diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 44134-0.txt | 1936 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 44134-h/44134-h.htm | 2155 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 44134-h/images/cover.jpg | bin | 0 -> 100863 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/44134-0.txt | 2327 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/44134-0.zip | bin | 0 -> 44189 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/44134-8.txt | 2329 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/44134-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 44024 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/44134-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 151099 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/44134-h/44134-h.htm | 2572 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/44134-h/images/cover.jpg | bin | 0 -> 100863 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/44134.txt | 2329 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/44134.zip | bin | 0 -> 43941 bytes |
15 files changed, 13664 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/44134-0.txt b/44134-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..515b194 --- /dev/null +++ b/44134-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1936 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44134 *** + +Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected. +A more detailed transcriber’s note can be found at the end of this text. + + + + +THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.[1] + + [1] NOTE.—After the author had written the following article, + she gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That + the origin and development of the use of masks as given in + the Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, + 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note 32) is similar to the origin and + development of the werewolf superstition itself, as given in + the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The author + has italicized some words in the quotations. + + +The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an animal’s form, +most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost worldwide superstition. +Such a transformed person is the Germanic werewolf, or man-wolf; that +is, a wolf which is really a human being.[2] So the werewolf was a +man in wolf’s form or wolf’s dress,[2] seen mostly at night,[3] and +believed generally to be harmful to man.[4] + + [2] According to Mogk, in Paul’s Grundriss der germanischen + Philologie III. 272 _wer_ means “man,” found in Old Saxon, + Anglo-Saxon, Old High German, and werewolf a man in wolf’s + form. Kögel connects _wer_ with Gothic _wasjan_ “kleiden.” + “Darum bedeutet _werwolf_ eigentlich Wolfsgewand úlfshamr; + ähnlich bedeutet vielleicht _berserkr_ Bärengewand,” therefore + werewolf according to Kögel means a wolf’s dress. See also + Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde. + + [3] Post p. 24. + + [4] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:—Beastform in + mythology proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for + benignant ends. See note 52. + +The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily +explained. Adolf Erman[5] explains the allusion of Herodotus[6] to the +transformation of the Neurians (the people of the present Volhynia, in +West Russia) into wolves as due merely to their appearance in winter, +dressed in their furs. This explanation, however, would not fit similar +superstitions in warm climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy +to primitive Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the +members of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.[7] +Still another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the +original werewolf.[8] + + [5] Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232. + + [6] Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and + Greeks settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once + a year every Neurian becomes a wolf for a few days, and then + resumes the human form. See concerning this also Hirt, Die + Indogermanen, I. 120. + + [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol. + + [8] Note 102, also see note 22. + +The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must be one +which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition is found +pretty much all over the earth,[9] especially to-day[10] however in +Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in the lands where the +wolf is most common.[11][12] According to Mogk[13] the superstition +prevails to-day especially in the north and east of Germany.[14] + + [9] See also Mogk in Paul’s Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud. + Leubuscher, Über die Wehrwölfe und Thierverwandlungen im + Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850, mentions cases in ancient Arcadia, + in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the almost epidemic disease + in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf, Stuttgart, + 1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia + (hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to + Encyc. Brit. below; on p. 133 he says: “Tierverwandlungen sind + allgemein menschlich, finden wir überall. Die eigentümliche + Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen aber finden wir vorzugsweise + bei einer bestimmten Völkergruppe, den arischen Stämmen der + Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven; bei den südwärts + gezogenen Stämmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns gleiche + Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten + treten die Werwölfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehört die + älteste historische Erwähnung der Sage; viel älter aber ist + der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische Werwölfe”. According to + Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, Stuttgart, + 1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European + country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles, + Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants + of island Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal + peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in Asia, Africa, America; but not in + India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit. below), especially + though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands. + + As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for + 1880-81, p. 83, “From their close relations with wild animals + Indians’ stories of transformations into beasts and beasts + into men are numerous and interesting.... In times of peace, + during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller told + of those days in the past when men and animals could transform + themselves at will and hold converse with one another.” + + Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell & Sons, 1883, II. 668 + says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic + antiquities than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrisûlfr, + a son of Loki, makes his appearance in wolf’s shape among the + gods. + + Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy, + states:—A belief firmly rooted among all savages is that + men are in certain circumstances transformed temporarily or + permanently into wolves and other inferior animals. In Europe + the transformation into a wolf is by far more prominent and + frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans, French, + Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most + prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. + Thus the were-_wolf_ prevails in Europe, also in England, + Wales, Ireland; and in S. France, the Netherlands, Germany, + Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, Poland, Russia, he can + hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note 12). In Denmark, + Sweden, Norway and Iceland the _bear_ competes with the wolf + for pre-eminence. In Persia the _bear_ is supreme; in Japan the + _fox_; in India the _serpent_ vies with the _tiger_ (contrary + to Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272, who says:—“Nur Griechen, + Römer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter den indogermanischen + Völkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und Iraniern ist er + unbekannt.” Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in Abyssinia + and Borneo the _hyena_ with the _lion_; in E. Africa the _lion_ + with the _alligator_; in W. Africa the _leopard_ is perhaps + most frequently the form assumed by man; among the Abipones the + _tiger_, among the Arawaks the _jaguar_, etc. + + In Brockhaus’ Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the + werewolf belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and + Romanic peoples; found to-day especially in Volhynia and White + Russia. + + Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:—Bei den Angelsachsen lässt sich der + Werwolf im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern, + ihre Herden vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das älteste + Zeugnis auf deutschem Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v. + Worms (11 century). + + [10] See note 9. + + [11] Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:—There can nowhere be a living + belief in contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which + has ceased to exist in the particular locality. Belief in + metamorphosis into the animal most prominent in any locality + itself acquires a special prominence. (See note 12.) In none + of these cases however is the power of transformation limited + exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal. + + [12] Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under _Wolf_:—The wolf is + found in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America + from Greenland to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in + Ceylon, Burmah or Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in + the two latter jackals instead. + + Meyer’s Kleines konversations-lexikon:—Der wolf “ist häufig + in Ost- und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika, + seltener in Frankreich und Belgien, den Herden gefährlich, + besonders in Russland.” Encyc. Brit., XXIV under _Wolf_:—In + northern countries the wolf is generally larger and more + powerful than in the southern portion of its range. Its habits + are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been known + to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of + his flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance. + They usually assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and + by their combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower + and kill even such great animals as the American bison. + Children and even grown people are not infrequently attacked by + them when pressed for hunger. The ferocity of the wolf in the + wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed, they can rarely be + trusted by strangers. + + [13] Paul, Grundriss, III. 272. + + [14] Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p. + 275 fol., speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: “Noch lebte + das Landvolk in ohnmächtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Wölfe, + wenig Dörfer, welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere + decimirt wurden,” and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:—“Als 1815 + die gegenwärtige Provinz Posen an Preussen zurückfiel, waren + auch dort die Wölfe eine Landplage. Nach Angaben der Posener + Provinzialblätter wurden im Regierungsbezirk Posen vom 1. Sept. + 1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Wölfe erlegt, noch im Jahre 1819 + im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von Wölfen + gefressen.” + +The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.[15] The +point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living human +being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the wolf was +common[16] into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa, where these animals +are common; into a tiger or serpent in India;[17] in other localities +into other animals characteristic of the region.[18] Among Lapps +and Finns occur transformations into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish +or birds; amongst many North Asiatic peoples, as also some American +Indians, into the bear; amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf, +turkey or owl; in South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar, +also into a fish, or serpent. Most universal though it seems was the +transformation into wolves or dogs.[19] + + [15] Thus in note 6 was mentioned Herodotus’ (484-425 B. C.) + statement about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend, + according to Hertz, is that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos, + the first king of ancient Arcadia. These Arcadians lived as + huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert (Andree, p. 65; + and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed amongst + the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf + myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B. C). In the Norse “Edda” + we find Odin’s wolves, also Sköll, Hati and Fenrir. In the + Völsunga Saga, Sigmund and Sinfjötli become wolves. For other + reflections of the fear in which wolves were held, see the + 10th century ms. of the “Wiener Hundesegen” against male and + female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches Lesebuch, 6. aufl. + 1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,—Geschichte der deutschen sprache + s. 233:—“Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte + raubthier des waldes dar, und lehrt die nähe des wolfs und + fuchses.” + + C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:—“In die + ältesten Zeiten hinauf reicht auch bei Jägervölkern die + Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil die Eigentümlichkeiten der + Tiere erklärend, ihr Gebahren erzählend. Die furchtbaren und + die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo die Menschen + städtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie einsamer + mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine höhere Bedeutung. So wird + dem Wäldler Bär und Wolf zum ebenbürtigen Räuber und Kämpfer, + menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht, + der Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst.” + + [16] Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to + Andree, p. 65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it + is to-day in Russia. Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: “Der + Wolf ist überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber + ganz sicher ein Waldtier.” + + [17] Note 9. + + [18] Cf. note 9, Encyc. Brit. + + [19] Leubuscher, p. 1:—Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in + Hunde und Wölfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den + namen Lykanthropie. + +As the superstition is so widespread—Germany, Eastern Europe, Africa, +Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time, when all these +peoples were in communication with each other[20] or else, in accord +with another view of modern science, it arose independently in various +continents in process of the natural psychical development of the human +race under similar conditions. + + [20] Or as Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for + example amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still + formed a whole, as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of + herds was especially feared. Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: “Die + meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die im Freien lebten, + mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte ihrer + Einbildungskraft am öftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit + zu kämpfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in + Einzelnen als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich + von Wölfen besonders beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich + manche Mordthat nur von Wölfen begangen.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, + p. 282:—“The Dakotas have long believed in the appearance + from time to time of a monstrous animal that swallows human + beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the bones of + mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians.” + +The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom of +primitive man’s of putting on a wolf’s or other animal’s skin[21] +or dress, or a robe.[22] Thus Leubuscher,[23] says: “Es ist der +Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten +hervorgewachsen.”[24][25] Likely also the notion of attributing speech +to animals originated from such disguising or dressing of men as +animals. In the following we shall examine into primitive man’s reasons +for putting on such a skin or robe. + + [21] Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:—In celebrations it is + possible that the foxskin so universally worn by the animistic + personifications is a survival comparable with the skin of the + animal in which formerly the whole body was clothed. + + [22] Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: “In der + ältesten Naturreligion ist die Gottheit des Todes und der + winterlichen Erde als Wolf gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl + in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten nach dem Volksglauben + die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu verwandeln. Der + Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum raschen + Zurücklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders + geeignet. Darum nahmen die Götter und die zauberbegabten + Menschen zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von + Natur gefährlich und wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und + beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang nach Mord und Zerstörung die + Hauptsache. Die Ursprünge des Werwolfglaubens waren also 1. + religiöse Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung (der friedlose + Mörder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die + Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie.” Page 51. “Die Verwandlung + in Wölfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden.” Page 57: + “Dass die von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen + Waldflüchtigen sich in Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend.” + + [23] Page 46. See also note 9. + + [24] Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p. + 153 fol.;—“Ist so die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und + Götterglauben, zunächst gebunden an das Bedürfnis des Lebens, + so sondert sie sich doch allmählich im Verlauf der Kultur von + den religiösen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite Welt + zu einer unabhängigen Bedeutsamkeit”—like Homer, Dante, etc. + See note 20, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:—“Insane + delusions must reflect the usages and beliefs of + contemporaneous society.” + + [25] Notes 20, 21 and 27. + +Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had to conquer +them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in Europe arose +probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic peoples were +still in contact with each other, if not in the original Indo-Germanic +home, for they all have the superstition (unless, as above, we prefer +to regard the belief as arising in various localities in process of +psychical development under similar conditions; namely, when people +still lived principally by the chase.[26]) Probably the primitive +Indo-European man before and at the time of the origin of the werewolf +superstition, was almost helpless in the presence of inexorable nature. +This was before he used metal for weapons. The great business of life +was to secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots, +berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.[27] +Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any +size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet +primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no longer +crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but began to watch +and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what certain animals would +do under certain circumstances, to learn what would frighten them away +or what would lure them on. So at least the large animals were to early +man a constant cause of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary +to have their flesh for food and their skins for clothing.[28] + + [26] See note 15. + + [27] Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:—Traces of the + fear in which buffalo “were held may still be discovered in the + traditional stories of certain tribes, which set forth how, in + those days,” [i. e. in the stone age] “before men were provided + with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill, and eat the + people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo + were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly + have arisen save as the result of actual experience of their + power to inflict injury and death.” Pliny informs us how the + Romans kept the wolf out of their fields, see Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians lived on the steppes, + in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains, the animals + were their whole study. They moved with the animals, followed + them for food. + + [28] Note 27. + +Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for trapping +them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of decoys to lure +animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits, others more easily +by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,[29] and similarly, another +form of the original decoy was no doubt simply the stuffed skin of a +member of the species, whether animal or bird, say for example a wild +duck.[30] Of course the hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself +putting on the animal skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an +individual dressed for example in a wolf’s skin could approach near +enough to a solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other +weapon, without exciting the wolf’s suspicion of the nearness of a +dangerous foe.[31] So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used +by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure +food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise, whole +or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments +seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions and cries of +animals,[32] at first to lure them, when acting as a decoy. With growth +of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and an additional reason for +acquiring dance and song was to secure charms against bodily ills,[33] +and finally enlivenment.[34] In both dance and song, when used for a +serious purpose, the performers imagined themselves to be the animals +they were imitating,[35] and in the dance they wore the skins of the +animals represented.[36] + + [29] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:—It seems that masks + were occasionally used as decoys.... Next to the otter the + most valuable animal in the estimation of the Kadiak men, is + the species of seal or sea-dog called by the Russians nerpa. + The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it toward the + shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body among + the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque + resembling the head of a seal and makes a noise like that + animal. The unsuspicious seal, imagining that he is about to + meet a partner of his own species, hastens to the spot and is + instantly killed. Compare note 57. + + [30] Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:—Bering Strait Eskimo stuff + rudely the skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon + a stick which holds the head outstretched, then imitate the + call of the bird, which is trapped in the net attached to the + decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft snow into the form + of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around the neck + for plumage. The call then brought the real birds. + + [31] Thus G. B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his + description of the primitive Indians’ method of trapping + buffalo, says: “Some men went forth naked, others carried a + dress made of the entire skin of a buffalo, the head and horns + arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of the skin hung + down over the wearer’s back,” etc. This “caller” went near to a + herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into + the trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often + proved fatal to the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85, + p. 484, about Central Eskimo seal hunting, is stated: If a + hunter is close to an animal he imitates its movements. Some + utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. “The sealskin + clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is + difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance.” + And on p. 508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central + Eskimos carry guns on their shoulders, two men going together, + so as to resemble the antlers of a deer. The men imitate their + grunting. If they lie on the ground at some distance they + greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to Ross the + “inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer, + the foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer’s head + upon his own.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:—“The old manner of + hunting antelope and deer: the hunter would disguise himself by + covering his head with the head and skin of an antelope, and so + be enabled to approach the game near enough to use his bow and + arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask themselves + with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo.” Ethn. Rep. + 1901-02, p. 439;—Two of the party of hunters (Zuñi) out after + deer “wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front + and back of the shirt being painted to represent as nearly + as possible the body of the deer; the hands and the arms to + the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to represent the + deer’s forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer’s head over his + head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as + possible, even to the browsing, the game they would catch.” + + [32] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:—“Tradition says the Iroquois + derived the music and action of the Buffalo dance while on + an expedition against the Cherokee, from the bellowing and + the movements of a herd of buffalo which they heard for the + first time ‘singing their favorite songs,’ i. e. bellowing and + snorting.” Also note 33. + + [33] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent + frostbite. The wolf’s, deer’s, fox’s, opossum’s feet it is held + never become frostbitten. After each verse of the song, the + singer imitates the cry and the action of the animal. The words + used are archaic in form and may be rendered “I become a real + wolf, etc.” The song runs: + + 1. Tsûñ´ wa´ ‘ya-ya´ (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged + howl). The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his + feet. + + 2. Tsûñ´-ka´ wi-ye´ (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh! + (imitating the call and jumping of a deer). + + 3. Tsûñ´-tsu´ ‘la-ya´ (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih! + (imitates barking and scratching of a fox). + + 4. Tsûñ´-sĭ´-kwa-ya´ (four times), kĭ+(imitates cry of the + opossum when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal + does when feigning death). + + [34] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance + performed by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep + up their spirits, in which each had his robe about him and + imitated the actions of the coyote, trotting, glancing around, + etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo dance, in which each + of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over his head, + the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging + down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of + the buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the + Omaha wolf dance, by the society of those who have supernatural + communication with wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and + dance in imitation of the actions of wolves. Similarly they + performed the grizzly bear dance, horse dance, etc. + + [35] Notes 22, 34 and 37. + + [36] See notes 34 and 37. + +Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed merely +for decoys and sport (early dancing),[37] for peaceful purposes +therefore, such people having whole or partial animal shape were not +regarded as harmful to man,[38] just as wise women began to pass +for witches only when with their art they did evil.[39] A similar +development can be traced in the case of masks.[40] It was some time +before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing animals that +were dangerous to life, though these are the ones he first studied;[41] +and we cannot presuppose that he disguised to represent them until he +could cope with them, since the original purpose of the disguise was +to secure food and clothing. Thus far then we see whole or partial +disguise as animals used to secure _food_ and _clothing_ when acting as +decoys to lure animals; and in _dancing_.[42] + + [37] Similarly in the use of masks (see note 57). See Wundt, + Völkerpsychologie II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this + Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss. + 558-568:—“Der maskierte mensch ist der ekstatische Mensch. + Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in ekstase, fühlt + er sich in fremde lebensvorgänge ein, eignet er sich das wesen + an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert.” Für den + naiven menschen, wie für das kind, ist die maske durchaus + nicht blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der + augenblickstanz wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvölker verwenden + ihre masken nur bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertänzen, nicht + zu ihrer burlesken mimik; die tänzer sind in Tiermasken, etc. + + [38] Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed + into a bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent + (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1097:—In Norse accounts also we find + transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded as + rational and was esteemed. + + [39] Note 84. + + [40] See note 57a. + + [41] Notes 27 and 42. + + [42] The important consideration in the mind of primitive + man was whether certain things were harmful or useful. See + Behaghel, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 98:—“Die grossen Tiere + und die mächtigen Bäume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die für + die _Ernährung_ and _Bekleidung_ des Menschen von Bedeutung + sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben _bedrohen_, sie haben viel + früher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare + Käfer im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es, + dass die Namen der grösseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbäume, + der wichtigsten Getreidearten allen germanischer Stämmen + gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie _Wolf_, _Kuh_, _Ochse_, + _Birke_, _Buche_, _Erle_, _Gerste_ mit den Benennungen anderer + indogermanischer Völker übereinstimmen.” Doubtless animals + occupied their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt, + Völkerpsychologie, II. 412 fol., about the _maskentanz_: + “Überhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit früher Berücksichtigung + erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive.” See note 95. + +Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal’s skin or dress when +out as _forager_ (or robber) or _spy_, for the purpose of avoiding +detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for example,[43] were called +by neighboring tribes _wolves_, probably not out of contempt, since it +may be doubted that an Indian feels contempt for a wolf any more than +he does for a fox, a rabbit, or an elk, but because of their adroitness +as scouts, warriors and stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think, +because of their great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so +as to escape detection by the enemy by day or night; or, according to +some neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves[44], “have the +endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can make +long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their way, or on +no food at all.” ... And further, “The Pawnees, when they went on the +warpath, were always prepared to simulate wolves.... Wolves on the +prairie were too common[45] to excite remark, and at night they would +approach close to the Indian camps.” ... The Pawnee starting off on the +warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later times a +white blanket or a white sheet; and, at _night_, wrapping himself in +this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he walked or trotted +here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed himself into a +common object of the landscape. This disguise was employed by _day_ as +well, for reconnoissance.... While the party remained hidden in some +ravine or hollow, one Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to +the top of the hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches +looking all over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him, +would take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the +Pawnees could imitate wolves best. “An Indian going into an enemy’s +country is often called a wolf,[46] and the sign for a scout is made up +of the signs _wolf_ and _look_.”[47] Should any scout detect danger, as +at _night_ when on duty near an encampment, he must give the cry of the +coyote.[48] + + [43] G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N. Y., + Scribners, 1893, p. 245, fol. + + [44] Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein + sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. _hirpus_ bedeutet _wolf_ in + sabinischer oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf + führer geworden war, oder nach andrer sage sie wölfe gejagt + hatten und gleich wölfen raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen + ausdrucks friedlos waren. + + [45] The werewolf story could arise only where the animal, + wolf, tiger or lion, etc., was common; and likewise the + werewolf tales gradually died out when the animals became rare + or extinct. See note 11. + + [46] Grinnell, p. 245. + + [47] The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild + beasts save their own totem-animals as _enemy-scouts_ (Encyc. + Brit. under Lycanthropy). + + [48] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of + the indian, p. 208: The wolf was believed, in the animals’ + council, to be able to give the Indian the power to creep right + into the midst of the enemy’s camp without being seen. + +The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in animal form or +dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal disguise began to +act not only as decoys for animals dangerous to life, but also as +scouts (robbers[49]—and later as possessors of supernatural power, +when growth of culture brought with it growth of supernaturalism[50]); +when people began to associate, for example, the wolf’s form with a +lurking enemy.[51] + + [49] See note 53. + + [50] See note 57-b. + + [51] So originally the germanic god _Logi_ was not an evil + god. _Logi_ meant the natural force of fire; _Loki_ meant the + same, but the burly giant has been made a sly, seducing villain + (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of Loki, Fenrisûlfr, appears + in wolf’s shape among the gods. Perhaps association with the + wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of Logi + (Loki) from a good to an evil god. + +All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the defensive, +like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion have sent out +scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid detection, assumed the +disguise of the animal most common to the special locality in question, +just as to-day they are known to disguise in animal skins for purposes +of plunder or revenge.[52][53] + + [52] Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:—In modern savage life we + find beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in + beast form for the community; others are said to assume beast + form in order to avenge themselves justly on enemies; others + for love of bloodshed and cannibalism. See also note 58. + + [53] No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won + considerable fame through their skill and bravery, as we should + judge from such proper names as _Rudolf_, which means really + _Ruhmwolf_, _Ruhm_ related to Gothic _hropeigs_ “victorious,” + Sanskrit _kir_ “to praise”; or _Adolf_ from _Adalolf_, which + means _Edelwolf_, originally, therefore, _Edelräuber_, for + _wolf_ meant originally about the same as _robber_ (Kluge). + So _robber_ or _wolf_ was originally a highly respectable + appellation, at a time when men lived from robbery and the + chase, either as searobbers, or mountain robbers, etc. (about + this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen, 1905, p. 268 + fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace (see + appellation “wolves” applied to Pawnees, p. 12.). Later we find + such names as _Wulfila_ “little wolf.” Many Indian names are + those of animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear, + Conquering Bear, Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear + Rib, Smoking Bear, Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear, + Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe, + etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83, p. 169: The names of Indians very + often refer to some animal, predicating some attribute or + position of that animal. For discussion of names, see note 111. + +The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying principle is +the same; namely, the transformation of a living human being into an +animal. The origin of the belief in such a transformation, as stated +above[54] was the simple putting on of an animal skin by early man. The +object of putting on animal skins was, + + [54] Ante p. 6. + +(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries of animals +were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),[55] artificial decoys +(like decoy ducks to-day)[56] and finally even masks were used.[57] + + [55] See (3) below. + + [56] See ante p. 8. + + [57] See note 4 and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see + note 37):—The use of masks is worldwide. The origin and + development of the use of masks is very much the same as + the origin and development of the werewolf as given in the + preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both originally + useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into + instruments for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of + the mask is described in the above report as follows: + + a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for + defense against physical violence, human or otherwise. It + was therefore first used merely as a mechanical resistance + to the opposing force; then secondly, still in the lowest + grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a + moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by + symbolizing superhuman agencies. Now individual variations + arose—devices for example derived or conventionalized from + some predatory, shrewd or mysterious animal. + + b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and + the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part + of the religious paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of + the shamans. Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 395:—“When worn in any + ceremonial, ... the wearer is believed to become mysteriously + and unconsciously imbued with the spirit of the being which his + mask represents.” + + c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is + used for public amusements and games; by secret societies; as + protection against recognition on festive occasions, etc., like + the animal skins worn in dances. + +(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying animals, +as in (1) above. + +(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals led to +dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the faces and bodies +of the participants were painted in imitation of the colors of birds +and animals, the motions of animals imitated and animal disguises +used.[58] + + [58] Notes 32, 34, 33, ante p. 11. + +(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out foraging, as well +as for warfare,[59][60] therefore for booty, and self-defense. Either +they wore the entire skin, or probably later just a part of it as a +fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as a charm by many of +our colored people to-day.[61] + + [59] See p. 13. + + [60] Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:—Account of “a cloak or mantle + made from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic + paintings. It was made and used by the Apaches as a mantle + of invisibility, that is, a charmed covering for spies which + would enable them to pass with impunity through the country, + and even through the camp of their enemies. In this instance + the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn.” The + Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were + the raincloud, serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of + the winds of the four cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. + 515:—Among the Hidatsa (Sioux) fetiches are especially the + skins of the wolf. “When they go to war, they always wear the + stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging down + the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the + warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf’s head + hangs down upon his breast.” Finally the magic robes or shirts + and girdles came to be a part of the regular paraphernalia of + the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the folklore of all + countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles. + + Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: “Some warriors had + medicine to change their shape as they pleased, so that they + could escape from their enemies.” Page 501: Such stories might + be paralleled in any tribe. + + [61] See further development in note 64. + +(5) For purposes of revenge,[62],[63] personal or other. For some other +personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror in the opposing +agent by hideousness. + + [62] Note 52. + + [63] As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure + brutality, we cite from Andree, p. 69:—People in the interior + of Africa who understand magic, transform themselves into lions + and go about killing people. See also below, note 65, where the + wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and sucks his blood, and + also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being one of + the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this + takes place at _night_, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian + starting out at night in his wolf’s robe, and trotting up to + the hostile village to ascertain where his enemies’ horses + are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell’s + Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73). + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:—“To recover stolen or lost + property, especially ponies, is one of the principal tasks + imposed upon the so-called medicine-men” (shamans). + +(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing superhuman +agencies.[64] So now would arise first a belief in superhuman power or +attributes,[65] and then, + + [64] As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was + put on not merely to make the wearer look just like a common + object of the landscape, but also because the wearer of the + disguise was supposed to take on the characteristics of the + animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.), as in the + case of masks (see note 57), and finally the wearer of such + a robe was believed to actually become transformed, like the + wearers of the werewolf shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves + were regarded as good hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep. + 1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:—The wolf is revered by the + Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanáti; therefore we can + understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of + unerring huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those + who gained their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of + songs imitating the cries of certain animals was supposed to + confer a characteristic of the animal in question (see note 33). + + Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:—To gain animal characteristics a + wizard attached crow and owl plumes to his head that he might + have the eyes of the crow to see quickly the approach of man, + and the eyes of the owl to travel by night. He flapped his + arms, ... A Zuñi man hearing a cry like an owl, yet human, + looked about him and found a man whom he recognized as a Zuñi. + “Aha!” said he, “why have you those plumes upon your head? Aha, + you are a sorcerer,” etc. + + An example of the transforming power of the _robe_ we find in + Bulletin 26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, + 1901, Kathlamet texts, p. 156 fol.:—A woman ate of some of the + fat of a bitch, gave birth to five male dogs and one female + dog. When they grew older, she discovered one day that they + could transform themselves into real children. While they were + down at the beach, she entered the house, and now she saw the + dog _blankets_. She took them and burnt them. Then the children + retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the + Völsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according + to which an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting + on an elkskin. + + W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p. + 100, writes, “Die Fähigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln + können, heisst ‘sich zu häuten, die Hülle zu wechseln’. + Das Umwerfen eines äusserlichen Gewandes kann den Wechsel + der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas Federgewand, die + Schwan- und Krähenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins Adlergewand. + Die Wolfsgewänder (úlfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln + den Menschen zum Wolfe”. See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel, + Zeitschrift für deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261. + + [65] Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:—The owner of fine beads fears + that some witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with + disease. + + As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman + powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances + given by Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met + in Africa a native said to have power to transform himself + into a lion. As lion he would stay for days and months in the + _forest_, in a sacred hut, to which however his wife carried + beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this lion + did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was + able to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine + brought him by his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:—In Banana, + Africa, the members of a certain family transform themselves in + the _dark_ of the _forest_ into leopards. They throw down those + they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them nor drink + their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note 83.) + + The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American + Indians, who put on a wolf’s mantle to steal, or to recover + stolen animals (Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the + story of robbery entitled Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.). + Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69, where the lowest caste + of laborers are believed to have power to transform themselves + into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They + employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause, + since it yields such returns. They are reported to act like + other folk by day, at _night_ though to assume the ways of + wolves, kill their enemies and suck their blood, roaming about + with other wolves till morning. They are supposed to gain their + supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs. They + are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since + their roaming and plundering is done in the _night_; in the + daytime they of course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p. + 72). + + Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:—Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and + Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the + masses and the comparative learning of the few who practised + it. Among the American Indians the medicine-man and the more + expert sorceress have little learning above that of the body of + the tribe, and their success depends entirely upon their own + belief in being supernaturally gifted, and upon the faith and + fear of their followers. + + The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly + animal shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:—“An + old blind wolf with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made + his head and hands look like those of a wolf. The rest of his + body was not changed. He was called a man-wolf.” + +(7) Witchcraft.[66] It is very easy to see why it was usually the +so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who claimed such +transformation power, because they received remuneration from their +patients.[67] + + [66] Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:—Witches could and did assume + animal shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire + streaming from its mouth and nostrils. It was _night_. The man + shot at it, and the next morning tracked it by the marks of + blood from its wound. At a bridge a woman’s tracks took the + place of the dog’s, and finally he found the woman. She had + died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a hog, when + pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared + as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing. + So they, the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian + Indian one _evening_ pursued a white bull with fire streaming + from its nostrils. He had never seen a white bull on the + reservation before. “As it passed in front of a house it was + transformed into a man with a _large white blanket_, who was + ever afterward known as a witch.” + + Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:—A man going out at _night_ noticed + a queer-looking burro. Upon his return home he was told that a + large cat had entered the house. He went out again, discovered + a man wrapped in a blanket, but not in the Zuñi fashion, his + head was sunk low in the blanket. He knew this creature to be a + wizard. + + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:—That the medicine man (Shaman) + has the faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and + other animals at pleasure and then resuming the human form, is + as implicitly believed in by the American Indians as it was + by our own forefathers in Europe. And page 459: The Abipones + of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power to put on + the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed the + power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the + Shamans of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz, + p. 133 fol.:—“In der christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische + Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier entstand mit dem Hexenglauben + die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich mit Hilfe des Satans aus + reiner Mordlust zu Wölfen verwandeln. So wurde der Werwolf das + Bild des tierisch Dämonischen in der Menschennatur.” + + [67] Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:—The medicine-men of the + Apache are paid at the time they are consulted, the priest + beforehand among the Eskimo. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: “The + magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount + of the patient’s worldly wealth.” Page 416:—Sioux sorcerers + prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep. + 1901-2, p. 568:—“The shaman, like the theurgist is usually + paid after each visit with calico, cotton, or food, according + to the wealth of the family, since it is always understood + that these doctors expect proper compensation for their + services.” Page 387:—“The Zuñi doctor is paid according to his + reputation.” Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: “In early + days if a man remained sick for three or four weeks, all his + possessions went to pay doctors’ fees.” + + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.—The American Indian’s theory + of disease is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian, + the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman—all bodily disorders are + attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that is of animal + spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated. + Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was + language which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend. + Page 468:—The medicine-men are accused of administering + poisons to their enemies. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:—Sioux + sorcerers were thought to cause the death of those persons + who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. + 581:—“When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia + he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his + followers believe that he has become, the power he represents.” + The Mexican priests masked and disguised, and dressed in the + skins of the women offered up in sacrifice. + + So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest. + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:—The Indian doctor relied far more + on magic than on natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the + drum, songs, magic feasts and dances, and howling were his + ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 210 + fol.:—They have “firm confidence in dreams.” “Their belief in + a future life is in part founded on dreams,” etc. + +(8) Finally dreams[68] and exaggerated reports gave rise to fabulous +stories.[69] + + [68] Note 67, close. + + [69] An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain + occurs Andree, p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal + at one place, the latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming + human form, they attack their enemy in the _night_ at his + home. This is the transformation of an animal into a man, but + the inventor of the story was no doubt looking towards his + own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which + in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In + Siam stories are told of people who by magic formulae become + tigers and roam about at _night_ in search of booty. One of the + man-tigers was actually a priest. + +We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);[70] for an example under (4) we +have cited the practices of American Indians.[71] It is probable that +about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above), what is known as the +real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied, rabid manwolf) began +to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin was already a lurking thief +or enemy, or a destroyer of human life. To advance from this stage +to the werewolf frenzy, our primitive man must have seen about him +some exhibition of such a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this +frenzy particularly with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons, +and the connecting link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as +the transformation was usually into a wolf or dog,[72]) for persons +bitten by it usually went mad too.[73] The ensuing frenzy, with the +consternation it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds +as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some no doubt +actually had the malady; others honestly believed they had it and got +into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked themselves up into a +frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.[74] Later, in the Middle +Ages, when the nature of the real disease came to be better understood, +the werewolf superstition had become too firmly fixed to be easily +uprooted. + + [70] Ante pp. 7, 8, 9. + + [71] Ante p. 12 fol. + + [72] See notes 19 and 74. + + [73] Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: “It is said that + wolves, which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes + went crazy, and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even + coming into camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons + bitten by a mad wolf generally went mad, too. They trembled and + their limbs jerked, they made their jaws work and foamed at the + mouth, often trying to bite other people. When any one acted in + this way, his relatives tied him hand and foot with ropes, and, + having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the green hide, + built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until + the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and + removed the buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure + for a mad wolf’s bite.” + + [74] Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a + monomania themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this + widespread disease or delusion (of the first century till + late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.: “The sick” ones would + prowl about burial places _at night_, imagining themselves + to be _wolves_ or _dogs_, and go about barking and howling. + In the middle ages such people would even kill children and + grown people. When they came to themselves again, or were + cured, they claimed to know nothing of what had happened. + Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst the Shamans feats of + jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing the best + of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of + robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals, + painted with shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The + speaker terms himself a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power. + +We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.