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diff --git a/old/44134.txt b/old/44134.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1f55a28 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44134.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2329 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by +Caroline Taylor Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition + +Author: Caroline Taylor Stewart + +Release Date: November 8, 2013 [EBook #44134] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF *** + + + + +Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + + +Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected. +A more detailed transcriber's note can be found at the end of this text. + + + + +THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.[1] + + [1] NOTE.--After the author had written the following article, + she gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That + the origin and development of the use of masks as given in + the Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, + 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note 32) is similar to the origin and + development of the werewolf superstition itself, as given in + the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The author + has italicized some words in the quotations. + + +The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an animal's form, +most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost worldwide superstition. +Such a transformed person is the Germanic werewolf, or man-wolf; that +is, a wolf which is really a human being.[2] So the werewolf was a +man in wolf's form or wolf's dress,[2] seen mostly at night,[3] and +believed generally to be harmful to man.[4] + + [2] According to Mogk, in Paul's Grundriss der germanischen + Philologie III. 272 _wer_ means "man," found in Old Saxon, + Anglo-Saxon, Old High German, and werewolf a man in wolf's + form. Koegel connects _wer_ with Gothic _wasjan_ "kleiden." + "Darum bedeutet _werwolf_ eigentlich Wolfsgewand ulfshamr; + aehnlich bedeutet vielleicht _berserkr_ Baerengewand," therefore + werewolf according to Koegel means a wolf's dress. See also + Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde. + + [3] Post p. 24. + + [4] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:--Beastform in + mythology proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for + benignant ends. See note 52. + +The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily +explained. Adolf Erman[5] explains the allusion of Herodotus[6] to the +transformation of the Neurians (the people of the present Volhynia, in +West Russia) into wolves as due merely to their appearance in winter, +dressed in their furs. This explanation, however, would not fit similar +superstitions in warm climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy +to primitive Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the +members of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.[7] +Still another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the +original werewolf.[8] + + [5] Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232. + + [6] Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and + Greeks settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once + a year every Neurian becomes a wolf for a few days, and then + resumes the human form. See concerning this also Hirt, Die + Indogermanen, I. 120. + + [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol. + + [8] Note 102, also see note 22. + +The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must be one +which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition is found +pretty much all over the earth,[9] especially to-day[10] however in +Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in the lands where the +wolf is most common.[11][12] According to Mogk[13] the superstition +prevails to-day especially in the north and east of Germany.[14] + + [9] See also Mogk in Paul's Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud. + Leubuscher, Ueber die Wehrwoelfe und Thierverwandlungen im + Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850, mentions cases in ancient Arcadia, + in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the almost epidemic disease + in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf, Stuttgart, + 1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia + (hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to + Encyc. Brit. below; on p. 133 he says: "Tierverwandlungen sind + allgemein menschlich, finden wir ueberall. Die eigentuemliche + Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen aber finden wir vorzugsweise + bei einer bestimmten Voelkergruppe, den arischen Staemmen der + Griechen, Roemer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven; bei den suedwaerts + gezogenen Staemmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns gleiche + Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten + treten die Werwoelfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehoert die + aelteste historische Erwaehnung der Sage; viel aelter aber ist + der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische Werwoelfe". According to + Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, Stuttgart, + 1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European + country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles, + Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants + of island Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal + peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in Asia, Africa, America; but not in + India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit. below), especially + though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands. + + As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for + 1880-81, p. 83, "From their close relations with wild animals + Indians' stories of transformations into beasts and beasts + into men are numerous and interesting.... In times of peace, + during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller told + of those days in the past when men and animals could transform + themselves at will and hold converse with one another." + + Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell & Sons, 1883, II. 668 + says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic + antiquities than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrisulfr, + a son of Loki, makes his appearance in wolf's shape among the + gods. + + Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy, + states:--A belief firmly rooted among all savages is that + men are in certain circumstances transformed temporarily or + permanently into wolves and other inferior animals. In Europe + the transformation into a wolf is by far more prominent and + frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans, French, + Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most + prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. + Thus the were-_wolf_ prevails in Europe, also in England, + Wales, Ireland; and in S. France, the Netherlands, Germany, + Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, Poland, Russia, he can + hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note 12). In Denmark, + Sweden, Norway and Iceland the _bear_ competes with the wolf + for pre-eminence. In Persia the _bear_ is supreme; in Japan the + _fox_; in India the _serpent_ vies with the _tiger_ (contrary + to Mogk in Paul's Grd., III. 272, who says:--"Nur Griechen, + Roemer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter den indogermanischen + Voelkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und Iraniern ist er + unbekannt." Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in Abyssinia + and Borneo the _hyena_ with the _lion_; in E. Africa the _lion_ + with the _alligator_; in W. Africa the _leopard_ is perhaps + most frequently the form assumed by man; among the Abipones the + _tiger_, among the Arawaks the _jaguar_, etc. + + In Brockhaus' Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the + werewolf belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and + Romanic peoples; found to-day especially in Volhynia and White + Russia. + + Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:--Bei den Angelsachsen laesst sich der + Werwolf im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern, + ihre Herden vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das aelteste + Zeugnis auf deutschem Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v. + Worms (11 century). + + [10] See note 9. + + [11] Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:--There can nowhere be a living + belief in contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which + has ceased to exist in the particular locality. Belief in + metamorphosis into the animal most prominent in any locality + itself acquires a special prominence. (See note 12.) In none + of these cases however is the power of transformation limited + exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal. + + [12] Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under _Wolf_:--The wolf is + found in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America + from Greenland to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in + Ceylon, Burmah or Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in + the two latter jackals instead. + + Meyer's Kleines konversations-lexikon:--Der wolf "ist haeufig + in Ost- und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika, + seltener in Frankreich und Belgien, den Herden gefaehrlich, + besonders in Russland." Encyc. Brit., XXIV under _Wolf_:--In + northern countries the wolf is generally larger and more + powerful than in the southern portion of its range. Its habits + are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been known + to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of + his flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance. + They usually assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and + by their combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower + and kill even such great animals as the American bison. + Children and even grown people are not infrequently attacked by + them when pressed for hunger. The ferocity of the wolf in the + wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed, they can rarely be + trusted by strangers. + + [13] Paul, Grundriss, III. 272. + + [14] Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p. + 275 fol., speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: "Noch lebte + das Landvolk in ohnmaechtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Woelfe, + wenig Doerfer, welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere + decimirt wurden," and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:--"Als 1815 + die gegenwaertige Provinz Posen an Preussen zurueckfiel, waren + auch dort die Woelfe eine Landplage. Nach Angaben der Posener + Provinzialblaetter wurden im Regierungsbezirk Posen vom 1. Sept. + 1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Woelfe erlegt, noch im Jahre 1819 + im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von Woelfen + gefressen." + +The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.[15] The +point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living human +being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the wolf was +common[16] into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa, where these animals +are common; into a tiger or serpent in India;[17] in other localities +into other animals characteristic of the region.