.                           12mo,  3 00
+  *   Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers.              12mo,  5 00
+  Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.   16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Muir's History of Chemical Theories and Laws.                8vo,  4 00
+  Mulliken's General Method for the Identification of Pure
+        Organic Compounds. Vol. I.                         Large 8vo,  5 00
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Ostwald's Conversations on Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey.)     12mo,  1 50
+      "           "       "      "      Part Two. (Turnbull.)   12mo,  2 00
+  * Palmer's Practical Test Book of Chemistry.                  12mo,  1 00
+  * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine.
+        (Fischer.)                                              12mo,  1 25
+  * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and
+        Record of Mineral Tests.                          8vo, paper,    50
+  Pictet's The Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution.
+        (Biddle.)                                                8vo,  5 00
+  Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry. (Austen.)         12mo,  1 50
+  Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with
+        Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.           12mo,  1 25
+  * Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.                              8vo, 25 00
+  Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.                                              8vo,  2 00
+  Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.      8vo,  4 00
+      Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.                 8vo,  4 00
+  Riggs's Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory.         8vo,  1 25
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions.                 8vo,  2 00
+  *   Whys in Pharmacy.                                         12mo,  1 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.
+        (Orndorff.)                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Schimpf's Text-book of Volumetric Analysis.                   12mo,  2 50
+      Essentials of Volumetric Analysis.                        12mo,  1 25
+  *   Qualitative Chemical Analysis.                             8vo,  1 25
+  Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students.        8vo,  2 50
+  Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.           16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils.                                 8vo,  2 50
+  * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.                        8vo,  1 50
+  *   Descriptive General Chemistry.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis. (Hall.)                      8vo,  3 00
+      Quantitative Analysis. (Hall.)                             8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.)  12mo,  1 50
+  * Walke's Lectures on Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+    "        "           "       "     "      Vol. II.     Small 8vo,  5 00
+  Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks.         8vo,  2 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-Water.    8vo,  4 00
+  Wells's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis.     8vo,  1 50
+      Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis
+        for Engineering Students.                               12mo,  1 50
+      Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic.                         12mo,  1 25
+  Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic, Pharmaceutical,
+        and Medical Chemistry.                                  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+CIVIL ENGINEERING.
+
+
+BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. RAILWAY
+ENGINEERING.
+
+  Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments.                     12mo,  3 00
+  Bixby's Graphical Computing Table.    Paper 19-1/2 x 24-1/4 inches,    25
+  Breed and Hosmer's Principles and Practice of Surveying.       8vo,  3 00
+  * Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers.                      8vo,  2 50
+  * Corthell's Allowable Pressures on Deep Foundations.         12mo,  1 25
+  Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares.             8vo,  3 00
+  Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables.                           8vo,  1 00
+  Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage.                      12mo,  1 50
+      Practical Farm Drainage.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  * Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Flemer's Phototopographic Methods and Instruments.             8vo,  5 00
+  Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.)               8vo,  3 00
+  Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 2d Edition, Rewritten.    8vo,  3 50
+  French and Ives's Stereotomy.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Goodhue's Municipal Improvements.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Gore's Elements of Geodesy.                                    8vo,  2 50
+  * Hauch and Rice's Tables of Quantities for Preliminary
+        Estimates.                                              12mo,  1 25
+  Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy.                     8vo,  3 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth.                             12mo,  1 25
+  Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge.                             8vo,  2 00
+  * Ives's Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level.
+                                                           16mo, Bds.    25
+  Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying.              16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods.    8vo,  2 00
+  Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities.
+        (Truscott and Emory.)                                   12mo,  2 00
+  Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.)         8vo,  5 00
+  *   Descriptive Geometry.                                      8vo,  1 50
+  Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy.          8vo,  2 50
+  Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors.        16mo, morocco,  2 00
+  Nugent's Plane Surveying.                                      8vo,  3 50
+  Ogden's Sewer Design.                                         12mo,  2 00
+  Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse.                        8vo,  2 00
+  Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering.           8vo half leather,  7 50
+  Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.                    4to,  5 00
+  Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.      8vo,  4 00
+  Riemer's Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions.
+        (Corning and Peele.)                                     8vo,  3 00
+  Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry.         8vo,  1 50
+  Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)           8vo,  2 50
+  Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to
+        Trusses, Beams, and Arches.                              8vo,  2 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Tracy's Plane Surveying.                             16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  * Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book.          16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Venable's Garbage Crematories in America.                      8vo,  2 00
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Warren's Stereotomy--Problems in Stone-cutting.                8vo,  2 50
+  Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of
+        Engineering Instruments.                       16mo, morocco,  1 25
+  Wilson's Topographic Surveying.                                8vo,  3 50
+
+
+BRIDGES AND ROOFS.