[75] As further +examples of the development into fabulous story,[76] we may cite any of +those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man is represented +as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and tearing to pieces men +and beasts, until he resumes his human form. Thus an early scout in +animal garb would be obliged to live on food he found on his way, and +later fabulous report would represent him as himself when in disguise +possessing the attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to +pieces man and beast. For such an account see Andree,[77] concerning +what eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the +hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed +such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread abroad +such a report as would enhance the influence of the hyena-men far and +wide. Some savages, as in Africa,[78] came to regard any animal that +robbed them of children, goats or other animals, as a witch in animal +form;[79] just as the American Indians ascribe to evil spirits death, +sickness and other misfortunes. + + [75] Notes 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69. + + [76] See (8) above. + + [77] Page 71. + + [78] Andree, p. 69. + + [79] Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of + the origin of the wolf: “_The wolf_ was a poor woman, who had + so many children that she could not find enough for them to + eat. They became so gaunt and hungry that they were changed + into wolves, constantly roaming over the land seeking food.” + +We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an animal robe +would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;[80] how though, as +soon as the element of magic enters in, he would try to keep up the +illusion. At this stage, when the original defensive measure had become +tainted with superstition, men would go about in the night time howling +and holding their vile revels.[81] Andree,[82] narrates how a soldier +in Northeast Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and +came to the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician. No +hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh wound. Soon +he died, however the soldier did not survive him long. Doubtless one +of the magician class was responsible for the death of the soldier, +just as we to-day put to death the man who so violates our laws, as to +become a menace to our society, or as formerly kings killed those who +stood in their way; or as religious sects murder those who dissent +from their faith. These magicians, supposed to be men who could assume +animal form, as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly +feared by other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and +at _night_ come forth to plunder and kill.[83] It is to their interest +to counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were +put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.[84] Their frenzies +were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in other cases +they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent opportunities for +personal gain or vengeance.[85] + + [80] Ante p. 12 fol. + + [81] Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine + the horrible howlings, and strange contortions that these + jugglers (shamans) or conjurers make of their bodies, when they + are disposing themselves to conjure. + + [82] Page 71. + + [83] Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician + (Abyssinia), who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate + animal-men the teeth of the persons whom they have killed + during the year, with which he decorates his palace. See also + pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151, about sorcery + among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes of + the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of + Indian genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class + of ambitious men and women sufficient influence through + their acknowledged power of exorcism and necromancy to lead + a comfortable life at the expense of the credulous. Page + 162: “Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an order of + priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It + is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe + that they can at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos,” + etc. Sometimes one family constitutes the class. See note 65; + Andree, p. 69. + + [84] Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches + were priestesses, physicians, fabulous _night_-wives, never + as yet persecuted. Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into + werewolves, and lose nothing in popular estimation. The abuse + of a spell was punished. A wise woman, healing sickness and + charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch only when with + her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil’s + complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the + guilt of criminality fell upon all personal relations with him. + Ethn. Rep. 1901-2, p. 393: “Though the witch may be regarded as + all powerful, none but the poor and unfortunate are condemned. + Few others are even brought to trial—their prominence prevents + public accusation.” This again reminds us some of our customs; + namely, that of overlooking the transgressions of the rich and + powerful. See note 91, and for outlaws note 112. + + [85] Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the + body, and more particularly the eyes, so that many shamans + (Siberia, America, etc.) become blind. + +Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition +and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the outrages hope +to escape punishment for their depredations, could they hope to plunder +and steal with impunity.[86] So they prowled usually under the cloak +of _night_ or of the dark of the forest,[87] howled and acted like +the animals they represented, hid the animal skin or blanket, if they +used one,[88] in the daytime where they thought no one could find +it, whereas the animal skin which was worn for defence, was put on +either by day or night,[89] and one story recounts the swallowing of +a whole goat, the man bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did +it.[90] Some of the transformed men claimed they could regain human +form only by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters +were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,[91] +no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress, each +maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices, just as did +the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those of the American +negro, who in church, when “shouting,” that is, when stirred up by +religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy who happens to be in the +church, of course with impunity; for he is supposed to be under some +outside control, and when the spell has passed off, like some of the +delusionists mentioned,[92] claims not to know what he (or generally +she) has done. Similar also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of +the fire-eaters, or any other sham. + + [86] Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia + and Lithuania, according to two bishops, werewolves were in + the 16th century far more destructive than “true and natural + wolves.” They were asserted to have formed “an accursed + college” of those “desirous of innovations contrary to the + divine law.” Also see note 90. + + [87] See ante p. 13, and notes 64, 65, 66, 69, 84, 102, 110. + + [88] Note 22 close, and note 102. + + [89] See ante p. 13. + + [90] Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a + woman, whose husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his + house, got hold of him later in his man shape and killed him. + Feats similar to some performed by him are cited in Ethn. Rep. + 1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the Pawnee swallowed + arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of apparently + killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zuñi. + + [91] Grimm, Rechtsalterthümer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle + aus der ärmsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note 84). + Literary Digest, March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism + and Spirituality: “Many, very many, spiritualists seem to care + for communion with spirits only that they may more surely keep + physically well, and earn their bread and butter and clothing + the easier.” Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The absurdity of + the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for the + theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in + every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he + was certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not + being found in beast form was satisfactorily disposed of. + + [92] Notes 57 and 67. + +The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was that most +often assumed for example in Germanic lands.[93] The term _wolf_ +became synonymous with _robber_, and later (when the robber became an +outlaw,[94]) with _outlaw_, the robber and outlaw alike being called +wolf and not some other animal (i. e., only the wolf-man surviving to +any extent) firstly, because the wolf was plentiful; and secondly, +because as civilization advanced, there came a time when the wolf was +practically the only one of the larger undomesticated animals that +survived.[95] We can notice this in our own United States, for example +in eastern Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes +heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the pastures +adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller animals, and +dig up buried ones.[96] In Prussia also it is the wolf that survives +to-day. American Indians, and other savages however do not restrict the +transformations to the wolf,[97] because other wild animals, are, or +were till recently, abundant amongst them. As civilization advances, +one by one the animal myths disappear with the animals that gave rise +to them (like that connected with the mastodon);[98] or else stories of +such domestic animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.[99] +When this stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully +coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals were shorn +of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as Aesop’s fables +would arise.[100] This however was psychologically a long step in +advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an earlier period. + + [93] Notes 9 and 19. + + [94] Note 112. + + [95] See note 11, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: “The deer, + which is still common in the mountains, was the principal + dependence of the Cherokee hunter, and is consequently + prominent in myth, folklore, and ceremonial.” see note 42. + Page 264: “The largest gens (clan) in the tribe bears the name + of ‘wolf people.’” Page 420: The Cherokee have always been an + agricultural people, and their old country has a luxuriant + flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more + important place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe + than it does among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid + sage deserts of the West. + + [96] The St. Louis “Westliche Post” for January 9, 1908, + furnishes another example: A tame wolf which for the past + two years has been a pet in a farmer’s family at Marshfield, + Wisconsin, escaped and attacked a chicken. The farmer’s + daughter called to the wolf, but it had become wild from the + taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and one + leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released + until she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar. + + Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13, + 1908, shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite + populous districts: “Wolf-Plage. Aus dem nördlichen Wisconsin + wird gemeldet, dass Wölfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind + denn je, und dass sie, durch Hunger getrieben, sich nahe + an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere und auch Menschen + angreifen. Zwei grosse Wölfe griffen in dieser Woche das Pferd + der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den Wald, + wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien + verscheuchten.” + + [97] Note 11. + + [98] Note 20. + + [99] Note 109. + + [100] Note 24. + +Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf +superstition went through various stages of development. The motives +for assuming wolf’s dress (or animal skins or robes), at first were +purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to secure food by +acting as decoys; then it was used for personal advantage or gain by +foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for purposes of vengeance;[101] +later from a desire for power over others; and finally men (the +professional and the superstitious) began to concoct fabulous stories +which were handed down as tradition or myth, according to the psychic +level of the narrator and hearer.[102] + + [101] Close of note 102. + + [102] John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives + the origin and development of the werewolf as follows: From + the conception of wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to + the conception of corporeal werewolves.... Christianity did + not fail to impart a new and fearful character to the belief + in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as a species of + witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the + Devil. It was often necessary to kill one’s enemies, and at + that time some even killed for love of it (like the Berserker); + often a sort of homicidal madness, during which they would + array themselves in the skins of wolves or bears and sally + forth by _night_ to crack the backbones, smash the skulls and + sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary + travelers or loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an + invention of excited imagination. So people attributed a wolf’s + nature to the maniac or idiot with cannibal appetites, then + the myth-forming process assigned to the unfortunate wretch + a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. Worship + of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of + transformation of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The + storm-wind was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead + men’s souls or as the howling of wolf-like monsters (called by + Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness and cannibalism, + accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted as due + to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf + superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on + a wolf’s skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence + of the fact alleged of Berserkers haunting the woods by + _night_, clothed in hides of wolves or bears. A permanent cure + was effected by burning the werewolf’s sack, unless the Devil + furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, to become + incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the + outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is + the night-wind—a kind of leader of departed souls, howling + in the wintry blasts. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:—The + Berserkir of Iceland dressed in the skins of bears and wolves, + and further on: “Beastform is in mythology proper far oftener + assumed for malignant than for benignant ends.” + +The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful werewolf +is the disguising as some common animal by members of savage races +when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to escape detection by the +enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land in search of food. As stated +above,[103] later fabulous report would represent them as possessing +in their disguise the attributes of the animal they impersonated,[104] +and finally even of actually taking on animal form, either wholly or +in part,[105] for longer or shorter periods of time. Some of the North +American Indian transformation stories represent men as having only +the head, hands and feet of a wolf.[106] The transformation into a +werewolf in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made +of wolf-skin.[107] This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic +werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising +the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent a person +as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other article of +apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.[108] The stories especially in Europe +were of the _were-wolf_ rather than _were-bear_ or other animal, +because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild animals.[109] It +was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, which crystallized +into the household werewolf or transformation tales.[110] + + [103] Ante p. 22. + + [104] Note 57. + + [105] Close note 65. + + [106] Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737. + + [107] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our + oldest native notions make the assumption of wolf-shape + depend on arraying oneself in a wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as + transformation into a swan does on putting on the swan-shirt + or swan-ring. Page 1095: “The transformation need not be for a + magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured + into, a wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the + appearance, he acquires also the fierceness and howling of the + wolf; roaming the _woods_, he rends to pieces everything that + comes in his way.” This is like the belief of the American + Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued with the spirit + of the being which his mask represents (note 57); or that the + shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers + believe that he has become, the power he represents (note 67). + + [108] Thus some American Indian stories represent men + transformed into wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or + piece of decayed wood when pursued. And mantles of invisibility + are mentioned in note 60. + + [109] See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: “Unter den grossen + Raubtieren treten uns Bär und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen. + Der Wolf ist freilich überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der + Bär ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier,” etc. Encyc. Brit, under + Lycanthropy: “In England by the 17th century the werewolf had + long been extinct. Only small creatures, the cat, hare, weasel, + etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to transform himself + into.” See note 11. + + [110] Amongst the American Indians, where various larger + animals were common, the designation “wolf-people” (see the + sign-language of the plains) was bestowed especially on the + Pawnees, because, as we have seen, they best imitated wolves. + In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the wolf alone was + universally common, the designation “wolf-people” (or if we + choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one + locality or people, but was bestowed in general on those who + assumed the manner of wolves, and because of their crimes + became outcasts like the wolves. They best imitate wolves, and + no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as wolves + (see note 102), and for this reason the _warg_ or outlaw came + to be called a _wolf_ (see close of note 112). Thus Golther, + Mythologie, p. 102, says: “Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder + getötet, so findet man einen wunden oder toten Menschen.” The + werewolves, as we have seen (ante p. 25), keep to the _woods_ + and the _dark_, of course in many cases to avoid detection. + Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: “They say that + witches love the _night_ and lurk in _shadows and darkness_. + Witches are believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts.” + Sigmund and Sinfjötli dwelt as wolves in the _woods_. Also the + progenitor of the Mýramenn in Iceland at _night_ could leave + his house in wolf’s form. Another Norwegian account reports + how earlier many people were able to take on wolf’s form, then + dwelt in _grove_ and _woods_, where they tore people to pieces, + etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note 113. + + [111] Names. See note 31. The development in the case of names + was perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note 57), and of + the werewolf superstition itself (ante p. 15, fol.); namely, a) + protection against outside agencies was sought; b) growth of + supernaturalism; c) element of humor. + + a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: “Children are often + named _wolf_, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their + supernatural foes” (for similar assumption of characteristics + or the nature of animals for personal advantage see note 33). + See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1139: “The escort of + _wolf_ or _raven_ augured victory;” and in the note: “A name + of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O. H. G. + _Wolf-hraban_ (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly + promised victory. Old names are no product of pure chance. + Servian mothers name a son they have longed for, _Vuk_, + _Wolf_: then the witches can’t eat him up. O. H. G. _Wolfbizo_ + was a lucky name, i. e., one bitten by the wolf and thereby + protected,” like our modern curing of like by like in medicine. + + b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development + mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about + the conferring of secret names, since one could harm a person + by his name alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning + his name: “Wenn man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g’rennt.” Again + in XXI. 313 fol.: It was dangerous to name _bear_ or _wolf_ + in regions infested by these animals, so people, out of fear, + avoided calling the name of such animals; called the bear for + example _honey-eater_, etc. + + c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his + fear of them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and + humor enter in, and such names arise as are mentioned in note + 53; and such stories as that of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a + wolf. + + [112] Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws + who have fled to the woods. A notable instance is that of + Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the Völsungasaga. In regard to this W. + Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, Leipzig 1895, + p. 102, says: “Die Sage mag auf einem alten Misverständniss + beruhen. _Warg_, _Wolf_ hiess der Geächtete in der germanischen + Rechtssprache. _Warg_ wurde wörtlich als _Wolf_ verstanden, + und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte.” Golther again, p. + 424:—“Gefesselt wurde Loki als Ächter in den Wald getrieben, + er wurde “_Warg_”, d. h. _Wolf_. _Wölfe_ heissen die friedlosen + Waldgänger.” As to _warg_, Schade in his altdeutsches + Wörterbuch defines it as a räuberisch würgendes wütendes Wesen, + Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise, + geächteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetäter; _warg_ ist + Benennung des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und + vertragbrüchiger Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden + durch Mord gebrochen und landflüchtig geworden, oder nun im + wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere haust und wie der Wolf + ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche auf Island + Bezeichnung einer gewalttätigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm, + Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American + Indians relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67 + fol.: An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself + without the protection of his clan, is not defended in case he + is injured by another. When the sentence of outlawry has been + declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the duty of + the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the + council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty + of any member of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill + him like an animal. Page 60 fol.: “The chief of the Wolf gens + is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe” (see also Ethn. + Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the _woods_ and the + _dark_. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal + skins, and to terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves. + Since therefore so many outlaws lived, dressed (note 22 close) + and acted like wolves, to all intents and purposes became + wolves, _wolf_ and outlaw became synonymous terms. + + [113] The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night + in Germany is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people + believed that werewolves, etc., entered houses at night. In + place of the earlier harmful werewolf is now the “harmful” + night air. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + + ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche. + Stuttgart, 1878. + + BEHAGHEL, OTTO. Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902. + + BRAUNE, WILHELM. Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907. + + BROCKHAUS, F. A. Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol. + + BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901. + + DILTHEY, WILHELM. Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906. + + EDDA. Die lieder der älteren edda. Paderborn, 1876. + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. New York, 1883, etc. + + ERMAN, ADOLF. Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833. + + FISKE, JOHN. Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892. + + FREYTAG, GUSTAV. Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904. + + GOLTHER, W. Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Rechtsaltertümer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Teutonic mythology. Translation by J. S. Stallybrass, + London, 1882. + + GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD. Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892. + + GRINNELL, G. B. Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893. + + GRINNELL, G. B. Story of the Indian. New York, 1895. + + HERTZ, W. Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862. + + HIRT, H. Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol. + + INDOGERMANISCHE FORSCHUNGEN. Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904, 1907. + + KLUGE, F. Etymologisches wörterbuch der deutschen sprache. + Strassburg, 1905. + + LEMCKE, K. Aesthetik in gemeinverständlichen vorträgen. Leipzig, + 1890. + + LEUBUSCHER, R. Über die wehrwölfe und thierverwandlungen im + mittelalter. Berlin, 1850. + + LITERARY DIGEST. New York and London, March 9, 1907. + + MEYERS. Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900. + + PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900. + + SCHADE, O. Altdeutsches wörterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol. + + SCHRADER, O. Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde. + Strassburg, 1901. + + VÖLSUNGASAGA. Ranisch, Berlin, 1891. + + WESTLICHE POST. St. Louis. + + WUNDT, W. Völkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905. + + ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR DEUTSCHES ALTERTUM. Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904. + + ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR DEUTSCHE PHILOLOGIE. Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906. + + + + +INDEX + +[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.] + + + Abipones, _9, 66._ + + Abyssinia, _9._ + + Africa, 5, 23; _9, 47, 65._ + + Alligator, _9._ + + America, 5; _9, 85._ + + American Indians, 5, 14, 21, 23, 27; _9, 27, 66, 110._ + + Anglo-Saxons, _9._ + + Animals, _42._ + + Animal fable, _15._ + + Arabia, _9._ + + Arawaks, _9._ + + Arcadia, _9, 15._ + + Asia, 5; _9, 12, 16._ + + Assyrians, _15._ + + + Bear, 5; _9, 15, 16, 38, 102, 109, 111._ + + Belgium, _12._ + + Benignant, _4, 38._ + + Berserkr, 1; _102._ + + Bird, 5. + + Bison, _12, 27, 31, 32, 73, 74._ + + Bohemia, _9._ + + Borneo, _9._ + + Bretons, _9._ + + Bulgaria, _9._ + + Burchard von Worms, _9._ + + Burmah, _12._ + + + Celebrations, _21._ + + Ceylon, _12._ + + Charms, 10, 16. + + Clothing, 8, 9, 11, 16, 28. + + Coyote, 13. + + + Dancing, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16; _32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 57._ + + Dante, _24._ + + Death, _22._ + + Decoy, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 28; _29, 30, 31._ + + Denmark, _9._ + + Dog, 5, 21, 27; _19, 64, 73, 74._ + + Dreams, 21; _67._ + + + Edda, _15._ + + Enemy, 8, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29; _48, 60, 65, 102, 111._ + + English, _9, 109._ + + Eskimo, _30, 31, 67._ + + Europe, 5, 7; _9, 12, 16, 110._ + + + Fenrisûlfr, _9, 51._ + + Finns, _5._ + + Fish, _5._ + + Fisherman, _29._ + + Food, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 28, 29; _27, 29._ + + Forest, 25; _22, 65, 102, 107, 110, 112._ + + Fox, 5, 12; _9, 15, 21._ + + French, _9, 12._ + + + Germany, 2, 4, 5; _9, 22._ + + Greece, 1, 7; _9, 15, 22._ + + Greenland, _12, 69._ + + + Harmful, 1, 11, 13; _42, 51._ + + Herds, _9, 12, 20._ + + Herodotus, 1; _15._ + + Hindoos, _9._ + + Homer, _24._ + + Hunter, 7, 8; _15, 31, 52, 53, 64, 95._ + + Hyena, 5, 23; _9._ + + + Iceland, _9, 110._ + + India, 5; _9, 12._ + + Indogermanic, 7; _9, 20, 42._ + + Insanity, 21, 22, 24; _24, 73, 85, 102._ + + Iranians, _9._ + + Ireland, _9._ + + Italians, _9._ + + + Jackal, _12._ + + Jaguar, _9._ + + Japan, _9._ + + + Kadiak, _29._ + + Kelts, 7; _9._ + + Knut, _9._ + + + Lapps, 5. + + Leopard, 5; _9, 65._ + + Leubuscher, 6; _9, 20._ + + Lion, 5; _9, 45, 65._ + + Lithuanians, _9._ + + Loki, 14; _9, 112._ + + Lycanthropy, 2; _9, 19, 20, 22, 74, 102._ + + Lykaon, _9, 15._ + + + Magic, 23, 24; _22, 37, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 84, 107._ + + Malignant, 24; _4, 84, 102, 109, 113._ + + Mask, 8, 11, 15; _29, 37, 42, 57, 64, 67, 107, 111._ + + Mastodon, _20._ + + Medicinemen (Shamans), 20; _52, 63, 66, 67, 74, 81, 83, 85, 90, + 107._ + + Mexico, _12, 67._ + + Middle Ages, 22; _9, 74, 102._ + + Murder, 24; _20, 22, 52, 102, 112._ + + Myths, 7, 27; _24, 95, 102._ + + + Names, _42, 53, 109, 111._ + + Netherlands, _9._ + + Neurians, 1; _15._ + + Night, 1, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25; _63, 65, 66, 69, 74, 84, 102, 110, + 112, 113._ + + North America, _12._ + + Norway, _9._ + + + Odin, _15._ + + Island Oesel, _9._ + + Otter, _29._ + + Outlaw, 24, 26; _84, 110, 112._ + + Owl, 5, 30; _64._ + + + Pawnees, 12, 13, 23; _110._ + + Persia, _9._ + + Plants, _42, 95._ + + Poles, _9, 14._ + + Portuguese, _9._ + + Posen, _14._ + + Priests, _22, 67, 69, 83._ + + Professionals, 22, 23, 24, 25; _74, 81, 83, 86._ + + Provencal, _9._ + + Prussia, _14._ + + + Reindeer, 5. + + Religion, _22, 24, 57._ + + Revenge, 14, 17, 24, 28; _52, 69._ + + Robber, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28; _15, 20, 44, 53, 65, + 112._ + + Romans, 7; _9, 27._ + + Russia, 2; _9, 12, 16._ + + + Scandinavia, _9._ + + Scout, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 29; _47, 48, 60._ + + Scythians, _6._ + + Seal, _29, 31, 69._ + + Serpent, 5; _9._ + + Servia, _9._ + + Shepherds, _15, 20._ + + Siam, _12, 69._ + + Sinfjötli, _15, 64, 110._ + + Song, 9, 10, 15; _33, 64._ + + Skins (or dress) of animals, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, + 23, 25, 28, 29, 30; _21, 22, 31, 34, 52, 53, 57, 60, 63, 64, + 65, 66, 67, 74, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112._ + + South America, 5; _12._ + + Speech (animals), 7. + + Stories, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29; _9, 27, 60, 69, 102, 111._ + + Supernaturalism, 10, 17, 18; _57, 65, 102, 111._ + + Superstition, 1, 4, 5, 14, 23; _20, 64._ + + Sweden, _9._ + + + Tiger, 5; _9, 45, 69, 90._ + + Totemism, 2; _47, 102._ + + Transformation, 5, 15, 21; _9, 11, 19, 22, 52, 64, 65, 66, 69, + 107._ + + Traps, 8; _31._ + + Tschechs, _9._ + + Turkey, 5; _108._ + + + Volhynia, 2; _9, 16._ + + Völsungasaga, _15, 112._ + + + Wales, _9._ + + Warfare, 12, 13, 16; _60._ + + Weapons, 7, 8, 9. + + Werewolf, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30; _9, 15, 20, 22, 45, + 64, 84, 86, 91, 102, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113._ + + Wiener Hundesegen, _15._ + + Witches, 11, 19, 23; _65, 66, 67, 74, 83, 84, 91, 102, 109, 110, + 111._ + + + + +Transcriber’s note + + +Words in italics were surrounded with _underscores_, and small capitals +changed to all capitals. + +Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were +added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they +were referred to in other notes. The notes were moved to directly after +the paragraph with the corresponding anchor. + +“Völsungasaga” and “Sinfjötli” were in the original mostly written with +a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader’s +convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common +spelling with ö. + +Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. In note +12 “and” was changed to “und” (seltener in Frankreich und Belgien). + +Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and +missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent +spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by +Caroline Taylor Stewart + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44134 *** diff --git a/44134-h/44134-h.htm b/44134-h/44134-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e3837dd --- /dev/null +++ b/44134-h/44134-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2155 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition., by Caroline Taylor Stewart. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + +h1,h2 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal;} + +h1 {font-size: 100%; font-weight: bold;} +h2 {line-height: 180%; font-size: 100%; padding-top: 2em;} + +p {margin-top: .1em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .1em; + text-indent: 1em;} + +p.num {font-size: 90%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} + +.pagenum {position: absolute; left: 94%; font-size: 60%; text-align: right; + color: #999999; letter-spacing: 0; text-indent: 0; + font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;} + +hr.l1 {width: 60%; margin-top: 4em; margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + +.blockquot {font-size: 90%;} +.blockquot p {padding-top: .2em; padding-bottom: .2em; + padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -5em;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +img {max-width: 100%; height: auto;} +.figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center; + padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;} + +.centered {text-align: center; margin: auto; display: table; max-width: 90%;} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 90%;} +.footnote .label {vertical-align: top; font-size: 80%;} +.fnanchor {vertical-align: top; font-size: 70%; text-decoration: none;} + +ul.lsoff {list-style-type: none;} +li {text-align: left; font-size: 90%; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} +li.cnt {margin-left: -3.5em;} + +a:link {text-decoration: none;} +a:visited {text-decoration: none;} +a:link:hover {text-decoration: underline; color: red;} +a:link:active {text-decoration: underline;} + +.tnote {border: dashed 1px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 4em; padding: .5em 1em .5em 1em; font-size: 80%;} +.tn {text-align: center; margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1.5em; + text-indent: 0;} + +@media handheld { + hr.l1 {margin-left: 20%;} + .pagenum {display: none;} +} + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44134 ***</div> + +<div class="tnote"> +<p>Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected. +A more detailed transcriber's note can be found at the end of this text.</p> + +<div class="centered"><ul class="lsoff"> + <li class="cnt"><a href="#NOTES">NOTES</a></li> + <li class="cnt"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></li> + <li class="cnt"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></li> + <li class="cnt"><a href="#Transcribers_note">Transcriber’s note</a></li></ul></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" width="500" height="761" alt="Cover" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + + +<h1>THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></h1> + + +<p>The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an +animal’s form, most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost +worldwide superstition. Such a transformed person is the Germanic +werewolf, or man-wolf; that is, a wolf which is really +a human being.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> So the werewolf was a man in wolf’s form or +wolf’s dress,<a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> seen mostly at night,<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> and believed generally to +be harmful to man.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p> + +<p>The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily +explained. Adolf Erman<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> explains the allusion of +Herodotus<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> to the transformation of the Neurians (the people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +of the present Volhynia, in West Russia) into wolves as due +merely to their appearance in winter, dressed in their furs. This +explanation, however, would not fit similar superstitions in warm +climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy to primitive +Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the members +of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> Still +another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the +original werewolf.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p> + +<p>The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must +be one which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition +is found pretty much all over the earth,<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> especially to-day<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> +however in Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +the lands where the wolf is most common.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> <a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> According to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +Mogk<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> the superstition prevails to-day especially in the north +and east of Germany.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p> + +<p>The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +The point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living +human being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the +wolf was common<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa, +where these animals are common; into a tiger or serpent in +India;<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> in other localities into other animals characteristic of +the region.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> Among Lapps and Finns occur transformations +into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish or birds; amongst many North +Asiatic peoples, as also some American Indians, into the bear; +amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf, turkey or owl; in +South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar, also into a fish, or +serpent. Most universal though it seems was the transformation +into wolves or dogs.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p> + +<p>As the superstition is so widespread—Germany, Eastern +Europe, Africa, Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +when all these peoples were in communication with each other<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> +or else, in accord with another view of modern science, it arose +independently in various continents in process of the natural psychical +development of the human race under similar conditions.</p> + +<p>The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom +of primitive man’s of putting on a wolf’s or other animal’s +skin<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> or dress, or a robe.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> Thus Leubuscher,<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> says: “Es ist<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +der Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten +hervorgewachsen.”<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> <a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> Likely also the notion of attributing +speech to animals originated from such disguising or +dressing of men as animals. In the following we shall examine +into primitive man’s reasons for putting on such a skin or robe.</p> + +<p>Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had +to conquer them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in +Europe arose probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic +peoples were still in contact with each other, if not in the +original Indo-Germanic home, for they all have the superstition +(unless, as above, we prefer to regard the belief as arising in +various localities in process of psychical development under similar +conditions; namely, when people still lived principally by the +chase.<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a>) Probably the primitive Indo-European man before and +at the time of the origin of the werewolf superstition, was almost +helpless in the presence of inexorable nature. This was before +he used metal for weapons. The great business of life was to +secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots, +berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any +size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet +primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no +longer crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but +began to watch and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what +certain animals would do under certain circumstances, to learn +what would frighten them away or what would lure them on. +So at least the large animals were to early man a constant cause +of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary to have their +flesh for food and their skins for clothing.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p> + +<p>Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for +trapping them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of +decoys to lure animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits, +others more easily by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> +and similarly, another form of the original decoy was no doubt +simply the stuffed skin of a member of the species, whether animal +or bird, say for example a wild duck.<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> Of course the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself putting on the animal +skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an individual dressed +for example in a wolf’s skin could approach near enough to a +solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other weapon, +without exciting the wolf’s suspicion of the nearness of a dangerous +foe.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used +by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure +food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise, +whole or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions +and cries of animals,<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> at first to lure them, when acting as a +decoy. With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, +and an additional reason for acquiring dance and song was to +secure charms against bodily ills,<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> and finally enlivenment.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> In +both dance and song, when used for a serious purpose, the performers +imagined themselves to be the animals they were imitating,<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +and in the dance they wore the skins of the animals +represented.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p> + +<p>Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed +merely for decoys and sport (early dancing),<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> for peaceful +purposes therefore, such people having whole or partial animal +shape were not regarded as harmful to man,<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> just as wise women +began to pass for witches only when with their art they did evil.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> +A similar development can be traced in the case of masks.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> It +was some time before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing +animals that were dangerous to life, though these are +the ones he first studied;<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> and we cannot presuppose that he disguised +to represent them until he could cope with them, since the +original purpose of the disguise was to secure food and clothing. +Thus far then we see whole or partial disguise as animals used to +secure <em>food</em> and <em>clothing</em> when acting as decoys to lure animals; +and in <em>dancing</em>.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + +<p>Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal’s skin or +dress when out as <em>forager</em> (or robber) or <em>spy</em>, for the purpose +of avoiding detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for +example,<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> were called by neighboring tribes <em>wolves</em>, probably +not out of contempt, since it may be doubted that an Indian feels +contempt for a wolf any more than he does for a fox, a rabbit, or +an elk, but because of their adroitness as scouts, warriors and +stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think, because of their +great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so as to escape detection +by the enemy by day or night; or, according to some +neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a>, “have the +endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can +make long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their +way, or on no food at all.” ... And further, “The Pawnees, +when they went on the warpath, were always prepared to simulate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +wolves.... Wolves on the prairie were too common<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> +to excite remark, and at night they would approach close +to the Indian camps.” ... The Pawnee starting off on the +warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later +times a white blanket or a white sheet; and, at <em>night</em>, wrapping +himself in this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he +walked or trotted here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed +himself into a common object of the landscape. This +disguise was employed by <em>day</em> as well, for reconnoissance.... +While the party remained hidden in some ravine or hollow, one +Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to the top of the +hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches looking all +over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him, would +take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the +Pawnees could imitate wolves best. “An Indian going into an +enemy’s country is often called a wolf,<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> and the sign for a scout +is made up of the signs <em>wolf</em> and <em>look</em>.”<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> Should any scout detect +danger, as at <em>night</em> when on duty near an encampment, he +must give the cry of the coyote.<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p> + +<p>The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in +animal form or dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal +disguise began to act not only as decoys for animals dangerous +to life, but also as scouts (robbers<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a>—and later as possessors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +of supernatural power, when growth of culture brought +with it growth of supernaturalism<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a>); when people began to associate, +for example, the wolf’s form with a lurking enemy.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p> + +<p>All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the +defensive, like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion +have sent out scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid +detection, assumed the disguise of the animal most common to +the special locality in question, just as to-day they are known to +disguise in animal skins for purposes of plunder or revenge.<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> <a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> + +<p>The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying +principle is the same; namely, the transformation of a living human +being into an animal. The origin of the belief in such a +transformation, as stated above<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> was the simple putting on of +an animal skin by early man. The object of putting on animal +skins was,</p> + +<p>(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries +of animals were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> +artificial decoys (like decoy ducks to-day)<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> and finally even +masks were used.<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> + +<p>(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying +animals, as in (1) above.</p> + +<p><a name="point3" id="point3"></a>(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals +led to dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the +faces and bodies of the participants were painted in imitation of +the colors of birds and animals, the motions of animals imitated +and animal disguises used.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p> + +<p>(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out +foraging, as well as for warfare,<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> <a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> therefore for booty, and self-defense. +Either they wore the entire skin, or probably later just +a part of it as a fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as +a charm by many of our colored people to-day.<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> + +<p>(5) For purposes of revenge,<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a>,<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> personal or other. For +some other personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror +in the opposing agent by hideousness.</p> + +<p>(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing +superhuman agencies.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> So now would arise first a belief in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +superhuman power or attributes,<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> and then,</p> + +<p>(7) Witchcraft.<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> It is very easy to see why it was usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a><br /><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +the so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who +claimed such transformation power, because they received remuneration +from their patients.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="point8" id="point8"></a>(8) Finally dreams<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> and exaggerated reports gave rise +to fabulous stories.<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a></p> + +<p>We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> for an example under +(4) we have cited the practices of American Indians.<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> It is +probable that about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above), +what is known as the real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied, +rabid manwolf) began to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin +was already a lurking thief or enemy, or a destroyer of human +life. To advance from this stage to the werewolf frenzy, our +primitive man must have seen about him some exhibition of such +a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this frenzy particularly +with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons, and the connecting +link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as the transformation +was usually into a wolf or dog,<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a>) for persons bitten +by it usually went mad too.<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> The ensuing frenzy, with the consternation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds +as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some +no doubt actually had the malady; others honestly believed they +had it and got into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked +themselves up into a frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> +Later, in the Middle Ages, when the nature of the real +disease came to be better understood, the werewolf superstition +had become too firmly fixed to be easily uprooted.</p> + +<p>We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> As +further examples of the development into fabulous story,<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> we may +cite any of those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man +is represented as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and +tearing to pieces men and beasts, until he resumes his human +form. Thus an early scout in animal garb would be obliged +to live on food he found on his way, and later fabulous report +would represent him as himself when in disguise possessing the +attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to pieces man +and beast. For such an account see Andree,<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> concerning what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the +hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed +such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread +abroad such a report as would enhance the influence of the +hyena-men far and wide. Some savages, as in Africa,<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> came +to regard any animal that robbed them of children, goats or other +animals, as a witch in animal form;<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> just as the American Indians +ascribe to evil spirits death, sickness and other misfortunes.</p> + +<p>We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an +animal robe would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> +how though, as soon as the element of magic enters in, he would +try to keep up the illusion. At this stage, when the original +defensive measure had become tainted with superstition, men +would go about in the night time howling and holding their +vile revels.<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> Andree,<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> narrates how a soldier in Northeast +Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and came to +the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician. +No hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh +wound. Soon he died, however the soldier did not survive him +long. Doubtless one of the magician class was responsible for +the death of the soldier, just as we to-day put to death the man +who so violates our laws, as to become a menace to our society, +or as formerly kings killed those who stood in their way; or as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +religious sects murder those who dissent from their faith. These +magicians, supposed to be men who could assume animal form, +as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly feared by +other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and at +<em>night</em> come forth to plunder and kill.<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> It is to their interest to +counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were +put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> Their frenzies +were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in +other cases they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent +opportunities for personal gain or vengeance.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> + +<p>Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition +and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the +outrages hope to escape punishment for their depredations, could +they hope to plunder and steal with impunity.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> So they prowled +usually under the cloak of <em>night</em> or of the dark of the forest,<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> +howled and acted like the animals they represented, hid the +animal skin or blanket, if they used one,<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> in the daytime where +they thought no one could find it, whereas the animal skin which +was worn for defence, was put on either by day or night,<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> and +one story recounts the swallowing of a whole goat, the man +bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did it.