[18] Among Lapps +and Finns occur transformations into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish +or birds; amongst many North Asiatic peoples, as also some American +Indians, into the bear; amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf, +turkey or owl; in South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar, +also into a fish, or serpent. Most universal though it seems was the +transformation into wolves or dogs.[19] + + [15] Thus in note 6 was mentioned Herodotus' (484-425 B. C.) + statement about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend, + according to Hertz, is that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos, + the first king of ancient Arcadia. These Arcadians lived as + huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert (Andree, p. 65; + and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed amongst + the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf + myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B. C). In the Norse "Edda" + we find Odin's wolves, also Skoell, Hati and Fenrir. In the + Voelsunga Saga, Sigmund and Sinfjoetli become wolves. For other + reflections of the fear in which wolves were held, see the + 10th century ms. of the "Wiener Hundesegen" against male and + female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches Lesebuch, 6. aufl. + 1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,--Geschichte der deutschen sprache + s. 233:--"Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte + raubthier des waldes dar, und lehrt die naehe des wolfs und + fuchses." + + C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:--"In die + aeltesten Zeiten hinauf reicht auch bei Jaegervoelkern die + Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil die Eigentuemlichkeiten der + Tiere erklaerend, ihr Gebahren erzaehlend. Die furchtbaren und + die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo die Menschen + staedtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie einsamer + mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine hoehere Bedeutung. So wird + dem Waeldler Baer und Wolf zum ebenbuertigen Raeuber und Kaempfer, + menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht, + der Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst." + + [16] Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to + Andree, p. 65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it + is to-day in Russia. Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: "Der + Wolf ist ueberall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Baer ist aber + ganz sicher ein Waldtier." + + [17] Note 9. + + [18] Cf. note 9, Encyc. Brit. + + [19] Leubuscher, p. 1:--Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in + Hunde und Woelfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den + namen Lykanthropie. + +As the superstition is so widespread--Germany, Eastern Europe, Africa, +Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time, when all these +peoples were in communication with each other[20] or else, in accord +with another view of modern science, it arose independently in various +continents in process of the natural psychical development of the human +race under similar conditions. + + [20] Or as Mogk in Paul's Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for + example amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still + formed a whole, as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of + herds was especially feared. Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: "Die + meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die im Freien lebten, + mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte ihrer + Einbildungskraft am oeftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit + zu kaempfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in + Einzelnen als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich + von Woelfen besonders beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich + manche Mordthat nur von Woelfen begangen." Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, + p. 282:--"The Dakotas have long believed in the appearance + from time to time of a monstrous animal that swallows human + beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the bones of + mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians." + +The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom of +primitive man's of putting on a wolf's or other animal's skin[21] +or dress, or a robe.[22] Thus Leubuscher,[23] says: "Es ist der +Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten +hervorgewachsen."[24][25] Likely also the notion of attributing speech +to animals originated from such disguising or dressing of men as +animals. In the following we shall examine into primitive man's reasons +for putting on such a skin or robe. + + [21] Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:--In celebrations it is + possible that the foxskin so universally worn by the animistic + personifications is a survival comparable with the skin of the + animal in which formerly the whole body was clothed. + + [22] Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: "In der + aeltesten Naturreligion ist die Gottheit des Todes und der + winterlichen Erde als Wolf gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl + in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten nach dem Volksglauben + die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu verwandeln. Der + Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum raschen + Zuruecklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders + geeignet. Darum nahmen die Goetter und die zauberbegabten + Menschen zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von + Natur gefaehrlich und wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und + beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang nach Mord und Zerstoerung die + Hauptsache. Die Urspruenge des Werwolfglaubens waren also 1. + religioese Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung (der friedlose + Moerder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die + Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie." Page 51. "Die Verwandlung + in Woelfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden." Page 57: + "Dass die von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen + Waldfluechtigen sich in Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend." + + [23] Page 46. See also note 9. + + [24] Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p. + 153 fol.;--"Ist so die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und + Goetterglauben, zunaechst gebunden an das Beduerfnis des Lebens, + so sondert sie sich doch allmaehlich im Verlauf der Kultur von + den religioesen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite Welt + zu einer unabhaengigen Bedeutsamkeit"--like Homer, Dante, etc. + See note 20, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:--"Insane + delusions must reflect the usages and beliefs of + contemporaneous society." + + [25] Notes 20, 21 and 27. + +Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had to conquer +them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in Europe arose +probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic peoples were +still in contact with each other, if not in the original Indo-Germanic +home, for they all have the superstition (unless, as above, we prefer +to regard the belief as arising in various localities in process of +psychical development under similar conditions; namely, when people +still lived principally by the chase.[26]) Probably the primitive +Indo-European man before and at the time of the origin of the werewolf +superstition, was almost helpless in the presence of inexorable nature. +This was before he used metal for weapons. The great business of life +was to secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots, +berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.[27] +Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any +size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet +primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no longer +crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but began to watch +and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what certain animals would +do under certain circumstances, to learn what would frighten them away +or what would lure them on. So at least the large animals were to early +man a constant cause of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary +to have their flesh for food and their skins for clothing.[28] + + [26] See note 15. + + [27] Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:--Traces of the + fear in which buffalo "were held may still be discovered in the + traditional stories of certain tribes, which set forth how, in + those days," [i. e. in the stone age] "before men were provided + with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill, and eat the + people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo + were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly + have arisen save as the result of actual experience of their + power to inflict injury and death." Pliny informs us how the + Romans kept the wolf out of their fields, see Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians lived on the steppes, + in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains, the animals + were their whole study. They moved with the animals, followed + them for food. + + [28] Note 27. + +Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for trapping +them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of decoys to lure +animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits, others more easily +by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,[29] and similarly, another +form of the original decoy was no doubt simply the stuffed skin of a +member of the species, whether animal or bird, say for example a wild +duck.[30] Of course the hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself +putting on the animal skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an +individual dressed for example in a wolf's skin could approach near +enough to a solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other +weapon, without exciting the wolf's suspicion of the nearness of a +dangerous foe.[31] So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used +by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure +food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise, whole +or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments +seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions and cries of +animals,[32] at first to lure them, when acting as a decoy. With growth +of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and an additional reason for +acquiring dance and song was to secure charms against bodily ills,[33] +and finally enlivenment.[34] In both dance and song, when used for a +serious purpose, the performers imagined themselves to be the animals +they were imitating,[35] and in the dance they wore the skins of the +animals represented.