+
+  Boller's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron
+        Highway Bridges.                                         8vo,  2 00
+  Burr and Falk's Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof
+        Computations.                                            8vo,  3 00
+      Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges.               8vo,  5 00
+  Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering.  Vol. II.            Small 4to, 10 00
+  Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges.                   4to,  5 00
+  Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Greene's Roof Trusses.                                         8vo,  1 25
+      Bridge Trusses.                                            8vo,  2 50
+      Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses. (In Press.)
+  Howe's Treatise on Arches.                                     8vo,  4 00
+      Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel.           8vo,  2 00
+      Symmetrical Masonry Arches.                                8vo,  2 50
+  Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in
+        the Designing of Modern Framed Structures.         Small 4to, 10 00
+  Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges:
+      Part I.  Stresses in Simple Trusses.                       8vo,  2 50
+      Part II.  Graphic Statics.                                 8vo,  2 50
+      Part III. Bridge Design.                                   8vo,  2 50
+      Part IV. Higher Structures.                                8vo,  2 50
+  Morison's Memphis Bridge.                                      4to, 10 00
+  Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge
+        Engineers.                                     16mo, morocco,  2 00
+  *   Specifications for Steel Bridges.                         12mo,    50
+  Wright's Designing of Draw-spans. Two parts in one volume.     8vo,  3 50
+
+
+HYDRAULICS.
+
+  Barnes's Ice Formation.                                        8vo,  3 00
+  Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein
+        Issuing from an Orifice. (Trautwine.)                    8vo,  2 00
+  Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics.                                8vo,  5 00
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+      Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels.     paper,  1 50
+      Hydraulic Motors.                                          8vo,  2 00
+  Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems.   16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+  Folwell's Water-supply Engineering.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Frizell's Water-power.                                         8vo,  5 00
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+      Water-filtration Works.                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform
+        Flow of Water in Rivers and Other Channels.
+        (Hering and Trautwine.)                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It.                  Large 12mo,  1 50
+      Filtration of Public Water-supply.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works.                 8vo,  2 50
+  Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of
+        Large, Riveted, Metal Conduits.                          8vo,  2 00
+  * Hubbard and Kiersted's Water-works Management and
+        Maintenance.                                             8vo,  4 00
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a
+        Sanitary Standpoint.)                                    8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics.                             8vo,  5 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                   8vo,  4 00
+  Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and
+        Domestic Water-supply                              Large 8vo,  5 00
+  * Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers.                     4to,  6 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 5th Edition,
+        enlarged.                                                4to,  6 00
+      Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895.    4to, 10 00
+  Whipple's Value of Pure Water.                          Large 12mo,  1 00
+  Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables.                         8vo,  1 50
+  Wilson's Irrigation Engineering.                         Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Turbines.                                               8vo,  2 50
+      Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                          8vo,  3 00
+
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
+
+  Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction.                      8vo,  5 00
+      Roads and Pavements.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Black's United States Public Works.                     Oblong 4to,  5 00
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of
+        Engineering.                                             8vo,  7 50
+  Byrne's Highway Construction.                                  8vo,  5 00
+      Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed
+        in Construction.                                        16mo,  3 00
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+  Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.              Small 4to,  7 50
+  * Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.                        8vo,  6 00
+  Johnson's Materials of Construction.                     Large 8vo,  6 00
+  Fowler's Ordinary Foundations.                                 8vo,  3 50
+  Graves's Forest Mensuration.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols.    8vo,  7 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.                  8vo,  5 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Strength of Materials.                                    12mo,  1 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Patron's Practical Treatise on Foundations.                    8vo,  5 00
+  Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements.                         8vo,  3 00
+  Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction.  16mo, mor.,  4 00
+  * Ries's Clays; Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.        8vo,  5 00
+  Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France.                     12mo,  1 25
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  * Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Snow's Principal Species of Wood.                              8vo,  3 50
+  Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.                                  12mo,  2 00
+  Text-book on Roads and Pavements.                             12mo,  2 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts.                  8vo,  8 00
+      Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and
+        Metallurgy.                                              8vo,  2 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other
+        Alloys and their Constituents.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials.               8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete
+        Construction.                                            8vo,  3 00
+  Waddell's De Pontibus. (A Pocket-book for Bridge
+        Engineers.)                                       16mo, mor.,  2 00
+  *   Specifications for Steel Bridges.                         12mo,    50
+  Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and
+        an Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.               8vo,  2 00
+  Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics.               8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis
+        of Iron and Steel.                                       8vo,  4 00
+
+
+RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
+
+  Andrew's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers.