<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> Some of the +transformed men claimed they could regain human form only +by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters +were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress, +each maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices, +just as did the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those +of the American negro, who in church, when “shouting,” that is, +when stirred up by religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy +who happens to be in the church, of course with impunity; for +he is supposed to be under some outside control, and when the +spell has passed off, like some of the delusionists mentioned,<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> +claims not to know what he (or generally she) has done. Similar +also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of the fire-eaters, or +any other sham.</p> + +<p>The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was +that most often assumed for example in Germanic lands.<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> The +term <em>wolf</em> became synonymous with <em>robber</em>, and later (when +the robber became an outlaw,<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a>) with <em>outlaw</em>, the robber and outlaw +alike being called wolf and not some other animal (i. e., +only the wolf-man surviving to any extent) firstly, because the +wolf was plentiful; and secondly, because as civilization advanced, +there came a time when the wolf was practically the only one of +the larger undomesticated animals that survived.<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> We can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +notice this in our own United States, for example in eastern +Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes +heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the +pastures adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller +animals, and dig up buried ones.<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> In Prussia also it is the wolf +that survives to-day. American Indians, and other savages however +do not restrict the transformations to the wolf,<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> because +other wild animals, are, or were till recently, abundant amongst +them. As civilization advances, one by one the animal myths +disappear with the animals that gave rise to them (like that connected +with the mastodon);<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> or else stories of such domestic +animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> When this +stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully +coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals +were shorn of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as +Aesop’s fables would arise.<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> This however was psychologically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +a long step in advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an +earlier period.</p> + +<p>Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf +superstition went through various stages of development. The +motives for assuming wolf’s dress (or animal skins or robes), at +first were purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to +secure food by acting as decoys; then it was used for personal +advantage or gain by foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for +purposes of vengeance;<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> later from a desire for power over +others; and finally men (the professional and the superstitious) +began to concoct fabulous stories which were handed down as +tradition or myth, according to the psychic level of the narrator +and hearer.<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> + +<p>The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful +werewolf is the disguising as some common animal by members +of savage races when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to +escape detection by the enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land +in search of food. As stated above,<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> later fabulous report would +represent them as possessing in their disguise the attributes of +the animal they impersonated,<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> and finally even of actually +taking on animal form, either wholly or in part,<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> for longer or +shorter periods of time. Some of the North American Indian +transformation stories represent men as having only the head, +hands and feet of a wolf.<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> The transformation into a werewolf +in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made of +wolf-skin.<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising +the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent +a person as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other +article of apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> The stories especially +in Europe were of the <em>were-wolf</em> rather than <em>were-bear</em> or other +animal, because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild +animals.<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> It was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, +which crystallized into the household werewolf or transformation +tales.<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> + + +<h2><a name="NOTES" id="NOTES"></a>NOTES:</h2> + + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> <span class="smcap">Note.</span>—After the author had written the following article, she +gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That the origin +and development of the use of masks as given in the Annual Report of the +United States Bureau of Ethnology, 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note <a href="#Footnote_32">32</a>) is +similar to the origin and development of the werewolf superstition itself, +as given in the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The +author has italicized some words in the quotations.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> According to Mogk, in Paul’s Grundriss der germanischen Philologie +III. 272 <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wer</em> means “man,” found in Old Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, Old High +German, and werewolf a man in wolf’s form. Kögel connects <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wer</em> with +Gothic <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wasjan</em> “kleiden.” “Darum bedeutet <em>werwolf</em> eigentlich Wolfsgewand +úlfshamr; ähnlich bedeutet vielleicht <em lang="no" xml:lang="no">berserkr</em> Bärengewand,” therefore +werewolf according to Kögel means a wolf’s dress. See also Schrader, +Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> Post p. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:—Beastform in mythology +proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for benignant ends. See +note <a href="#Footnote_52">52</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and Greeks +settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once a year every Neurian +becomes a wolf for a few days, and then resumes the human form. +See concerning this also Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 120.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>, also see note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> See also Mogk in Paul’s Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud. Leubuscher: +Über die Wehrwölfe und Thierverwandlungen im Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850, +mentions cases in ancient Arcadia, in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the +almost epidemic disease in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf, +Stuttgart, 1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia +(hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to Encyc. Brit. +below; on p. 133 he says: “Tierverwandlungen sind allgemein menschlich, +finden wir überall. Die eigentümliche Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen +aber finden wir vorzugsweise bei einer bestimmten Völkergruppe, den +arischen Stämmen der Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven; +bei den südwärts gezogenen Stämmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns +gleiche Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten treten +die Werwölfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehört die älteste historische +Erwähnung der Sage; viel älter aber ist der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische +Werwölfe”. According to Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, +Stuttgart, 1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European +country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles, +Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants of island +Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in +Asia, Africa, America; but not in India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit. +below), especially though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands.</p> + +<p>As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for 1880-81, p. 83, +“From their close relations with wild animals Indians’ stories of transformations +into beasts and beasts into men are numerous and interesting.... In +times of peace, during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller +told of those days in the past when men and animals could transform +themselves at will and hold converse with one another.”</p> + +<p>Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell & Sons, 1883, II. 668 +says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic antiquities +than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrisûlfr, a son of Loki, makes +his appearance in wolf’s shape among the gods.</p> + +<p><a name="Encyc_Brit" id="Encyc_Brit"></a>Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy, states:—A +belief firmly rooted among all savages is that men are in certain circumstances +transformed temporarily or permanently into wolves and other inferior +animals. In Europe the transformation into a wolf is by far more +prominent and frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans, +French, Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most +prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. Thus the +were-<em>wolf</em> prevails in Europe, also in England, Wales, Ireland; and in S. +France, the Netherlands, Germany, Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, +Poland, Russia, he can hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note <a href="#Footnote_12">12</a>). +In Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland the <em>bear</em> competes with the +wolf for pre-eminence. In Persia the <em>bear</em> is supreme; in Japan the <em>fox</em>; in +India the <em>serpent</em> vies with the <em>tiger</em> (contrary to Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. +272, who says:—“Nur Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter +den indogermanischen Völkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und +Iraniern ist er unbekannt.” Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in +Abyssinia and Borneo the <em>hyena</em> with the <em>lion</em>; in E. Africa the <em>lion</em> with the +<em>alligator</em>; in W. Africa the <em>leopard</em> is perhaps most frequently the form +assumed by man; among the Abipones the <em>tiger</em>, among the Arawaks the +<em>jaguar</em>, etc.</p> + +<p>In Brockhaus’ Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the werewolf +belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and Romanic peoples; +found to-day especially in Volhynia and White Russia.</p> + +<p>Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:—Bei den Angelsachsen lässt sich der Werwolf +im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern, ihre Herden +vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das älteste Zeugnis auf deutschem +Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v. Worms (11 century).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:—There can nowhere be a living belief in +contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which has ceased to exist +in the particular locality. Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most +prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. (See +note <a href="#Footnote_12">12</a>.) In none of these cases however is the power of transformation +limited exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under <em>Wolf</em>:—The wolf is found +in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America from Greenland +to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in Ceylon, Burmah or +Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in the two latter jackals +instead.</p> + +<p>Meyer’s Kleines konversations-lexikon:—Der wolf “ist häufig in Ost- +und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika, seltener in Frankreich +und Belgien, den Herden gefährlich, besonders in Russland.” Encyc. +Brit., XXIV under <em>Wolf</em>:—In northern countries the wolf is generally +larger and more powerful than in the southern portion of its range. +Its habits are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been +known to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of his +flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance. They usually +assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and by their combined +and persevering efforts are able to overpower and kill even such great +animals as the American bison. Children and even grown people +are not infrequently attacked by them when pressed for hunger. The +ferocity of the wolf in the wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed, +they can rarely be trusted by strangers.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> Paul, Grundriss, III. 272.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p. 275 fol., +speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: “Noch lebte das Landvolk +in ohnmächtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Wölfe, wenig Dörfer, +welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere decimirt wurden,” +and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:—“Als 1815 die gegenwärtige Provinz +Posen an Preussen zurückfiel, waren auch dort die Wölfe eine Landplage. +Nach Angaben der Posener Provinzialblätter wurden im Regierungsbezirk +Posen vom 1. Sept. 1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Wölfe erlegt, noch +im Jahre 1819 im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von +Wölfen gefressen.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> Thus in note <a href="#Footnote_6">6</a> was mentioned Herodotus’ (484-425 B. C.) statement +about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend, according to Hertz, is +that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos, the first king of ancient Arcadia. +These Arcadians lived as huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert +(Andree, p. 65; and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed +amongst the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf +myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B. C). In the Norse “Edda” we find +Odin’s wolves, also Sköll, Hati and Fenrir. In the Völsunga Saga, Sigmund +and Sinfjötli become wolves. For other reflections of the fear in +which wolves were held, see the 10th century ms. of the “Wiener +Hundesegen” against male and female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches +Lesebuch, 6. aufl. 1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,—Geschichte der deutschen +sprache s. 233:—“Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte raubthier +des waldes dar, und lehrt die nähe des wolfs und fuchses.”</p> + +<p>C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:—“In die ältesten Zeiten +hinauf reicht auch bei Jägervölkern die Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil +die Eigentümlichkeiten der Tiere erklärend, ihr Gebahren erzählend. +Die furchtbaren und die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo +die Menschen städtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie +einsamer mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine höhere Bedeutung. So +wird dem Wäldler Bär und Wolf zum ebenbürtigen Räuber und Kämpfer, +menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht, der +Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to Andree, p. +65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it is to-day in Russia. +Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: “Der Wolf ist überall in Europa +verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> Cf. note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>, <a href="#Encyc_Brit">Encyc. Brit.</a></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> Leubuscher, p. 1:—Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in Hunde +und Wölfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den namen Lykanthropie.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> Or as Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for example +amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still formed a whole, +as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of herds was especially feared. +Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: “Die meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die +im Freien lebten, mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte +ihrer Einbildungskraft am öftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit zu +kämpfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in Einzelnen +als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich von Wölfen besonders +beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich manche Mordthat nur von +Wölfen begangen.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 282:—“The Dakotas have long +believed in the appearance from time to time of a monstrous animal that +swallows human beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the +bones of mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:—In celebrations it is possible that the +foxskin so universally worn by the animistic personifications is a survival +comparable with the skin of the animal in which formerly the whole +body was clothed.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: “In der ältesten Naturreligion +ist die Gottheit des Todes und der winterlichen Erde als Wolf +gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten +nach dem Volksglauben die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu +verwandeln. Der Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum +raschen Zurücklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders +geeignet. Darum nahmen die Götter und die zauberbegabten Menschen +zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von Natur gefährlich und +wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang +nach Mord und Zerstörung die Hauptsache. Die Ursprünge des Werwolfglaubens +waren also 1. religiöse Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung +(der friedlose Mörder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die +Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie.” Page 51. “Die Verwandlung in +Wölfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden.” Page 57: “Dass die +von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen Waldflüchtigen sich in +Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> Page 46. See also note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p. 153 fol.;—“Ist so +die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und Götterglauben, zunächst gebunden an +das Bedürfnis des Lebens, so sondert sie sich doch allmählich im Verlauf +der Kultur von den religiösen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite +Welt zu einer unabhängigen Bedeutsamkeit”—like Homer, Dante, etc. +See note <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:—“Insane delusions +must reflect the usages and beliefs of contemporaneous society.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">25</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>, <a href="#Footnote_21">21</a> and <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_15">15</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:—Traces of the fear in +which buffalo “were held may still be discovered in the traditional stories +of certain tribes, which set forth how, in those days,” [i. e. in the stone +age] “before men were provided with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill, +and eat the people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo +were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly have arisen save +as the result of actual experience of their power to inflict injury and +death.” Pliny informs us how the Romans kept the wolf out of their +fields, see Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians +lived on the steppes, in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains, +the animals were their whole study. They moved with the animals, +followed them for food.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:—It seems that masks were occasionally +used as decoys.... Next to the otter the most valuable animal in +the estimation of the Kadiak men, is the species of seal or sea-dog called +by the Russians nerpa. The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it +toward the shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body +among the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque resembling +the head of a seal and makes a noise like that animal. The unsuspicious +seal, imagining that he is about to meet a partner of his own +species, hastens to the spot and is instantly killed. Compare note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:—Bering Strait Eskimo stuff rudely the +skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon a stick which holds +the head outstretched, then imitate the call of the bird, which is trapped +in the net attached to the decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft +snow into the form of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around +the neck for plumage. The call then brought the real birds.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> Thus G. B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his description +of the primitive Indians’ method of trapping buffalo, says: “Some +men went forth naked, others carried a dress made of the entire skin of a +buffalo, the head and horns arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of +the skin hung down over the wearer’s back,” etc. This “caller” went near +to a herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into the +trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often proved fatal to +the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85, p. 484, about Central Eskimo +seal hunting, is stated: If a hunter is close to an animal he imitates its +movements. Some utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. “The +sealskin clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is +difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance.” And on p. +508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central Eskimos carry guns on +their shoulders, two men going together, so as to resemble the antlers of a +deer. The men imitate their grunting. If they lie on the ground at some +distance they greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to +Ross the “inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer, the +foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer’s head upon his own.” +Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:—“The old manner of hunting antelope and deer: +the hunter would disguise himself by covering his head with the head and +skin of an antelope, and so be enabled to approach the game near enough +to use his bow and arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask +themselves with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo.” Ethn. +Rep. 1901-02, p. 439;—Two of the party of hunters (Zuñi) out after deer +“wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front and back of the +shirt being painted to represent as nearly as possible the body of the deer; +the hands and the arms to the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to +represent the deer’s forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer’s head over +his head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as possible, +even to the browsing, the game they would catch.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:—“Tradition says the Iroquois derived the +music and action of the Buffalo dance while on an expedition against the +Cherokee, from the bellowing and the movements of a herd of buffalo +which they heard for the first time ‘singing their favorite songs,’ i. e. +bellowing and snorting.” Also note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent frostbite. The +wolf’s, deer’s, fox’s, opossum’s feet it is held never become frostbitten. +After each verse of the song, the singer imitates the cry and the action of +the animal. The words used are archaic in form and may be rendered +“I become a real wolf, etc.” The song runs:</p> + +<p>1. Tsûñ´ wa´ ‘ya-ya´ (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged howl). +The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his feet.</p> + +<p>2. Tsûñ´-ka´ wi-ye´ (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh! (imitating +the call and jumping of a deer).</p> + +<p>3. Tsûñ´-tsu´ ‘la-ya´ (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih! (imitates +barking and scratching of a fox).</p> + +<p>4. Tsûñ´-sĭ´-kwa-ya´ (four times), kĭ+(imitates cry of the opossum +when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal does when +feigning death).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance performed +by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep up their spirits, in +which each had his robe about him and imitated the actions of the coyote, +trotting, glancing around, etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo +dance, in which each of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over +his head, the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging +down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of the +buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the Omaha wolf +dance, by the society of those who have supernatural communication with +wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and dance in imitation of the +actions of wolves. Similarly they performed the grizzly bear dance, +horse dance, etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a>, <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a> and <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> See notes <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a> and <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> Similarly in the use of masks (see note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>). See Wundt, Völkerpsychologie +II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this Zeitschrift für deutsche +Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss. 558-568:—“Der maskierte mensch ist der +ekstatische Mensch. Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in +ekstase, fühlt er sich in fremde lebensvorgänge ein, eignet er sich das +wesen an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert.” Für den +naiven menschen, wie für das kind, ist die maske durchaus nicht +blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der augenblickstanz +wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvölker verwenden ihre masken nur +bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertänzen, nicht zu ihrer burlesken mimik; +die tänzer sind in Tiermasken, etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed into a +bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, +p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1097:—In Norse +accounts also we find transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded +as rational and was esteemed.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_57">57a</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a> and <a href="#Footnote_42">42</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> The important consideration in the mind of primitive man was +whether certain things were harmful or useful. See Behaghel, Die +deutsche Sprache, p. 98:—“Die grossen Tiere und die mächtigen +Bäume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die für die <em>Ernährung</em> and <em>Bekleidung</em> des +Menschen von Bedeutung sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben <em>bedrohen</em>, sie haben +viel früher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare Käfer +im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es, dass die Namen +der grösseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbäume, der wichtigsten Getreidearten +allen germanischer Stämmen gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie <em>Wolf</em>, +<em>Kuh</em>, <em>Ochse</em>, <em>Birke</em>, <em>Buche</em>, <em>Erle</em>, <em>Gerste</em> mit den Benennungen anderer +indogermanischer Völker übereinstimmen.” Doubtless animals occupied +their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt, Völkerpsychologie, II. +412 fol., about the <em>maskentanz</em>: “Überhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit +früher Berücksichtigung erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive.” See note <a href="#Footnote_95">95</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">43</span></a> G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N. Y., Scribners, +1893, p. 245, fol.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">44</span></a> Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein +sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hirpus</i> bedeutet <em>wolf</em> in sabinischer +oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf führer geworden +war, oder nach andrer sage sie wölfe gejagt hatten und gleich wölfen +raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen ausdrucks friedlos waren.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">45</span></a> The werewolf story could arise only where the animal, wolf, tiger or +lion, etc., was common; and likewise the werewolf tales gradually died +out when the animals became rare or extinct. See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">46</span></a> Grinnell, p. 245.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">47</span></a> The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild beasts save +their own totem-animals as <em>enemy-scouts</em> (Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">48</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. +208: The wolf was believed, in the animals’ council, to be able to give +the Indian the power to creep right into the midst of the enemy’s camp +without being seen.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">49</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_53">53</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">50</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_57">57-b</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">51</span></a> So originally the germanic god <em>Logi</em> was not an evil god. <em>Logi</em> meant +the natural force of fire; <em>Loki</em> meant the same, but the burly giant has +been made a sly, seducing villain (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of +Loki, Fenrisûlfr, appears in wolf’s shape among the gods. Perhaps +association with the wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of +Logi (Loki) from a good to an evil god.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">52</span></a> Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:—In modern savage life we find +beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in beast form for +the community; others are said to assume beast form in order to avenge +themselves justly on enemies; others for love of bloodshed and cannibalism. +See also note <a href="#Footnote_58">58</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">53</span></a> No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won considerable +fame through their skill and bravery, as we should judge from such +proper names as <em>Rudolf</em>, which means really <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ruhmwolf</em>, <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ruhm</em> related to +Gothic <em lang="und" xml:lang="und">hropeigs</em> “victorious,” Sanskrit <em lang="sa" xml:lang="sa">kir</em> “to praise”; or <em>Adolf</em> from +<em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Adalolf</em>, which means <em>Edelwolf</em>, originally, therefore, <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Edelräuber</em>, for +<em>wolf</em> meant originally about the same as <em>robber</em> (Kluge). So <em>robber</em> or +<em>wolf</em> was originally a highly respectable appellation, at a time when men +lived from robbery and the chase, either as searobbers, or mountain +robbers, etc. (about this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen, +1905, p. 268 fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace +(see appellation “wolves” applied to Pawnees, p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.). Later we find +such names as <em>Wulfila</em> “little wolf.” Many Indian names are those of +animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear, Conquering Bear, +Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear Rib, Smoking Bear, +Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear, Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone +Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe, etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83, +p. 169: The names of Indians very often refer to some animal, predicating +some attribute or position of that animal. For discussion of names, see +note <a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">54</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">55</span></a> See <a href="#point3">(3)</a> below.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">56</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">57</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_4">4</a> and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>):—The +use of masks is worldwide. The origin and development of the use of +masks is very much the same as the origin and development of the werewolf +as given in the preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both +originally useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into instruments +for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of the mask is described +in the above report as follows:</p> + +<p>a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for defense +against physical violence, human or otherwise. It was therefore first used +merely as a mechanical resistance to the opposing force; then secondly, +still in the lowest grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a +moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by symbolizing +superhuman agencies. Now individual variations arose—devices for example +derived or conventionalized from some predatory, shrewd or mysterious +animal.</p> + +<p>b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and +the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part of the religious +paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of the shamans. Ethn. Rep. +1896-97, I. 395:—“When worn in any ceremonial, ... the wearer is +believed to become mysteriously and unconsciously imbued with the spirit +of the being which his mask represents.”</p> + +<p>c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is used for +public amusements and games; by secret societies; as protection against +recognition on festive occasions, etc., like the animal skins worn in +dances.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">58</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_32">32</a>, <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a>, <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>, ante p. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">59</span></a> See p. <a href="#Footnote_13">13</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">60</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:—Account of “a cloak or mantle made +from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic paintings. It was +made and used by the Apaches as a mantle of invisibility, that is, a +charmed covering for spies which would enable them to pass with impunity +through the country, and even through the camp of their enemies. In +this instance the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn.” The +Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were the raincloud, +serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of the winds of the four +cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 515:—Among the Hidatsa (Sioux) +fetiches are especially the skins of the wolf. “When they go to war, they +always wear the stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging +down the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the warrior +puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf’s head hangs down upon his +breast.” Finally the magic robes or shirts and girdles came to be a part of +the regular paraphernalia of the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the +folklore of all countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles.</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: “Some warriors had medicine +to change their shape as they pleased, so that they could escape from their +enemies.” Page 501: Such stories might be paralleled in any tribe.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">61</span></a> See further development in note <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">62</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_52">52</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">63</span></a> As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure brutality, we +cite from Andree, p. 69:—People in the interior of Africa who understand +magic, transform themselves into lions and go about killing people. See +also below, note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, where the wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and +sucks his blood, and also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being +one of the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this takes place +at <em>night</em>, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian starting out at night in +his wolf’s robe, and trotting up to the hostile village to ascertain where his +enemies’ horses are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell’s +Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73). Ethn. +Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:—“To recover stolen or lost property, especially ponies, +is one of the principal tasks imposed upon the so-called medicine-men” +(shamans).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">64</span></a> As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was put on not +merely to make the wearer look just like a common object of the landscape, +but also because the wearer of the disguise was supposed to take on +the characteristics of the animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.), +as in the case of masks (see note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>), and finally the wearer of such a robe +was believed to actually become transformed, like the wearers of the werewolf +shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves were regarded as good +hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:—The wolf +is revered by the Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanáti; therefore +we can understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of unerring +huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those who gained +their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of songs imitating the +cries of certain animals was supposed to confer a characteristic of the animal +in question (see note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>).</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:—To gain animal characteristics a wizard attached +crow and owl plumes to his head that he might have the eyes of the +crow to see quickly the approach of man, and the eyes of the owl to travel +by night. He flapped his arms, ... A Zuñi man hearing a cry like +an owl, yet human, looked about him and found a man whom he recognized +as a Zuñi. “Aha!” said he, “why have you those plumes upon +your head? Aha, you are a sorcerer,” etc.</p> + +<p>An example of the transforming power of the <em>robe</em> we find in Bulletin +26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1901, Kathlamet +texts, p. 156 fol.:—A woman ate of some of the fat of a bitch, gave +birth to five male dogs and one female dog. When they grew older, she +discovered one day that they could transform themselves into real children. +While they were down at the beach, she entered the house, and +now she saw the dog <em>blankets</em>. She took them and burnt them. Then the +children retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the +Völsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according to which +an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting on an elkskin.</p> + +<p>W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p. 100, +writes, “Die Fähigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln können, heisst ‘sich +zu häuten, die Hülle zu wechseln’. Das Umwerfen eines äusserlichen +Gewandes kann den Wechsel der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas +Federgewand, die Schwan- und Krähenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins +Adlergewand. Die Wolfsgewänder (úlfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln +den Menschen zum Wolfe”. See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel, Zeitschrift +für deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">65</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:—The owner of fine beads fears that some +witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with disease.</p> + +<p>As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman +powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances given by +Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met in Africa a native +said to have power to transform himself into a lion. As lion he would +stay for days and months in the <em>forest</em>, in a sacred hut, to which however +his wife carried beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this +lion did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was able +to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine brought him by +his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:—In Banana, Africa, the members of a certain +family transform themselves in the <em>dark</em> of the <em>forest</em> into leopards. +They throw down those they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them +nor drink their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note <a href="#Footnote_83">83</a>.)</p> + +<p>The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American Indians, +who put on a wolf’s mantle to steal, or to recover stolen animals (Grinnell, +Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the story of robbery entitled +Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.). Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69, +where the lowest caste of laborers are believed to have power to transform +themselves into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They +employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause, since it yields +such returns. They are reported to act like other folk by day, at <em>night</em> +though to assume the ways of wolves, kill their enemies and suck their +blood, roaming about with other wolves till morning. They are supposed +to gain their supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs. +They are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since their +roaming and plundering is done in the <em>night</em>; in the daytime they of +course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p. 72).</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:—Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and +Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the masses +and the comparative learning of the few who practised it. Among the +American Indians the medicine-man and the more expert sorceress have +little learning above that of the body of the tribe, and their success depends +entirely upon their own belief in being supernaturally gifted, and +upon the faith and fear of their followers.</p> + +<p>The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly animal +shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:—“An old blind wolf +with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made his head and hands look +like those of a wolf. The rest of his body was not changed. He was +called a man-wolf.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">66</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:—Witches could and did assume animal +shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire streaming from +its mouth and nostrils. It was <em>night</em>. The man shot at it, and the next +morning tracked it by the marks of blood from its wound. At a bridge a +woman’s tracks took the place of the dog’s, and finally he found the +woman. She had died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a +hog, when pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared +as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing. So they, +the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian Indian one +<em>evening</em> pursued a white bull with fire streaming from its nostrils. He had +never seen a white bull on the reservation before. “As it passed in front of +a house it was transformed into a man with a <em>large white blanket</em>, who was +ever afterward known as a witch.”</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:—A man going out at <em>night</em> noticed a queer-looking +burro. Upon his return home he was told that a large cat had entered +the house. He went out again, discovered a man wrapped in a blanket, +but not in the Zuñi fashion, his head was sunk low in the blanket. +He knew this creature to be a wizard.</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:—That the medicine man (Shaman) has the +faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and other animals at pleasure +and then resuming the human form, is as implicitly believed in by the +American Indians as it was by our own forefathers in Europe. And page +459: The Abipones of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power +to put on the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed +the power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the Shamans +of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz, p. 133 fol.:—“In der +christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier +entstand mit dem Hexenglauben die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich +mit Hilfe des Satans aus reiner Mordlust zu Wölfen verwandeln. So wurde +der Werwolf das Bild des tierisch Dämonischen in der Menschennatur.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">67</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:—The medicine-men of the Apache are paid +at the time they are consulted, the priest beforehand among the Eskimo. +Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: “The magnitude of the disease is generally measured +by the amount of the patient’s worldly wealth.” Page 416:—Sioux +sorcerers prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep. +1901-2, p. 568:—“The shaman, like the theurgist is usually paid after each visit +with calico, cotton, or food, according to the wealth of the family, since it is +always understood that these doctors expect proper compensation for their +services.” Page 387:—“The Zuñi doctor is paid according to his reputation.” +Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: “In early days if a man +remained sick for three or four weeks, all his possessions went to pay +doctors’ fees.”</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.—The American Indian’s theory of disease +is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian, the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman—all +bodily disorders are attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that +is of animal spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated. +Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was language +which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend. Page 468:—The +medicine-men are accused of administering poisons to their enemies. +Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:—Sioux sorcerers were thought to cause the +death of those persons who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep. +1887-88, p. 581:—“When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia +he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his followers believe +that he has become, the power he represents.” The Mexican priests +masked and disguised, and dressed in the skins of the women offered +up in sacrifice.</p> + +<p>So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest. Ethn. +Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:—The Indian doctor relied far more on magic than on +natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the drum, songs, magic feasts and +dances, and howling were his ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story +of the indian, p. 210 fol.:—They have “firm confidence in dreams.” +“Their belief in a future life is in part founded on dreams,” etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">68</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>, close.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">69</span></a> An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain occurs Andree, +p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal at one place, the +latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming human form, they attack +their enemy in the <em>night</em> at his home. This is the transformation of an +animal into a man, but the inventor of the story was no doubt looking +towards his own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which +in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In Siam stories +are told of people who by magic formulae become tigers and roam about +at <em>night</em> in search of booty. One of the man-tigers was actually a priest.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">70</span></a> Ante pp. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">71</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a> fol.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">72</span></a> See notes <a href="#Footnote_19">19</a> and <a href="#Footnote_74">74</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">73</span></a> Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: “It is said that wolves, +which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes went crazy, +and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even coming into +camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons bitten by a mad wolf +generally went mad, too. They trembled and their limbs jerked, they +made their jaws work and foamed at the mouth, often trying to bite other +people. When any one acted in this way, his relatives tied him hand and +foot with ropes, and, having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the +green hide, built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until +the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and removed the +buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure for a mad wolf’s bite.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">74</span></a> Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a monomania +themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this widespread disease +or delusion (of the first century till late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.: +“The sick” ones would prowl about burial places <em>at night</em>, imagining +themselves to be <em>wolves</em> or <em>dogs</em>, and go about barking and howling. In +the middle ages such people would even kill children and grown people. +When they came to themselves again, or were cured, they claimed to +know nothing of what had happened. Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst +the Shamans feats of jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing +the best of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of +robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals, painted with +shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The speaker terms himself +a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">75</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_63">63</a>, <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>, <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, <a href="#Footnote_66">66</a>, <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>, <a href="#Footnote_69">69</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">76</span></a> See <a href="#point8">(8)</a> above.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">77</span></a> Page 71.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">78</span></a> Andree, p. 69.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">79</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of the origin of the +wolf: “<em>The wolf</em> was a poor woman, who had so many children that she +could not find enough for them to eat. They became so gaunt and +hungry that they were changed into wolves, constantly roaming over the +land seeking food.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">80</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a> fol.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">81</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine the horrible +howlings, and strange contortions that these jugglers (shamans) or conjurers +make of their bodies, when they are disposing themselves to +conjure.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">82</span></a> Page 71.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">83</span></a> Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician (Abyssinia), +who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate animal-men the teeth of +the persons whom they have killed during the year, with which he +decorates his palace. See also pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151, +about sorcery among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes +of the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of Indian +genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class of ambitious +men and women sufficient influence through their acknowledged power of +exorcism and necromancy to lead a comfortable life at the expense of the +credulous. Page 162: “Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an +order of priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It +is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe that they can +at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos,” etc. Sometimes one +family constitutes the class. See note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>; Andree, p. 69.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">84</span></a> Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches were +priestesses, physicians, fabulous <em>night</em>-wives, never as yet persecuted. +Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into werewolves, and lose nothing +in popular estimation. The abuse of a spell was punished. A wise +woman, healing sickness and charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch +only when with her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil’s +complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the guilt of +criminality fell upon all personal relations with him. Ethn. Rep. +1901-2, p. 393: “Though the witch may be regarded as all powerful, none +but the poor and unfortunate are condemned. Few others are even brought +to trial—their prominence prevents public accusation.” This again reminds +us some of our customs; namely, that of overlooking the transgressions +of the rich and powerful. See note <a href="#Footnote_91">91</a>, and for outlaws note <a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">85</span></a> Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the body, and more +particularly the eyes, so that many shamans (Siberia, America, etc.) +become blind.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">86</span></a> Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia and Lithuania, +according to two bishops, werewolves were in the 16th century +far more destructive than “true and natural wolves.” They were asserted +to have formed “an accursed college” of those “desirous of innovations +contrary to the divine law.” Also see note <a href="#Footnote_90">90</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">87</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, and notes <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>, <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, <a href="#Footnote_66">66</a>, <a href="#Footnote_69">69</a>, <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>, <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>, <a href="#Footnote_110">110</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">88</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a> close, and note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">89</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">90</span></a> Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a woman, whose +husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his house, got hold of him +later in his man shape and killed him. Feats similar to some performed +by him are cited in Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the +Pawnee swallowed arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of +apparently killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zuñi.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">91</span></a> Grimm, Rechtsalterthümer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle aus der +ärmsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>). Literary Digest, +March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism and Spirituality: “Many, +very many, spiritualists seem to care for communion with spirits only that +they may more surely keep physically well, and earn their bread and +butter and clothing the easier.” Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The +absurdity of the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for +the theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in +every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he was +certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not being found in +beast form was satisfactorily disposed of.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">92</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a> and <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">93</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a> and <a href="#Footnote_19">19</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">94</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">95</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: “The deer, which is +still common in the mountains, was the principal dependence of the +Cherokee hunter, and is consequently prominent in myth, folklore, and +ceremonial.” see note <a href="#Footnote_42">42</a>. Page 264: “The largest gens (clan) in the +tribe bears the name of ‘wolf people.’” Page 420: The Cherokee +have always been an agricultural people, and their old country has a +luxuriant flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more important +place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe than it does +among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid sage deserts of the West.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">96</span></a> The St. Louis “Westliche Post” for January 9, 1908, furnishes +another example: A tame wolf which for the past two years has been a +pet in a farmer’s family at Marshfield, Wisconsin, escaped and attacked +a chicken. The farmer’s daughter called to the wolf, but it had become +wild from the taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and +one leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released until +she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar.</p> + +<p>Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13, 1908, +shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite populous districts: +“Wolf-Plage. Aus dem nördlichen Wisconsin wird gemeldet, dass +Wölfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind denn je, und dass sie, durch +Hunger getrieben, sich nahe an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere +und auch Menschen angreifen. Zwei grosse Wölfe griffen in dieser Woche +das Pferd der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den +Wald, wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien +verscheuchten.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">97</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">98</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">99</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_109">109</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">100</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_24">24</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">101</span></a> Close of note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">102</span></a> John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives the origin +and development of the werewolf as follows: From the conception of +wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to the conception of corporeal +werewolves.... Christianity did not fail to impart a new and fearful +character to the belief in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as +a species of witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the +Devil. It was often necessary to kill one’s enemies, and at that time some +even killed for love of it (like the Berserker); often a sort of homicidal +madness, during which they would array themselves in the skins of wolves +or bears and sally forth by <em>night</em> to crack the backbones, smash the skulls +and sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary travelers or +loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an invention of excited +imagination. So people attributed a wolf’s nature to the maniac or idiot +with cannibal appetites, then the myth-forming process assigned to the +unfortunate wretch a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. +Worship of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of transformation +of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The storm-wind +was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead men’s souls or as the howling +of wolf-like monsters (called by Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness +and cannibalism, accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted +as due to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf +superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on a +wolf’s skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence of the fact alleged +of Berserkers haunting the woods by <em>night</em>, clothed in hides of wolves +or bears. A permanent cure was effected by burning the werewolf’s sack, +unless the Devil furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, +to become incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the +outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is the night-wind—a +kind of leader of departed souls, howling in the wintry blasts. +Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:—The Berserkir of Iceland dressed in +the skins of bears and wolves, and further on: “Beastform is in mythology +proper far oftener assumed for malignant than for benignant ends.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">103</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">104</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">105</span></a> Close note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">106</span></a> Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">107</span></a> Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our oldest native +notions make the assumption of wolf-shape depend on arraying oneself in a +wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as transformation into a swan does on putting on the +swan-shirt or swan-ring. Page 1095: “The transformation need not be +for a magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured into, a +wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the appearance, he +acquires also the fierceness and howling of the wolf; roaming the <em>woods</em>, +he rends to pieces everything that comes in his way.” This is like the belief +of the American Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued +with the spirit of the being which his mask represents (note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>); or that +the shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers believe +that he has become, the power he represents (note <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">108</span></a> Thus some American Indian stories represent men transformed into +wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or piece of decayed wood when pursued. +And mantles of invisibility are mentioned in note <a href="#Footnote_60">60</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">109</span></a> See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: “Unter den grossen Raubtieren +treten uns Bär und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen. Der Wolf ist +freilich überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber ganz sicher +ein Waldtier,” etc. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy: “In England by +the 17th century the werewolf had long been extinct. Only small creatures, +the cat, hare, weasel, etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to +transform himself into.” See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">110</span></a> Amongst the American Indians, where various larger animals were +common, the designation “wolf-people” (see the sign-language of the +plains) was bestowed especially on the Pawnees, because, as we have seen, +they best imitated wolves. In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the +wolf alone was universally common, the designation “wolf-people” (or if we +choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one locality or people, +but was bestowed in general on those who assumed the manner of wolves, +and because of their crimes became outcasts like the wolves. They best +imitate wolves, and no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as +wolves (see note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>), and for this reason the <em lang="no" xml:lang="no">warg</em> or outlaw came to be +called a <em>wolf</em> (see close of note <a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>). Thus Golther, Mythologie, p. 102, +says: “Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder getötet, so findet man einen +wunden oder toten Menschen.” The werewolves, as we have seen (ante +p. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>), keep to the <em>woods</em> and the <em>dark</em>, of course in many cases to avoid +detection. Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: “They say that +witches love the <em>night</em> and lurk in <em>shadows and darkness</em>. Witches are +believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts.” Sigmund and Sinfjötli +dwelt as wolves in the <em>woods</em>. Also the progenitor of the Mýramenn in +Iceland at <em>night</em> could leave his house in wolf’s form. Another Norwegian +account reports how earlier many people were able to take on wolf’s +form, then dwelt in <em>grove</em> and <em>woods</em>, where they tore people to pieces, +etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note <a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">111</span></a> Names. See note <a href="#Footnote_31">31</a>. The development in the case of names was +perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>), and of the werewolf +superstition itself (ante p. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, fol.); namely, a) protection against outside +agencies was sought; b) growth of supernaturalism; c) element of +humor.</p> + +<p>a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: “Children are often +named <em>wolf</em>, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their supernatural foes” (for +similar assumption of characteristics or the nature of animals for personal +advantage see note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>). See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. +1139: “The escort of <em>wolf</em> or <em>raven</em> augured victory;” and in the note: +“A name of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O. H. G. +<em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wolf-hraban</em> (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly promised +victory. Old names are no product of pure chance. Servian mothers +name a son they have longed for, <em lang="sr" xml:lang="sr">Vuk</em>, <em>Wolf</em>: then the witches can’t eat +him up. O. H. G. <em>Wolfbizo</em> was a lucky name, i. e., one bitten by the +wolf and thereby protected,” like our modern curing of like by like in +medicine.</p> + +<p>b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development +mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about the conferring +of secret names, since one could harm a person by his name +alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning his name: “Wenn +man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g’rennt.” Again in XXI. 313 fol.: It +was dangerous to name <em>bear</em> or <em>wolf</em> in regions infested by these animals, +so people, out of fear, avoided calling the name of such animals; called +the bear for example <em>honey-eater</em>, etc.</p> + +<p>c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his fear of +them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and humor enter in, and +such names arise as are mentioned in note <a href="#Footnote_53">53</a>; and such stories as that of +Romulus and Remus, suckled by a wolf.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">112</span></a> Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, +III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws who have fled to +the woods. A notable instance is that of Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the +Völsungasaga. In regard to this W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen +mythologie, Leipzig 1895, p. 102, says: “Die Sage mag auf einem +alten Misverständniss beruhen. <em>Warg</em>, <em>Wolf</em> hiess der Geächtete in der +germanischen Rechtssprache. <em>Warg</em> wurde wörtlich als <em>Wolf</em> verstanden, +und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte.” Golther again, p. 424:—“Gefesselt +wurde Loki als Ächter in den Wald getrieben, er wurde “<em>Warg</em>”, +d. h. <em>Wolf</em>. <em>Wölfe</em> heissen die friedlosen Waldgänger.” As to <em>warg</em>, Schade +in his altdeutsches Wörterbuch defines it as a räuberisch würgendes +wütendes Wesen, Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise, +geächteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetäter; <em>warg</em> ist Benennung +des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und vertragbrüchiger +Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden durch Mord gebrochen und +landflüchtig geworden, oder nun im wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere +haust und wie der Wolf ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche +auf Island Bezeichnung einer gewalttätigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm, +Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American Indians +relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67 fol.: An outlaw is one +who by his crimes has placed himself without the protection of his clan, +is not defended in case he is injured by another. When the sentence of +outlawry has been declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the +duty of the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the +council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty of any member +of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill him like an animal. Page 60 +fol.: “The chief of the Wolf gens is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe” +(see also Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the <em>woods</em> and the +<em>dark</em>. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal skins, and to +terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves. Since therefore so many +outlaws lived, dressed (note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a> close) and acted like wolves, to all intents +and purposes became wolves, <em>wolf</em> and outlaw became synonymous terms.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">113</span></a> The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night in Germany +is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people believed that werewolves, +etc., entered houses at night. In place of the earlier harmful +werewolf is now the “harmful” night air.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="l1" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a><br /> +<a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> + + +<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> + + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><span class="smcap">Andree, Richard.</span> Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche. Stuttgart, +1878.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Behaghel, Otto.</span> Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Braune, Wilhelm.</span> Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brockhaus, F. A.</span> Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bureau of American Ethnology.</span> Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dilthey, Wilhelm.</span> Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Edda.</span> Die lieder der älteren edda. Paderborn, 1876.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Encyclopaedia britannica.</span> New York, 1883, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Erman, Adolf.</span> Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fiske, John.</span> Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Freytag, Gustav.</span> Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Golther, W.</span> Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Rechtsaltertümer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Teutonic mythology. Translation by J. S. Stallybrass, +London, 1882.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, George Bird.</span> Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, G. B.</span> Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, G. B.</span> Story of the Indian. New York, 1895.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hertz, W.</span> Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hirt, H.</span> Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indogermanische forschungen.</span> Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904, +1907.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Kluge, F.</span> Etymologisches wörterbuch der deutschen sprache. Strassburg, +1905.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lemcke, K.</span> Aesthetik in gemeinverständlichen vorträgen. Leipzig, 1890.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Leubuscher, R.</span> Über die wehrwölfe und thierverwandlungen im mittelalter. +Berlin, 1850.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Literary digest.</span> New York and London, March 9, 1907.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Meyers.</span> Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paul, H.</span> Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Schade, O.</span> Altdeutsches wörterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Schrader, O.</span> Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde. Strassburg, +1901.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Völsungasaga.</span> Ranisch, Berlin, 1891.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Westliche post.</span> St. Louis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wundt, W.</span> Völkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für deutsches altertum.</span> Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für deutsche philologie.</span> Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="l1" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> + + +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<p class="num">[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.]</p> + +<ul class="lsoff"> +<li>Abipones, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Abyssinia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Africa, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Alligator, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>America, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>.</li> + +<li>American Indians, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Anglo-Saxons, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Animals, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Animal fable, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Arabia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Arawaks, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Arcadia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Asia, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Assyrians, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Bear, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_38">38</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Belgium, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Benignant, <i><a href="#Footnote_4">4</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_38">38</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Berserkr, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Bird, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li>Bison, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_32">32</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Bohemia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Borneo, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Bretons, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Bulgaria, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Burchard von Worms, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Burmah, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Celebrations, <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Ceylon, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Charms, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li>Clothing, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li>Coyote, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + + +<li>Dancing, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_32">32</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_33">33</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_34">34</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Dante, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Death, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Decoy, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_30">30</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Denmark, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Dog, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Dreams, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Edda, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Enemy, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_48">48</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>English, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Eskimo, <i><a href="#Footnote_30">30</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Europe, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Fenrisûlfr, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_51">51</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Finns, <i><a href="#Footnote_5">5</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Fish, <i><a href="#Footnote_5">5</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Fisherman, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Food, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Forest, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Fox, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>.</li> + +<li>French, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Germany, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Greece, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Greenland, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Harmful, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_51">51</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Herds, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Herodotus, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Hindoos, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Homer, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Hunter, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Hyena, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Iceland, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li> + +<li>India, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Indogermanic, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Insanity, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Iranians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Ireland, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></li> + +<li>Italians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Jackal, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Jaguar, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Japan, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Kadiak, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Kelts, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Knut, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Lapps, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li>Leopard, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Leubuscher, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Lion, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Lithuanians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Loki, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Lycanthropy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Lykaon, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Magic, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Malignant, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_4">4</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Mask, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Mastodon, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Medicinemen (Shamans), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_90">90</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Mexico, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Murder, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Myths, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Names, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Netherlands, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Neurians, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Night, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li> + +<li>North America, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Norway, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Odin, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Island Oesel, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Otter, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Outlaw, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Owl, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Pawnees, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Persia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Plants, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Poles, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Portuguese, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Posen, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Priests, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Professionals, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_86">86</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Provencal, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Prussia, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Reindeer, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li>Religion, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Revenge, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Robber, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_44">44</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Romans, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Russia, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Scandinavia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Scout, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_48">48</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Scythians, <i><a href="#Footnote_6">6</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Seal, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Serpent, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Servia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Shepherds, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Siam, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Sinfjötli, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Song, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_33">33</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Skins (or dress) of animals, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_34">34</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_108">108</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>South America, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Speech (animals), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li>Stories, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Supernaturalism, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Superstition, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Sweden, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Tiger, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_90">90</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Totemism, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Transformation, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_11">11</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></li> +<li>Traps, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Tschechs, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Turkey, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_108">108</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Volhynia, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Völsungasaga, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Wales, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Warfare, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Weapons, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li>Werewolf, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_86">86</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_91">91</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Wiener Hundesegen, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Witches, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_91">91</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> +</ul> + + +<div class="tnote"> +<p class="tn"><a name="Transcribers_note" id="Transcribers_note"></a>Transcriber’s note</p> + + +<p>The cover of this book was created by the transcriber and is placed in +the public domain.</p> + +<p>Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were +added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they +were referred to in other notes. The notes were gathered at the end of +the text and provided with links.</p> + +<p>“Völsungasaga” and “Sinfjötli” were in the original mostly written with +a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader's +convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common +spelling with ö.</p> + +<p>Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. +In note 12 “and” was changed to “und” (seltener in Frankreich +und Belgien).</p> + +<p>Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and +missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent +spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir.</p> + +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44134 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/44134-h/images/cover.jpg b/44134-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..427b482 --- /dev/null +++ b/44134-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..39a01de --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #44134 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44134) diff --git a/old/44134-0.txt b/old/44134-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a6ee34f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44134-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2327 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by +Caroline Taylor Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition + +Author: Caroline Taylor Stewart + +Release Date: November 8, 2013 [EBook #44134] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF *** + + + + +Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + + +Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected. +A more detailed transcriber’s note can be found at the end of this text. + + + + +THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.[1] + + [1] NOTE.—After the author had written the following article, + she gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That + the origin and development of the use of masks as given in + the Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, + 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note 32) is similar to the origin and + development of the werewolf superstition itself, as given in + the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The author + has italicized some words in the quotations. + + +The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an animal’s form, +most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost worldwide superstition. +Such a transformed person is the Germanic werewolf, or man-wolf; that +is, a wolf which is really a human being.[2] So the werewolf was a +man in wolf’s form or wolf’s dress,[2] seen mostly at night,[3] and +believed generally to be harmful to man.[4] + + [2] According to Mogk, in Paul’s Grundriss der germanischen + Philologie III. 272 _wer_ means “man,” found in Old Saxon, + Anglo-Saxon, Old High German, and werewolf a man in wolf’s + form. Kögel connects _wer_ with Gothic _wasjan_ “kleiden.” + “Darum bedeutet _werwolf_ eigentlich Wolfsgewand úlfshamr; + ähnlich bedeutet vielleicht _berserkr_ Bärengewand,” therefore + werewolf according to Kögel means a wolf’s dress. See also + Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde. + + [3] Post p. 24. + + [4] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:—Beastform in + mythology proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for + benignant ends. See note 52. + +The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily +explained. Adolf Erman[5] explains the allusion of Herodotus[6] to the +transformation of the Neurians (the people of the present Volhynia, in +West Russia) into wolves as due merely to their appearance in winter, +dressed in their furs. This explanation, however, would not fit similar +superstitions in warm climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy +to primitive Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the +members of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.[7] +Still another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the +original werewolf.[8] + + [5] Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232. + + [6] Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and + Greeks settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once + a year every Neurian becomes a wolf for a few days, and then + resumes the human form. See concerning this also Hirt, Die + Indogermanen, I. 120. + + [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol. + + [8] Note 102, also see note 22. + +The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must be one +which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition is found +pretty much all over the earth,[9] especially to-day[10] however in +Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in the lands where the +wolf is most common.[11][12] According to Mogk[13] the superstition +prevails to-day especially in the north and east of Germany.[14] + + [9] See also Mogk in Paul’s Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud. + Leubuscher, Über die Wehrwölfe und Thierverwandlungen im + Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850, mentions cases in ancient Arcadia, + in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the almost epidemic disease + in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf, Stuttgart, + 1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia + (hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to + Encyc. Brit. below; on p. 133 he says: “Tierverwandlungen sind + allgemein menschlich, finden wir überall. Die eigentümliche + Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen aber finden wir vorzugsweise + bei einer bestimmten Völkergruppe, den arischen Stämmen der + Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven; bei den südwärts + gezogenen Stämmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns gleiche + Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten + treten die Werwölfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehört die + älteste historische Erwähnung der Sage; viel älter aber ist + der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische Werwölfe”. According to + Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, Stuttgart, + 1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European + country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles, + Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants + of island Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal + peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in Asia, Africa, America; but not in + India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit. below), especially + though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands. + + As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for + 1880-81, p. 83, “From their close relations with wild animals + Indians’ stories of transformations into beasts and beasts + into men are numerous and interesting.... In times of peace, + during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller told + of those days in the past when men and animals could transform + themselves at will and hold converse with one another.” + + Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell & Sons, 1883, II. 668 + says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic + antiquities than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrisûlfr, + a son of Loki, makes his appearance in wolf’s shape among the + gods. + + Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy, + states:—A belief firmly rooted among all savages is that + men are in certain circumstances transformed temporarily or + permanently into wolves and other inferior animals. In Europe + the transformation into a wolf is by far more prominent and + frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans, French, + Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most + prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. + Thus the were-_wolf_ prevails in Europe, also in England, + Wales, Ireland; and in S. France, the Netherlands, Germany, + Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, Poland, Russia, he can + hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note 12). In Denmark, + Sweden, Norway and Iceland the _bear_ competes with the wolf + for pre-eminence. In Persia the _bear_ is supreme; in Japan the + _fox_; in India the _serpent_ vies with the _tiger_ (contrary + to Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272, who says:—“Nur Griechen, + Römer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter den indogermanischen + Völkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und Iraniern ist er + unbekannt.” Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in Abyssinia + and Borneo the _hyena_ with the _lion_; in E. Africa the _lion_ + with the _alligator_; in W. Africa the _leopard_ is perhaps + most frequently the form assumed by man; among the Abipones the + _tiger_, among the Arawaks the _jaguar_, etc. + + In Brockhaus’ Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the + werewolf belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and + Romanic peoples; found to-day especially in Volhynia and White + Russia. + + Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:—Bei den Angelsachsen lässt sich der + Werwolf im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern, + ihre Herden vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das älteste + Zeugnis auf deutschem Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v. + Worms (11 century). + + [10] See note 9. + + [11] Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:—There can nowhere be a living + belief in contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which + has ceased to exist in the particular locality. Belief in + metamorphosis into the animal most prominent in any locality + itself acquires a special prominence. (See note 12.) In none + of these cases however is the power of transformation limited + exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal. + + [12] Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under _Wolf_:—The wolf is + found in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America + from Greenland to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in + Ceylon, Burmah or Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in + the two latter jackals instead. + + Meyer’s Kleines konversations-lexikon:—Der wolf “ist häufig + in Ost- und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika, + seltener in Frankreich und Belgien, den Herden gefährlich, + besonders in Russland.” Encyc. Brit., XXIV under _Wolf_:—In + northern countries the wolf is generally larger and more + powerful than in the southern portion of its range. Its habits + are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been known + to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of + his flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance. + They usually assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and + by their combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower + and kill even such great animals as the American bison. + Children and even grown people are not infrequently attacked by + them when pressed for hunger. The ferocity of the wolf in the + wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed, they can rarely be + trusted by strangers. + + [13] Paul, Grundriss, III. 272. + + [14] Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p. + 275 fol., speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: “Noch lebte + das Landvolk in ohnmächtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Wölfe, + wenig Dörfer, welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere + decimirt wurden,” and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:—“Als 1815 + die gegenwärtige Provinz Posen an Preussen zurückfiel, waren + auch dort die Wölfe eine Landplage. Nach Angaben der Posener + Provinzialblätter wurden im Regierungsbezirk Posen vom 1. Sept. + 1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Wölfe erlegt, noch im Jahre 1819 + im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von Wölfen + gefressen.” + +The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.[15] The +point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living human +being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the wolf was +common[16] into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa, where these animals +are common; into a tiger or serpent in India;[17] in other localities +into other animals characteristic of the region.[18] Among Lapps +and Finns occur transformations into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish +or birds; amongst many North Asiatic peoples, as also some American +Indians, into the bear; amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf, +turkey or owl; in South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar, +also into a fish, or serpent. Most universal though it seems was the +transformation into wolves or dogs.[19] + + [15] Thus in note 6 was mentioned Herodotus’ (484-425 B. C.) + statement about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend, + according to Hertz, is that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos, + the first king of ancient Arcadia. These Arcadians lived as + huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert (Andree, p. 65; + and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed amongst + the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf + myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B. C). In the Norse “Edda” + we find Odin’s wolves, also Sköll, Hati and Fenrir. In the + Völsunga Saga, Sigmund and Sinfjötli become wolves. For other + reflections of the fear in which wolves were held, see the + 10th century ms. of the “Wiener Hundesegen” against male and + female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches Lesebuch, 6. aufl. + 1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,—Geschichte der deutschen sprache + s. 233:—“Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte + raubthier des waldes dar, und lehrt die nähe des wolfs und + fuchses.” + + C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:—“In die + ältesten Zeiten hinauf reicht auch bei Jägervölkern die + Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil die Eigentümlichkeiten der + Tiere erklärend, ihr Gebahren erzählend. Die furchtbaren und + die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo die Menschen + städtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie einsamer + mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine höhere Bedeutung. So wird + dem Wäldler Bär und Wolf zum ebenbürtigen Räuber und Kämpfer, + menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht, + der Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst.” + + [16] Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to + Andree, p. 65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it + is to-day in Russia. Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: “Der + Wolf ist überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber + ganz sicher ein Waldtier.” + + [17] Note 9. + + [18] Cf. note 9, Encyc. Brit. + + [19] Leubuscher, p. 1:—Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in + Hunde und Wölfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den + namen Lykanthropie. + +As the superstition is so widespread—Germany, Eastern Europe, Africa, +Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time, when all these +peoples were in communication with each other[20] or else, in accord +with another view of modern science, it arose independently in various +continents in process of the natural psychical development of the human +race under similar conditions. + + [20] Or as Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for + example amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still + formed a whole, as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of + herds was especially feared. Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: “Die + meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die im Freien lebten, + mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte ihrer + Einbildungskraft am öftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit + zu kämpfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in + Einzelnen als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich + von Wölfen besonders beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich + manche Mordthat nur von Wölfen begangen.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, + p. 282:—“The Dakotas have long believed in the appearance + from time to time of a monstrous animal that swallows human + beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the bones of + mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians.” + +The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom of +primitive man’s of putting on a wolf’s or other animal’s skin[21] +or dress, or a robe.[22] Thus Leubuscher,[23] says: “Es ist der +Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten +hervorgewachsen.”[24][25] Likely also the notion of attributing speech +to animals originated from such disguising or dressing of men as +animals. In the following we shall examine into primitive man’s reasons +for putting on such a skin or robe. + + [21] Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:—In celebrations it is + possible that the foxskin so universally worn by the animistic + personifications is a survival comparable with the skin of the + animal in which formerly the whole body was clothed. + + [22] Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: “In der + ältesten Naturreligion ist die Gottheit des Todes und der + winterlichen Erde als Wolf gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl + in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten nach dem Volksglauben + die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu verwandeln. Der + Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum raschen + Zurücklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders + geeignet. Darum nahmen die Götter und die zauberbegabten + Menschen zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von + Natur gefährlich und wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und + beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang nach Mord und Zerstörung die + Hauptsache. Die Ursprünge des Werwolfglaubens waren also 1. + religiöse Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung (der friedlose + Mörder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die + Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie.” Page 51. “Die Verwandlung + in Wölfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden.” Page 57: + “Dass die von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen + Waldflüchtigen sich in Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend.” + + [23] Page 46. See also note 9. + + [24] Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p. + 153 fol.;—“Ist so die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und + Götterglauben, zunächst gebunden an das Bedürfnis des Lebens, + so sondert sie sich doch allmählich im Verlauf der Kultur von + den religiösen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite Welt + zu einer unabhängigen Bedeutsamkeit”—like Homer, Dante, etc. + See note 20, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:—“Insane + delusions must reflect the usages and beliefs of + contemporaneous society.” + + [25] Notes 20, 21 and 27. + +Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had to conquer +them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in Europe arose +probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic peoples were +still in contact with each other, if not in the original Indo-Germanic +home, for they all have the superstition (unless, as above, we prefer +to regard the belief as arising in various localities in process of +psychical development under similar conditions; namely, when people +still lived principally by the chase.[26]) Probably the primitive +Indo-European man before and at the time of the origin of the werewolf +superstition, was almost helpless in the presence of inexorable nature. +This was before he used metal for weapons. The great business of life +was to secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots, +berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.[27] +Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any +size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet +primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no longer +crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but began to watch +and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what certain animals would +do under certain circumstances, to learn what would frighten them away +or what would lure them on. So at least the large animals were to early +man a constant cause of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary +to have their flesh for food and their skins for clothing.[28] + + [26] See note 15. + + [27] Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:—Traces of the + fear in which buffalo “were held may still be discovered in the + traditional stories of certain tribes, which set forth how, in + those days,” [i. e. in the stone age] “before men were provided + with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill, and eat the + people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo + were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly + have arisen save as the result of actual experience of their + power to inflict injury and death.” Pliny informs us how the + Romans kept the wolf out of their fields, see Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians lived on the steppes, + in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains, the animals + were their whole study. They moved with the animals, followed + them for food. + + [28] Note 27. + +Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for trapping +them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of decoys to lure +animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits, others more easily +by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,[29] and similarly, another +form of the original decoy was no doubt simply the stuffed skin of a +member of the species, whether animal or bird, say for example a wild +duck.[30] Of course the hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself +putting on the animal skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an +individual dressed for example in a wolf’s skin could approach near +enough to a solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other +weapon, without exciting the wolf’s suspicion of the nearness of a +dangerous foe.[31] So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used +by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure +food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise, whole +or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments +seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions and cries of +animals,[32] at first to lure them, when acting as a decoy. With growth +of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and an additional reason for +acquiring dance and song was to secure charms against bodily ills,[33] +and finally enlivenment.[34] In both dance and song, when used for a +serious purpose, the performers imagined themselves to be the animals +they were imitating,[35] and in the dance they wore the skins of the +animals represented.[36] + + [29] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:—It seems that masks + were occasionally used as decoys.... Next to the otter the + most valuable animal in the estimation of the Kadiak men, is + the species of seal or sea-dog called by the Russians nerpa. + The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it toward the + shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body among + the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque + resembling the head of a seal and makes a noise like that + animal. The unsuspicious seal, imagining that he is about to + meet a partner of his own species, hastens to the spot and is + instantly killed. Compare note 57. + + [30] Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:—Bering Strait Eskimo stuff + rudely the skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon + a stick which holds the head outstretched, then imitate the + call of the bird, which is trapped in the net attached to the + decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft snow into the form + of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around the neck + for plumage. The call then brought the real birds. + + [31] Thus G. B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his + description of the primitive Indians’ method of trapping + buffalo, says: “Some men went forth naked, others carried a + dress made of the entire skin of a buffalo, the head and horns + arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of the skin hung + down over the wearer’s back,” etc. This “caller” went near to a + herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into + the trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often + proved fatal to the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85, + p. 484, about Central Eskimo seal hunting, is stated: If a + hunter is close to an animal he imitates its movements. Some + utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. “The sealskin + clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is + difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance.” + And on p. 508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central + Eskimos carry guns on their shoulders, two men going together, + so as to resemble the antlers of a deer. The men imitate their + grunting. If they lie on the ground at some distance they + greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to Ross the + “inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer, + the foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer’s head + upon his own.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:—“The old manner of + hunting antelope and deer: the hunter would disguise himself by + covering his head with the head and skin of an antelope, and so + be enabled to approach the game near enough to use his bow and + arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask themselves + with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo.” Ethn. Rep. + 1901-02, p. 439;—Two of the party of hunters (Zuñi) out after + deer “wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front + and back of the shirt being painted to represent as nearly + as possible the body of the deer; the hands and the arms to + the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to represent the + deer’s forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer’s head over his + head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as + possible, even to the browsing, the game they would catch.” + + [32] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:—“Tradition says the Iroquois + derived the music and action of the Buffalo dance while on + an expedition against the Cherokee, from the bellowing and + the movements of a herd of buffalo which they heard for the + first time ‘singing their favorite songs,’ i. e. bellowing and + snorting.” Also note 33. + + [33] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent + frostbite. The wolf’s, deer’s, fox’s, opossum’s feet it is held + never become frostbitten. After each verse of the song, the + singer imitates the cry and the action of the animal. The words + used are archaic in form and may be rendered “I become a real + wolf, etc.” The song runs: + + 1. Tsûñ´ wa´ ‘ya-ya´ (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged + howl). The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his + feet. + + 2. Tsûñ´-ka´ wi-ye´ (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh! + (imitating the call and jumping of a deer). + + 3. Tsûñ´-tsu´ ‘la-ya´ (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih! + (imitates barking and scratching of a fox). + + 4. Tsûñ´-sĭ´-kwa-ya´ (four times), kĭ+(imitates cry of the + opossum when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal + does when feigning death). + + [34] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance + performed by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep + up their spirits, in which each had his robe about him and + imitated the actions of the coyote, trotting, glancing around, + etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo dance, in which each + of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over his head, + the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging + down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of + the buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the + Omaha wolf dance, by the society of those who have supernatural + communication with wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and + dance in imitation of the actions of wolves. Similarly they + performed the grizzly bear dance, horse dance, etc. + + [35] Notes 22, 34 and 37. + + [36] See notes 34 and 37. + +Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed merely +for decoys and sport (early dancing),[37] for peaceful purposes +therefore, such people having whole or partial animal shape were not +regarded as harmful to man,[38] just as wise women began to pass +for witches only when with their art they did evil.