[36] + + [29] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:--It seems that masks + were occasionally used as decoys.... Next to the otter the + most valuable animal in the estimation of the Kadiak men, is + the species of seal or sea-dog called by the Russians nerpa. + The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it toward the + shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body among + the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque + resembling the head of a seal and makes a noise like that + animal. The unsuspicious seal, imagining that he is about to + meet a partner of his own species, hastens to the spot and is + instantly killed. Compare note 57. + + [30] Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:--Bering Strait Eskimo stuff + rudely the skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon + a stick which holds the head outstretched, then imitate the + call of the bird, which is trapped in the net attached to the + decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft snow into the form + of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around the neck + for plumage. The call then brought the real birds. + + [31] Thus G. B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his + description of the primitive Indians' method of trapping + buffalo, says: "Some men went forth naked, others carried a + dress made of the entire skin of a buffalo, the head and horns + arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of the skin hung + down over the wearer's back," etc. This "caller" went near to a + herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into + the trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often + proved fatal to the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85, + p. 484, about Central Eskimo seal hunting, is stated: If a + hunter is close to an animal he imitates its movements. Some + utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. "The sealskin + clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is + difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance." + And on p. 508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central + Eskimos carry guns on their shoulders, two men going together, + so as to resemble the antlers of a deer. The men imitate their + grunting. If they lie on the ground at some distance they + greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to Ross the + "inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer, + the foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer's head + upon his own." Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:--"The old manner of + hunting antelope and deer: the hunter would disguise himself by + covering his head with the head and skin of an antelope, and so + be enabled to approach the game near enough to use his bow and + arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask themselves + with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo." Ethn. Rep. + 1901-02, p. 439;--Two of the party of hunters (Zuni) out after + deer "wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front + and back of the shirt being painted to represent as nearly + as possible the body of the deer; the hands and the arms to + the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to represent the + deer's forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer's head over his + head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as + possible, even to the browsing, the game they would catch." + + [32] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:--"Tradition says the Iroquois + derived the music and action of the Buffalo dance while on + an expedition against the Cherokee, from the bellowing and + the movements of a herd of buffalo which they heard for the + first time 'singing their favorite songs,' i. e. bellowing and + snorting." Also note 33. + + [33] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent + frostbite. The wolf's, deer's, fox's, opossum's feet it is held + never become frostbitten. After each verse of the song, the + singer imitates the cry and the action of the animal. The words + used are archaic in form and may be rendered "I become a real + wolf, etc." The song runs: + + 1. Tsun' wa' 'ya-ya' (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged + howl). The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his + feet. + + 2. Tsun'-ka' wi-ye' (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh! + (imitating the call and jumping of a deer). + + 3. Tsun'-tsu' 'la-ya' (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih! + (imitates barking and scratching of a fox). + + 4. Tsun'-si'-kwa-ya' (four times), ki+(imitates cry of the + opossum when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal + does when feigning death). + + [34] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance + performed by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep + up their spirits, in which each had his robe about him and + imitated the actions of the coyote, trotting, glancing around, + etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo dance, in which each + of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over his head, + the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging + down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of + the buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the + Omaha wolf dance, by the society of those who have supernatural + communication with wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and + dance in imitation of the actions of wolves. Similarly they + performed the grizzly bear dance, horse dance, etc. + + [35] Notes 22, 34 and 37. + + [36] See notes 34 and 37. + +Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed merely +for decoys and sport (early dancing),[37] for peaceful purposes +therefore, such people having whole or partial animal shape were not +regarded as harmful to man,[38] just as wise women began to pass +for witches only when with their art they did evil.[39] A similar +development can be traced in the case of masks.[40] It was some time +before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing animals that +were dangerous to life, though these are the ones he first studied;[41] +and we cannot presuppose that he disguised to represent them until he +could cope with them, since the original purpose of the disguise was +to secure food and clothing. Thus far then we see whole or partial +disguise as animals used to secure _food_ and _clothing_ when acting as +decoys to lure animals; and in _dancing_.[42] + + [37] Similarly in the use of masks (see note 57). See Wundt, + Voelkerpsychologie II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this + Zeitschrift fuer deutsche Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss. + 558-568:--"Der maskierte mensch ist der ekstatische Mensch. + Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in ekstase, fuehlt + er sich in fremde lebensvorgaenge ein, eignet er sich das wesen + an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert." Fuer den + naiven menschen, wie fuer das kind, ist die maske durchaus + nicht blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der + augenblickstanz wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvoelker verwenden + ihre masken nur bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertaenzen, nicht + zu ihrer burlesken mimik; die taenzer sind in Tiermasken, etc. + + [38] Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed + into a bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent + (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1097:--In Norse accounts also we find + transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded as + rational and was esteemed. + + [39] Note 84. + + [40] See note 57a. + + [41] Notes 27 and 42. + + [42] The important consideration in the mind of primitive + man was whether certain things were harmful or useful. See + Behaghel, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 98:--"Die grossen Tiere + und die maechtigen Baeume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die fuer + die _Ernaehrung_ and _Bekleidung_ des Menschen von Bedeutung + sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben _bedrohen_, sie haben viel + frueher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare + Kaefer im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es, + dass die Namen der groesseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbaeume, + der wichtigsten Getreidearten allen germanischer Staemmen + gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie _Wolf_, _Kuh_, _Ochse_, + _Birke_, _Buche_, _Erle_, _Gerste_ mit den Benennungen anderer + indogermanischer Voelker uebereinstimmen." Doubtless animals + occupied their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt, + Voelkerpsychologie, II. 412 fol., about the _maskentanz_: + "Ueberhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit frueher Beruecksichtigung + erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive." See note 95. + +Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal's skin or dress when +out as _forager_ (or robber) or _spy_, for the purpose of avoiding +detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for example,[43] were called +by neighboring tribes _wolves_, probably not out of contempt, since it +may be doubted that an Indian feels contempt for a wolf any more than +he does for a fox, a rabbit, or an elk, but because of their adroitness +as scouts, warriors and stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think, +because of their great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so +as to escape detection by the enemy by day or night; or, according to +some neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves[44], "have the +endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can make +long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their way, or on +no food at all." ... And further, "The Pawnees, when they went on the +warpath, were always prepared to simulate wolves.... Wolves on the +prairie were too common[45] to excite remark, and at night they would +approach close to the Indian camps." ... The Pawnee starting off on the +warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later times a +white blanket or a white sheet; and, at _night_, wrapping himself in +this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he walked or trotted +here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed himself into a +common object of the landscape. This disguise was employed by _day_ as +well, for reconnoissance.... While the party remained hidden in some +ravine or hollow, one Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to +the top of the hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches +looking all over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him, +would take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the +Pawnees could imitate wolves best. "An Indian going into an enemy's +country is often called a wolf,[46] and the sign for a scout is made up +of the signs _wolf_ and _look_."[47] Should any scout detect danger, as +at _night_ when on duty near an encampment, he must give the cry of the +coyote.[48] + + [43] G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N. Y., + Scribners, 1893, p. 245, fol. + + [44] Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein + sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. _hirpus_ bedeutet _wolf_ in + sabinischer oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf + fuehrer geworden war, oder nach andrer sage sie woelfe gejagt + hatten und gleich woelfen raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen + ausdrucks friedlos waren. + + [45] The werewolf story could arise only where the animal, + wolf, tiger or lion, etc., was common; and likewise the + werewolf tales gradually died out when the animals became rare + or extinct. See note 11. + + [46] Grinnell, p. 245. + + [47] The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild + beasts save their own totem-animals as _enemy-scouts_ (Encyc. + Brit. under Lycanthropy). + + [48] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of + the indian, p. 208: The wolf was believed, in the animals' + council, to be able to give the Indian the power to creep right + into the midst of the enemy's camp without being seen. + +The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in animal form or +dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal disguise began to +act not only as decoys for animals dangerous to life, but also as +scouts (robbers[49]--and later as possessors of supernatural power, +when growth of culture brought with it growth of supernaturalism[50]); +when people began to associate, for example, the wolf's form with a +lurking enemy.