+                                                 3x5 inches, morocco,  1 25
+  Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.         4to,  5 00
+  Brook's Handbook of Street Railroad Location.        16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Butt's Civil Engineer's Field-book.                  16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Crandall's Transition Curve.                         16mo, morocco,  1 50
+      Railway and Other Earthwork Tables.                        8vo,  1 50
+  Crookett's Methods for Earthwork Computations. (In Press)
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                   16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879).       Paper,  5 00
+  Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards.                           Cardboard,    25
+  Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers'
+        Guide.                                            16mo, mor.,  2 50
+  Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of
+        Excavations and Embankments.                             8vo,  1 00
+  Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers.            16mo,  1 00
+  Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers.         16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers.              16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Raymond's Elements of Railroad Engineering. (In Press.)
+  Searles's Field Engineering.                         16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Railroad Spiral.                                 16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork.                     8vo,  1 50
+  * Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cube Contents
+        of Excavations and Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams.   8vo,  2 00
+      The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves
+        for Railroads.                                 12mo, morocco,  2 50
+      Cross-section Sheet.                                     Paper,    25
+  Webb's Railroad Construction.                        16mo, morocco,  5 00
+      Economics of Railroad Construction.                 Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways.
+                                                           Small 8vo,  5 00
+
+
+DRAWING.
+
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  3 00
+  *     "          "         "     Abridged Ed.                  8vo,  1 50
+  Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.                           8vo, paper,  1 00
+  Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting
+        for Mechanical Engineers.                         Oblong 4to,  2 50
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its
+        Applications.                                            8vo,  2 50
+  Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective.       8vo,  2 00
+  Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.                      8vo,  2 50
+      Advanced Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  2 00
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry.                    8vo,  3 00
+      Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                       8vo,  5 00
+      Mechanical Drawing.                                        4to,  4 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  MacLeod's Descriptive Geometry.                          Small 8vo,  1 50
+  * Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting.              8vo,  1 50
+      Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)                            8vo,  3 50
+  Moyer's Descriptive Geometry.                                  8vo,  2 00
+  Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching.                    4to,  5 00
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)   8vo,  2 50
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  * Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing.           Oblong 8vo,  1 25
+  Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical
+        Drawing.                                                12mo,  1 00
+      Drafting Instruments and Operations.                      12mo,  1 25
+      Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing.                  12mo,  1 50
+      Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective
+        of Form and Shadow.                                     12mo,  1 00
+      Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry.                    12mo,  1 25
+      Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 50
+      General Problems of Shades and Shadows.                    8vo,  3 00
+      Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.              8vo,  7 50
+      Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry.  8vo,  2 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Herrmann
+        and Klein.)                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Art of Letter
+        Engraving.                                              12mo,  2 00
+  Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Perspective.                        8vo,  2 50
+  Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering.                          8vo,  1 00
+  Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry.       Large 8vo,  3 00
+
+
+ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.
+
+  * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.)    12mo,  1 25
+  Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.)    Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical
+        Measurements.                                           12mo,  1 00
+  Benjamin's History of Electricity.                             8vo,  3 00
+      Voltaic Cell.                                              8vo,  3 00
+  Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis. (In Press.)
+  Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis.
+        (Boltwood.)                                              8vo,  3 00
+  * Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy.                    12mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph.             8vo,  3 00
+  * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)                      12mo,  1 25
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                   16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage
+        Battery). (Von Ende.)                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)               8vo,  4 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+  Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.)                              8vo,  2 50
+  Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained.                    12mo,  1 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)
+  Holman's Precision of Measurements.                            8vo,  2 00
+      Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments,
+        and Tests.                                         Large 8vo,    75
+  Karapetoff's Experimental Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)
+  Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines.          8vo,  2 00
+  Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.)                        8vo,  3 00
+  Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements.
+        (Boudouard--Burgess.)                                   12mo,  3 00
+  Loeb's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.)         8vo,  3 00
+  * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena.
+        Vols. I. and II.                                   8vo, each,  6 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to
+        Sound and Light.                                         8vo,  4 00
+  Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries.
+        (Fishback.)                                             12mo,  2 50
+  Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering. (In Press.)