[39] A similar +development can be traced in the case of masks.[40] It was some time +before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing animals that +were dangerous to life, though these are the ones he first studied;[41] +and we cannot presuppose that he disguised to represent them until he +could cope with them, since the original purpose of the disguise was +to secure food and clothing. Thus far then we see whole or partial +disguise as animals used to secure _food_ and _clothing_ when acting as +decoys to lure animals; and in _dancing_.[42] + + [37] Similarly in the use of masks (see note 57). See Wundt, + Völkerpsychologie II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this + Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss. + 558-568:—“Der maskierte mensch ist der ekstatische Mensch. + Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in ekstase, fühlt + er sich in fremde lebensvorgänge ein, eignet er sich das wesen + an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert.” Für den + naiven menschen, wie für das kind, ist die maske durchaus + nicht blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der + augenblickstanz wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvölker verwenden + ihre masken nur bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertänzen, nicht + zu ihrer burlesken mimik; die tänzer sind in Tiermasken, etc. + + [38] Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed + into a bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent + (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1097:—In Norse accounts also we find + transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded as + rational and was esteemed. + + [39] Note 84. + + [40] See note 57a. + + [41] Notes 27 and 42. + + [42] The important consideration in the mind of primitive + man was whether certain things were harmful or useful. See + Behaghel, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 98:—“Die grossen Tiere + und die mächtigen Bäume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die für + die _Ernährung_ and _Bekleidung_ des Menschen von Bedeutung + sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben _bedrohen_, sie haben viel + früher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare + Käfer im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es, + dass die Namen der grösseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbäume, + der wichtigsten Getreidearten allen germanischer Stämmen + gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie _Wolf_, _Kuh_, _Ochse_, + _Birke_, _Buche_, _Erle_, _Gerste_ mit den Benennungen anderer + indogermanischer Völker übereinstimmen.” Doubtless animals + occupied their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt, + Völkerpsychologie, II. 412 fol., about the _maskentanz_: + “Überhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit früher Berücksichtigung + erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive.” See note 95. + +Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal’s skin or dress when +out as _forager_ (or robber) or _spy_, for the purpose of avoiding +detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for example,[43] were called +by neighboring tribes _wolves_, probably not out of contempt, since it +may be doubted that an Indian feels contempt for a wolf any more than +he does for a fox, a rabbit, or an elk, but because of their adroitness +as scouts, warriors and stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think, +because of their great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so +as to escape detection by the enemy by day or night; or, according to +some neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves[44], “have the +endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can make +long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their way, or on +no food at all.” ... And further, “The Pawnees, when they went on the +warpath, were always prepared to simulate wolves.... Wolves on the +prairie were too common[45] to excite remark, and at night they would +approach close to the Indian camps.” ... The Pawnee starting off on the +warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later times a +white blanket or a white sheet; and, at _night_, wrapping himself in +this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he walked or trotted +here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed himself into a +common object of the landscape. This disguise was employed by _day_ as +well, for reconnoissance.... While the party remained hidden in some +ravine or hollow, one Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to +the top of the hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches +looking all over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him, +would take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the +Pawnees could imitate wolves best. “An Indian going into an enemy’s +country is often called a wolf,[46] and the sign for a scout is made up +of the signs _wolf_ and _look_.”[47] Should any scout detect danger, as +at _night_ when on duty near an encampment, he must give the cry of the +coyote.[48] + + [43] G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N. Y., + Scribners, 1893, p. 245, fol. + + [44] Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein + sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. _hirpus_ bedeutet _wolf_ in + sabinischer oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf + führer geworden war, oder nach andrer sage sie wölfe gejagt + hatten und gleich wölfen raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen + ausdrucks friedlos waren. + + [45] The werewolf story could arise only where the animal, + wolf, tiger or lion, etc., was common; and likewise the + werewolf tales gradually died out when the animals became rare + or extinct. See note 11. + + [46] Grinnell, p. 245. + + [47] The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild + beasts save their own totem-animals as _enemy-scouts_ (Encyc. + Brit. under Lycanthropy). + + [48] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of + the indian, p. 208: The wolf was believed, in the animals’ + council, to be able to give the Indian the power to creep right + into the midst of the enemy’s camp without being seen. + +The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in animal form or +dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal disguise began to +act not only as decoys for animals dangerous to life, but also as +scouts (robbers[49]—and later as possessors of supernatural power, +when growth of culture brought with it growth of supernaturalism[50]); +when people began to associate, for example, the wolf’s form with a +lurking enemy.[51] + + [49] See note 53. + + [50] See note 57-b. + + [51] So originally the germanic god _Logi_ was not an evil + god. _Logi_ meant the natural force of fire; _Loki_ meant the + same, but the burly giant has been made a sly, seducing villain + (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of Loki, Fenrisûlfr, appears + in wolf’s shape among the gods. Perhaps association with the + wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of Logi + (Loki) from a good to an evil god. + +All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the defensive, +like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion have sent out +scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid detection, assumed the +disguise of the animal most common to the special locality in question, +just as to-day they are known to disguise in animal skins for purposes +of plunder or revenge.[52][53] + + [52] Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:—In modern savage life we + find beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in + beast form for the community; others are said to assume beast + form in order to avenge themselves justly on enemies; others + for love of bloodshed and cannibalism. See also note 58. + + [53] No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won + considerable fame through their skill and bravery, as we should + judge from such proper names as _Rudolf_, which means really + _Ruhmwolf_, _Ruhm_ related to Gothic _hropeigs_ “victorious,” + Sanskrit _kir_ “to praise”; or _Adolf_ from _Adalolf_, which + means _Edelwolf_, originally, therefore, _Edelräuber_, for + _wolf_ meant originally about the same as _robber_ (Kluge). + So _robber_ or _wolf_ was originally a highly respectable + appellation, at a time when men lived from robbery and the + chase, either as searobbers, or mountain robbers, etc. (about + this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen, 1905, p. 268 + fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace (see + appellation “wolves” applied to Pawnees, p. 12.). Later we find + such names as _Wulfila_ “little wolf.” Many Indian names are + those of animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear, + Conquering Bear, Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear + Rib, Smoking Bear, Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear, + Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe, + etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83, p. 169: The names of Indians very + often refer to some animal, predicating some attribute or + position of that animal. For discussion of names, see note 111. + +The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying principle is +the same; namely, the transformation of a living human being into an +animal. The origin of the belief in such a transformation, as stated +above[54] was the simple putting on of an animal skin by early man. The +object of putting on animal skins was, + + [54] Ante p. 6. + +(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries of animals +were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),[55] artificial decoys +(like decoy ducks to-day)[56] and finally even masks were used.[57] + + [55] See (3) below. + + [56] See ante p. 8. + + [57] See note 4 and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see + note 37):—The use of masks is worldwide. The origin and + development of the use of masks is very much the same as + the origin and development of the werewolf as given in the + preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both originally + useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into + instruments for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of + the mask is described in the above report as follows: + + a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for + defense against physical violence, human or otherwise. It + was therefore first used merely as a mechanical resistance + to the opposing force; then secondly, still in the lowest + grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a + moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by + symbolizing superhuman agencies. Now individual variations + arose—devices for example derived or conventionalized from + some predatory, shrewd or mysterious animal. + + b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and + the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part + of the religious paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of + the shamans. Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 395:—“When worn in any + ceremonial, ... the wearer is believed to become mysteriously + and unconsciously imbued with the spirit of the being which his + mask represents.” + + c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is + used for public amusements and games; by secret societies; as + protection against recognition on festive occasions, etc., like + the animal skins worn in dances. + +(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying animals, +as in (1) above. + +(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals led to +dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the faces and bodies +of the participants were painted in imitation of the colors of birds +and animals, the motions of animals imitated and animal disguises +used.[58] + + [58] Notes 32, 34, 33, ante p. 11. + +(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out foraging, as well +as for warfare,[59][60] therefore for booty, and self-defense. Either +they wore the entire skin, or probably later just a part of it as a +fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as a charm by many of +our colored people to-day.[61] + + [59] See p. 13. + + [60] Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:—Account of “a cloak or mantle + made from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic + paintings. It was made and used by the Apaches as a mantle + of invisibility, that is, a charmed covering for spies which + would enable them to pass with impunity through the country, + and even through the camp of their enemies. In this instance + the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn.” The + Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were + the raincloud, serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of + the winds of the four cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. + 515:—Among the Hidatsa (Sioux) fetiches are especially the + skins of the wolf. “When they go to war, they always wear the + stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging down + the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the + warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf’s head + hangs down upon his breast.” Finally the magic robes or shirts + and girdles came to be a part of the regular paraphernalia of + the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the folklore of all + countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles. + + Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: “Some warriors had + medicine to change their shape as they pleased, so that they + could escape from their enemies.” Page 501: Such stories might + be paralleled in any tribe. + + [61] See further development in note 64. + +(5) For purposes of revenge,[62],[63] personal or other. For some other +personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror in the opposing +agent by hideousness. + + [62] Note 52. + + [63] As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure + brutality, we cite from Andree, p. 69:—People in the interior + of Africa who understand magic, transform themselves into lions + and go about killing people. See also below, note 65, where the + wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and sucks his blood, and + also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being one of + the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this + takes place at _night_, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian + starting out at night in his wolf’s robe, and trotting up to + the hostile village to ascertain where his enemies’ horses + are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell’s + Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73). + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:—“To recover stolen or lost + property, especially ponies, is one of the principal tasks + imposed upon the so-called medicine-men” (shamans). + +(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing superhuman +agencies.[64] So now would arise first a belief in superhuman power or +attributes,[65] and then, + + [64] As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was + put on not merely to make the wearer look just like a common + object of the landscape, but also because the wearer of the + disguise was supposed to take on the characteristics of the + animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.), as in the + case of masks (see note 57), and finally the wearer of such + a robe was believed to actually become transformed, like the + wearers of the werewolf shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves + were regarded as good hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep. + 1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:—The wolf is revered by the + Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanáti; therefore we can + understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of + unerring huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those + who gained their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of + songs imitating the cries of certain animals was supposed to + confer a characteristic of the animal in question (see note 33). + + Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:—To gain animal characteristics a + wizard attached crow and owl plumes to his head that he might + have the eyes of the crow to see quickly the approach of man, + and the eyes of the owl to travel by night. He flapped his + arms, ... A Zuñi man hearing a cry like an owl, yet human, + looked about him and found a man whom he recognized as a Zuñi. + “Aha!” said he, “why have you those plumes upon your head? Aha, + you are a sorcerer,” etc. + + An example of the transforming power of the _robe_ we find in + Bulletin 26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, + 1901, Kathlamet texts, p. 156 fol.:—A woman ate of some of the + fat of a bitch, gave birth to five male dogs and one female + dog. When they grew older, she discovered one day that they + could transform themselves into real children. While they were + down at the beach, she entered the house, and now she saw the + dog _blankets_. She took them and burnt them. Then the children + retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the + Völsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according + to which an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting + on an elkskin. + + W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p. + 100, writes, “Die Fähigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln + können, heisst ‘sich zu häuten, die Hülle zu wechseln’. + Das Umwerfen eines äusserlichen Gewandes kann den Wechsel + der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas Federgewand, die + Schwan- und Krähenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins Adlergewand. + Die Wolfsgewänder (úlfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln + den Menschen zum Wolfe”. See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel, + Zeitschrift für deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261. + + [65] Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:—The owner of fine beads fears + that some witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with + disease. + + As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman + powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances + given by Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met + in Africa a native said to have power to transform himself + into a lion. As lion he would stay for days and months in the + _forest_, in a sacred hut, to which however his wife carried + beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this lion + did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was + able to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine + brought him by his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:—In Banana, + Africa, the members of a certain family transform themselves in + the _dark_ of the _forest_ into leopards. They throw down those + they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them nor drink + their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note 83.) + + The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American + Indians, who put on a wolf’s mantle to steal, or to recover + stolen animals (Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the + story of robbery entitled Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.). + Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69, where the lowest caste + of laborers are believed to have power to transform themselves + into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They + employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause, + since it yields such returns. They are reported to act like + other folk by day, at _night_ though to assume the ways of + wolves, kill their enemies and suck their blood, roaming about + with other wolves till morning. They are supposed to gain their + supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs. They + are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since + their roaming and plundering is done in the _night_; in the + daytime they of course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p. + 72). + + Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:—Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and + Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the + masses and the comparative learning of the few who practised + it. Among the American Indians the medicine-man and the more + expert sorceress have little learning above that of the body of + the tribe, and their success depends entirely upon their own + belief in being supernaturally gifted, and upon the faith and + fear of their followers. + + The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly + animal shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:—“An + old blind wolf with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made + his head and hands look like those of a wolf. The rest of his + body was not changed. He was called a man-wolf.” + +(7) Witchcraft.[66] It is very easy to see why it was usually the +so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who claimed such +transformation power, because they received remuneration from their +patients.[67] + + [66] Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:—Witches could and did assume + animal shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire + streaming from its mouth and nostrils. It was _night_. The man + shot at it, and the next morning tracked it by the marks of + blood from its wound. At a bridge a woman’s tracks took the + place of the dog’s, and finally he found the woman. She had + died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a hog, when + pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared + as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing. + So they, the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian + Indian one _evening_ pursued a white bull with fire streaming + from its nostrils. He had never seen a white bull on the + reservation before. “As it passed in front of a house it was + transformed into a man with a _large white blanket_, who was + ever afterward known as a witch.” + + Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:—A man going out at _night_ noticed + a queer-looking burro. Upon his return home he was told that a + large cat had entered the house. He went out again, discovered + a man wrapped in a blanket, but not in the Zuñi fashion, his + head was sunk low in the blanket. He knew this creature to be a + wizard. + + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:—That the medicine man (Shaman) + has the faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and + other animals at pleasure and then resuming the human form, is + as implicitly believed in by the American Indians as it was + by our own forefathers in Europe. And page 459: The Abipones + of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power to put on + the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed the + power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the + Shamans of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz, + p. 133 fol.:—“In der christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische + Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier entstand mit dem Hexenglauben + die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich mit Hilfe des Satans aus + reiner Mordlust zu Wölfen verwandeln. So wurde der Werwolf das + Bild des tierisch Dämonischen in der Menschennatur.” + + [67] Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:—The medicine-men of the + Apache are paid at the time they are consulted, the priest + beforehand among the Eskimo. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: “The + magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount + of the patient’s worldly wealth.” Page 416:—Sioux sorcerers + prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep. + 1901-2, p. 568:—“The shaman, like the theurgist is usually + paid after each visit with calico, cotton, or food, according + to the wealth of the family, since it is always understood + that these doctors expect proper compensation for their + services.” Page 387:—“The Zuñi doctor is paid according to his + reputation.” Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: “In early + days if a man remained sick for three or four weeks, all his + possessions went to pay doctors’ fees.” + + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.—The American Indian’s theory + of disease is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian, + the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman—all bodily disorders are + attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that is of animal + spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated. + Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was + language which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend. + Page 468:—The medicine-men are accused of administering + poisons to their enemies. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:—Sioux + sorcerers were thought to cause the death of those persons + who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. + 581:—“When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia + he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his + followers believe that he has become, the power he represents.” + The Mexican priests masked and disguised, and dressed in the + skins of the women offered up in sacrifice. + + So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest. + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:—The Indian doctor relied far more + on magic than on natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the + drum, songs, magic feasts and dances, and howling were his + ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 210 + fol.:—They have “firm confidence in dreams.” “Their belief in + a future life is in part founded on dreams,” etc. + +(8) Finally dreams[68] and exaggerated reports gave rise to fabulous +stories.[69] + + [68] Note 67, close. + + [69] An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain + occurs Andree, p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal + at one place, the latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming + human form, they attack their enemy in the _night_ at his + home. This is the transformation of an animal into a man, but + the inventor of the story was no doubt looking towards his + own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which + in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In + Siam stories are told of people who by magic formulae become + tigers and roam about at _night_ in search of booty. One of the + man-tigers was actually a priest. + +We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);[70] for an example under (4) we +have cited the practices of American Indians.[71] It is probable that +about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above), what is known as the +real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied, rabid manwolf) began +to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin was already a lurking thief +or enemy, or a destroyer of human life. To advance from this stage +to the werewolf frenzy, our primitive man must have seen about him +some exhibition of such a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this +frenzy particularly with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons, +and the connecting link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as +the transformation was usually into a wolf or dog,[72]) for persons +bitten by it usually went mad too.[73] The ensuing frenzy, with the +consternation it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds +as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some no doubt +actually had the malady; others honestly believed they had it and got +into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked themselves up into a +frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.[74] Later, in the Middle +Ages, when the nature of the real disease came to be better understood, +the werewolf superstition had become too firmly fixed to be easily +uprooted. + + [70] Ante pp. 7, 8, 9. + + [71] Ante p. 12 fol. + + [72] See notes 19 and 74. + + [73] Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: “It is said that + wolves, which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes + went crazy, and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even + coming into camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons + bitten by a mad wolf generally went mad, too. They trembled and + their limbs jerked, they made their jaws work and foamed at the + mouth, often trying to bite other people. When any one acted in + this way, his relatives tied him hand and foot with ropes, and, + having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the green hide, + built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until + the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and + removed the buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure + for a mad wolf’s bite.” + + [74] Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a + monomania themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this + widespread disease or delusion (of the first century till + late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.: “The sick” ones would + prowl about burial places _at night_, imagining themselves + to be _wolves_ or _dogs_, and go about barking and howling. + In the middle ages such people would even kill children and + grown people. When they came to themselves again, or were + cured, they claimed to know nothing of what had happened. + Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst the Shamans feats of + jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing the best + of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of + robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals, + painted with shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The + speaker terms himself a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power. + +We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.[75] As further +examples of the development into fabulous story,[76] we may cite any of +those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man is represented +as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and tearing to pieces men +and beasts, until he resumes his human form. Thus an early scout in +animal garb would be obliged to live on food he found on his way, and +later fabulous report would represent him as himself when in disguise +possessing the attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to +pieces man and beast. For such an account see Andree,[77] concerning +what eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the +hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed +such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread abroad +such a report as would enhance the influence of the hyena-men far and +wide. Some savages, as in Africa,[78] came to regard any animal that +robbed them of children, goats or other animals, as a witch in animal +form;[79] just as the American Indians ascribe to evil spirits death, +sickness and other misfortunes. + + [75] Notes 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69. + + [76] See (8) above. + + [77] Page 71. + + [78] Andree, p. 69. + + [79] Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of + the origin of the wolf: “_The wolf_ was a poor woman, who had + so many children that she could not find enough for them to + eat. They became so gaunt and hungry that they were changed + into wolves, constantly roaming over the land seeking food.” + +We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an animal robe +would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;[80] how though, as +soon as the element of magic enters in, he would try to keep up the +illusion. At this stage, when the original defensive measure had become +tainted with superstition, men would go about in the night time howling +and holding their vile revels.[81] Andree,[82] narrates how a soldier +in Northeast Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and +came to the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician. No +hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh wound. Soon +he died, however the soldier did not survive him long. Doubtless one +of the magician class was responsible for the death of the soldier, +just as we to-day put to death the man who so violates our laws, as to +become a menace to our society, or as formerly kings killed those who +stood in their way; or as religious sects murder those who dissent +from their faith. These magicians, supposed to be men who could assume +animal form, as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly +feared by other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and +at _night_ come forth to plunder and kill.[83] It is to their interest +to counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were +put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.[84] Their frenzies +were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in other cases +they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent opportunities for +personal gain or vengeance.[85] + + [80] Ante p. 12 fol. + + [81] Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine + the horrible howlings, and strange contortions that these + jugglers (shamans) or conjurers make of their bodies, when they + are disposing themselves to conjure. + + [82] Page 71. + + [83] Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician + (Abyssinia), who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate + animal-men the teeth of the persons whom they have killed + during the year, with which he decorates his palace. See also + pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151, about sorcery + among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes of + the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of + Indian genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class + of ambitious men and women sufficient influence through + their acknowledged power of exorcism and necromancy to lead + a comfortable life at the expense of the credulous. Page + 162: “Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an order of + priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It + is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe + that they can at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos,” + etc. Sometimes one family constitutes the class. See note 65; + Andree, p. 69. + + [84] Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches + were priestesses, physicians, fabulous _night_-wives, never + as yet persecuted. Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into + werewolves, and lose nothing in popular estimation. The abuse + of a spell was punished. A wise woman, healing sickness and + charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch only when with + her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil’s + complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the + guilt of criminality fell upon all personal relations with him. + Ethn. Rep. 1901-2, p. 393: “Though the witch may be regarded as + all powerful, none but the poor and unfortunate are condemned. + Few others are even brought to trial—their prominence prevents + public accusation.” This again reminds us some of our customs; + namely, that of overlooking the transgressions of the rich and + powerful. See note 91, and for outlaws note 112. + + [85] Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the + body, and more particularly the eyes, so that many shamans + (Siberia, America, etc.) become blind. + +Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition +and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the outrages hope +to escape punishment for their depredations, could they hope to plunder +and steal with impunity.[86] So they prowled usually under the cloak +of _night_ or of the dark of the forest,[87] howled and acted like +the animals they represented, hid the animal skin or blanket, if they +used one,[88] in the daytime where they thought no one could find +it, whereas the animal skin which was worn for defence, was put on +either by day or night,[89] and one story recounts the swallowing of +a whole goat, the man bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did +it.[90] Some of the transformed men claimed they could regain human +form only by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters +were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,[91] +no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress, each +maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices, just as did +the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those of the American +negro, who in church, when “shouting,” that is, when stirred up by +religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy who happens to be in the +church, of course with impunity; for he is supposed to be under some +outside control, and when the spell has passed off, like some of the +delusionists mentioned,[92] claims not to know what he (or generally +she) has done. Similar also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of +the fire-eaters, or any other sham. + + [86] Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia + and Lithuania, according to two bishops, werewolves were in + the 16th century far more destructive than “true and natural + wolves.” They were asserted to have formed “an accursed + college” of those “desirous of innovations contrary to the + divine law.” Also see note 90. + + [87] See ante p. 13, and notes 64, 65, 66, 69, 84, 102, 110. + + [88] Note 22 close, and note 102. + + [89] See ante p. 13. + + [90] Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a + woman, whose husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his + house, got hold of him later in his man shape and killed him. + Feats similar to some performed by him are cited in Ethn. Rep. + 1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the Pawnee swallowed + arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of apparently + killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zuñi. + + [91] Grimm, Rechtsalterthümer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle + aus der ärmsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note 84). + Literary Digest, March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism + and Spirituality: “Many, very many, spiritualists seem to care + for communion with spirits only that they may more surely keep + physically well, and earn their bread and butter and clothing + the easier.” Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The absurdity of + the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for the + theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in + every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he + was certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not + being found in beast form was satisfactorily disposed of. + + [92] Notes 57 and 67. + +The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was that most +often assumed for example in Germanic lands.[93] The term _wolf_ +became synonymous with _robber_, and later (when the robber became an +outlaw,[94]) with _outlaw_, the robber and outlaw alike being called +wolf and not some other animal (i. e., only the wolf-man surviving to +any extent) firstly, because the wolf was plentiful; and secondly, +because as civilization advanced, there came a time when the wolf was +practically the only one of the larger undomesticated animals that +survived.[95] We can notice this in our own United States, for example +in eastern Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes +heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the pastures +adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller animals, and +dig up buried ones.[96] In Prussia also it is the wolf that survives +to-day. American Indians, and other savages however do not restrict the +transformations to the wolf,[97] because other wild animals, are, or +were till recently, abundant amongst them. As civilization advances, +one by one the animal myths disappear with the animals that gave rise +to them (like that connected with the mastodon);[98] or else stories of +such domestic animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.[99] +When this stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully +coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals were shorn +of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as Aesop’s fables +would arise.[100] This however was psychologically a long step in +advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an earlier period. + + [93] Notes 9 and 19. + + [94] Note 112. + + [95] See note 11, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: “The deer, + which is still common in the mountains, was the principal + dependence of the Cherokee hunter, and is consequently + prominent in myth, folklore, and ceremonial.” see note 42. + Page 264: “The largest gens (clan) in the tribe bears the name + of ‘wolf people.’” Page 420: The Cherokee have always been an + agricultural people, and their old country has a luxuriant + flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more + important place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe + than it does among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid + sage deserts of the West. + + [96] The St. Louis “Westliche Post” for January 9, 1908, + furnishes another example: A tame wolf which for the past + two years has been a pet in a farmer’s family at Marshfield, + Wisconsin, escaped and attacked a chicken. The farmer’s + daughter called to the wolf, but it had become wild from the + taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and one + leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released + until she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar. + + Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13, + 1908, shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite + populous districts: “Wolf-Plage. Aus dem nördlichen Wisconsin + wird gemeldet, dass Wölfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind + denn je, und dass sie, durch Hunger getrieben, sich nahe + an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere und auch Menschen + angreifen. Zwei grosse Wölfe griffen in dieser Woche das Pferd + der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den Wald, + wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien + verscheuchten.” + + [97] Note 11. + + [98] Note 20. + + [99] Note 109. + + [100] Note 24. + +Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf +superstition went through various stages of development. The motives +for assuming wolf’s dress (or animal skins or robes), at first were +purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to secure food by +acting as decoys; then it was used for personal advantage or gain by +foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for purposes of vengeance;[101] +later from a desire for power over others; and finally men (the +professional and the superstitious) began to concoct fabulous stories +which were handed down as tradition or myth, according to the psychic +level of the narrator and hearer.[102] + + [101] Close of note 102. + + [102] John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives + the origin and development of the werewolf as follows: From + the conception of wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to + the conception of corporeal werewolves.... Christianity did + not fail to impart a new and fearful character to the belief + in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as a species of + witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the + Devil. It was often necessary to kill one’s enemies, and at + that time some even killed for love of it (like the Berserker); + often a sort of homicidal madness, during which they would + array themselves in the skins of wolves or bears and sally + forth by _night_ to crack the backbones, smash the skulls and + sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary + travelers or loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an + invention of excited imagination. So people attributed a wolf’s + nature to the maniac or idiot with cannibal appetites, then + the myth-forming process assigned to the unfortunate wretch + a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. Worship + of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of + transformation of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The + storm-wind was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead + men’s souls or as the howling of wolf-like monsters (called by + Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness and cannibalism, + accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted as due + to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf + superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on + a wolf’s skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence + of the fact alleged of Berserkers haunting the woods by + _night_, clothed in hides of wolves or bears. A permanent cure + was effected by burning the werewolf’s sack, unless the Devil + furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, to become + incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the + outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is + the night-wind—a kind of leader of departed souls, howling + in the wintry blasts. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:—The + Berserkir of Iceland dressed in the skins of bears and wolves, + and further on: “Beastform is in mythology proper far oftener + assumed for malignant than for benignant ends.” + +The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful werewolf +is the disguising as some common animal by members of savage races +when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to escape detection by the +enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land in search of food. As stated +above,[103] later fabulous report would represent them as possessing +in their disguise the attributes of the animal they impersonated,[104] +and finally even of actually taking on animal form, either wholly or +in part,[105] for longer or shorter periods of time. Some of the North +American Indian transformation stories represent men as having only +the head, hands and feet of a wolf.[106] The transformation into a +werewolf in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made +of wolf-skin.[107] This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic +werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising +the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent a person +as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other article of +apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.[108] The stories especially in Europe +were of the _were-wolf_ rather than _were-bear_ or other animal, +because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild animals.[109] It +was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, which crystallized +into the household werewolf or transformation tales.[110] + + [103] Ante p. 22. + + [104] Note 57. + + [105] Close note 65. + + [106] Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737. + + [107] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our + oldest native notions make the assumption of wolf-shape + depend on arraying oneself in a wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as + transformation into a swan does on putting on the swan-shirt + or swan-ring. Page 1095: “The transformation need not be for a + magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured + into, a wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the + appearance, he acquires also the fierceness and howling of the + wolf; roaming the _woods_, he rends to pieces everything that + comes in his way.” This is like the belief of the American + Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued with the spirit + of the being which his mask represents (note 57); or that the + shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers + believe that he has become, the power he represents (note 67). + + [108] Thus some American Indian stories represent men + transformed into wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or + piece of decayed wood when pursued. And mantles of invisibility + are mentioned in note 60. + + [109] See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: “Unter den grossen + Raubtieren treten uns Bär und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen. + Der Wolf ist freilich überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der + Bär ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier,” etc. Encyc. Brit, under + Lycanthropy: “In England by the 17th century the werewolf had + long been extinct. Only small creatures, the cat, hare, weasel, + etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to transform himself + into.” See note 11. + + [110] Amongst the American Indians, where various larger + animals were common, the designation “wolf-people” (see the + sign-language of the plains) was bestowed especially on the + Pawnees, because, as we have seen, they best imitated wolves. + In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the wolf alone was + universally common, the designation “wolf-people” (or if we + choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one + locality or people, but was bestowed in general on those who + assumed the manner of wolves, and because of their crimes + became outcasts like the wolves. They best imitate wolves, and + no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as wolves + (see note 102), and for this reason the _warg_ or outlaw came + to be called a _wolf_ (see close of note 112). Thus Golther, + Mythologie, p. 102, says: “Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder + getötet, so findet man einen wunden oder toten Menschen.” The + werewolves, as we have seen (ante p. 25), keep to the _woods_ + and the _dark_, of course in many cases to avoid detection. + Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: “They say that + witches love the _night_ and lurk in _shadows and darkness_. + Witches are believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts.” + Sigmund and Sinfjötli dwelt as wolves in the _woods_. Also the + progenitor of the Mýramenn in Iceland at _night_ could leave + his house in wolf’s form. Another Norwegian account reports + how earlier many people were able to take on wolf’s form, then + dwelt in _grove_ and _woods_, where they tore people to pieces, + etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note 113. + + [111] Names. See note 31. The development in the case of names + was perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note 57), and of + the werewolf superstition itself (ante p. 15, fol.); namely, a) + protection against outside agencies was sought; b) growth of + supernaturalism; c) element of humor. + + a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: “Children are often + named _wolf_, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their + supernatural foes” (for similar assumption of characteristics + or the nature of animals for personal advantage see note 33). + See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1139: “The escort of + _wolf_ or _raven_ augured victory;” and in the note: “A name + of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O. H. G. + _Wolf-hraban_ (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly + promised victory. Old names are no product of pure chance. + Servian mothers name a son they have longed for, _Vuk_, + _Wolf_: then the witches can’t eat him up. O. H. G. _Wolfbizo_ + was a lucky name, i. e., one bitten by the wolf and thereby + protected,” like our modern curing of like by like in medicine. + + b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development + mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about + the conferring of secret names, since one could harm a person + by his name alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning + his name: “Wenn man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g’rennt.” Again + in XXI. 313 fol.: It was dangerous to name _bear_ or _wolf_ + in regions infested by these animals, so people, out of fear, + avoided calling the name of such animals; called the bear for + example _honey-eater_, etc. + + c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his + fear of them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and + humor enter in, and such names arise as are mentioned in note + 53; and such stories as that of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a + wolf. + + [112] Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws + who have fled to the woods. A notable instance is that of + Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the Völsungasaga. In regard to this W. + Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, Leipzig 1895, + p. 102, says: “Die Sage mag auf einem alten Misverständniss + beruhen. _Warg_, _Wolf_ hiess der Geächtete in der germanischen + Rechtssprache. _Warg_ wurde wörtlich als _Wolf_ verstanden, + und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte.” Golther again, p. + 424:—“Gefesselt wurde Loki als Ächter in den Wald getrieben, + er wurde “_Warg_”, d. h. _Wolf_. _Wölfe_ heissen die friedlosen + Waldgänger.” As to _warg_, Schade in his altdeutsches + Wörterbuch defines it as a räuberisch würgendes wütendes Wesen, + Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise, + geächteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetäter; _warg_ ist + Benennung des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und + vertragbrüchiger Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden + durch Mord gebrochen und landflüchtig geworden, oder nun im + wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere haust und wie der Wolf + ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche auf Island + Bezeichnung einer gewalttätigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm, + Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American + Indians relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67 + fol.: An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself + without the protection of his clan, is not defended in case he + is injured by another. When the sentence of outlawry has been + declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the duty of + the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the + council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty + of any member of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill + him like an animal. Page 60 fol.: “The chief of the Wolf gens + is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe” (see also Ethn. + Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the _woods_ and the + _dark_. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal + skins, and to terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves. + Since therefore so many outlaws lived, dressed (note 22 close) + and acted like wolves, to all intents and purposes became + wolves, _wolf_ and outlaw became synonymous terms. + + [113] The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night + in Germany is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people + believed that werewolves, etc., entered houses at night. In + place of the earlier harmful werewolf is now the “harmful” + night air. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + + ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche. + Stuttgart, 1878. + + BEHAGHEL, OTTO. Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902. + + BRAUNE, WILHELM. Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907. + + BROCKHAUS, F. A. Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol. + + BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901. + + DILTHEY, WILHELM. Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906. + + EDDA. Die lieder der älteren edda. Paderborn, 1876. + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. New York, 1883, etc. + + ERMAN, ADOLF. Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833. + + FISKE, JOHN. Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892. + + FREYTAG, GUSTAV. Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904. + + GOLTHER, W. Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Rechtsaltertümer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Teutonic mythology. Translation by J. S. Stallybrass, + London, 1882. + + GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD. Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892. + + GRINNELL, G. B. Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893. + + GRINNELL, G. B. Story of the Indian. New York, 1895. + + HERTZ, W. Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862. + + HIRT, H. Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol. + + INDOGERMANISCHE FORSCHUNGEN. Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904, 1907. + + KLUGE, F. Etymologisches wörterbuch der deutschen sprache. + Strassburg, 1905. + + LEMCKE, K. Aesthetik in gemeinverständlichen vorträgen. Leipzig, + 1890. + + LEUBUSCHER, R. Über die wehrwölfe und thierverwandlungen im + mittelalter. Berlin, 1850. + + LITERARY DIGEST. New York and London, March 9, 1907. + + MEYERS. Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900. + + PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900. + + SCHADE, O. Altdeutsches wörterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol. + + SCHRADER, O. Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde. + Strassburg, 1901. + + VÖLSUNGASAGA. Ranisch, Berlin, 1891. + + WESTLICHE POST. St. Louis. + + WUNDT, W. Völkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905. + + ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR DEUTSCHES ALTERTUM. Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904. + + ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR DEUTSCHE PHILOLOGIE. Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906. + + + + +INDEX + +[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.] + + + Abipones, _9, 66._ + + Abyssinia, _9._ + + Africa, 5, 23; _9, 47, 65._ + + Alligator, _9._ + + America, 5; _9, 85._ + + American Indians, 5, 14, 21, 23, 27; _9, 27, 66, 110._ + + Anglo-Saxons, _9._ + + Animals, _42._ + + Animal fable, _15._ + + Arabia, _9._ + + Arawaks, _9._ + + Arcadia, _9, 15._ + + Asia, 5; _9, 12, 16._ + + Assyrians, _15._ + + + Bear, 5; _9, 15, 16, 38, 102, 109, 111._ + + Belgium, _12._ + + Benignant, _4, 38._ + + Berserkr, 1; _102._ + + Bird, 5. + + Bison, _12, 27, 31, 32, 73, 74._ + + Bohemia, _9._ + + Borneo, _9._ + + Bretons, _9._ + + Bulgaria, _9._ + + Burchard von Worms, _9._ + + Burmah, _12._ + + + Celebrations, _21._ + + Ceylon, _12._ + + Charms, 10, 16. + + Clothing, 8, 9, 11, 16, 28. + + Coyote, 13. + + + Dancing, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16; _32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 57._ + + Dante, _24._ + + Death, _22._ + + Decoy, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 28; _29, 30, 31._ + + Denmark, _9._ + + Dog, 5, 21, 27; _19, 64, 73, 74._ + + Dreams, 21; _67._ + + + Edda, _15._ + + Enemy, 8, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29; _48, 60, 65, 102, 111._ + + English, _9, 109._ + + Eskimo, _30, 31, 67._ + + Europe, 5, 7; _9, 12, 16, 110._ + + + Fenrisûlfr, _9, 51._ + + Finns, _5._ + + Fish, _5._ + + Fisherman, _29._ + + Food, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 28, 29; _27, 29._ + + Forest, 25; _22, 65, 102, 107, 110, 112._ + + Fox, 5, 12; _9, 15, 21._ + + French, _9, 12._ + + + Germany, 2, 4, 5; _9, 22._ + + Greece, 1, 7; _9, 15, 22._ + + Greenland, _12, 69._ + + + Harmful, 1, 11, 13; _42, 51._ + + Herds, _9, 12, 20._ + + Herodotus, 1; _15._ + + Hindoos, _9._ + + Homer, _24._ + + Hunter, 7, 8; _15, 31, 52, 53, 64, 95._ + + Hyena, 5, 23; _9._ + + + Iceland, _9, 110._ + + India, 5; _9, 12._ + + Indogermanic, 7; _9, 20, 42._ + + Insanity, 21, 22, 24; _24, 73, 85, 102._ + + Iranians, _9._ + + Ireland, _9._ + + Italians, _9._ + + + Jackal, _12._ + + Jaguar, _9._ + + Japan, _9._ + + + Kadiak, _29._ + + Kelts, 7; _9._ + + Knut, _9._ + + + Lapps, 5. + + Leopard, 5; _9, 65._ + + Leubuscher, 6; _9, 20._ + + Lion, 5; _9, 45, 65._ + + Lithuanians, _9._ + + Loki, 14; _9, 112._ + + Lycanthropy, 2; _9, 19, 20, 22, 74, 102._ + + Lykaon, _9, 15._ + + + Magic, 23, 24; _22, 37, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 84, 107._ + + Malignant, 24; _4, 84, 102, 109, 113._ + + Mask, 8, 11, 15; _29, 37, 42, 57, 64, 67, 107, 111._ + + Mastodon, _20._ + + Medicinemen (Shamans), 20; _52, 63, 66, 67, 74, 81, 83, 85, 90, + 107._ + + Mexico, _12, 67._ + + Middle Ages, 22; _9, 74, 102._ + + Murder, 24; _20, 22, 52, 102, 112._ + + Myths, 7, 27; _24, 95, 102._ + + + Names, _42, 53, 109, 111._ + + Netherlands, _9._ + + Neurians, 1; _15._ + + Night, 1, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25; _63, 65, 66, 69, 74, 84, 102, 110, + 112, 113._ + + North America, _12._ + + Norway, _9._ + + + Odin, _15._ + + Island Oesel, _9._ + + Otter, _29._ + + Outlaw, 24, 26; _84, 110, 112._ + + Owl, 5, 30; _64._ + + + Pawnees, 12, 13, 23; _110._ + + Persia, _9._ + + Plants, _42, 95._ + + Poles, _9, 14._ + + Portuguese, _9._ + + Posen, _14._ + + Priests, _22, 67, 69, 83._ + + Professionals, 22, 23, 24, 25; _74, 81, 83, 86._ + + Provencal, _9._ + + Prussia, _14._ + + + Reindeer, 5. + + Religion, _22, 24, 57._ + + Revenge, 14, 17, 24, 28; _52, 69._ + + Robber, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28; _15, 20, 44, 53, 65, + 112._ + + Romans, 7; _9, 27._ + + Russia, 2; _9, 12, 16._ + + + Scandinavia, _9._ + + Scout, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 29; _47, 48, 60._ + + Scythians, _6._ + + Seal, _29, 31, 69._ + + Serpent, 5; _9._ + + Servia, _9._ + + Shepherds, _15, 20._ + + Siam, _12, 69._ + + Sinfjötli, _15, 64, 110._ + + Song, 9, 10, 15; _33, 64._ + + Skins (or dress) of animals, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, + 23, 25, 28, 29, 30; _21, 22, 31, 34, 52, 53, 57, 60, 63, 64, + 65, 66, 67, 74, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112._ + + South America, 5; _12._ + + Speech (animals), 7. + + Stories, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29; _9, 27, 60, 69, 102, 111._ + + Supernaturalism, 10, 17, 18; _57, 65, 102, 111._ + + Superstition, 1, 4, 5, 14, 23; _20, 64._ + + Sweden, _9._ + + + Tiger, 5; _9, 45, 69, 90._ + + Totemism, 2; _47, 102._ + + Transformation, 5, 15, 21; _9, 11, 19, 22, 52, 64, 65, 66, 69, + 107._ + + Traps, 8; _31._ + + Tschechs, _9._ + + Turkey, 5; _108._ + + + Volhynia, 2; _9, 16._ + + Völsungasaga, _15, 112._ + + + Wales, _9._ + + Warfare, 12, 13, 16; _60._ + + Weapons, 7, 8, 9. + + Werewolf, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30; _9, 15, 20, 22, 45, + 64, 84, 86, 91, 102, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113._ + + Wiener Hundesegen, _15._ + + Witches, 11, 19, 23; _65, 66, 67, 74, 83, 84, 91, 102, 109, 110, + 111._ + + + + +Transcriber’s note + + +Words in italics were surrounded with _underscores_, and small capitals +changed to all capitals. + +Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were +added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they +were referred to in other notes. The notes were moved to directly after +the paragraph with the corresponding anchor. + +“Völsungasaga” and “Sinfjötli” were in the original mostly written with +a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader’s +convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common +spelling with ö. + +Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. In note +12 “and” was changed to “und” (seltener in Frankreich und Belgien). + +Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and +missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent +spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by +Caroline Taylor Stewart + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF *** + +***** This file should be named 44134-0.txt or 44134-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/1/3/44134/ + +Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at + www.gutenberg.org/license. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 +North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email +contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the +Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + diff --git a/old/44134-0.zip b/old/44134-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d4f8d69 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44134-0.zip diff --git a/old/44134-8.txt b/old/44134-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..833364e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44134-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2329 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by +Caroline Taylor Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition + +Author: Caroline Taylor Stewart + +Release Date: November 8, 2013 [EBook #44134] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF *** + + + + +Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + + +Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected. +A more detailed transcriber's note can be found at the end of this text. + + + + +THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.[1] + + [1] NOTE.--After the author had written the following article, + she gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That + the origin and development of the use of masks as given in + the Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, + 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note 32) is similar to the origin and + development of the werewolf superstition itself, as given in + the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The author + has italicized some words in the quotations. + + +The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an animal's form, +most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost worldwide superstition. +Such a transformed person is the Germanic werewolf, or man-wolf; that +is, a wolf which is really a human being.[2] So the werewolf was a +man in wolf's form or wolf's dress,[2] seen mostly at night,[3] and +believed generally to be harmful to man.[4] + + [2] According to Mogk, in Paul's Grundriss der germanischen + Philologie III. 272 _wer_ means "man," found in Old Saxon, + Anglo-Saxon, Old High German, and werewolf a man in wolf's + form. Kgel connects _wer_ with Gothic _wasjan_ "kleiden." + "Darum bedeutet _werwolf_ eigentlich Wolfsgewand lfshamr; + hnlich bedeutet vielleicht _berserkr_ Brengewand," therefore + werewolf according to Kgel means a wolf's dress. See also + Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde. + + [3] Post p. 24. + + [4] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:--Beastform in + mythology proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for + benignant ends. See note 52. + +The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily +explained. Adolf Erman[5] explains the allusion of Herodotus[6] to the +transformation of the Neurians (the people of the present Volhynia, in +West Russia) into wolves as due merely to their appearance in winter, +dressed in their furs. This explanation, however, would not fit similar +superstitions in warm climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy +to primitive Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the +members of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.[7] +Still another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the +original werewolf.[8] + + [5] Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232. + + [6] Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and + Greeks settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once + a year every Neurian becomes a wolf for a few days, and then + resumes the human form. See concerning this also Hirt, Die + Indogermanen, I. 120. + + [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol. + + [8] Note 102, also see note 22. + +The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must be one +which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition is found +pretty much all over the earth,[9] especially to-day[10] however in +Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in the lands where the +wolf is most common.[11][12] According to Mogk[13] the superstition +prevails to-day especially in the north and east of Germany.[14] + + [9] See also Mogk in Paul's Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud. + Leubuscher, ber die Wehrwlfe und Thierverwandlungen im + Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850, mentions cases in ancient Arcadia, + in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the almost epidemic disease + in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf, Stuttgart, + 1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia + (hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to + Encyc. Brit. below; on p. 133 he says: "Tierverwandlungen sind + allgemein menschlich, finden wir berall. Die eigentmliche + Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen aber finden wir vorzugsweise + bei einer bestimmten Vlkergruppe, den arischen Stmmen der + Griechen, Rmer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven; bei den sdwrts + gezogenen Stmmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns gleiche + Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten + treten die Werwlfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehrt die + lteste historische Erwhnung der Sage; viel lter aber ist + der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische Werwlfe". According to + Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, Stuttgart, + 1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European + country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles, + Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants + of island Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal + peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in Asia, Africa, America; but not in + India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit. below), especially + though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands. + + As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for + 1880-81, p. 83, "From their close relations with wild animals + Indians' stories of transformations into beasts and beasts + into men are numerous and interesting.... In times of peace, + during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller told + of those days in the past when men and animals could transform + themselves at will and hold converse with one another." + + Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell & Sons, 1883, II. 668 + says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic + antiquities than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrislfr, + a son of Loki, makes his appearance in wolf's shape among the + gods. + + Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy, + states:--A belief firmly rooted among all savages is that + men are in certain circumstances transformed temporarily or + permanently into wolves and other inferior animals. In Europe + the transformation into a wolf is by far more prominent and + frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans, French, + Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most + prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. + Thus the were-_wolf_ prevails in Europe, also in England, + Wales, Ireland; and in S. France, the Netherlands, Germany, + Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, Poland, Russia, he can + hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note 12). In Denmark, + Sweden, Norway and Iceland the _bear_ competes with the wolf + for pre-eminence. In Persia the _bear_ is supreme; in Japan the + _fox_; in India the _serpent_ vies with the _tiger_ (contrary + to Mogk in Paul's Grd., III. 272, who says:--"Nur Griechen, + Rmer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter den indogermanischen + Vlkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und Iraniern ist er + unbekannt." Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in Abyssinia + and Borneo the _hyena_ with the _lion_; in E. Africa the _lion_ + with the _alligator_; in W. Africa the _leopard_ is perhaps + most frequently the form assumed by man; among the Abipones the + _tiger_, among the Arawaks the _jaguar_, etc. + + In Brockhaus' Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the + werewolf belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and + Romanic peoples; found to-day especially in Volhynia and White + Russia. + + Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:--Bei den Angelsachsen lsst sich der + Werwolf im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern, + ihre Herden vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das lteste + Zeugnis auf deutschem Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v. + Worms (11 century). + + [10] See note 9. + + [11] Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:--There can nowhere be a living + belief in contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which + has ceased to exist in the particular locality. Belief in + metamorphosis into the animal most prominent in any locality + itself acquires a special prominence. (See note 12.) In none + of these cases however is the power of transformation limited + exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal. + + [12] Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under _Wolf_:--The wolf is + found in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America + from Greenland to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in + Ceylon, Burmah or Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in + the two latter jackals instead. + + Meyer's Kleines konversations-lexikon:--Der wolf "ist hufig + in Ost- und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika, + seltener in Frankreich und Belgien, den Herden gefhrlich, + besonders in Russland." Encyc. Brit., XXIV under _Wolf_:--In + northern countries the wolf is generally larger and more + powerful than in the southern portion of its range. Its habits + are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been known + to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of + his flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance. + They usually assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and + by their combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower + and kill even such great animals as the American bison. + Children and even grown people are not infrequently attacked by + them when pressed for hunger. The ferocity of the wolf in the + wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed, they can rarely be + trusted by strangers. + + [13] Paul, Grundriss, III. 272. + + [14] Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p. + 275 fol., speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: "Noch lebte + das Landvolk in ohnmchtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Wlfe, + wenig Drfer, welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere + decimirt wurden," and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:--"Als 1815 + die gegenwrtige Provinz Posen an Preussen zurckfiel, waren + auch dort die Wlfe eine Landplage. Nach Angaben der Posener + Provinzialbltter wurden im Regierungsbezirk Posen vom 1. Sept. + 1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Wlfe erlegt, noch im Jahre 1819 + im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von Wlfen + gefressen." + +The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.[15] The +point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living human +being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the wolf was +common[16] into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa, where these animals +are common; into a tiger or serpent in India;[17] in other localities +into other animals characteristic of the region.[18] Among Lapps +and Finns occur transformations into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish +or birds; amongst many North Asiatic peoples, as also some American +Indians, into the bear; amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf, +turkey or owl; in South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar, +also into a fish, or serpent. Most universal though it seems was the +transformation into wolves or dogs.[19] + + [15] Thus in note 6 was mentioned Herodotus' (484-425 B.C.) + statement about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend, + according to Hertz, is that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos, + the first king of ancient Arcadia. These Arcadians lived as + huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert (Andree, p. 65; + and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed amongst + the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf + myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B.C). In the Norse "Edda" + we find Odin's wolves, also Skll, Hati and Fenrir. In the + Vlsunga Saga, Sigmund and Sinfjtli become wolves. For other + reflections of the fear in which wolves were held, see the + 10th century ms. of the "Wiener Hundesegen" against male and + female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches Lesebuch, 6. aufl. + 1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,--Geschichte der deutschen sprache + s. 233:--"Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte + raubthier des waldes dar, und lehrt die nhe des wolfs und + fuchses." + + C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:--"In die + ltesten Zeiten hinauf reicht auch bei Jgervlkern die + Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil die Eigentmlichkeiten der + Tiere erklrend, ihr Gebahren erzhlend. Die furchtbaren und + die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo die Menschen + stdtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie einsamer + mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine hhere Bedeutung. So wird + dem Wldler Br und Wolf zum ebenbrtigen Ruber und Kmpfer, + menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht, + der Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst." + + [16] Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to + Andree, p. 65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it + is to-day in Russia. Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: "Der + Wolf ist berall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Br ist aber + ganz sicher ein Waldtier." + + [17] Note 9. + + [18] Cf. note 9, Encyc. Brit. + + [19] Leubuscher, p. 1:--Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in + Hunde und Wlfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den + namen Lykanthropie. + +As the superstition is so widespread--Germany, Eastern Europe, Africa, +Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time, when all these +peoples were in communication with each other[20] or else, in accord +with another view of modern science, it arose independently in various +continents in process of the natural psychical development of the human +race under similar conditions. + + [20] Or as Mogk in Paul's Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for + example amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still + formed a whole, as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of + herds was especially feared. Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: "Die + meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die im Freien lebten, + mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte ihrer + Einbildungskraft am ftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit + zu kmpfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in + Einzelnen als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich + von Wlfen besonders beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich + manche Mordthat nur von Wlfen begangen." Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, + p. 282:--"The Dakotas have long believed in the appearance + from time to time of a monstrous animal that swallows human + beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the bones of + mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians." + +The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom of +primitive man's of putting on a wolf's or other animal's skin[21] +or dress, or a robe.[22] Thus Leubuscher,[23] says: "Es ist der +Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten +hervorgewachsen."[24][25] Likely also the notion of attributing speech +to animals originated from such disguising or dressing of men as +animals. In the following we shall examine into primitive man's reasons +for putting on such a skin or robe. + + [21] Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:--In celebrations it is + possible that the foxskin so universally worn by the animistic + personifications is a survival comparable with the skin of the + animal in which formerly the whole body was clothed. + + [22] Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: "In der + ltesten Naturreligion ist die Gottheit des Todes und der + winterlichen Erde als Wolf gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl + in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten nach dem Volksglauben + die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu verwandeln. Der + Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum raschen + Zurcklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders + geeignet. Darum nahmen die Gtter und die zauberbegabten + Menschen zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von + Natur gefhrlich und wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und + beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang nach Mord und Zerstrung die + Hauptsache. Die Ursprnge des Werwolfglaubens waren also 1. + religise Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung (der friedlose + Mrder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die + Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie." Page 51. "Die Verwandlung + in Wlfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden." Page 57: + "Dass die von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen + Waldflchtigen sich in Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend." + + [23] Page 46. See also note 9. + + [24] Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p. + 153 fol.;--"Ist so die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und + Gtterglauben, zunchst gebunden an das Bedrfnis des Lebens, + so sondert sie sich doch allmhlich im Verlauf der Kultur von + den religisen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite Welt + zu einer unabhngigen Bedeutsamkeit"--like Homer, Dante, etc. + See note 20, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:--"Insane + delusions must reflect the usages and beliefs of + contemporaneous society." + + [25] Notes 20, 21 and 27. + +Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had to conquer +them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in Europe arose +probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic peoples were +still in contact with each other, if not in the original Indo-Germanic +home, for they all have the superstition (unless, as above, we prefer +to regard the belief as arising in various localities in process of +psychical development under similar conditions; namely, when people +still lived principally by the chase.[26]) Probably the primitive +Indo-European man before and at the time of the origin of the werewolf +superstition, was almost helpless in the presence of inexorable nature. +This was before he used metal for weapons. The great business of life +was to secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots, +berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.[27] +Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any +size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet +primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no longer +crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but began to watch +and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what certain animals would +do under certain circumstances, to learn what would frighten them away +or what would lure them on. So at least the large animals were to early +man a constant cause of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary +to have their flesh for food and their skins for clothing.[28] + + [26] See note 15. + + [27] Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:--Traces of the + fear in which buffalo "were held may still be discovered in the + traditional stories of certain tribes, which set forth how, in + those days," [i.e. in the stone age] "before men were provided + with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill, and eat the + people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo + were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly + have arisen save as the result of actual experience of their + power to inflict injury and death." Pliny informs us how the + Romans kept the wolf out of their fields, see Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians lived on the steppes, + in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains, the animals + were their whole study. They moved with the animals, followed + them for food. + + [28] Note 27. + +Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for trapping +them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of decoys to lure +animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits, others more easily +by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,[29] and similarly, another +form of the original decoy was no doubt simply the stuffed skin of a +member of the species, whether animal or bird, say for example a wild +duck.[30] Of course the hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself +putting on the animal skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an +individual dressed for example in a wolf's skin could approach near +enough to a solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other +weapon, without exciting the wolf's suspicion of the nearness of a +dangerous foe.[31] So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used +by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure +food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise, whole +or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments +seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions and cries of +animals,[32] at first to lure them, when acting as a decoy. With growth +of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and an additional reason for +acquiring dance and song was to secure charms against bodily ills,[33] +and finally enlivenment.[34] In both dance and song, when used for a +serious purpose, the performers imagined themselves to be the animals +they were imitating,[35] and in the dance they wore the skins of the +animals represented.[36] + + [29] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:--It seems that masks + were occasionally used as decoys.... Next to the otter the + most valuable animal in the estimation of the Kadiak men, is + the species of seal or sea-dog called by the Russians nerpa. + The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it toward the + shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body among + the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque + resembling the head of a seal and makes a noise like that + animal. The unsuspicious seal, imagining that he is about to + meet a partner of his own species, hastens to the spot and is + instantly killed. Compare note 57. + + [30] Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:--Bering Strait Eskimo stuff + rudely the skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon + a stick which holds the head outstretched, then imitate the + call of the bird, which is trapped in the net attached to the + decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft snow into the form + of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around the neck + for plumage. The call then brought the real birds. + + [31] Thus G.B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his + description of the primitive Indians' method of trapping + buffalo, says: "Some men went forth naked, others carried a + dress made of the entire skin of a buffalo, the head and horns + arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of the skin hung + down over the wearer's back," etc. This "caller" went near to a + herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into + the trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often + proved fatal to the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85, + p. 484, about Central Eskimo seal hunting, is stated: If a + hunter is close to an animal he imitates its movements. Some + utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. "The sealskin + clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is + difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance." + And on p. 508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central + Eskimos carry guns on their shoulders, two men going together, + so as to resemble the antlers of a deer. The men imitate their + grunting. If they lie on the ground at some distance they + greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to Ross the + "inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer, + the foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer's head + upon his own." Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:--"The old manner of + hunting antelope and deer: the hunter would disguise himself by + covering his head with the head and skin of an antelope, and so + be enabled to approach the game near enough to use his bow and + arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask themselves + with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo." Ethn. Rep. + 1901-02, p. 439;--Two of the party of hunters (Zui) out after + deer "wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front + and back of the shirt being painted to represent as nearly + as possible the body of the deer; the hands and the arms to + the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to represent the + deer's forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer's head over his + head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as + possible, even to the browsing, the game they would catch." + + [32] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:--"Tradition says the Iroquois + derived the music and action of the Buffalo dance while on + an expedition against the Cherokee, from the bellowing and + the movements of a herd of buffalo which they heard for the + first time 'singing their favorite songs,' i.e. bellowing and + snorting." Also note 33. + + [33] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent + frostbite. The wolf's, deer's, fox's, opossum's feet it is held + never become frostbitten. After each verse of the song, the + singer imitates the cry and the action of the animal. The words + used are archaic in form and may be rendered "I become a real + wolf, etc." The song runs: + + 1. Ts wa 'ya-ya (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged + howl). The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his + feet. + + 2. Ts-ka wi-ye (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh! + (imitating the call and jumping of a deer). + + 3. Ts-tsu 'la-ya (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih! + (imitates barking and scratching of a fox). + + 4. Ts-si-kwa-ya (four times), ki+(imitates cry of the + opossum when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal + does when feigning death). + + [34] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance + performed by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep + up their spirits, in which each had his robe about him and + imitated the actions of the coyote, trotting, glancing around, + etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo dance, in which each + of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over his head, + the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging + down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of + the buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the + Omaha wolf dance, by the society of those who have supernatural + communication with wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and + dance in imitation of the actions of wolves. Similarly they + performed the grizzly bear dance, horse dance, etc. + + [35] Notes 22, 34 and 37. + + [36] See notes 34 and 37. + +Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed merely +for decoys and sport (early dancing),[37] for peaceful purposes +therefore, such people having whole or partial animal shape were not +regarded as harmful to man,[38] just as wise women began to pass +for witches only when with their art they did evil.[39] A similar +development can be traced in the case of masks.[40] It was some time +before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing animals that +were dangerous to life, though these are the ones he first studied;[41] +and we cannot presuppose that he disguised to represent them until he +could cope with them, since the original purpose of the disguise was +to secure food and clothing. Thus far then we see whole or partial +disguise as animals used to secure _food_ and _clothing_ when acting as +decoys to lure animals; and in _dancing_.[42] + + [37] Similarly in the use of masks (see note 57). See Wundt, + Vlkerpsychologie II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this + Zeitschrift fr deutsche Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss. + 558-568:--"Der maskierte mensch ist der ekstatische Mensch. + Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in ekstase, fhlt + er sich in fremde lebensvorgnge ein, eignet er sich das wesen + an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert." Fr den + naiven menschen, wie fr das kind, ist die maske durchaus + nicht blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der + augenblickstanz wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvlker verwenden + ihre masken nur bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertnzen, nicht + zu ihrer burlesken mimik; die tnzer sind in Tiermasken, etc. + + [38] Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed + into a bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent + (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1097:--In Norse accounts also we find + transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded as + rational and was esteemed. + + [39] Note 84. + + [40] See note 57a. + + [41] Notes 27 and 42. + + [42] The important consideration in the mind of primitive + man was whether certain things were harmful or useful. See + Behaghel, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 98:--"Die grossen Tiere + und die mchtigen Bume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die fr + die _Ernhrung_ and _Bekleidung_ des Menschen von Bedeutung + sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben _bedrohen_, sie haben viel + frher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare + Kfer im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es, + dass die Namen der grsseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbume, + der wichtigsten Getreidearten allen germanischer Stmmen + gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie _Wolf_, _Kuh_, _Ochse_, + _Birke_, _Buche_, _Erle_, _Gerste_ mit den Benennungen anderer + indogermanischer Vlker bereinstimmen." Doubtless animals + occupied their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt, + Vlkerpsychologie, II. 412 fol., about the _maskentanz_: + "berhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit frher Bercksichtigung + erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive." See note 95. + +Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal's skin or dress when +out as _forager_ (or robber) or _spy_, for the purpose of avoiding +detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for example,[43] were called +by neighboring tribes _wolves_, probably not out of contempt, since it +may be doubted that an Indian feels contempt for a wolf any more than +he does for a fox, a rabbit, or an elk, but because of their adroitness +as scouts, warriors and stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think, +because of their great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so +as to escape detection by the enemy by day or night; or, according to +some neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves[44], "have the +endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can make +long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their way, or on +no food at all." ... And further, "The Pawnees, when they went on the +warpath, were always prepared to simulate wolves.... Wolves on the +prairie were too common[45] to excite remark, and at night they would +approach close to the Indian camps." ... The Pawnee starting off on the +warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later times a +white blanket or a white sheet; and, at _night_, wrapping himself in +this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he walked or trotted +here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed himself into a +common object of the landscape. This disguise was employed by _day_ as +well, for reconnoissance.... While the party remained hidden in some +ravine or hollow, one Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to +the top of the hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches +looking all over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him, +would take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the +Pawnees could imitate wolves best. "An Indian going into an enemy's +country is often called a wolf,[46] and the sign for a scout is made up +of the signs _wolf_ and _look_."[47] Should any scout detect danger, as +at _night_ when on duty near an encampment, he must give the cry of the +coyote.[48] + + [43] G.B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N.Y., + Scribners, 1893, p. 245, fol. + + [44] Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein + sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. _hirpus_ bedeutet _wolf_ in + sabinischer oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf + fhrer geworden war, oder nach andrer sage sie wlfe gejagt + hatten und gleich wlfen raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen + ausdrucks friedlos waren. + + [45] The werewolf story could arise only where the animal, + wolf, tiger or lion, etc., was common; and likewise the + werewolf tales gradually died out when the animals became rare + or extinct. See note 11. + + [46] Grinnell, p. 245. + + [47] The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild + beasts save their own totem-animals as _enemy-scouts_ (Encyc. + Brit. under Lycanthropy). + + [48] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of + the indian, p. 208: The wolf was believed, in the animals' + council, to be able to give the Indian the power to creep right + into the midst of the enemy's camp without being seen. + +The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in animal form or +dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal disguise began to +act not only as decoys for animals dangerous to life, but also as +scouts (robbers[49]--and later as possessors of supernatural power, +when growth of culture brought with it growth of supernaturalism[50]); +when people began to associate, for example, the wolf's form with a +lurking enemy.[51] + + [49] See note 53. + + [50] See note 57-b. + + [51] So originally the germanic god _Logi_ was not an evil + god. _Logi_ meant the natural force of fire; _Loki_ meant the + same, but the burly giant has been made a sly, seducing villain + (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of Loki, Fenrislfr, appears + in wolf's shape among the gods. Perhaps association with the + wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of Logi + (Loki) from a good to an evil god. + +All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the defensive, +like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion have sent out +scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid detection, assumed the +disguise of the animal most common to the special locality in question, +just as to-day they are known to disguise in animal skins for purposes +of plunder or revenge.[52][53] + + [52] Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:--In modern savage life we + find beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in + beast form for the community; others are said to assume beast + form in order to avenge themselves justly on enemies; others + for love of bloodshed and cannibalism. See also note 58. + + [53] No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won + considerable fame through their skill and bravery, as we should + judge from such proper names as _Rudolf_, which means really + _Ruhmwolf_, _Ruhm_ related to Gothic _hropeigs_ "victorious," + Sanskrit _kir_ "to praise"; or _Adolf_ from _Adalolf_, which + means _Edelwolf_, originally, therefore, _Edelruber_, for + _wolf_ meant originally about the same as _robber_ (Kluge). + So _robber_ or _wolf_ was originally a highly respectable + appellation, at a time when men lived from robbery and the + chase, either as searobbers, or mountain robbers, etc. (about + this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen, 1905, p. 268 + fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace (see + appellation "wolves" applied to Pawnees, p. 12.). Later we find + such names as _Wulfila_ "little wolf." Many Indian names are + those of animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear, + Conquering Bear, Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear + Rib, Smoking Bear, Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear, + Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe, + etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83, p. 169: The names of Indians very + often refer to some animal, predicating some attribute or + position of that animal. For discussion of names, see note 111. + +The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying principle is +the same; namely, the transformation of a living human being into an +animal. The origin of the belief in such a transformation, as stated +above[54] was the simple putting on of an animal skin by early man. The +object of putting on animal skins was, + + [54] Ante p. 6. + +(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries of animals +were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),[55] artificial decoys +(like decoy ducks to-day)[56] and finally even masks were used.[57] + + [55] See (3) below. + + [56] See ante p. 8. + + [57] See note 4 and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see + note 37):--The use of masks is worldwide. The origin and + development of the use of masks is very much the same as + the origin and development of the werewolf as given in the + preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both originally + useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into + instruments for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of + the mask is described in the above report as follows: + + a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for + defense against physical violence, human or otherwise. It + was therefore first used merely as a mechanical resistance + to the opposing force; then secondly, still in the lowest + grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a + moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by + symbolizing superhuman agencies. Now individual variations + arose--devices for example derived or conventionalized from + some predatory, shrewd or mysterious animal. + + b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and + the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part + of the religious paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of + the shamans. Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 395:--"When worn in any + ceremonial, ... the wearer is believed to become mysteriously + and unconsciously imbued with the spirit of the being which his + mask represents." + + c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is + used for public amusements and games; by secret societies; as + protection against recognition on festive occasions, etc., like + the animal skins worn in dances. + +(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying animals, +as in (1) above. + +(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals led to +dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the faces and bodies +of the participants were painted in imitation of the colors of birds +and animals, the motions of animals imitated and animal disguises +used.[58] + + [58] Notes 32, 34, 33, ante p. 11. + +(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out foraging, as well +as for warfare,[59][60] therefore for booty, and self-defense. Either +they wore the entire skin, or probably later just a part of it as a +fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as a charm by many of +our colored people to-day.[61] + + [59] See p. 13. + + [60] Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:--Account of "a cloak or mantle + made from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic + paintings. It was made and used by the Apaches as a mantle + of invisibility, that is, a charmed covering for spies which + would enable them to pass with impunity through the country, + and even through the camp of their enemies. In this instance + the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn." The + Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were + the raincloud, serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of + the winds of the four cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. + 515:--Among the Hidatsa (Sioux) fetiches are especially the + skins of the wolf. "When they go to war, they always wear the + stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging down + the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the + warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf's head + hangs down upon his breast." Finally the magic robes or shirts + and girdles came to be a part of the regular paraphernalia of + the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the folklore of all + countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles. + + Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: "Some warriors had + medicine to change their shape as they pleased, so that they + could escape from their enemies." Page 501: Such stories might + be paralleled in any tribe. + + [61] See further development in note 64. + +(5) For purposes of revenge,[62],[63] personal or other. For some other +personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror in the opposing +agent by hideousness. + + [62] Note 52. + + [63] As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure + brutality, we cite from Andree, p. 69:--People in the interior + of Africa who understand magic, transform themselves into lions + and go about killing people. See also below, note 65, where the + wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and sucks his blood, and + also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being one of + the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this + takes place at _night_, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian + starting out at night in his wolf's robe, and trotting up to + the hostile village to ascertain where his enemies' horses + are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell's + Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73). + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:--"To recover stolen or lost + property, especially ponies, is one of the principal tasks + imposed upon the so-called medicine-men" (shamans). + +(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing superhuman +agencies.[64] So now would arise first a belief in superhuman power or +attributes,[65] and then, + + [64] As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was + put on not merely to make the wearer look just like a common + object of the landscape, but also because the wearer of the + disguise was supposed to take on the characteristics of the + animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.), as in the + case of masks (see note 57), and finally the wearer of such + a robe was believed to actually become transformed, like the + wearers of the werewolf shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves + were regarded as good hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep. + 1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:--The wolf is revered by the + Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanti; therefore we can + understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of + unerring huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those + who gained their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of + songs imitating the cries of certain animals was supposed to + confer a characteristic of the animal in question (see note 33). + + Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:--To gain animal characteristics a + wizard attached crow and owl plumes to his head that he might + have the eyes of the crow to see quickly the approach of man, + and the eyes of the owl to travel by night. He flapped his + arms, ... A Zui man hearing a cry like an owl, yet human, + looked about him and found a man whom he recognized as a Zui. + "Aha!" said he, "why have you those plumes upon your head? Aha, + you are a sorcerer," etc. + + An example of the transforming power of the _robe_ we find in + Bulletin 26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, + 1901, Kathlamet texts, p. 156 fol.:--A woman ate of some of the + fat of a bitch, gave birth to five male dogs and one female + dog. When they grew older, she discovered one day that they + could transform themselves into real children. While they were + down at the beach, she entered the house, and now she saw the + dog _blankets_. She took them and burnt them. Then the children + retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjtli in the + Vlsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according + to which an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting + on an elkskin. + + W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p. + 100, writes, "Die Fhigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln + knnen, heisst 'sich zu huten, die Hlle zu wechseln'. + Das Umwerfen eines usserlichen Gewandes kann den Wechsel + der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas Federgewand, die + Schwan- und Krhenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins Adlergewand. + Die Wolfsgewnder (lfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln + den Menschen zum Wolfe". See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel, + Zeitschrift fr deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261. + + [65] Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:--The owner of fine beads fears + that some witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with + disease. + + As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman + powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances + given by Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met + in Africa a native said to have power to transform himself + into a lion. As lion he would stay for days and months in the + _forest_, in a sacred hut, to which however his wife carried + beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this lion + did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was + able to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine + brought him by his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:--In Banana, + Africa, the members of a certain family transform themselves in + the _dark_ of the _forest_ into leopards. They throw down those + they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them nor drink + their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note 83.) + + The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American + Indians, who put on a wolf's mantle to steal, or to recover + stolen animals (Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the + story of robbery entitled Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.). + Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69, where the lowest caste + of laborers are believed to have power to transform themselves + into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They + employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause, + since it yields such returns. They are reported to act like + other folk by day, at _night_ though to assume the ways of + wolves, kill their enemies and suck their blood, roaming about + with other wolves till morning. They are supposed to gain their + supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs. They + are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since + their roaming and plundering is done in the _night_; in the + daytime they of course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p. + 72). + + Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:--Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and + Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the + masses and the comparative learning of the few who practised + it. Among the American Indians the medicine-man and the more + expert sorceress have little learning above that of the body of + the tribe, and their success depends entirely upon their own + belief in being supernaturally gifted, and upon the faith and + fear of their followers. + + The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly + animal shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:--"An + old blind wolf with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made + his head and hands look like those of a wolf. The rest of his + body was not changed. He was called a man-wolf." + +(7) Witchcraft.[66] It is very easy to see why it was usually the +so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who claimed such +transformation power, because they received remuneration from their +patients.[67] + + [66] Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:--Witches could and did assume + animal shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire + streaming from its mouth and nostrils. It was _night_. The man + shot at it, and the next morning tracked it by the marks of + blood from its wound. At a bridge a woman's tracks took the + place of the dog's, and finally he found the woman. She had + died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a hog, when + pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared + as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing. + So they, the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian + Indian one _evening_ pursued a white bull with fire streaming + from its nostrils. He had never seen a white bull on the + reservation before. "As it passed in front of a house it was + transformed into a man with a _large white blanket_, who was + ever afterward known as a witch." + + Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:--A man going out at _night_ noticed + a queer-looking burro. Upon his return home he was told that a + large cat had entered the house. He went out again, discovered + a man wrapped in a blanket, but not in the Zui fashion, his + head was sunk low in the blanket. He knew this creature to be a + wizard. + + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:--That the medicine man (Shaman) + has the faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and + other animals at pleasure and then resuming the human form, is + as implicitly believed in by the American Indians as it was + by our own forefathers in Europe. And page 459: The Abipones + of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power to put on + the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed the + power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the + Shamans of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz, + p. 133 fol.:--"In der christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische + Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier entstand mit dem Hexenglauben + die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich mit Hilfe des Satans aus + reiner Mordlust zu Wlfen verwandeln. So wurde der Werwolf das + Bild des tierisch Dmonischen in der Menschennatur." + + [67] Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:--The medicine-men of the + Apache are paid at the time they are consulted, the priest + beforehand among the Eskimo. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: "The + magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount + of the patient's worldly wealth." Page 416:--Sioux sorcerers + prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep. + 1901-2, p. 568:--"The shaman, like the theurgist is usually + paid after each visit with calico, cotton, or food, according + to the wealth of the family, since it is always understood + that these doctors expect proper compensation for their + services." Page 387:--"The Zui doctor is paid according to his + reputation." Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: "In early + days if a man remained sick for three or four weeks, all his + possessions went to pay doctors' fees." + + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.--The American Indian's theory + of disease is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian, + the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman--all bodily disorders are + attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that is of animal + spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated. + Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was + language which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend. + Page 468:--The medicine-men are accused of administering + poisons to their enemies. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:--Sioux + sorcerers were thought to cause the death of those persons + who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. + 581:--"When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia + he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his + followers believe that he has become, the power he represents." + The Mexican priests masked and disguised, and dressed in the + skins of the women offered up in sacrifice. + + So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest. + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:--The Indian doctor relied far more + on magic than on natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the + drum, songs, magic feasts and dances, and howling were his + ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 210 + fol.:--They have "firm confidence in dreams." "Their belief in + a future life is in part founded on dreams," etc. + +(8) Finally dreams[68] and exaggerated reports gave rise to fabulous +stories.[69] + + [68] Note 67, close. + + [69] An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain + occurs Andree, p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal + at one place, the latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming + human form, they attack their enemy in the _night_ at his + home. This is the transformation of an animal into a man, but + the inventor of the story was no doubt looking towards his + own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which + in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In + Siam stories are told of people who by magic formulae become + tigers and roam about at _night_ in search of booty. One of the + man-tigers was actually a priest. + +We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);[70] for an example under (4) we +have cited the practices of American Indians.[71] It is probable that +about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above), what is known as the +real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied, rabid manwolf) began +to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin was already a lurking thief +or enemy, or a destroyer of human life. To advance from this stage +to the werewolf frenzy, our primitive man must have seen about him +some exhibition of such a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this +frenzy particularly with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons, +and the connecting link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as +the transformation was usually into a wolf or dog,[72]) for persons +bitten by it usually went mad too.[73] The ensuing frenzy, with the +consternation it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds +as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some no doubt +actually had the malady; others honestly believed they had it and got +into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked themselves up into a +frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.[74] Later, in the Middle +Ages, when the nature of the real disease came to be better understood, +the werewolf superstition had become too firmly fixed to be easily +uprooted. + + [70] Ante pp. 7, 8, 9. + + [71] Ante p. 12 fol. + + [72] See notes 19 and 74. + + [73] Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: "It is said that + wolves, which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes + went crazy, and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even + coming into camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons + bitten by a mad wolf generally went mad, too. They trembled and + their limbs jerked, they made their jaws work and foamed at the + mouth, often trying to bite other people. When any one acted in + this way, his relatives tied him hand and foot with ropes, and, + having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the green hide, + built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until + the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and + removed the buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure + for a mad wolf's bite." + + [74] Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a + monomania themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this + widespread disease or delusion (of the first century till + late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.: "The sick" ones would + prowl about burial places _at night_, imagining themselves + to be _wolves_ or _dogs_, and go about barking and howling. + In the middle ages such people would even kill children and + grown people. When they came to themselves again, or were + cured, they claimed to know nothing of what had happened. + Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst the Shamans feats of + jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing the best + of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of + robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals, + painted with shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The + speaker terms himself a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power. + +We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.[75] As further +examples of the development into fabulous story,[76] we may cite any of +those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man is represented +as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and tearing to pieces men +and beasts, until he resumes his human form. Thus an early scout in +animal garb would be obliged to live on food he found on his way, and +later fabulous report would represent him as himself when in disguise +possessing the attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to +pieces man and beast. For such an account see Andree,[77] concerning +what eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the +hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed +such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread abroad +such a report as would enhance the influence of the hyena-men far and +wide. Some savages, as in Africa,[78] came to regard any animal that +robbed them of children, goats or other animals, as a witch in animal +form;[79] just as the American Indians ascribe to evil spirits death, +sickness and other misfortunes. + + [75] Notes 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69. + + [76] See (8) above. + + [77] Page 71. + + [78] Andree, p. 69. + + [79] Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of + the origin of the wolf: "_The wolf_ was a poor woman, who had + so many children that she could not find enough for them to + eat. They became so gaunt and hungry that they were changed + into wolves, constantly roaming over the land seeking food." + +We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an animal robe +would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;[80] how though, as +soon as the element of magic enters in, he would try to keep up the +illusion. At this stage, when the original defensive measure had become +tainted with superstition, men would go about in the night time howling +and holding their vile revels.[81] Andree,[82] narrates how a soldier +in Northeast Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and +came to the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician. No +hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh wound. Soon +he died, however the soldier did not survive him long. Doubtless one +of the magician class was responsible for the death of the soldier, +just as we to-day put to death the man who so violates our laws, as to +become a menace to our society, or as formerly kings killed those who +stood in their way; or as religious sects murder those who dissent +from their faith. These magicians, supposed to be men who could assume +animal form, as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly +feared by other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and +at _night_ come forth to plunder and kill.[83] It is to their interest +to counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were +put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.[84] Their frenzies +were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in other cases +they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent opportunities for +personal gain or vengeance.[85] + + [80] Ante p. 12 fol. + + [81] Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine + the horrible howlings, and strange contortions that these + jugglers (shamans) or conjurers make of their bodies, when they + are disposing themselves to conjure. + + [82] Page 71. + + [83] Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician + (Abyssinia), who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate + animal-men the teeth of the persons whom they have killed + during the year, with which he decorates his palace. See also + pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151, about sorcery + among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes of + the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of + Indian genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class + of ambitious men and women sufficient influence through + their acknowledged power of exorcism and necromancy to lead + a comfortable life at the expense of the credulous. Page + 162: "Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an order of + priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It + is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe + that they can at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos," + etc. Sometimes one family constitutes the class. See note 65; + Andree, p. 69. + + [84] Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches + were priestesses, physicians, fabulous _night_-wives, never + as yet persecuted. Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into + werewolves, and lose nothing in popular estimation. The abuse + of a spell was punished. A wise woman, healing sickness and + charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch only when with + her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil's + complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the + guilt of criminality fell upon all personal relations with him. + Ethn. Rep. 1901-2, p. 393: "Though the witch may be regarded as + all powerful, none but the poor and unfortunate are condemned. + Few others are even brought to trial--their prominence prevents + public accusation." This again reminds us some of our customs; + namely, that of overlooking the transgressions of the rich and + powerful. See note 91, and for outlaws note 112. + + [85] Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the + body, and more particularly the eyes, so that many shamans + (Siberia, America, etc.) become blind. + +Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition +and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the outrages hope +to escape punishment for their depredations, could they hope to plunder +and steal with impunity.[86] So they prowled usually under the cloak +of _night_ or of the dark of the forest,[87] howled and acted like +the animals they represented, hid the animal skin or blanket, if they +used one,[88] in the daytime where they thought no one could find +it, whereas the animal skin which was worn for defence, was put on +either by day or night,[89] and one story recounts the swallowing of +a whole goat, the man bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did +it.[90] Some of the transformed men claimed they could regain human +form only by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters +were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,[91] +no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress, each +maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices, just as did +the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those of the American +negro, who in church, when "shouting," that is, when stirred up by +religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy who happens to be in the +church, of course with impunity; for he is supposed to be under some +outside control, and when the spell has passed off, like some of the +delusionists mentioned,[92] claims not to know what he (or generally +she) has done. Similar also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of +the fire-eaters, or any other sham. + + [86] Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia + and Lithuania, according to two bishops, werewolves were in + the 16th century far more destructive than "true and natural + wolves." They were asserted to have formed "an accursed + college" of those "desirous of innovations contrary to the + divine law." Also see note 90. + + [87] See ante p. 13, and notes 64, 65, 66, 69, 84, 102, 110. + + [88] Note 22 close, and note 102. + + [89] See ante p. 13. + + [90] Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a + woman, whose husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his + house, got hold of him later in his man shape and killed him. + Feats similar to some performed by him are cited in Ethn. Rep. + 1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the Pawnee swallowed + arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of apparently + killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zui. + + [91] Grimm, Rechtsalterthmer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle + aus der rmsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note 84). + Literary Digest, March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism + and Spirituality: "Many, very many, spiritualists seem to care + for communion with spirits only that they may more surely keep + physically well, and earn their bread and butter and clothing + the easier." Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The absurdity of + the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for the + theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in + every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he + was certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not + being found in beast form was satisfactorily disposed of. + + [92] Notes 57 and 67. + +The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was that most +often assumed for example in Germanic lands.[93] The term _wolf_ +became synonymous with _robber_, and later (when the robber became an +outlaw,[94]) with _outlaw_, the robber and outlaw alike being called +wolf and not some other animal (i.e., only the wolf-man surviving to +any extent) firstly, because the wolf was plentiful; and secondly, +because as civilization advanced, there came a time when the wolf was +practically the only one of the larger undomesticated animals that +survived.[95] We can notice this in our own United States, for example +in eastern Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes +heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the pastures +adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller animals, and +dig up buried ones.[96] In Prussia also it is the wolf that survives +to-day. American Indians, and other savages however do not restrict the +transformations to the wolf,[97] because other wild animals, are, or +were till recently, abundant amongst them. As civilization advances, +one by one the animal myths disappear with the animals that gave rise +to them (like that connected with the mastodon);[98] or else stories of +such domestic animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.[99] +When this stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully +coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals were shorn +of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as Aesop's fables +would arise.[100] This however was psychologically a long step in +advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an earlier period. + + [93] Notes 9 and 19. + + [94] Note 112. + + [95] See note 11, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: "The deer, + which is still common in the mountains, was the principal + dependence of the Cherokee hunter, and is consequently + prominent in myth, folklore, and ceremonial." see note 42. + Page 264: "The largest gens (clan) in the tribe bears the name + of 'wolf people.'" Page 420: The Cherokee have always been an + agricultural people, and their old country has a luxuriant + flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more + important place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe + than it does among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid + sage deserts of the West. + + [96] The St. Louis "Westliche Post" for January 9, 1908, + furnishes another example: A tame wolf which for the past + two years has been a pet in a farmer's family at Marshfield, + Wisconsin, escaped and attacked a chicken. The farmer's + daughter called to the wolf, but it had become wild from the + taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and one + leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released + until she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar. + + Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13, + 1908, shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite + populous districts: "Wolf-Plage. Aus dem nrdlichen Wisconsin + wird gemeldet, dass Wlfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind + denn je, und dass sie, durch Hunger getrieben, sich nahe + an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere und auch Menschen + angreifen. Zwei grosse Wlfe griffen in dieser Woche das Pferd + der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den Wald, + wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien + verscheuchten." + + [97] Note 11. + + [98] Note 20. + + [99] Note 109. + + [100] Note 24. + +Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf +superstition went through various stages of development. The motives +for assuming wolf's dress (or animal skins or robes), at first were +purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to secure food by +acting as decoys; then it was used for personal advantage or gain by +foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for purposes of vengeance;[101] +later from a desire for power over others; and finally men (the +professional and the superstitious) began to concoct fabulous stories +which were handed down as tradition or myth, according to the psychic +level of the narrator and hearer.[102] + + [101] Close of note 102. + + [102] John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives + the origin and development of the werewolf as follows: From + the conception of wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to + the conception of corporeal werewolves.... Christianity did + not fail to impart a new and fearful character to the belief + in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as a species of + witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the + Devil. It was often necessary to kill one's enemies, and at + that time some even killed for love of it (like the Berserker); + often a sort of homicidal madness, during which they would + array themselves in the skins of wolves or bears and sally + forth by _night_ to crack the backbones, smash the skulls and + sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary + travelers or loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an + invention of excited imagination. So people attributed a wolf's + nature to the maniac or idiot with cannibal appetites, then + the myth-forming process assigned to the unfortunate wretch + a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. Worship + of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of + transformation of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The + storm-wind was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead + men's souls or as the howling of wolf-like monsters (called by + Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness and cannibalism, + accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted as due + to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf + superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on + a wolf's skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence + of the fact alleged of Berserkers haunting the woods by + _night_, clothed in hides of wolves or bears. A permanent cure + was effected by burning the werewolf's sack, unless the Devil + furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, to become + incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the + outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is + the night-wind--a kind of leader of departed souls, howling + in the wintry blasts. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:--The + Berserkir of Iceland dressed in the skins of bears and wolves, + and further on: "Beastform is in mythology proper far oftener + assumed for malignant than for benignant ends." + +The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful werewolf +is the disguising as some common animal by members of savage races +when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to escape detection by the +enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land in search of food. As stated +above,[103] later fabulous report would represent them as possessing +in their disguise the attributes of the animal they impersonated,[104] +and finally even of actually taking on animal form, either wholly or +in part,[105] for longer or shorter periods of time. Some of the North +American Indian transformation stories represent men as having only +the head, hands and feet of a wolf.[106] The transformation into a +werewolf in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made +of wolf-skin.[107] This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic +werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising +the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent a person +as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other article of +apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.[108] The stories especially in Europe +were of the _were-wolf_ rather than _were-bear_ or other animal, +because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild animals.[109] It +was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, which crystallized +into the household werewolf or transformation tales.[110] + + [103] Ante p. 22. + + [104] Note 57. + + [105] Close note 65. + + [106] Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737. + + [107] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our + oldest native notions make the assumption of wolf-shape + depend on arraying oneself in a wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as + transformation into a swan does on putting on the swan-shirt + or swan-ring. Page 1095: "The transformation need not be for a + magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured + into, a wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the + appearance, he acquires also the fierceness and howling of the + wolf; roaming the _woods_, he rends to pieces everything that + comes in his way." This is like the belief of the American + Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued with the spirit + of the being which his mask represents (note 57); or that the + shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers + believe that he has become, the power he represents (note 67). + + [108] Thus some American Indian stories represent men + transformed into wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or + piece of decayed wood when pursued. And mantles of invisibility + are mentioned in note 60. + + [109] See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: "Unter den grossen + Raubtieren treten uns Br und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen. + Der Wolf ist freilich berall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der + Br ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier," etc. Encyc. Brit, under + Lycanthropy: "In England by the 17th century the werewolf had + long been extinct. Only small creatures, the cat, hare, weasel, + etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to transform himself + into." See note 11. + + [110] Amongst the American Indians, where various larger + animals were common, the designation "wolf-people" (see the + sign-language of the plains) was bestowed especially on the + Pawnees, because, as we have seen, they best imitated wolves. + In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the wolf alone was + universally common, the designation "wolf-people" (or if we + choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one + locality or people, but was bestowed in general on those who + assumed the manner of wolves, and because of their crimes + became outcasts like the wolves. They best imitate wolves, and + no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as wolves + (see note 102), and for this reason the _warg_ or outlaw came + to be called a _wolf_ (see close of note 112). Thus Golther, + Mythologie, p. 102, says: "Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder + gettet, so findet man einen wunden oder toten Menschen." The + werewolves, as we have seen (ante p. 25), keep to the _woods_ + and the _dark_, of course in many cases to avoid detection. + Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: "They say that + witches love the _night_ and lurk in _shadows and darkness_. + Witches are believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts." + Sigmund and Sinfjtli dwelt as wolves in the _woods_. Also the + progenitor of the Mramenn in Iceland at _night_ could leave + his house in wolf's form. Another Norwegian account reports + how earlier many people were able to take on wolf's form, then + dwelt in _grove_ and _woods_, where they tore people to pieces, + etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note 113. + + [111] Names. See note 31. The development in the case of names + was perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note 57), and of + the werewolf superstition itself (ante p. 15, fol.); namely, a) + protection against outside agencies was sought; b) growth of + supernaturalism; c) element of humor. + + a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: "Children are often + named _wolf_, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their + supernatural foes" (for similar assumption of characteristics + or the nature of animals for personal advantage see note 33). + See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1139: "The escort of + _wolf_ or _raven_ augured victory;" and in the note: "A name + of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O.H.G. + _Wolf-hraban_ (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly + promised victory. Old names are no product of pure chance. + Servian mothers name a son they have longed for, _Vuk_, + _Wolf_: then the witches can't eat him up. O.H.G. _Wolfbizo_ + was a lucky name, i.e., one bitten by the wolf and thereby + protected," like our modern curing of like by like in medicine. + + b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development + mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about + the conferring of secret names, since one could harm a person + by his name alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning + his name: "Wenn man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g'rennt." Again + in XXI. 313 fol.: It was dangerous to name _bear_ or _wolf_ + in regions infested by these animals, so people, out of fear, + avoided calling the name of such animals; called the bear for + example _honey-eater_, etc. + + c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his + fear of them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and + humor enter in, and such names arise as are mentioned in note + 53; and such stories as that of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a + wolf. + + [112] Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws + who have fled to the woods. A notable instance is that of + Sigmund and Sinfjtli in the Vlsungasaga. In regard to this W. + Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, Leipzig 1895, + p. 102, says: "Die Sage mag auf einem alten Misverstndniss + beruhen. _Warg_, _Wolf_ hiess der Gechtete in der germanischen + Rechtssprache. _Warg_ wurde wrtlich als _Wolf_ verstanden, + und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte." Golther again, p. + 424:--"Gefesselt wurde Loki als chter in den Wald getrieben, + er wurde "_Warg_", d. h. _Wolf_. _Wlfe_ heissen die friedlosen + Waldgnger." As to _warg_, Schade in his altdeutsches + Wrterbuch defines it as a ruberisch wrgendes wtendes Wesen, + Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise, + gechteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetter; _warg_ ist + Benennung des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und + vertragbrchiger Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden + durch Mord gebrochen und landflchtig geworden, oder nun im + wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere haust und wie der Wolf + ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche auf Island + Bezeichnung einer gewaltttigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm, + Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American + Indians relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67 + fol.: An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself + without the protection of his clan, is not defended in case he + is injured by another. When the sentence of outlawry has been + declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the duty of + the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the + council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty + of any member of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill + him like an animal. Page 60 fol.: "The chief of the Wolf gens + is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe" (see also Ethn. + Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the _woods_ and the + _dark_. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal + skins, and to terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves. + Since therefore so many outlaws lived, dressed (note 22 close) + and acted like wolves, to all intents and purposes became + wolves, _wolf_ and outlaw became synonymous terms. + + [113] The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night + in Germany is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people + believed that werewolves, etc., entered houses at night. In + place of the earlier harmful werewolf is now the "harmful" + night air. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + + ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche. + Stuttgart, 1878. + + BEHAGHEL, OTTO. Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902. + + BRAUNE, WILHELM. Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907. + + BROCKHAUS, F. A. Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol. + + BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901. + + DILTHEY, WILHELM. Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906. + + EDDA. Die lieder der lteren edda. Paderborn, 1876. + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. New York, 1883, etc. + + ERMAN, ADOLF. Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833. + + FISKE, JOHN. Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892. + + FREYTAG, GUSTAV. Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904. + + GOLTHER, W. Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Rechtsaltertmer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Teutonic mythology. Translation by J.S. Stallybrass, + London, 1882. + + GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD. Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892. + + GRINNELL, G. B. Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893. + + GRINNELL, G. B. Story of the Indian. New York, 1895. + + HERTZ, W. Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862. + + HIRT, H. Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol. + + INDOGERMANISCHE FORSCHUNGEN. Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904, 1907. + + KLUGE, F. Etymologisches wrterbuch der deutschen sprache. + Strassburg, 1905. + + LEMCKE, K. Aesthetik in gemeinverstndlichen vortrgen. Leipzig, + 1890. + + LEUBUSCHER, R. ber die wehrwlfe und thierverwandlungen im + mittelalter. Berlin, 1850. + + LITERARY DIGEST. New York and London, March 9, 1907. + + MEYERS. Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900. + + PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900. + + SCHADE, O. Altdeutsches wrterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol. + + SCHRADER, O. Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde. + Strassburg, 1901. + + VLSUNGASAGA. Ranisch, Berlin, 1891. + + WESTLICHE POST. St. Louis. + + WUNDT, W. Vlkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905. + + ZEITSCHRIFT FR DEUTSCHES ALTERTUM. Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904. + + ZEITSCHRIFT FR DEUTSCHE PHILOLOGIE. Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906. + + + + +INDEX + +[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.] + + + Abipones, _9, 66._ + + Abyssinia, _9._ + + Africa, 5, 23; _9, 47, 65._ + + Alligator, _9._ + + America, 5; _9, 85._ + + American Indians, 5, 14, 21, 23, 27; _9, 27, 66, 110._ + + Anglo-Saxons, _9._ + + Animals, _42._ + + Animal fable, _15._ + + Arabia, _9._ + + Arawaks, _9._ + + Arcadia, _9, 15._ + + Asia, 5; _9, 12, 16._ + + Assyrians, _15._ + + + Bear, 5; _9, 15, 16, 38, 102, 109, 111._ + + Belgium, _12._ + + Benignant, _4, 38._ + + Berserkr, 1; _102._ + + Bird, 5. + + Bison, _12, 27, 31, 32, 73, 74._ + + Bohemia, _9._ + + Borneo, _9._ + + Bretons, _9._ + + Bulgaria, _9._ + + Burchard von Worms, _9._ + + Burmah, _12._ + + + Celebrations, _21._ + + Ceylon, _12._ + + Charms, 10, 16. + + Clothing, 8, 9, 11, 16, 28. + + Coyote, 13. + + + Dancing, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16; _32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 57._ + + Dante, _24._ + + Death, _22._ + + Decoy, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 28; _29, 30, 31._ + + Denmark, _9._ + + Dog, 5, 21, 27; _19, 64, 73, 74._ + + Dreams, 21; _67._ + + + Edda, _15._ + + Enemy, 8, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29; _48, 60, 65, 102, 111._ + + English, _9, 109._ + + Eskimo, _30, 31, 67._ + + Europe, 5, 7; _9, 12, 16, 110._ + + + Fenrislfr, _9, 51._ + + Finns, _5._ + + Fish, _5._ + + Fisherman, _29._ + + Food, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 28, 29; _27, 29._ + + Forest, 25; _22, 65, 102, 107, 110, 112._ + + Fox, 5, 12; _9, 15, 21._ + + French, _9, 12._ + + + Germany, 2, 4, 5; _9, 22._ + + Greece, 1, 7; _9, 15, 22._ + + Greenland, _12, 69._ + + + Harmful, 1, 11, 13; _42, 51._ + + Herds, _9, 12, 20._ + + Herodotus, 1; _15._ + + Hindoos, _9._ + + Homer, _24._ + + Hunter, 7, 8; _15, 31, 52, 53, 64, 95._ + + Hyena, 5, 23; _9._ + + + Iceland, _9, 110._ + + India, 5; _9, 12._ + + Indogermanic, 7; _9, 20, 42._ + + Insanity, 21, 22, 24; _24, 73, 85, 102._ + + Iranians, _9._ + + Ireland, _9._ + + Italians, _9._ + + + Jackal, _12._ + + Jaguar, _9._ + + Japan, _9._ + + + Kadiak, _29._ + + Kelts, 7; _9._ + + Knut, _9._ + + + Lapps, 5. + + Leopard, 5; _9, 65._ + + Leubuscher, 6; _9, 20._ + + Lion, 5; _9, 45, 65._ + + Lithuanians, _9._ + + Loki, 14; _9, 112._ + + Lycanthropy, 2; _9, 19, 20, 22, 74, 102._ + + Lykaon, _9, 15._ + + + Magic, 23, 24; _22, 37, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 84, 107._ + + Malignant, 24; _4, 84, 102, 109, 113._ + + Mask, 8, 11, 15; _29, 37, 42, 57, 64, 67, 107, 111._ + + Mastodon, _20._ + + Medicinemen (Shamans), 20; _52, 63, 66, 67, 74, 81, 83, 85, 90, + 107._ + + Mexico, _12, 67._ + + Middle Ages, 22; _9, 74, 102._ + + Murder, 24; _20, 22, 52, 102, 112._ + + Myths, 7, 27; _24, 95, 102._ + + + Names, _42, 53, 109, 111._ + + Netherlands, _9._ + + Neurians, 1; _15._ + + Night, 1, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25; _63, 65, 66, 69, 74, 84, 102, 110, + 112, 113._ + + North America, _12._ + + Norway, _9._ + + + Odin, _15._ + + Island Oesel, _9._ + + Otter, _29._ + + Outlaw, 24, 26; _84, 110, 112._ + + Owl, 5, 30; _64._ + + + Pawnees, 12, 13, 23; _110._ + + Persia, _9._ + + Plants, _42, 95._ + + Poles, _9, 14._ + + Portuguese, _9._ + + Posen, _14._ + + Priests, _22, 67, 69, 83._ + + Professionals, 22, 23, 24, 25; _74, 81, 83, 86._ + + Provencal, _9._ + + Prussia, _14._ + + + Reindeer, 5. + + Religion, _22, 24, 57._ + + Revenge, 14, 17, 24, 28; _52, 69._ + + Robber, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28; _15, 20, 44, 53, 65, + 112._ + + Romans, 7; _9, 27._ + + Russia, 2; _9, 12, 16._ + + + Scandinavia, _9._ + + Scout, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 29; _47, 48, 60._ + + Scythians, _6._ + + Seal, _29, 31, 69._ + + Serpent, 5; _9._ + + Servia, _9._ + + Shepherds, _15, 20._ + + Siam, _12, 69._ + + Sinfjtli, _15, 64, 110._ + + Song, 9, 10, 15; _33, 64._ + + Skins (or dress) of animals, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, + 23, 25, 28, 29, 30; _21, 22, 31, 34, 52, 53, 57, 60, 63, 64, + 65, 66, 67, 74, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112._ + + South America, 5; _12._ + + Speech (animals), 7. + + Stories, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29; _9, 27, 60, 69, 102, 111._ + + Supernaturalism, 10, 17, 18; _57, 65, 102, 111._ + + Superstition, 1, 4, 5, 14, 23; _20, 64._ + + Sweden, _9._ + + + Tiger, 5; _9, 45, 69, 90._ + + Totemism, 2; _47, 102._ + + Transformation, 5, 15, 21; _9, 11, 19, 22, 52, 64, 65, 66, 69, + 107._ + + Traps, 8; _31._ + + Tschechs, _9._ + + Turkey, 5; _108._ + + + Volhynia, 2; _9, 16._ + + Vlsungasaga, _15, 112._ + + + Wales, _9._ + + Warfare, 12, 13, 16; _60._ + + Weapons, 7, 8, 9. + + Werewolf, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30; _9, 15, 20, 22, 45, + 64, 84, 86, 91, 102, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113._ + + Wiener Hundesegen, _15._ + + Witches, 11, 19, 23; _65, 66, 67, 74, 83, 84, 91, 102, 109, 110, + 111._ + + + + +Transcriber's note + + +Words in italics were surrounded with _underscores_, and small capitals +changed to all capitals. + +Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were +added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they +were referred to in other notes. The notes were moved to directly after +the paragraph with the corresponding anchor. + +In note 32 "Ts-si-kwa-ya" and "ki+" were in the original +written with a breve on the i, this has been changed to a plain i. +"Vlsungasaga" and "Sinfjtli" were in the original mostly written with +a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader's +convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common +spelling with . + +Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. In note +12 "and" was changed to "und" (seltener in Frankreich und Belgien). + +Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and +missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent +spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by +Caroline Taylor Stewart + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF *** + +***** This file should be named 44134-8.txt or 44134-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/1/3/44134/ + +Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at + www.gutenberg.org/license. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 +North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email +contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the +Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + diff --git a/old/44134-8.zip b/old/44134-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..788cc7c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44134-8.zip diff --git a/old/44134-h.zip b/old/44134-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aeedc1e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44134-h.zip diff --git a/old/44134-h/44134-h.htm b/old/44134-h/44134-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5f13b8d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44134-h/44134-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2572 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition., by Caroline Taylor Stewart. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + +h1,h2 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal;} + +h1 {font-size: 100%; font-weight: bold;} +h2 {line-height: 180%; font-size: 100%; padding-top: 2em;} + +p {margin-top: .1em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .1em; + text-indent: 1em;} + +p.num {font-size: 90%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} + +.pagenum {position: absolute; left: 94%; font-size: 60%; text-align: right; + color: #999999; letter-spacing: 0; text-indent: 0; + font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;} + +hr.l1 {width: 60%; margin-top: 4em; margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + +.blockquot {font-size: 90%;} +.blockquot p {padding-top: .2em; padding-bottom: .2em; + padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -5em;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +img {max-width: 100%; height: auto;} +.figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center; + padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;} + +.centered {text-align: center; margin: auto; display: table; max-width: 90%;} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 90%;} +.footnote .label {vertical-align: top; font-size: 80%;} +.fnanchor {vertical-align: top; font-size: 70%; text-decoration: none;} + +ul.lsoff {list-style-type: none;} +li {text-align: left; font-size: 90%; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} +li.cnt {margin-left: -3.5em;} + +a:link {text-decoration: none;} +a:visited {text-decoration: none;} +a:link:hover {text-decoration: underline; color: red;} +a:link:active {text-decoration: underline;} + +.tnote {border: dashed 1px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 4em; padding: .5em 1em .5em 1em; font-size: 80%;} +.tn {text-align: center; margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1.5em; + text-indent: 0;} + +@media handheld { + hr.l1 {margin-left: 20%;} + .pagenum {display: none;} +} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by +Caroline Taylor Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition + +Author: Caroline Taylor Stewart + +Release Date: November 8, 2013 [EBook #44134] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF *** + + + + +Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="tnote"> +<p>Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected. +A more detailed transcriber's note can be found at the end of this text.</p> + +<div class="centered"><ul class="lsoff"> + <li class="cnt"><a href="#NOTES">NOTES</a></li> + <li class="cnt"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></li> + <li class="cnt"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></li> + <li class="cnt"><a href="#Transcribers_note">Transcriber’s note</a></li></ul></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" width="500" height="761" alt="Cover" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + + +<h1>THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></h1> + + +<p>The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an +animal’s form, most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost +worldwide superstition. Such a transformed person is the Germanic +werewolf, or man-wolf; that is, a wolf which is really +a human being.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> So the werewolf was a man in wolf’s form or +wolf’s dress,<a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> seen mostly at night,<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> and believed generally to +be harmful to man.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p> + +<p>The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily +explained. Adolf Erman<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> explains the allusion of +Herodotus<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> to the transformation of the Neurians (the people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +of the present Volhynia, in West Russia) into wolves as due +merely to their appearance in winter, dressed in their furs. This +explanation, however, would not fit similar superstitions in warm +climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy to primitive +Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the members +of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> Still +another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the +original werewolf.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p> + +<p>The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must +be one which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition +is found pretty much all over the earth,<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> especially to-day<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> +however in Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +the lands where the wolf is most common.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> <a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> According to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +Mogk<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> the superstition prevails to-day especially in the north +and east of Germany.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p> + +<p>The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +The point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living +human being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the +wolf was common<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa, +where these animals are common; into a tiger or serpent in +India;<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> in other localities into other animals characteristic of +the region.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> Among Lapps and Finns occur transformations +into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish or birds; amongst many North +Asiatic peoples, as also some American Indians, into the bear; +amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf, turkey or owl; in +South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar, also into a fish, or +serpent. Most universal though it seems was the transformation +into wolves or dogs.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p> + +<p>As the superstition is so widespread—Germany, Eastern +Europe, Africa, Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +when all these peoples were in communication with each other<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> +or else, in accord with another view of modern science, it arose +independently in various continents in process of the natural psychical +development of the human race under similar conditions.</p> + +<p>The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom +of primitive man’s of putting on a wolf’s or other animal’s +skin<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> or dress, or a robe.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> Thus Leubuscher,<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> says: “Es ist<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +der Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten +hervorgewachsen.”<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> <a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> Likely also the notion of attributing +speech to animals originated from such disguising or +dressing of men as animals. In the following we shall examine +into primitive man’s reasons for putting on such a skin or robe.</p> + +<p>Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had +to conquer them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in +Europe arose probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic +peoples were still in contact with each other, if not in the +original Indo-Germanic home, for they all have the superstition +(unless, as above, we prefer to regard the belief as arising in +various localities in process of psychical development under similar +conditions; namely, when people still lived principally by the +chase.<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a>) Probably the primitive Indo-European man before and +at the time of the origin of the werewolf superstition, was almost +helpless in the presence of inexorable nature. This was before +he used metal for weapons. The great business of life was to +secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots, +berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any +size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet +primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no +longer crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but +began to watch and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what +certain animals would do under certain circumstances, to learn +what would frighten them away or what would lure them on. +So at least the large animals were to early man a constant cause +of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary to have their +flesh for food and their skins for clothing.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p> + +<p>Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for +trapping them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of +decoys to lure animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits, +others more easily by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> +and similarly, another form of the original decoy was no doubt +simply the stuffed skin of a member of the species, whether animal +or bird, say for example a wild duck.<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> Of course the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself putting on the animal +skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an individual dressed +for example in a wolf’s skin could approach near enough to a +solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other weapon, +without exciting the wolf’s suspicion of the nearness of a dangerous +foe.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used +by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure +food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise, +whole or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions +and cries of animals,<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> at first to lure them, when acting as a +decoy. With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, +and an additional reason for acquiring dance and song was to +secure charms against bodily ills,<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> and finally enlivenment.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> In +both dance and song, when used for a serious purpose, the performers +imagined themselves to be the animals they were imitating,<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +and in the dance they wore the skins of the animals +represented.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p> + +<p>Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed +merely for decoys and sport (early dancing),<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> for peaceful +purposes therefore, such people having whole or partial animal +shape were not regarded as harmful to man,<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> just as wise women +began to pass for witches only when with their art they did evil.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> +A similar development can be traced in the case of masks.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> It +was some time before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing +animals that were dangerous to life, though these are +the ones he first studied;<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> and we cannot presuppose that he disguised +to represent them until he could cope with them, since the +original purpose of the disguise was to secure food and clothing. +Thus far then we see whole or partial disguise as animals used to +secure <em>food</em> and <em>clothing</em> when acting as decoys to lure animals; +and in <em>dancing</em>.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + +<p>Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal’s skin or +dress when out as <em>forager</em> (or robber) or <em>spy</em>, for the purpose +of avoiding detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for +example,<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> were called by neighboring tribes <em>wolves</em>, probably +not out of contempt, since it may be doubted that an Indian feels +contempt for a wolf any more than he does for a fox, a rabbit, or +an elk, but because of their adroitness as scouts, warriors and +stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think, because of their +great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so as to escape detection +by the enemy by day or night; or, according to some +neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a>, “have the +endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can +make long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their +way, or on no food at all.” ... And further, “The Pawnees, +when they went on the warpath, were always prepared to simulate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +wolves.... Wolves on the prairie were too common<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> +to excite remark, and at night they would approach close +to the Indian camps.” ... The Pawnee starting off on the +warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later +times a white blanket or a white sheet; and, at <em>night</em>, wrapping +himself in this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he +walked or trotted here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed +himself into a common object of the landscape. This +disguise was employed by <em>day</em> as well, for reconnoissance.... +While the party remained hidden in some ravine or hollow, one +Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to the top of the +hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches looking all +over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him, would +take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the +Pawnees could imitate wolves best. “An Indian going into an +enemy’s country is often called a wolf,<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> and the sign for a scout +is made up of the signs <em>wolf</em> and <em>look</em>.”<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> Should any scout detect +danger, as at <em>night</em> when on duty near an encampment, he +must give the cry of the coyote.<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p> + +<p>The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in +animal form or dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal +disguise began to act not only as decoys for animals dangerous +to life, but also as scouts (robbers<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a>—and later as possessors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +of supernatural power, when growth of culture brought +with it growth of supernaturalism<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a>); when people began to associate, +for example, the wolf’s form with a lurking enemy.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p> + +<p>All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the +defensive, like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion +have sent out scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid +detection, assumed the disguise of the animal most common to +the special locality in question, just as to-day they are known to +disguise in animal skins for purposes of plunder or revenge.<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> <a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> + +<p>The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying +principle is the same; namely, the transformation of a living human +being into an animal. The origin of the belief in such a +transformation, as stated above<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> was the simple putting on of +an animal skin by early man. The object of putting on animal +skins was,</p> + +<p>(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries +of animals were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> +artificial decoys (like decoy ducks to-day)<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> and finally even +masks were used.<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> + +<p>(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying +animals, as in (1) above.</p> + +<p><a name="point3" id="point3"></a>(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals +led to dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the +faces and bodies of the participants were painted in imitation of +the colors of birds and animals, the motions of animals imitated +and animal disguises used.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p> + +<p>(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out +foraging, as well as for warfare,<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> <a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> therefore for booty, and self-defense. +Either they wore the entire skin, or probably later just +a part of it as a fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as +a charm by many of our colored people to-day.<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> + +<p>(5) For purposes of revenge,<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a>,<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> personal or other. For +some other personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror +in the opposing agent by hideousness.</p> + +<p>(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing +superhuman agencies.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> So now would arise first a belief in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +superhuman power or attributes,<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> and then,</p> + +<p>(7) Witchcraft.