[51] + + [49] See note 53. + + [50] See note 57-b. + + [51] So originally the germanic god _Logi_ was not an evil + god. _Logi_ meant the natural force of fire; _Loki_ meant the + same, but the burly giant has been made a sly, seducing villain + (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of Loki, Fenrisulfr, appears + in wolf's shape among the gods. Perhaps association with the + wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of Logi + (Loki) from a good to an evil god. + +All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the defensive, +like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion have sent out +scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid detection, assumed the +disguise of the animal most common to the special locality in question, +just as to-day they are known to disguise in animal skins for purposes +of plunder or revenge.[52][53] + + [52] Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:--In modern savage life we + find beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in + beast form for the community; others are said to assume beast + form in order to avenge themselves justly on enemies; others + for love of bloodshed and cannibalism. See also note 58. + + [53] No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won + considerable fame through their skill and bravery, as we should + judge from such proper names as _Rudolf_, which means really + _Ruhmwolf_, _Ruhm_ related to Gothic _hropeigs_ "victorious," + Sanskrit _kir_ "to praise"; or _Adolf_ from _Adalolf_, which + means _Edelwolf_, originally, therefore, _Edelraeuber_, for + _wolf_ meant originally about the same as _robber_ (Kluge). + So _robber_ or _wolf_ was originally a highly respectable + appellation, at a time when men lived from robbery and the + chase, either as searobbers, or mountain robbers, etc. (about + this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen, 1905, p. 268 + fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace (see + appellation "wolves" applied to Pawnees, p. 12.). Later we find + such names as _Wulfila_ "little wolf." Many Indian names are + those of animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear, + Conquering Bear, Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear + Rib, Smoking Bear, Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear, + Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe, + etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83, p. 169: The names of Indians very + often refer to some animal, predicating some attribute or + position of that animal. For discussion of names, see note 111. + +The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying principle is +the same; namely, the transformation of a living human being into an +animal. The origin of the belief in such a transformation, as stated +above[54] was the simple putting on of an animal skin by early man. The +object of putting on animal skins was, + + [54] Ante p. 6. + +(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries of animals +were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),[55] artificial decoys +(like decoy ducks to-day)[56] and finally even masks were used.[57] + + [55] See (3) below. + + [56] See ante p. 8. + + [57] See note 4 and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see + note 37):--The use of masks is worldwide. The origin and + development of the use of masks is very much the same as + the origin and development of the werewolf as given in the + preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both originally + useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into + instruments for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of + the mask is described in the above report as follows: + + a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for + defense against physical violence, human or otherwise. It + was therefore first used merely as a mechanical resistance + to the opposing force; then secondly, still in the lowest + grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a + moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by + symbolizing superhuman agencies. Now individual variations + arose--devices for example derived or conventionalized from + some predatory, shrewd or mysterious animal. + + b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and + the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part + of the religious paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of + the shamans. Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 395:--"When worn in any + ceremonial, ... the wearer is believed to become mysteriously + and unconsciously imbued with the spirit of the being which his + mask represents." + + c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is + used for public amusements and games; by secret societies; as + protection against recognition on festive occasions, etc., like + the animal skins worn in dances. + +(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying animals, +as in (1) above. + +(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals led to +dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the faces and bodies +of the participants were painted in imitation of the colors of birds +and animals, the motions of animals imitated and animal disguises +used.[58] + + [58] Notes 32, 34, 33, ante p. 11. + +(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out foraging, as well +as for warfare,[59][60] therefore for booty, and self-defense. Either +they wore the entire skin, or probably later just a part of it as a +fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as a charm by many of +our colored people to-day.[61] + + [59] See p. 13. + + [60] Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:--Account of "a cloak or mantle + made from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic + paintings. It was made and used by the Apaches as a mantle + of invisibility, that is, a charmed covering for spies which + would enable them to pass with impunity through the country, + and even through the camp of their enemies. In this instance + the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn." The + Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were + the raincloud, serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of + the winds of the four cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. + 515:--Among the Hidatsa (Sioux) fetiches are especially the + skins of the wolf. "When they go to war, they always wear the + stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging down + the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the + warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf's head + hangs down upon his breast." Finally the magic robes or shirts + and girdles came to be a part of the regular paraphernalia of + the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the folklore of all + countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles. + + Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: "Some warriors had + medicine to change their shape as they pleased, so that they + could escape from their enemies." Page 501: Such stories might + be paralleled in any tribe. + + [61] See further development in note 64. + +(5) For purposes of revenge,[62],[63] personal or other. For some other +personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror in the opposing +agent by hideousness. + + [62] Note 52. + + [63] As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure + brutality, we cite from Andree, p. 69:--People in the interior + of Africa who understand magic, transform themselves into lions + and go about killing people. See also below, note 65, where the + wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and sucks his blood, and + also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being one of + the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this + takes place at _night_, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian + starting out at night in his wolf's robe, and trotting up to + the hostile village to ascertain where his enemies' horses + are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell's + Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73). + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:--"To recover stolen or lost + property, especially ponies, is one of the principal tasks + imposed upon the so-called medicine-men" (shamans). + +(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing superhuman +agencies.[64] So now would arise first a belief in superhuman power or +attributes,[65] and then, + + [64] As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was + put on not merely to make the wearer look just like a common + object of the landscape, but also because the wearer of the + disguise was supposed to take on the characteristics of the + animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.), as in the + case of masks (see note 57), and finally the wearer of such + a robe was believed to actually become transformed, like the + wearers of the werewolf shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves + were regarded as good hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep. + 1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:--The wolf is revered by the + Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanati; therefore we can + understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of + unerring huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those + who gained their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of + songs imitating the cries of certain animals was supposed to + confer a characteristic of the animal in question (see note 33). + + Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:--To gain animal characteristics a + wizard attached crow and owl plumes to his head that he might + have the eyes of the crow to see quickly the approach of man, + and the eyes of the owl to travel by night. He flapped his + arms, ... A Zuni man hearing a cry like an owl, yet human, + looked about him and found a man whom he recognized as a Zuni. + "Aha!" said he, "why have you those plumes upon your head? Aha, + you are a sorcerer," etc. + + An example of the transforming power of the _robe_ we find in + Bulletin 26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, + 1901, Kathlamet texts, p. 156 fol.:--A woman ate of some of the + fat of a bitch, gave birth to five male dogs and one female + dog. When they grew older, she discovered one day that they + could transform themselves into real children. While they were + down at the beach, she entered the house, and now she saw the + dog _blankets_. She took them and burnt them. Then the children + retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjoetli in the + Voelsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according + to which an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting + on an elkskin. + + W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p. + 100, writes, "Die Faehigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln + koennen, heisst 'sich zu haeuten, die Huelle zu wechseln'. + Das Umwerfen eines aeusserlichen Gewandes kann den Wechsel + der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas Federgewand, die + Schwan- und Kraehenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins Adlergewand. + Die