+  * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design. 4to, half morocco, 12 50
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  * Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering.
+        (Haldane Gee--Kinzbrunner.)                              8vo,  2 00
+  Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.        8vo,  2 50
+  Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines.                           8vo,  2 50
+  * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat.                        8vo,  1 50
+  Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics.         Small 8vo,  2 00
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+
+
+LAW.
+
+  * Davis's Elements of Law.                                     8vo,  2 50
+  *   Treatise on the Military Law of United States.             8vo,  7 00
+  *                                                            Sheep,  7 50
+  * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure
+        of Courts-martial.                                Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Manual for Courts-martial.                           16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.            8vo,  6 00
+                                                               Sheep,  6 50
+      Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in
+        Engineering and Architecture.                            8vo,  5 00
+                                                               Sheep,  5 50
+      Law of Contracts.                                          8vo,  3 00
+  Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law.                        12mo,  2 50
+
+
+MANUFACTURES.
+
+  Bernadou's Smokeless Powder--Nitro-cellulose and Theory of
+        the Cellulose Molecule.                                 12mo,  2 50
+  Bolland's Iron Founder.                                       12mo,  2 50
+      "The Iron Founder," Supplement.                           12mo,  2 50
+      Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms
+        Used in the Practice of Moulding.                       12mo,  3 00
+  * Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.)         8vo,  3 00
+  * Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters.                        8vo,  6 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)          8vo,  3 00
+  Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.                       18mo,  1 00
+  Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol.                     8vo,  4 00
+  Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments,
+        and Varnishes. (In Press.)
+  Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                        Large 8vo,  7 50
+  * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making. 8vo,  1 50
+  Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. (In Press.)
+  Matthews's The Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.          8vo,  4 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures--And the Administration
+        of Workshops.                                            8vo,  5 00
+  Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.                        4to, 10 00
+  Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.   16mo, morocco,  1 50
+  * Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing.                              8vo, 25 00
+  Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture.                             8vo,  2 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's Press-working of Metals.                               8vo,  3 00
+  Spalding's Hydraulic Cement.                                  12mo,  2 00
+  Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  3 00
+      Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers.           16mo, morocco,  3 00
+  Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
+        Reinforced.                                              8vo,  5 00
+  Thurston's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs,
+        Construction and Operation.                              8vo,  5 00
+  Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I.      Small 8vo,  4 00
+   "          "         "         "     "     Vol. II.           8vo,  5 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  West's American Foundry Practice.                             12mo,  2 50
+      Moulder's Text-book.                                      12mo,  2 50
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of
+        Iron and Steel.                                          8vo,  4 00
+
+
+MATHEMATICS.
+
+  Baker's Elliptic Functions.                                    8vo,  1 50
+  Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry.                 12mo,  1 00
+  Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. (In Press.)
+  Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations.                 12mo,  1 50
+  Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra.                  8vo,  1 50
+  * Dickson's College Algebra.                            Large 12mo,  1 50
+  *   Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations.  Large 12mo,  1 25
+  Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its
+        Applications.                                            8vo,  2 50
+  Halsted's Elements of Geometry.                                8vo,  1 75
+      Elementary Synthetic Geometry.                             8vo,  1 50
+  *   Rational Geometry.                                        12mo,  1 50
+  * Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables:
+                                              Vest-pocket size paper,    15
+                                                       100 copies for  5 00
+  *                        Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 x 10 inches,    25
+                                                        10 copies for  2 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on Differential
+        Calculus.                                          Small 8vo,  3 00
+      Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus.        Small 8vo,  1 50
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates.    12mo,  1 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Treatise on Ordinary and Partial
+        Differential Equations.                            Small 8vo,  3 50
+  Johnson's Treatise on the Integral Calculus.             Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Johnson's (W. W.) Theory of Errors and the Method of
+        Least Squares.                                          12mo,  1 50
+  * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.                    12mo,  3 00
+  Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities.
+        (Truscott and Emory.)                                   12mo,  2 00
+  * Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic
+        and Other Tables.                                        8vo,  3 00
+      Trigonometry and Tables published separately.             Each,  2 00
+  * Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables.               8vo,  1 00
+  Manning's Irrational Numbers and their Representation by
+        Sequences and Series                                    12mo,  1 25
+  Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman
+        and Robert S. Woodward.                          Octavo, each  1 00
+
+    No. 1. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith. No.
+    2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted. No. 3.
+    Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyperbolic Functions,
+    by James McMahon. No. 5. Harmonic Functions, by William E. Byerly.
+    No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis, by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7.
+    Probability and Theory of Errors, by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8.
+    Vector Analysis and Quaternions, by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9.
+    Differential Equations, by William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The
+    Solution of Equations, by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of
+    a Complex Variable, by Thomas S. Fiske.
+
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Method of Least Squares.                            8vo,  2 00
+  Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the
+        Differential Calculus.                               Sm. 8vo,  3 00
+      Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols. in one.  Small 8vo,  3 50
+  * Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real
+        Infinitesimal Analysis of One Variable.                  8vo,  2 00
+  Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry.                       8vo,  2 00
+      Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical.           12mo,  1 00
+
+
+MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
+
+  Bacon's Forge Practice.                                       12mo,  1 50
+  Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings.                        12mo,  2 50
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing.                               8vo,  3 00
+  *     "          "         "     Abridged Ed.                  8vo,  1 50
+  Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes.                              12mo,  2 00
+  Carpenter's Experimental Engineering.                          8vo,  6 00
+      Heating and Ventilating Buildings.                         8vo,  4 00
+  Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine.                              Small 8vo,  4 00
+  Coolidge's Manual of Drawing.                           8vo, paper,  1 00
+  Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting
+        for Mechanical Engineers.                         Oblong 4to,  2 50
+  Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.                       12mo,  1 50
+      Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power.          12mo,  3 00
+      Rope Driving.                                             12mo,  2 00
+  Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Hall's Car Lubrication.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).
+                                                       16mo, morocco,  2 50
+  Hutton's The Gas Engine.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Jamison's Mechanical Drawing.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book.            16mo, morocco,  5 00
+  Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.                    8vo,  4 00
+  * Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven,
+        and Dean.)                                               8vo,  4 00
+  MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                 8vo,  5 00
+      Mechanical Drawing.                                        4to,  4 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases.             8vo,  1 50
+  Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)                        8vo,  3 50
+  Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels.                              8vo,  3 00
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Richards's Compressed Air.                                    12mo,  1 50
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery
+        and Mill Work.                                           8vo,  3 00
+      Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of
+        Energetics.                                             12mo,  1 00
+  Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.                     16mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.         8vo,  7 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission.
+        (Herrmann--Klein.)                                       8vo,  5 00
+      Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann--Klein.)
+                                                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover.                             8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's Turbines.                                               8vo,  2 50
+
+
+MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
+
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of
+        Engineering. 6th Edition. Reset.                         8vo,  7 50
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Johnson's Materials of Construction.                           8vo,  6 00
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.)            8vo,  7 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Strength of Materials                                     12mo,  1 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and
+        Varnish.                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering.                  3 vols., 8vo,  8 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other
+        Alloys and their Constituents.                           8vo,  2 50
+  Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an
+        Appendix on the Preservation of Timber.                  8vo,  2 00
+      Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis
+        of Iron and Steel.                                       8vo,  4 00
+
+
+STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
+
+  Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram.                          12mo,  1 25
+  Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.) 12mo,  1 50
+  Creighton's Steam-engine and other Heat-motors.                8vo,  5 00
+  Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction
+        Pocket-book.                                      16mo, mor.,  5 00
+  Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.                       18mo,  1 00
+  Goss's Locomotive Sparks.                                      8vo,  2 00
+      Locomotive Performance.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy.       12mo,  2 00
+  Hutton's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants.               8vo,  5 00
+      Heat and Heat-engines.                                     8vo,  5 00
+  Kent's Steam boiler Economy.                                   8vo,  4 00
+  Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector.                  8vo,  1 50
+  MacCord's Slide-valves.                                        8vo,  2 00
+  Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.                        4to, 10 00
+  Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator.               12mo,  1 50
+      Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other
+        Vapors.                                                  8vo,  1 00
+      Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines. 8vo,  5 00
+      Valve-gears for Steam-engines.                             8vo,  2 50
+  Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers.                            8vo,  4 00
+  Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator.                  Large 8vo,  2 50
+  Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and
+        Saturated Vapors. (Osterberg.)                          12mo,  1 25
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management.          12mo,  2 00
+  Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice.          12mo,  2 50
+  Snow's Steam-boiler Practice.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Spangler's Valve-gears.                                        8vo,  2 50
+      Notes on Thermodynamics.                                  12mo,  1 00
+  Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of
+        Steam-engineering.                                       8vo,  3 00
+  Thomas's Steam-turbines.                                       8vo,  3 50
+  Thurston's Handy Tables.                                       8vo,  1 50
+      Manual of the Steam-engine.                       2 vols., 8vo, 10 00
+      Part I. History, Structure, and Theory.                    8vo,  6 00
+      Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation.              8vo,  6 00
+      Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the
+        Indicator and the Prony Brake.                           8vo,  5 00
+      Stationary Steam-engines.                                  8vo,  2 50
+      Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice.        12mo,  1 50
+      Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and
+        Operation.                                               8vo,  5 00
+  Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water.