Wolfsgewaender (ulfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln + den Menschen zum Wolfe". See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel, + Zeitschrift fuer deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261. + + [65] Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:--The owner of fine beads fears + that some witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with + disease. + + As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman + powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances + given by Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met + in Africa a native said to have power to transform himself + into a lion. As lion he would stay for days and months in the + _forest_, in a sacred hut, to which however his wife carried + beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this lion + did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was + able to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine + brought him by his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:--In Banana, + Africa, the members of a certain family transform themselves in + the _dark_ of the _forest_ into leopards. They throw down those + they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them nor drink + their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note 83.) + + The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American + Indians, who put on a wolf's mantle to steal, or to recover + stolen animals (Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the + story of robbery entitled Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.). + Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69, where the lowest caste + of laborers are believed to have power to transform themselves + into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They + employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause, + since it yields such returns. They are reported to act like + other folk by day, at _night_ though to assume the ways of + wolves, kill their enemies and suck their blood, roaming about + with other wolves till morning. They are supposed to gain their + supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs. They + are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since + their roaming and plundering is done in the _night_; in the + daytime they of course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p. + 72). + + Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:--Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and + Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the + masses and the comparative learning of the few who practised + it. Among the American Indians the medicine-man and the more + expert sorceress have little learning above that of the body of + the tribe, and their success depends entirely upon their own + belief in being supernaturally gifted, and upon the faith and + fear of their followers. + + The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly + animal shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:--"An + old blind wolf with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made + his head and hands look like those of a wolf. The rest of his + body was not changed. He was called a man-wolf." + +(7) Witchcraft.[66] It is very easy to see why it was usually the +so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who claimed such +transformation power, because they received remuneration from their +patients.[67] + + [66] Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:--Witches could and did assume + animal shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire + streaming from its mouth and nostrils. It was _night_. The man + shot at it, and the next morning tracked it by the marks of + blood from its wound. At a bridge a woman's tracks took the + place of the dog's, and finally he found the woman. She had + died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a hog, when + pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared + as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing. + So they, the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian + Indian one _evening_ pursued a white bull with fire streaming + from its nostrils. He had never seen a white bull on the + reservation before. "As it passed in front of a house it was + transformed into a man with a _large white blanket_, who was + ever afterward known as a witch." + + Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:--A man going out at _night_ noticed + a queer-looking burro. Upon his return home he was told that a + large cat had entered the house. He went out again, discovered + a man wrapped in a blanket, but not in the Zuni fashion, his + head was sunk low in the blanket. He knew this creature to be a + wizard. + + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:--That the medicine man (Shaman) + has the faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and + other animals at pleasure and then resuming the human form, is + as implicitly believed in by the American Indians as it was + by our own forefathers in Europe. And page 459: The Abipones + of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power to put on + the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed the + power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the + Shamans of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz, + p. 133 fol.:--"In der christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische + Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier entstand mit dem Hexenglauben + die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich mit Hilfe des Satans aus + reiner Mordlust zu Woelfen verwandeln. So wurde der Werwolf das + Bild des tierisch Daemonischen in der Menschennatur." + + [67] Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:--The medicine-men of the + Apache are paid at the time they are consulted, the priest + beforehand among the Eskimo. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: "The + magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount + of the patient's worldly wealth." Page 416:--Sioux sorcerers + prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep. + 1901-2, p. 568:--"The shaman, like the theurgist is usually + paid after each visit with calico, cotton, or food, according + to the wealth of the family, since it is always understood + that these doctors expect proper compensation for their + services." Page 387:--"The Zuni doctor is paid according to his + reputation." Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: "In early + days if a man remained sick for three or four weeks, all his + possessions went to pay doctors' fees." + + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.--The American Indian's theory + of disease is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian, + the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman--all bodily disorders are + attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that is of animal + spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated. + Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was + language which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend. + Page 468:--The medicine-men are accused of administering + poisons to their enemies. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:--Sioux + sorcerers were thought to cause the death of those persons + who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. + 581:--"When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia + he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his + followers believe that he has become, the power he represents." + The Mexican priests masked and disguised, and dressed in the + skins of the women offered up in sacrifice. + + So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest. + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:--The Indian doctor relied far more + on magic than on natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the + drum, songs, magic feasts and dances, and howling were his + ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 210 + fol.:--They have "firm confidence in dreams." "Their belief in + a future life is in part founded on dreams," etc. + +(8) Finally dreams[68] and exaggerated reports gave rise to fabulous +stories.[69] + + [68] Note 67, close. + + [69] An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain + occurs Andree, p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal + at one place, the latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming + human form, they attack their enemy in the _night_ at his + home. This is the transformation of an animal into a man, but + the inventor of the story was no doubt looking towards his + own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which + in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In + Siam stories are told of people who by magic formulae become + tigers and roam about at _night_ in search of booty. One of the + man-tigers was actually a priest. + +We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);[70] for an example under (4) we +have cited the practices of American Indians.[71] It is probable that +about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above), what is known as the +real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied, rabid manwolf) began +to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin was already a lurking thief +or enemy, or a destroyer of human life. To advance from this stage +to the werewolf frenzy, our primitive man must have seen about him +some exhibition of such a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this +frenzy particularly with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons, +and the connecting link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as +the transformation was usually into a wolf or dog,[72]) for persons +bitten by it usually went mad too.[73] The ensuing frenzy, with the +consternation it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds +as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some no doubt +actually had the malady; others honestly believed they had it and got +into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked themselves up into a +frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.[74] Later, in the Middle +Ages, when the nature of the real disease came to be better understood, +the werewolf superstition had become too firmly fixed to be easily +uprooted. + + [70] Ante pp. 7, 8, 9. + + [71] Ante p. 12 fol. + + [72] See notes 19 and 74. + + [73] Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: "It is said that + wolves, which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes + went crazy, and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even + coming into camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons + bitten by a mad wolf generally went mad, too. They trembled and + their limbs jerked, they made their jaws work and foamed at the + mouth, often trying to bite other people. When any one acted in + this way, his relatives tied him hand and foot with ropes, and, + having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the green hide, + built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until + the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and + removed the buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure + for a mad wolf's bite." + + [74] Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a + monomania themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this + widespread disease or delusion (of the first century till + late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.: "The sick" ones would + prowl about burial places _at night_, imagining themselves + to be _wolves_ or _dogs_, and go about barking and howling. + In the middle ages such people would even kill children and + grown people. When they came to themselves again, or were + cured, they claimed to know nothing of what had happened. + Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst the Shamans feats of + jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing the best + of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of + robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals, + painted with shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The + speaker terms himself a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power. + +We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.[75] As further +examples of the development into fabulous story,[76] we may cite any of +those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man is represented +as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and tearing to pieces men +and beasts, until he resumes his human form. Thus an early scout in +animal garb would be obliged to live on food he found on his way, and +later fabulous report would represent him as himself when in disguise +possessing the attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to +pieces man and beast. For such an account see Andree,[77] concerning +what eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the +hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed +such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread abroad +such a report as would enhance the influence of the hyena-men far and +wide. Some savages, as in Africa,[78] came to regard any animal that +robbed them of children, goats or other animals, as a witch in animal +form;[79] just as the American Indians ascribe to evil spirits death, +sickness and other misfortunes. + + [75] Notes 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69. + + [76] See (8) above. + + [77] Page 71. + + [78] Andree, p. 69. + + [79] Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of + the origin of the wolf: "_The wolf_ was a poor woman, who had + so many children that she could not find enough for them to + eat. They became so gaunt and hungry that they were changed + into wolves, constantly roaming over the land seeking food." + +We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an animal robe +would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;[80] how though, as +soon as the element of magic enters in, he would try to keep up the +illusion. At this stage, when the original defensive measure had become +tainted with superstition, men would go about in the night time howling +and holding their vile revels.[81] Andree,[82] narrates how a soldier +in Northeast Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and +came to the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician. No +hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh wound. Soon +he died, however the soldier did not survive him long. Doubtless one +of the magician class was responsible for the death of the soldier, +just as we to-day put to death the man who so violates our laws, as to +become a menace to our society, or as formerly kings killed those who +stood in their way; or as religious sects murder those who dissent +from their faith. These magicians, supposed to be men who could assume +animal form, as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly +feared by other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and +at _night_ come forth to plunder and kill.[83] It is to their interest +to counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were +put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.[84] Their frenzies +were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in other cases +they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent opportunities for +personal gain or vengeance.[85] + + [80] Ante p. 12 fol. + + [81] Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine + the horrible howlings, and strange contortions that these + jugglers (shamans) or conjurers make of their bodies, when they + are disposing themselves to conjure. + + [82] Page 71. + + [83] Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician + (Abyssinia), who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate + animal-men the teeth of the persons whom they have killed + during the year, with which he decorates his palace. See also + pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151, about sorcery + among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes of + the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of + Indian genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class + of ambitious men and women sufficient influence through + their acknowledged power of exorcism and necromancy to lead + a comfortable life at the expense of the credulous. Page + 162: "Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an order of + priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It + is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe + that they can at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos," + etc. Sometimes one family constitutes the class. See note 65; + Andree, p. 69. + + [84] Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches + were priestesses, physicians, fabulous _night_-wives, never + as yet persecuted. Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into + werewolves, and lose nothing in popular estimation. The abuse + of a spell was punished. A wise woman, healing sickness and + charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch only when with + her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil's + complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the + guilt of criminality fell upon all personal relations with him. + Ethn. Rep. 1901-2, p. 393: "Though the witch may be regarded as + all powerful, none but the poor and unfortunate are condemned. + Few others are even brought to trial--their prominence prevents + public accusation." This again reminds us some of our customs; + namely, that of overlooking the transgressions of the rich and + powerful. See note 91, and for outlaws note 112. + + [85] Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the + body, and more particularly the eyes, so that many shamans + (Siberia, America, etc.) become blind. + +Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition +and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the outrages hope +to escape punishment for their depredations, could they hope to plunder +and steal with impunity.[86] So they prowled usually under the cloak +of _night_ or of the dark of the forest,[87] howled and acted like +the animals they represented, hid the animal skin or blanket, if they +used one,[88] in the daytime where they thought no one could find +it, whereas the animal skin which was worn for defence, was put on +either by day or night,[89] and one story recounts the swallowing of +a whole goat, the man bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did +it.[90] Some of the transformed men claimed they could regain human +form only by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters +were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,[91] +no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress, each +maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices, just as did +the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those of the American +negro, who in church, when "shouting," that is, when stirred up by +religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy who happens to be in the +church, of course with impunity; for he is supposed to be under some +outside control, and when the spell has passed off, like some of the +delusionists mentioned,[92] claims not to know what he (or generally +she) has done. Similar also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of +the fire-eaters, or any other sham. + + [86] Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia + and Lithuania, according to two bishops, werewolves were in + the 16th century far more destructive than "true and natural + wolves." They were asserted to have formed "an accursed + college" of those "desirous of innovations contrary to the + divine law." Also see note 90. + + [87] See ante p. 13, and notes 64, 65, 66, 69, 84, 102, 110. + + [88] Note 22 close, and note 102. + + [89] See ante p. 13. + + [90] Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a + woman, whose husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his + house, got hold of him later in his man shape and killed him. + Feats similar to some performed by him are cited in Ethn. Rep. + 1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the Pawnee swallowed + arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of apparently + killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zuni. + + [91] Grimm, Rechtsalterthuemer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle + aus der aermsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note 84). + Literary Digest, March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism + and Spirituality: "Many, very many, spiritualists seem to care + for communion with spirits only that they may more surely keep + physically well, and earn their bread and butter and clothing + the easier." Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The absurdity of + the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for the + theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in + every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he + was certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not + being found in beast form was satisfactorily disposed of. + + [92] Notes 57 and 67. + +The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was that most +often assumed for example in Germanic lands.[93] The term _wolf_ +became synonymous with _robber_, and later (when the robber became an +outlaw,[94]) with _outlaw_, the robber and outlaw alike being called +wolf and not some other animal (i. e., only the wolf-man surviving to +any extent) firstly, because the wolf was plentiful; and secondly, +because as civilization advanced, there came a time when the wolf was +practically the only one of the larger undomesticated animals that +survived.[95] We can notice this in our own United States, for example +in eastern Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes +heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the pastures +adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller animals, and +dig up buried ones.[96] In Prussia also it is the wolf that survives +to-day. American Indians, and other savages however do not restrict the +transformations to the wolf,[97] because other wild animals, are, or +were till recently, abundant amongst them. As civilization advances, +one by one the animal myths disappear with the animals that gave rise +to them (like that connected with the mastodon);[98] or else stories of +such domestic animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.[99] +When this stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully +coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals were shorn +of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as Aesop's fables +would arise.