+        (Patterson.)                                             8vo,  4 00
+  Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.)          8vo,  5 00
+  Whitham's Steam-engine Design.                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines.
+                                                                 8vo,  4 00
+
+
+MECHANICS AND MACHINERY.
+
+  Barr's Kinematics of Machinery.                                8vo,  2 50
+  * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.      8vo,  7 50
+  Chase's The Art of Pattern-making.                            12mo,  2 50
+  Church's Mechanics of Engineering.                             8vo,  6 00
+      Notes and Examples in Mechanics.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working.                     12mo,  1 50
+  Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe.                      12mo,  1 50
+  Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.                       12mo,  1 50
+      Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.                            12mo,  1 50
+  Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and
+        Schools.                                                12mo,  1 50
+  Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making.                            12mo,  2 00
+  Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of
+        the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.  4to, half morocco,  5 00
+  Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics:
+      Vol. I. Kinematics.                                        8vo,  3 50
+      Vol. II. Statics.                                          8vo,  4 00
+      Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.                    Small 4to,  7 50
+                                Vol. II.                   Small 4to, 10 00
+  Durley's Kinematics of Machines.                               8vo,  4 00
+  Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist.                                16mo,  1 00
+  Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.         12mo,  3 00
+      Rope Driving.                                             12mo,  2 00
+  Goss's Locomotive Sparks.                                      8vo,  2 00
+      Locomotive Performance.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  * Greene's Structural Mechanics.                               8vo,  2 50
+  Hall's Car Lubrication.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)
+  Holly's Art of Saw Filing.                                    18mo,    75
+  James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics
+        of a Particle.                                     Small 8vo,  2 00
+  * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics.                    12mo,  3 00
+  Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods.    8vo,  2 00
+  Jones's Machine Design:
+      Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.                           8vo,  1 50
+      Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.         8vo,  3 00
+  Kerr's Power and Power Transmission.                           8vo,  2 00
+  Lanza's Applied Mechanics.                                     8vo,  7 50
+  Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods.                    8vo,  4 00
+  * Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven,
+        and Dean.)                                               8vo,  4 00
+  MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.                 8vo,  5 00
+      Velocity Diagrams.                                         8vo,  1 50
+  * Martin's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. 1, Statics.           12mo,  1 25
+  *                                  Vol. 2, Kinematics and
+        Kinetics.                                               12mo,  1 50
+  Maurer's Technical Mechanics.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.                             8vo,  5 00
+  *   Elements of Mechanics.                                    12mo,  1 00
+  * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                   8vo,  4 00
+  * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design. 4to, half morocco, 12 50
+  Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.
+        New Edition.                                      Large 12mo,  3 50
+  Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing.                           8vo,  2 00
+      Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine
+        Design.                                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Richards's Compressed Air.                                    12mo,  1 50
+  Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.                            8vo,  3 00
+  Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I.        8vo,  2 50
+  Sanborn's Mechanics: Problems.                          Large 12mo,  1 50
+  Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management.          12mo,  2 00
+  Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals.                          8vo,  3 00
+  Smith's (A. W.) Materials of Machines.                        12mo,  1 00
+  Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design.                       8vo,  3 00
+  Sorel's Carbureting and Combustion of Alcohol Engines.
+        (Woodward and Preston.)                            Large 8vo,  3 00
+  Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering.
+                                                                 8vo,  3 00
+  Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and
+        Mill Work.                                               8vo,  3 00
+      Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of
+        Energetics.                                             12mo,  1 00
+  Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor.                     16mo,  1 50
+                                                             Morocco,  2 00
+  Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.         8vo,  7 50
+  Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission.
+        (Herrmann--Klein.)                                       8vo,  5 00
+      Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann--Klein.)
+                                                                 8vo,  5 00
+  Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics.                       8vo,  3 00
+      Principles of Elementary Mechanics.                       12mo,  1 25
+      Turbines.                                                  8vo,  2 50
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                      4to,  1 00
+
+
+MEDICAL.
+
+  * Bolduan's Immune Sera.                                      12mo,  1 50
+  De Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and
+        Collins.)                                         Large 12mo,  2 50
+  Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.)            8vo,  6 00
+  * Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation.          Large 12mo, cloth,  2 00
+  Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)   8vo,  4 00
+  Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.)           12mo,  1 00
+  * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine.
+        (Fischer.)                                              12mo,  1 25
+  * Pozzi-Escot's The Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies.
+        (Cohn.)                                                 12mo,  1 00
+  Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.)                        12mo,  1 00
+  Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.
+        (Orndorff.)                                              8vo,  2 50
+  * Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology.                   12mo,  1 25
+  Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog.                   8vo,  3 50
+  Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+      * Personal Hygiene.                                       12mo,  1 00
+  Wulling's An Elementary Course in Inorganic Pharmaceutical
+        and Medical Chemistry.                                  12mo,  2 00
+
+
+METALLURGY.
+
+  Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis. (In Press.)
+  Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury.
+      Vol. I.  Silver.                                           8vo,  7 50
+      Vol. II. Gold and Mercury.                                 8vo,  7 50
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.          16mo, mor.  3 00
+  * Iles's Lead-smelting.                                       12mo,  2 50
+  Keep's Cast Iron.                                              8vo,  2 50
+  Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.                 8vo,  1 50
+  Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements.
+        (Boudouard--Burgess.)                                   12mo,  3 00
+  Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.                    12mo,  2 00
+  Miller's Cyanide Process.                                     12mo,  1 00
+  Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use.
+        (Waldo.)                                                12mo,  2 50
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Smith's Materials of Machines.                                12mo,  1 00
+  Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts.           8vo,  8 00
+      Part II. Iron and Steel.                                   8vo,  3 50
+      Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys
+        and their Constituents.                                  8vo,  2 50
+  Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.                    8vo,  3 00
+
+
+MINERALOGY.
+
+  Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial
+        Value.                                       Oblong, morocco,  2 50
+  Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.                        8vo,  3 00
+  Boyd's Map of Southwest Virginia.                 Pocket-book form.  2 00
+  * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements.               8vo,  1 50
+  Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.)        8vo,  4 00
+  Chester's Catalogue of Minerals.                        8vo, paper,  1 00
+                                                               Cloth,  1 25
+      Dictionary of the Names of Minerals.                       8vo,  3 50
+  Dana's System of Mineralogy.               Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50
+      First Appendix to Dana's New "System of Mineralogy." Large 8vo,  1 00
+      Text-book of Mineralogy.                                   8vo,  4 00
+      Minerals and How to Study Them.                           12mo,  1 50
+      Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals.        Large 8vo,  1 00
+      Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography.                     12mo,  2 00
+  Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.        12mo,  1 00
+  Eakle's Mineral Tables.                                        8vo,  1 25
+  Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms.                 8vo,  2 50
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.         16mo, mor.,  3 00
+  Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall.)  12mo,  1 25
+  Iddings's Rock Minerals.                                       8vo,  5 00
+  Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals
+        in Thin Sections. (In Press.)
+  * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the
+        Blowpipe.                                               12mo,    60
+  Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals. Their Occurrence and Uses.    8vo,  4 00
+      Stones for Building and Decoration.                        8vo,  5 00
+  * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and
+        Record of Mineral Tests.                          8vo, paper,    50
+      Tables of Minerals.                                        8vo,  1 00
+  * Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters          12mo, morocco,  1 25
+  * Ries's Clays. Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.        8vo,  5 00
+  Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making
+        Minerals. (Iddings.)                                     8vo,  5 00
+  * Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks.         8vo,  2 00
+
+
+MINING.
+
+  Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.)
+  Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia.                        8vo,  3 00
+      Map of Southwest Virginia.                    Pocket-book form,  2 00
+  Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.        12mo,  1 00
+  Eissler's Modern High Explosives.                              8vo,  4 00
+  Goesel's Minerals and Metals; A Reference Book.         16mo, mor.,  3 00
+  Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the
+        United States.                                          12mo,  2 50
+  Ihlseng's Manual of Mining.                                    8vo,  5 00
+  * Iles's Lead-smelting.                                       12mo,  2 50
+  Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.                 8vo,  1 50
+  Miller's Cyanide Process.                                     12mo,  1 00
+  O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.              8vo,  2 00
+  Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)             8vo,  4 00
+  Weaver's Military Explosives.                                  8vo,  3 00
+  Wilson's Cyanide Processes.                                   12mo,  1 50
+      Chlorination Process.                                     12mo,  1 50
+      Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten.       12mo,  2 50
+      Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation.   12mo,  1 25
+
+
+SANITARY SCIENCE.