[100] This however was psychologically a long step in +advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an earlier period. + + [93] Notes 9 and 19. + + [94] Note 112. + + [95] See note 11, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: "The deer, + which is still common in the mountains, was the principal + dependence of the Cherokee hunter, and is consequently + prominent in myth, folklore, and ceremonial." see note 42. + Page 264: "The largest gens (clan) in the tribe bears the name + of 'wolf people.'" Page 420: The Cherokee have always been an + agricultural people, and their old country has a luxuriant + flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more + important place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe + than it does among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid + sage deserts of the West. + + [96] The St. Louis "Westliche Post" for January 9, 1908, + furnishes another example: A tame wolf which for the past + two years has been a pet in a farmer's family at Marshfield, + Wisconsin, escaped and attacked a chicken. The farmer's + daughter called to the wolf, but it had become wild from the + taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and one + leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released + until she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar. + + Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13, + 1908, shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite + populous districts: "Wolf-Plage. Aus dem noerdlichen Wisconsin + wird gemeldet, dass Woelfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind + denn je, und dass sie, durch Hunger getrieben, sich nahe + an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere und auch Menschen + angreifen. Zwei grosse Woelfe griffen in dieser Woche das Pferd + der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den Wald, + wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien + verscheuchten." + + [97] Note 11. + + [98] Note 20. + + [99] Note 109. + + [100] Note 24. + +Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf +superstition went through various stages of development. The motives +for assuming wolf's dress (or animal skins or robes), at first were +purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to secure food by +acting as decoys; then it was used for personal advantage or gain by +foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for purposes of vengeance;[101] +later from a desire for power over others; and finally men (the +professional and the superstitious) began to concoct fabulous stories +which were handed down as tradition or myth, according to the psychic +level of the narrator and hearer.[102] + + [101] Close of note 102. + + [102] John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives + the origin and development of the werewolf as follows: From + the conception of wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to + the conception of corporeal werewolves.... Christianity did + not fail to impart a new and fearful character to the belief + in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as a species of + witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the + Devil. It was often necessary to kill one's enemies, and at + that time some even killed for love of it (like the Berserker); + often a sort of homicidal madness, during which they would + array themselves in the skins of wolves or bears and sally + forth by _night_ to crack the backbones, smash the skulls and + sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary + travelers or loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an + invention of excited imagination. So people attributed a wolf's + nature to the maniac or idiot with cannibal appetites, then + the myth-forming process assigned to the unfortunate wretch + a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. Worship + of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of + transformation of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The + storm-wind was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead + men's souls or as the howling of wolf-like monsters (called by + Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness and cannibalism, + accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted as due + to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf + superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on + a wolf's skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence + of the fact alleged of Berserkers haunting the woods by + _night_, clothed in hides of wolves or bears. A permanent cure + was effected by burning the werewolf's sack, unless the Devil + furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, to become + incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the + outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is + the night-wind--a kind of leader of departed souls, howling + in the wintry blasts. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:--The + Berserkir of Iceland dressed in the skins of bears and wolves, + and further on: "Beastform is in mythology proper far oftener + assumed for malignant than for benignant ends." + +The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful werewolf +is the disguising as some common animal by members of savage races +when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to escape detection by the +enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land in search of food. As stated +above,[103] later fabulous report would represent them as possessing +in their disguise the attributes of the animal they impersonated,[104] +and finally even of actually taking on animal form, either wholly or +in part,[105] for longer or shorter periods of time. Some of the North +American Indian transformation stories represent men as having only +the head, hands and feet of a wolf.[106] The transformation into a +werewolf in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made +of wolf-skin.[107] This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic +werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising +the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent a person +as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other article of +apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.[108] The stories especially in Europe +were of the _were-wolf_ rather than _were-bear_ or other animal, +because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild animals.[109] It +was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, which crystallized +into the household werewolf or transformation tales.[110] + + [103] Ante p. 22. + + [104] Note 57. + + [105] Close note 65. + + [106] Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737. + + [107] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our + oldest native notions make the assumption of wolf-shape + depend on arraying oneself in a wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as + transformation into a swan does on putting on the swan-shirt + or swan-ring. Page 1095: "The transformation need not be for a + magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured + into, a wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the + appearance, he acquires also the fierceness and howling of the + wolf; roaming the _woods_, he rends to pieces everything that + comes in his way." This is like the belief of the American + Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued with the spirit + of the being which his mask represents (note 57); or that the + shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers + believe that he has become, the power he represents (note 67). + + [108] Thus some American Indian stories represent men + transformed into wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or + piece of decayed wood when pursued. And mantles of invisibility + are mentioned in note 60. + + [109] See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: "Unter den grossen + Raubtieren treten uns Baer und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen. + Der Wolf ist freilich ueberall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der + Baer ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier," etc. Encyc. Brit, under + Lycanthropy: "In England by the 17th century the werewolf had + long been extinct. Only small creatures, the cat, hare, weasel, + etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to transform himself + into." See note 11. + + [110] Amongst the American Indians, where various larger + animals were common, the designation "wolf-people" (see the + sign-language of the plains) was bestowed especially on the + Pawnees, because, as we have seen, they best imitated wolves. + In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the wolf alone was + universally common, the designation "wolf-people" (or if we + choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one + locality or people, but was bestowed in general on those who + assumed the manner of wolves, and because of their crimes + became outcasts like the wolves. They best imitate wolves, and + no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as wolves + (see note 102), and for this reason the _warg_ or outlaw came + to be called a _wolf_ (see close of note 112). Thus Golther, + Mythologie, p. 102, says: "Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder + getoetet, so findet man einen wunden oder toten Menschen." The + werewolves, as we have seen (ante p. 25), keep to the _woods_ + and the _dark_, of course in many cases to avoid detection. + Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: "They say that + witches love the _night_ and lurk in _shadows and darkness_. + Witches are believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts." + Sigmund and Sinfjoetli dwelt as wolves in the _woods_. Also the + progenitor of the Myramenn in Iceland at _night_ could leave + his house in wolf's form. Another Norwegian account reports + how earlier many people were able to take on wolf's form, then + dwelt in _grove_ and _woods_, where they tore people to pieces, + etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note 113. + + [111] Names. See note 31. The development in the case of names + was perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note 57), and of + the werewolf superstition itself (ante p. 15, fol.); namely, a) + protection against outside agencies was sought; b) growth of + supernaturalism; c) element of humor. + + a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: "Children are often + named _wolf_, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their + supernatural foes" (for similar assumption of characteristics + or the nature of animals for personal advantage see note 33). + See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1139: "The escort of + _wolf_ or _raven_ augured victory;" and in the note: "A name + of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O. H. G. + _Wolf-hraban_ (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly + promised victory. Old names are no product of pure chance. + Servian mothers name a son they have longed for, _Vuk_, + _Wolf_: then the witches can't eat him up. O. H. G. _Wolfbizo_ + was a lucky name, i. e., one bitten by the wolf and thereby + protected," like our modern curing of like by like in medicine. + + b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development + mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about + the conferring of secret names, since one could harm a person + by his name alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning + his name: "Wenn man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g'rennt." Again + in XXI. 313 fol.: It was dangerous to name _bear_ or _wolf_ + in regions infested by these animals, so people, out of fear, + avoided calling the name of such animals; called the bear for + example _honey-eater_, etc. + + c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his + fear of them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and + humor enter in, and such names arise as are mentioned in note + 53; and such stories as that of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a + wolf. + + [112] Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws + who have fled to the woods. A notable instance is that of + Sigmund and Sinfjoetli in the Voelsungasaga. In regard to this W. + Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, Leipzig 1895, + p. 102, says: "Die Sage mag auf einem alten Misverstaendniss + beruhen. _Warg_, _Wolf_ hiess der Geaechtete in der germanischen + Rechtssprache. _Warg_ wurde woertlich als _Wolf_ verstanden, + und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte." Golther again, p. + 424:--"Gefesselt wurde Loki als Aechter in den Wald getrieben, + er wurde "_Warg_", d. h. _Wolf_. _Woelfe_ heissen die friedlosen + Waldgaenger." As to _warg_, Schade in his altdeutsches + Woerterbuch defines it as a raeuberisch wuergendes wuetendes Wesen, + Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise, + geaechteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetaeter; _warg_ ist + Benennung des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und + vertragbruechiger Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden + durch Mord gebrochen und landfluechtig geworden, oder nun im + wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere haust und wie der Wolf + ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche auf Island + Bezeichnung einer gewalttaetigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm, + Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American + Indians relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67 + fol.: An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself + without the protection of his clan, is not defended in case he + is injured by another. When the sentence of outlawry has been + declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the duty of + the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the + council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty + of any member of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill + him like an animal. Page 60 fol.: "The chief of the Wolf gens + is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe" (see also Ethn. + Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the _woods_ and the + _dark_. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal + skins, and to terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves. + Since therefore so many outlaws lived, dressed (note 22 close) + and acted like wolves, to all intents and purposes became + wolves, _wolf_ and outlaw became synonymous terms. + + [113] The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night + in Germany is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people + believed that werewolves, etc., entered houses at night. In + place of the earlier harmful werewolf is now the "harmful" + night air. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + + ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche. + Stuttgart, 1878. + + BEHAGHEL, OTTO. Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902. + + BRAUNE, WILHELM. Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907. + + BROCKHAUS, F. A. Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol. + + BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901. + + DILTHEY, WILHELM. Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906. + + EDDA. Die lieder der aelteren edda. Paderborn, 1876. + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. New York, 1883, etc. + + ERMAN, ADOLF. Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833. + + FISKE, JOHN. Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892. + + FREYTAG, GUSTAV. Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904. + + GOLTHER, W. Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Rechtsaltertuemer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Teutonic mythology. Translation by J. S. Stallybrass, + London, 1882. + + GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD. Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892. + + GRINNELL, G. B. Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893. + + GRINNELL, G. B. Story of the Indian. New York, 1895. + + HERTZ, W. Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862. + + HIRT, H. Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol. + + INDOGERMANISCHE FORSCHUNGEN. Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904, 1907. + + KLUGE, F. Etymologisches woerterbuch der deutschen sprache. + Strassburg, 1905. + + LEMCKE, K. Aesthetik in gemeinverstaendlichen vortraegen. Leipzig, + 1890. + + LEUBUSCHER, R. Ueber die wehrwoelfe und thierverwandlungen im + mittelalter. Berlin, 1850. + + LITERARY DIGEST. New York and London, March 9, 1907. + + MEYERS. Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900. + + PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900. + + SCHADE, O. Altdeutsches woerterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol. + + SCHRADER, O. Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde. + Strassburg, 1901. + + VOeLSUNGASAGA. Ranisch, Berlin, 1891. + + WESTLICHE POST. St. Louis. + + WUNDT, W. Voelkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905. + + ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR DEUTSCHES ALTERTUM. Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904. + + ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR DEUTSCHE PHILOLOGIE. Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906. + + + + +INDEX + +[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.] + + + Abipones, _9, 66._ + + Abyssinia, _9._ + + Africa, 5, 23; _9, 47, 65._ + + Alligator, _9._ + + America, 5; _9, 85._ + + American Indians, 5, 14, 21, 23, 27; _9, 27, 66, 110._ + + Anglo-Saxons, _9._ + + Animals, _42._ + + Animal fable, _15._ + + Arabia, _9._ + + Arawaks, _9._ + + Arcadia, _9, 15._ + + Asia, 5; _9, 12, 16._ + + Assyrians, _15._ + + + Bear, 5; _9, 15, 16, 38, 102, 109, 111._ + + Belgium, _12._ + + Benignant, _4, 38._ + + Berserkr, 1; _102._ + + Bird, 5. + + Bison, _12, 27, 31, 32, 73, 74._ + + Bohemia, _9._ + + Borneo, _9._ + + Bretons, _9._ + + Bulgaria, _9._ + + Burchard von Worms, _9._ + + Burmah, _12._ + + + Celebrations, _21._ + + Ceylon, _12._ + + Charms, 10, 16. + + Clothing, 8, 9, 11, 16, 28. + + Coyote, 13. + + + Dancing, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16; _32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 57._ + + Dante, _24._ + + Death, _22._ + + Decoy, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 28; _29, 30, 31._ + + Denmark, _9._ + + Dog, 5, 21, 27; _19, 64, 73, 74._ + + Dreams, 21; _67._ + + + Edda, _15._ + + Enemy, 8, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29; _48, 60, 65, 102, 111._ + + English, _9, 109._ + + Eskimo, _30, 31, 67._ + + Europe, 5, 7; _9, 12, 16, 110._ + + + Fenrisulfr, _9, 51._ + + Finns, _5._ + + Fish, _5._ + + Fisherman, _29._ + + Food, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 28, 29; _27, 29._ + + Forest, 25; _22, 65, 102, 107, 110, 112._ + + Fox, 5, 12; _9, 15, 21._ + + French, _9, 12._ + + + Germany, 2, 4, 5; _9, 22._ + + Greece, 1, 7; _9, 15, 22._ + + Greenland, _12, 69._ + + + Harmful, 1, 11, 13; _42, 51._ + + Herds, _9, 12, 20._ + + Herodotus, 1; _15._ + + Hindoos, _9._ + + Homer, _24._ + + Hunter, 7, 8; _15, 31, 52, 53, 64, 95._ + + Hyena, 5, 23; _9._ + + + Iceland, _9, 110._ + + India, 5; _9, 12._ + + Indogermanic, 7; _9, 20, 42._ + + Insanity, 21, 22, 24; _24, 73, 85, 102._ + + Iranians, _9._ + + Ireland, _9._ + + Italians, _9._ + + + Jackal, _12._ + + Jaguar, _9._ + + Japan, _9._ + + + Kadiak, _29._ + + Kelts, 7; _9._ + + Knut, _9._ + + + Lapps, 5. + + Leopard, 5; _9, 65._ + + Leubuscher, 6; _9, 20._ + + Lion, 5; _9, 45, 65._ + + Lithuanians, _9._ + + Loki, 14; _9, 112._ + + Lycanthropy, 2; _9, 19, 20, 22, 74, 102._ + + Lykaon, _9, 15._ + + + Magic, 23, 24; _22, 37, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 84, 107._ + + Malignant, 24; _4, 84, 102, 109, 113._ + + Mask, 8, 11, 15; _29, 37, 42, 57, 64, 67, 107, 111._ + + Mastodon, _20._ + + Medicinemen (Shamans), 20; _52, 63, 66, 67, 74, 81, 83, 85, 90, + 107._ + + Mexico, _12, 67._ + + Middle Ages, 22; _9, 74, 102._ + + Murder, 24; _20, 22, 52, 102, 112._ + + Myths, 7, 27; _24, 95, 102._ + + + Names, _42, 53, 109, 111._ + + Netherlands, _9._ + + Neurians, 1; _15._ + + Night, 1, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25; _63, 65, 66, 69, 74, 84, 102, 110, + 112, 113._ + + North America, _12._ + + Norway, _9._ + + + Odin, _15._ + + Island Oesel, _9._ + + Otter, _29._ + + Outlaw, 24, 26; _84, 110, 112._ + + Owl, 5, 30; _64._ + + + Pawnees, 12, 13, 23; _110._ + + Persia, _9._ + + Plants, _42, 95._ + + Poles, _9, 14._ + + Portuguese, _9._ + + Posen, _14._ + + Priests, _22, 67, 69, 83._ + + Professionals, 22, 23, 24, 25; _74, 81, 83, 86._ + + Provencal, _9._ + + Prussia, _14._ + + + Reindeer, 5. + + Religion, _22, 24, 57._ + + Revenge, 14, 17, 24, 28; _52, 69._ + + Robber, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28; _15, 20, 44, 53, 65, + 112._ + + Romans, 7; _9, 27._ + + Russia, 2; _9, 12, 16._ + + + Scandinavia, _9._ + + Scout, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 29; _47, 48, 60._ + + Scythians, _6._ + + Seal, _29, 31, 69._ + + Serpent, 5; _9._ + + Servia, _9._ + + Shepherds, _15, 20._ + + Siam, _12, 69._ + + Sinfjoetli, _15, 64, 110._ + + Song, 9, 10, 15; _33, 64._ + + Skins (or dress) of animals, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, + 23, 25, 28, 29, 30; _21, 22, 31, 34, 52, 53, 57, 60, 63, 64, + 65, 66, 67, 74, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112._ + + South America, 5; _12._ + + Speech (animals), 7. + + Stories, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29; _9, 27, 60, 69, 102, 111._ + + Supernaturalism, 10, 17, 18; _57, 65, 102, 111._ + + Superstition, 1, 4, 5, 14, 23; _20, 64._ + + Sweden, _9._ + + + Tiger, 5; _9, 45, 69, 90._ + + Totemism, 2; _47, 102._ + + Transformation, 5, 15, 21; _9, 11, 19, 22, 52, 64, 65, 66, 69, + 107._ + + Traps, 8; _31._ + + Tschechs, _9._ + + Turkey, 5; _108._ + + + Volhynia, 2; _9, 16._ + + Voelsungasaga, _15, 112._ + + + Wales, _9._ + + Warfare, 12, 13, 16; _60._ + + Weapons, 7, 8, 9. + + Werewolf, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30; _9, 15, 20, 22, 45, + 64, 84, 86, 91, 102, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113._ + + Wiener Hundesegen, _15._ + + Witches, 11, 19, 23; _65, 66, 67, 74, 83, 84, 91, 102, 109, 110, + 111._ + + + + +Transcriber's note + + +Words in italics were surrounded with _underscores_, and small capitals +changed to all capitals. + +Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were +added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they +were referred to in other notes. The notes were moved to directly after +the paragraph with the corresponding anchor. + +In note 32 "Tsun'-si'-kwa-ya'" and "ki+" were in the original +written with a breve on the i, this has been changed to a plain i. +"Voelsungasaga" and "Sinfjoetli" were in the original mostly written with +a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader's +convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common +spelling with oe. + +Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. In note +12 "and" was changed to "und" (seltener in Frankreich und Belgien). + +Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and +missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent +spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by +Caroline Taylor Stewart + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF *** + +***** This file should be named 44134.txt or 44134.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/1/3/44134/ + +Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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