+
+  Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House.                      12mo,  1 00
+  *   Outlines of Practical Sanitation.                         12mo,  1 25
+  Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.)
+                                                                 8vo,  3 00
+      Water-supply Engineering.                                  8vo,  4 00
+  Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses.                               12mo,  2 00
+  Fuertes's Water and Public Health.                            12mo,  1 50
+      Water-filtration Works.                                   12mo,  2 50
+  Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.                 16mo,  1 00
+      Sanitation of Public Buildings.                           12mo,  1 50
+  Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies.                   8vo,  3 00
+  Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special
+        Reference to State Control.                              8vo,  7 50
+  Mason's Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint)                                              8vo,  4 00
+      Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)     12mo,  1 25
+  * Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering.                 8vo,  2 00
+  Ogden's Sewer Design.                                         12mo,  2 00
+  Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with
+        Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.           12mo,  1 25
+  * Price's Handbook on Sanitation.                             12mo,  1 50
+  Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries.                12mo,  1 00
+      Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science.           12mo,  1 00
+      Cost of Shelter.                                          12mo,  1 00
+  Richards and Woodman's Air. Water, and Food from a Sanitary
+        Standpoint.                                              8vo,  2 00
+  * Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer.                8vo,  1 50
+  Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage.          8vo,  4 00
+      Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.                 8vo,  4 00
+  Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies.                 8vo,  5 00
+  Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.)         12mo,  1 00
+  Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water.                        8vo,  3 50
+  Wilson's Air Conditioning.  (In Press.)
+  Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.                        8vo,  7 50
+  Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene.                         16mo,  1 50
+  *   Personal Hygiene.                                         12mo,  1 00
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+  Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments
+        (Interstate Pure Food Commission):
+          Tenth Annual Convention Held at Hartford,
+            July 17-20, 1906.                                    8vo,  3 00
+          Eleventh Annual Convention, Held at Jamestown
+            Tri-Centennial Exposition, July 16-19, 1907. (In Press.)
+  Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion
+        of the International Congress of Geologists.       Large 8vo,  1 50
+  Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds.                        8vo,  4 00
+  Gannett's Statistical Abstract of the World.                  24mo,    75
+  Gerhard's The Modern Bath and Bath-houses. (In Press.)
+  Haines's American Railway Management.                         12mo,  2 50
+  Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
+        1824-1894.                                         Small 8vo,  3 00
+  Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament.                    Large 8vo,  2 00
+  Standage's Decorative Treatment of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc. (In Press.)
+  The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.                      4to,  1 00
+  Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy.                     12mo,  1 50
+
+
+HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.
+
+  Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar.                            12mo,  1 25
+  Hebrew Chrestomathy.                                           8vo,  2 00
+  Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament
+        Scriptures. (Tregelles.)             Small 4to, half morocco,  5 00
+  Letteris's Hebrew Bible.                                       8vo,  2 25
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | The following inconsistencies were kept:                     |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Aluminum -- Aluminium                                        |
+  | canceled -- cancelled                                        |
+  | Cubit's Gap -- CUBITS GAP                                    |
+  | Encyclopaedia -- Encyclopedia                                 |
+  | Feed-water -- Feed-Water                                     |
+  | Light-House -- lighthouse                                    |
+  | sea-weed -- seaweed                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Punctuation has been corrected without explicit notice.      |
+  | The following changes have been made (c. = catalogue page):  |
+  |                                                              |
+  | p. vii "Nordenskiold" changed to "Nordenskioeld"              |
+  | p.   9 "alsoo" changed to "also".                            |
+  | p. 114 "United States Court Survey" changed to               |
+  |        "United States Coast Survey".                         |
+  | p. 132 "22 deg..5" changed to "22.5 deg.".                           |
+  | c.   1 "Rivetee" changed to "Rivetee".                       |
+  | c.   3 "Metcalf's" changed to "Metcalfe's".                  |
+  | c.   5 "Matthew's" changed to "Matthews's".                  |
+  | c.  10 "Hermann" changed to "Herrmann".                      |
+  | c.  12 "Maunal" changed to "Manual".                         |
+  | c.  14 "Richard's" changed to "Richards's".                  |
+  | c.  15 "Wehrenfenning's" changed to "Wehrenfennig's".        |
+  | c.  18 "Virignia" changed to "Virginia".                     |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nautical Charts, by G. R. Putnam
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