<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> It is very easy to see why it was usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a><br /><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +the so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who +claimed such transformation power, because they received remuneration +from their patients.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="point8" id="point8"></a>(8) Finally dreams<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> and exaggerated reports gave rise +to fabulous stories.<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a></p> + +<p>We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> for an example under +(4) we have cited the practices of American Indians.<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> It is +probable that about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above), +what is known as the real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied, +rabid manwolf) began to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin +was already a lurking thief or enemy, or a destroyer of human +life. To advance from this stage to the werewolf frenzy, our +primitive man must have seen about him some exhibition of such +a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this frenzy particularly +with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons, and the connecting +link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as the transformation +was usually into a wolf or dog,<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a>) for persons bitten +by it usually went mad too.<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> The ensuing frenzy, with the consternation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds +as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some +no doubt actually had the malady; others honestly believed they +had it and got into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked +themselves up into a frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> +Later, in the Middle Ages, when the nature of the real +disease came to be better understood, the werewolf superstition +had become too firmly fixed to be easily uprooted.</p> + +<p>We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> As +further examples of the development into fabulous story,<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> we may +cite any of those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man +is represented as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and +tearing to pieces men and beasts, until he resumes his human +form. Thus an early scout in animal garb would be obliged +to live on food he found on his way, and later fabulous report +would represent him as himself when in disguise possessing the +attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to pieces man +and beast. For such an account see Andree,<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> concerning what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the +hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed +such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread +abroad such a report as would enhance the influence of the +hyena-men far and wide. Some savages, as in Africa,<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> came +to regard any animal that robbed them of children, goats or other +animals, as a witch in animal form;<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> just as the American Indians +ascribe to evil spirits death, sickness and other misfortunes.</p> + +<p>We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an +animal robe would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> +how though, as soon as the element of magic enters in, he would +try to keep up the illusion. At this stage, when the original +defensive measure had become tainted with superstition, men +would go about in the night time howling and holding their +vile revels.<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> Andree,<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> narrates how a soldier in Northeast +Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and came to +the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician. +No hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh +wound. Soon he died, however the soldier did not survive him +long. Doubtless one of the magician class was responsible for +the death of the soldier, just as we to-day put to death the man +who so violates our laws, as to become a menace to our society, +or as formerly kings killed those who stood in their way; or as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +religious sects murder those who dissent from their faith. These +magicians, supposed to be men who could assume animal form, +as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly feared by +other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and at +<em>night</em> come forth to plunder and kill.<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> It is to their interest to +counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were +put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> Their frenzies +were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in +other cases they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent +opportunities for personal gain or vengeance.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> + +<p>Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition +and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the +outrages hope to escape punishment for their depredations, could +they hope to plunder and steal with impunity.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> So they prowled +usually under the cloak of <em>night</em> or of the dark of the forest,<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> +howled and acted like the animals they represented, hid the +animal skin or blanket, if they used one,<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> in the daytime where +they thought no one could find it, whereas the animal skin which +was worn for defence, was put on either by day or night,<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> and +one story recounts the swallowing of a whole goat, the man +bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did it.<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> Some of the +transformed men claimed they could regain human form only +by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters +were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress, +each maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices, +just as did the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those +of the American negro, who in church, when “shouting,” that is, +when stirred up by religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy +who happens to be in the church, of course with impunity; for +he is supposed to be under some outside control, and when the +spell has passed off, like some of the delusionists mentioned,<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> +claims not to know what he (or generally she) has done. Similar +also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of the fire-eaters, or +any other sham.</p> + +<p>The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was +that most often assumed for example in Germanic lands.<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> The +term <em>wolf</em> became synonymous with <em>robber</em>, and later (when +the robber became an outlaw,<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a>) with <em>outlaw</em>, the robber and outlaw +alike being called wolf and not some other animal (i. e., +only the wolf-man surviving to any extent) firstly, because the +wolf was plentiful; and secondly, because as civilization advanced, +there came a time when the wolf was practically the only one of +the larger undomesticated animals that survived.<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> We can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +notice this in our own United States, for example in eastern +Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes +heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the +pastures adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller +animals, and dig up buried ones.<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> In Prussia also it is the wolf +that survives to-day. American Indians, and other savages however +do not restrict the transformations to the wolf,<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> because +other wild animals, are, or were till recently, abundant amongst +them. As civilization advances, one by one the animal myths +disappear with the animals that gave rise to them (like that connected +with the mastodon);<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> or else stories of such domestic +animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> When this +stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully +coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals +were shorn of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as +Aesop’s fables would arise.<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> This however was psychologically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +a long step in advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an +earlier period.</p> + +<p>Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf +superstition went through various stages of development. The +motives for assuming wolf’s dress (or animal skins or robes), at +first were purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to +secure food by acting as decoys; then it was used for personal +advantage or gain by foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for +purposes of vengeance;<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> later from a desire for power over +others; and finally men (the professional and the superstitious) +began to concoct fabulous stories which were handed down as +tradition or myth, according to the psychic level of the narrator +and hearer.<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> + +<p>The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful +werewolf is the disguising as some common animal by members +of savage races when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to +escape detection by the enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land +in search of food. As stated above,<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> later fabulous report would +represent them as possessing in their disguise the attributes of +the animal they impersonated,<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> and finally even of actually +taking on animal form, either wholly or in part,<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> for longer or +shorter periods of time. Some of the North American Indian +transformation stories represent men as having only the head, +hands and feet of a wolf.<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> The transformation into a werewolf +in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made of +wolf-skin.<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising +the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent +a person as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other +article of apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> The stories especially +in Europe were of the <em>were-wolf</em> rather than <em>were-bear</em> or other +animal, because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild +animals.<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> It was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, +which crystallized into the household werewolf or transformation +tales.<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> + + +<h2><a name="NOTES" id="NOTES"></a>NOTES:</h2> + + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> <span class="smcap">Note.</span>—After the author had written the following article, she +gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That the origin +and development of the use of masks as given in the Annual Report of the +United States Bureau of Ethnology, 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note <a href="#Footnote_32">32</a>) is +similar to the origin and development of the werewolf superstition itself, +as given in the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The +author has italicized some words in the quotations.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> According to Mogk, in Paul’s Grundriss der germanischen Philologie +III. 272 <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wer</em> means “man,” found in Old Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, Old High +German, and werewolf a man in wolf’s form. Kögel connects <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wer</em> with +Gothic <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wasjan</em> “kleiden.” “Darum bedeutet <em>werwolf</em> eigentlich Wolfsgewand +úlfshamr; ähnlich bedeutet vielleicht <em lang="no" xml:lang="no">berserkr</em> Bärengewand,” therefore +werewolf according to Kögel means a wolf’s dress. See also Schrader, +Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> Post p. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:—Beastform in mythology +proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for benignant ends. See +note <a href="#Footnote_52">52</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and Greeks +settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once a year every Neurian +becomes a wolf for a few days, and then resumes the human form. +See concerning this also Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 120.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>, also see note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> See also Mogk in Paul’s Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud. Leubuscher: +Über die Wehrwölfe und Thierverwandlungen im Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850, +mentions cases in ancient Arcadia, in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the +almost epidemic disease in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf, +Stuttgart, 1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia +(hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to Encyc. Brit. +below; on p. 133 he says: “Tierverwandlungen sind allgemein menschlich, +finden wir überall. Die eigentümliche Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen +aber finden wir vorzugsweise bei einer bestimmten Völkergruppe, den +arischen Stämmen der Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven; +bei den südwärts gezogenen Stämmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns +gleiche Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten treten +die Werwölfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehört die älteste historische +Erwähnung der Sage; viel älter aber ist der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische +Werwölfe”. According to Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, +Stuttgart, 1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European +country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles, +Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants of island +Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in +Asia, Africa, America; but not in India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit. +below), especially though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands.</p> + +<p>As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for 1880-81, p. 83, +“From their close relations with wild animals Indians’ stories of transformations +into beasts and beasts into men are numerous and interesting.... In +times of peace, during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller +told of those days in the past when men and animals could transform +themselves at will and hold converse with one another.”</p> + +<p>Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell & Sons, 1883, II. 668 +says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic antiquities +than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrisûlfr, a son of Loki, makes +his appearance in wolf’s shape among the gods.</p> + +<p><a name="Encyc_Brit" id="Encyc_Brit"></a>Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy, states:—A +belief firmly rooted among all savages is that men are in certain circumstances +transformed temporarily or permanently into wolves and other inferior +animals. In Europe the transformation into a wolf is by far more +prominent and frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans, +French, Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most +prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. Thus the +were-<em>wolf</em> prevails in Europe, also in England, Wales, Ireland; and in S. +France, the Netherlands, Germany, Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, +Poland, Russia, he can hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note <a href="#Footnote_12">12</a>). +In Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland the <em>bear</em> competes with the +wolf for pre-eminence. In Persia the <em>bear</em> is supreme; in Japan the <em>fox</em>; in +India the <em>serpent</em> vies with the <em>tiger</em> (contrary to Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. +272, who says:—“Nur Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter +den indogermanischen Völkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und +Iraniern ist er unbekannt.” Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in +Abyssinia and Borneo the <em>hyena</em> with the <em>lion</em>; in E. Africa the <em>lion</em> with the +<em>alligator</em>; in W. Africa the <em>leopard</em> is perhaps most frequently the form +assumed by man; among the Abipones the <em>tiger</em>, among the Arawaks the +<em>jaguar</em>, etc.</p> + +<p>In Brockhaus’ Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the werewolf +belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and Romanic peoples; +found to-day especially in Volhynia and White Russia.</p> + +<p>Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:—Bei den Angelsachsen lässt sich der Werwolf +im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern, ihre Herden +vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das älteste Zeugnis auf deutschem +Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v. Worms (11 century).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:—There can nowhere be a living belief in +contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which has ceased to exist +in the particular locality. Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most +prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. (See +note <a href="#Footnote_12">12</a>.) In none of these cases however is the power of transformation +limited exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under <em>Wolf</em>:—The wolf is found +in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America from Greenland +to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in Ceylon, Burmah or +Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in the two latter jackals +instead.</p> + +<p>Meyer’s Kleines konversations-lexikon:—Der wolf “ist häufig in Ost- +und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika, seltener in Frankreich +und Belgien, den Herden gefährlich, besonders in Russland.” Encyc. +Brit., XXIV under <em>Wolf</em>:—In northern countries the wolf is generally +larger and more powerful than in the southern portion of its range. +Its habits are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been +known to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of his +flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance. They usually +assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and by their combined +and persevering efforts are able to overpower and kill even such great +animals as the American bison. Children and even grown people +are not infrequently attacked by them when pressed for hunger. The +ferocity of the wolf in the wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed, +they can rarely be trusted by strangers.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> Paul, Grundriss, III. 272.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p. 275 fol., +speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: “Noch lebte das Landvolk +in ohnmächtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Wölfe, wenig Dörfer, +welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere decimirt wurden,” +and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:—“Als 1815 die gegenwärtige Provinz +Posen an Preussen zurückfiel, waren auch dort die Wölfe eine Landplage. +Nach Angaben der Posener Provinzialblätter wurden im Regierungsbezirk +Posen vom 1. Sept. 1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Wölfe erlegt, noch +im Jahre 1819 im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von +Wölfen gefressen.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> Thus in note <a href="#Footnote_6">6</a> was mentioned Herodotus’ (484-425 B. C.) statement +about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend, according to Hertz, is +that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos, the first king of ancient Arcadia. +These Arcadians lived as huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert +(Andree, p. 65; and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed +amongst the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf +myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B. C). In the Norse “Edda” we find +Odin’s wolves, also Sköll, Hati and Fenrir. In the Völsunga Saga, Sigmund +and Sinfjötli become wolves. For other reflections of the fear in +which wolves were held, see the 10th century ms. of the “Wiener +Hundesegen” against male and female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches +Lesebuch, 6. aufl. 1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,—Geschichte der deutschen +sprache s. 233:—“Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte raubthier +des waldes dar, und lehrt die nähe des wolfs und fuchses.”</p> + +<p>C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:—“In die ältesten Zeiten +hinauf reicht auch bei Jägervölkern die Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil +die Eigentümlichkeiten der Tiere erklärend, ihr Gebahren erzählend. +Die furchtbaren und die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo +die Menschen städtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie +einsamer mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine höhere Bedeutung. So +wird dem Wäldler Bär und Wolf zum ebenbürtigen Räuber und Kämpfer, +menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht, der +Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to Andree, p. +65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it is to-day in Russia. +Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: “Der Wolf ist überall in Europa +verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> Cf. note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>, <a href="#Encyc_Brit">Encyc. Brit.</a></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> Leubuscher, p. 1:—Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in Hunde +und Wölfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den namen Lykanthropie.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> Or as Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for example +amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still formed a whole, +as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of herds was especially feared. +Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: “Die meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die +im Freien lebten, mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte +ihrer Einbildungskraft am öftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit zu +kämpfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in Einzelnen +als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich von Wölfen besonders +beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich manche Mordthat nur von +Wölfen begangen.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 282:—“The Dakotas have long +believed in the appearance from time to time of a monstrous animal that +swallows human beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the +bones of mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:—In celebrations it is possible that the +foxskin so universally worn by the animistic personifications is a survival +comparable with the skin of the animal in which formerly the whole +body was clothed.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: “In der ältesten Naturreligion +ist die Gottheit des Todes und der winterlichen Erde als Wolf +gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten +nach dem Volksglauben die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu +verwandeln. Der Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum +raschen Zurücklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders +geeignet. Darum nahmen die Götter und die zauberbegabten Menschen +zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von Natur gefährlich und +wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang +nach Mord und Zerstörung die Hauptsache. Die Ursprünge des Werwolfglaubens +waren also 1. religiöse Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung +(der friedlose Mörder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die +Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie.” Page 51. “Die Verwandlung in +Wölfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden.” Page 57: “Dass die +von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen Waldflüchtigen sich in +Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> Page 46. See also note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p. 153 fol.;—“Ist so +die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und Götterglauben, zunächst gebunden an +das Bedürfnis des Lebens, so sondert sie sich doch allmählich im Verlauf +der Kultur von den religiösen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite +Welt zu einer unabhängigen Bedeutsamkeit”—like Homer, Dante, etc. +See note <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:—“Insane delusions +must reflect the usages and beliefs of contemporaneous society.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">25</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>, <a href="#Footnote_21">21</a> and <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_15">15</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:—Traces of the fear in +which buffalo “were held may still be discovered in the traditional stories +of certain tribes, which set forth how, in those days,” [i. e. in the stone +age] “before men were provided with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill, +and eat the people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo +were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly have arisen save +as the result of actual experience of their power to inflict injury and +death.” Pliny informs us how the Romans kept the wolf out of their +fields, see Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians +lived on the steppes, in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains, +the animals were their whole study. They moved with the animals, +followed them for food.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:—It seems that masks were occasionally +used as decoys.... Next to the otter the most valuable animal in +the estimation of the Kadiak men, is the species of seal or sea-dog called +by the Russians nerpa. The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it +toward the shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body +among the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque resembling +the head of a seal and makes a noise like that animal. The unsuspicious +seal, imagining that he is about to meet a partner of his own +species, hastens to the spot and is instantly killed. Compare note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:—Bering Strait Eskimo stuff rudely the +skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon a stick which holds +the head outstretched, then imitate the call of the bird, which is trapped +in the net attached to the decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft +snow into the form of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around +the neck for plumage. The call then brought the real birds.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> Thus G. B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his description +of the primitive Indians’ method of trapping buffalo, says: “Some +men went forth naked, others carried a dress made of the entire skin of a +buffalo, the head and horns arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of +the skin hung down over the wearer’s back,” etc. This “caller” went near +to a herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into the +trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often proved fatal to +the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85, p. 484, about Central Eskimo +seal hunting, is stated: If a hunter is close to an animal he imitates its +movements. Some utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. “The +sealskin clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is +difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance.” And on p. +508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central Eskimos carry guns on +their shoulders, two men going together, so as to resemble the antlers of a +deer. The men imitate their grunting. If they lie on the ground at some +distance they greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to +Ross the “inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer, the +foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer’s head upon his own.” +Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:—“The old manner of hunting antelope and deer: +the hunter would disguise himself by covering his head with the head and +skin of an antelope, and so be enabled to approach the game near enough +to use his bow and arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask +themselves with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo.” Ethn. +Rep. 1901-02, p. 439;—Two of the party of hunters (Zuñi) out after deer +“wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front and back of the +shirt being painted to represent as nearly as possible the body of the deer; +the hands and the arms to the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to +represent the deer’s forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer’s head over +his head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as possible, +even to the browsing, the game they would catch.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:—“Tradition says the Iroquois derived the +music and action of the Buffalo dance while on an expedition against the +Cherokee, from the bellowing and the movements of a herd of buffalo +which they heard for the first time ‘singing their favorite songs,’ i. e. +bellowing and snorting.” Also note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent frostbite. The +wolf’s, deer’s, fox’s, opossum’s feet it is held never become frostbitten. +After each verse of the song, the singer imitates the cry and the action of +the animal. The words used are archaic in form and may be rendered +“I become a real wolf, etc.” The song runs:</p> + +<p>1. Tsûñ´ wa´ ‘ya-ya´ (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged howl). +The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his feet.</p> + +<p>2. Tsûñ´-ka´ wi-ye´ (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh! (imitating +the call and jumping of a deer).</p> + +<p>3. Tsûñ´-tsu´ ‘la-ya´ (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih! (imitates +barking and scratching of a fox).</p> + +<p>4. Tsûñ´-sĭ´-kwa-ya´ (four times), kĭ+(imitates cry of the opossum +when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal does when +feigning death).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance performed +by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep up their spirits, in +which each had his robe about him and imitated the actions of the coyote, +trotting, glancing around, etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo +dance, in which each of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over +his head, the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging +down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of the +buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the Omaha wolf +dance, by the society of those who have supernatural communication with +wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and dance in imitation of the +actions of wolves. Similarly they performed the grizzly bear dance, +horse dance, etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a>, <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a> and <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> See notes <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a> and <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> Similarly in the use of masks (see note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>). See Wundt, Völkerpsychologie +II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this Zeitschrift für deutsche +Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss. 558-568:—“Der maskierte mensch ist der +ekstatische Mensch. Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in +ekstase, fühlt er sich in fremde lebensvorgänge ein, eignet er sich das +wesen an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert.” Für den +naiven menschen, wie für das kind, ist die maske durchaus nicht +blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der augenblickstanz +wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvölker verwenden ihre masken nur +bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertänzen, nicht zu ihrer burlesken mimik; +die tänzer sind in Tiermasken, etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed into a +bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, +p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1097:—In Norse +accounts also we find transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded +as rational and was esteemed.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_57">57a</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a> and <a href="#Footnote_42">42</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> The important consideration in the mind of primitive man was +whether certain things were harmful or useful. See Behaghel, Die +deutsche Sprache, p. 98:—“Die grossen Tiere und die mächtigen +Bäume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die für die <em>Ernährung</em> and <em>Bekleidung</em> des +Menschen von Bedeutung sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben <em>bedrohen</em>, sie haben +viel früher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare Käfer +im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es, dass die Namen +der grösseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbäume, der wichtigsten Getreidearten +allen germanischer Stämmen gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie <em>Wolf</em>, +<em>Kuh</em>, <em>Ochse</em>, <em>Birke</em>, <em>Buche</em>, <em>Erle</em>, <em>Gerste</em> mit den Benennungen anderer +indogermanischer Völker übereinstimmen.” Doubtless animals occupied +their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt, Völkerpsychologie, II. +412 fol., about the <em>maskentanz</em>: “Überhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit +früher Berücksichtigung erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive.” See note <a href="#Footnote_95">95</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">43</span></a> G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N. Y., Scribners, +1893, p. 245, fol.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">44</span></a> Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein +sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hirpus</i> bedeutet <em>wolf</em> in sabinischer +oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf führer geworden +war, oder nach andrer sage sie wölfe gejagt hatten und gleich wölfen +raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen ausdrucks friedlos waren.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">45</span></a> The werewolf story could arise only where the animal, wolf, tiger or +lion, etc., was common; and likewise the werewolf tales gradually died +out when the animals became rare or extinct. See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">46</span></a> Grinnell, p. 245.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">47</span></a> The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild beasts save +their own totem-animals as <em>enemy-scouts</em> (Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">48</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. +208: The wolf was believed, in the animals’ council, to be able to give +the Indian the power to creep right into the midst of the enemy’s camp +without being seen.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">49</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_53">53</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">50</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_57">57-b</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">51</span></a> So originally the germanic god <em>Logi</em> was not an evil god. <em>Logi</em> meant +the natural force of fire; <em>Loki</em> meant the same, but the burly giant has +been made a sly, seducing villain (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of +Loki, Fenrisûlfr, appears in wolf’s shape among the gods. Perhaps +association with the wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of +Logi (Loki) from a good to an evil god.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">52</span></a> Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:—In modern savage life we find +beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in beast form for +the community; others are said to assume beast form in order to avenge +themselves justly on enemies; others for love of bloodshed and cannibalism. +See also note <a href="#Footnote_58">58</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">53</span></a> No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won considerable +fame through their skill and bravery, as we should judge from such +proper names as <em>Rudolf</em>, which means really <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ruhmwolf</em>, <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ruhm</em> related to +Gothic <em lang="und" xml:lang="und">hropeigs</em> “victorious,” Sanskrit <em lang="sa" xml:lang="sa">kir</em> “to praise”; or <em>Adolf</em> from +<em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Adalolf</em>, which means <em>Edelwolf</em>, originally, therefore, <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Edelräuber</em>, for +<em>wolf</em> meant originally about the same as <em>robber</em> (Kluge). So <em>robber</em> or +<em>wolf</em> was originally a highly respectable appellation, at a time when men +lived from robbery and the chase, either as searobbers, or mountain +robbers, etc. (about this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen, +1905, p. 268 fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace +(see appellation “wolves” applied to Pawnees, p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.). Later we find +such names as <em>Wulfila</em> “little wolf.” Many Indian names are those of +animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear, Conquering Bear, +Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear Rib, Smoking Bear, +Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear, Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone +Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe, etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83, +p. 169: The names of Indians very often refer to some animal, predicating +some attribute or position of that animal. For discussion of names, see +note <a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">54</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">55</span></a> See <a href="#point3">(3)</a> below.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">56</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">57</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_4">4</a> and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>):—The +use of masks is worldwide. The origin and development of the use of +masks is very much the same as the origin and development of the werewolf +as given in the preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both +originally useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into instruments +for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of the mask is described +in the above report as follows:</p> + +<p>a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for defense +against physical violence, human or otherwise. It was therefore first used +merely as a mechanical resistance to the opposing force; then secondly, +still in the lowest grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a +moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by symbolizing +superhuman agencies. Now individual variations arose—devices for example +derived or conventionalized from some predatory, shrewd or mysterious +animal.</p> + +<p>b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and +the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part of the religious +paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of the shamans. Ethn. Rep. +1896-97, I. 395:—“When worn in any ceremonial, ... the wearer is +believed to become mysteriously and unconsciously imbued with the spirit +of the being which his mask represents.”</p> + +<p>c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is used for +public amusements and games; by secret societies; as protection against +recognition on festive occasions, etc., like the animal skins worn in +dances.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">58</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_32">32</a>, <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a>, <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>, ante p. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">59</span></a> See p. <a href="#Footnote_13">13</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">60</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:—Account of “a cloak or mantle made +from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic paintings. It was +made and used by the Apaches as a mantle of invisibility, that is, a +charmed covering for spies which would enable them to pass with impunity +through the country, and even through the camp of their enemies. In +this instance the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn.” The +Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were the raincloud, +serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of the winds of the four +cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 515:—Among the Hidatsa (Sioux) +fetiches are especially the skins of the wolf. “When they go to war, they +always wear the stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging +down the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the warrior +puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf’s head hangs down upon his +breast.” Finally the magic robes or shirts and girdles came to be a part of +the regular paraphernalia of the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the +folklore of all countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles.</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: “Some warriors had medicine +to change their shape as they pleased, so that they could escape from their +enemies.” Page 501: Such stories might be paralleled in any tribe.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">61</span></a> See further development in note <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">62</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_52">52</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">63</span></a> As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure brutality, we +cite from Andree, p. 69:—People in the interior of Africa who understand +magic, transform themselves into lions and go about killing people. See +also below, note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, where the wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and +sucks his blood, and also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being +one of the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this takes place +at <em>night</em>, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian starting out at night in +his wolf’s robe, and trotting up to the hostile village to ascertain where his +enemies’ horses are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell’s +Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73). Ethn. +Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:—“To recover stolen or lost property, especially ponies, +is one of the principal tasks imposed upon the so-called medicine-men” +(shamans).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">64</span></a> As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was put on not +merely to make the wearer look just like a common object of the landscape, +but also because the wearer of the disguise was supposed to take on +the characteristics of the animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.), +as in the case of masks (see note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>), and finally the wearer of such a robe +was believed to actually become transformed, like the wearers of the werewolf +shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves were regarded as good +hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:—The wolf +is revered by the Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanáti; therefore +we can understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of unerring +huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those who gained +their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of songs imitating the +cries of certain animals was supposed to confer a characteristic of the animal +in question (see note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>).</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:—To gain animal characteristics a wizard attached +crow and owl plumes to his head that he might have the eyes of the +crow to see quickly the approach of man, and the eyes of the owl to travel +by night. He flapped his arms, ... A Zuñi man hearing a cry like +an owl, yet human, looked about him and found a man whom he recognized +as a Zuñi. “Aha!” said he, “why have you those plumes upon +your head? Aha, you are a sorcerer,” etc.</p> + +<p>An example of the transforming power of the <em>robe</em> we find in Bulletin +26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1901, Kathlamet +texts, p. 156 fol.:—A woman ate of some of the fat of a bitch, gave +birth to five male dogs and one female dog. When they grew older, she +discovered one day that they could transform themselves into real children. +While they were down at the beach, she entered the house, and +now she saw the dog <em>blankets</em>. She took them and burnt them. Then the +children retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the +Völsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according to which +an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting on an elkskin.</p> + +<p>W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p. 100, +writes, “Die Fähigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln können, heisst ‘sich +zu häuten, die Hülle zu wechseln’. Das Umwerfen eines äusserlichen +Gewandes kann den Wechsel der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas +Federgewand, die Schwan- und Krähenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins +Adlergewand. Die Wolfsgewänder (úlfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln +den Menschen zum Wolfe”. See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel, Zeitschrift +für deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">65</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:—The owner of fine beads fears that some +witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with disease.</p> + +<p>As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman +powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances given by +Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met in Africa a native +said to have power to transform himself into a lion. As lion he would +stay for days and months in the <em>forest</em>, in a sacred hut, to which however +his wife carried beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this +lion did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was able +to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine brought him by +his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:—In Banana, Africa, the members of a certain +family transform themselves in the <em>dark</em> of the <em>forest</em> into leopards. +They throw down those they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them +nor drink their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note <a href="#Footnote_83">83</a>.)</p> + +<p>The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American Indians, +who put on a wolf’s mantle to steal, or to recover stolen animals (Grinnell, +Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the story of robbery entitled +Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.). Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69, +where the lowest caste of laborers are believed to have power to transform +themselves into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They +employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause, since it yields +such returns. They are reported to act like other folk by day, at <em>night</em> +though to assume the ways of wolves, kill their enemies and suck their +blood, roaming about with other wolves till morning. They are supposed +to gain their supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs. +They are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since their +roaming and plundering is done in the <em>night</em>; in the daytime they of +course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p. 72).</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:—Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and +Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the masses +and the comparative learning of the few who practised it. Among the +American Indians the medicine-man and the more expert sorceress have +little learning above that of the body of the tribe, and their success depends +entirely upon their own belief in being supernaturally gifted, and +upon the faith and fear of their followers.</p> + +<p>The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly animal +shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:—“An old blind wolf +with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made his head and hands look +like those of a wolf. The rest of his body was not changed. He was +called a man-wolf.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">66</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:—Witches could and did assume animal +shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire streaming from +its mouth and nostrils. It was <em>night</em>. The man shot at it, and the next +morning tracked it by the marks of blood from its wound. At a bridge a +woman’s tracks took the place of the dog’s, and finally he found the +woman. She had died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a +hog, when pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared +as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing. So they, +the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian Indian one +<em>evening</em> pursued a white bull with fire streaming from its nostrils. He had +never seen a white bull on the reservation before. “As it passed in front of +a house it was transformed into a man with a <em>large white blanket</em>, who was +ever afterward known as a witch.”</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:—A man going out at <em>night</em> noticed a queer-looking +burro. Upon his return home he was told that a large cat had entered +the house. He went out again, discovered a man wrapped in a blanket, +but not in the Zuñi fashion, his head was sunk low in the blanket. +He knew this creature to be a wizard.</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:—That the medicine man (Shaman) has the +faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and other animals at pleasure +and then resuming the human form, is as implicitly believed in by the +American Indians as it was by our own forefathers in Europe. And page +459: The Abipones of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power +to put on the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed +the power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the Shamans +of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz, p. 133 fol.:—“In der +christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier +entstand mit dem Hexenglauben die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich +mit Hilfe des Satans aus reiner Mordlust zu Wölfen verwandeln. So wurde +der Werwolf das Bild des tierisch Dämonischen in der Menschennatur.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">67</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:—The medicine-men of the Apache are paid +at the time they are consulted, the priest beforehand among the Eskimo. +Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: “The magnitude of the disease is generally measured +by the amount of the patient’s worldly wealth.” Page 416:—Sioux +sorcerers prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep. +1901-2, p. 568:—“The shaman, like the theurgist is usually paid after each visit +with calico, cotton, or food, according to the wealth of the family, since it is +always understood that these doctors expect proper compensation for their +services.” Page 387:—“The Zuñi doctor is paid according to his reputation.” +Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: “In early days if a man +remained sick for three or four weeks, all his possessions went to pay +doctors’ fees.”</p> + +<p>Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.—The American Indian’s theory of disease +is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian, the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman—all +bodily disorders are attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that +is of animal spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated. +Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was language +which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend. Page 468:—The +medicine-men are accused of administering poisons to their enemies. +Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:—Sioux sorcerers were thought to cause the +death of those persons who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep. +1887-88, p. 581:—“When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia +he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his followers believe +that he has become, the power he represents.” The Mexican priests +masked and disguised, and dressed in the skins of the women offered +up in sacrifice.</p> + +<p>So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest. Ethn. +Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:—The Indian doctor relied far more on magic than on +natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the drum, songs, magic feasts and +dances, and howling were his ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story +of the indian, p. 210 fol.:—They have “firm confidence in dreams.” +“Their belief in a future life is in part founded on dreams,” etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">68</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>, close.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">69</span></a> An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain occurs Andree, +p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal at one place, the +latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming human form, they attack +their enemy in the <em>night</em> at his home. This is the transformation of an +animal into a man, but the inventor of the story was no doubt looking +towards his own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which +in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In Siam stories +are told of people who by magic formulae become tigers and roam about +at <em>night</em> in search of booty. One of the man-tigers was actually a priest.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">70</span></a> Ante pp. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">71</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a> fol.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">72</span></a> See notes <a href="#Footnote_19">19</a> and <a href="#Footnote_74">74</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">73</span></a> Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: “It is said that wolves, +which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes went crazy, +and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even coming into +camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons bitten by a mad wolf +generally went mad, too. They trembled and their limbs jerked, they +made their jaws work and foamed at the mouth, often trying to bite other +people. When any one acted in this way, his relatives tied him hand and +foot with ropes, and, having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the +green hide, built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until +the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and removed the +buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure for a mad wolf’s bite.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">74</span></a> Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a monomania +themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this widespread disease +or delusion (of the first century till late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.: +“The sick” ones would prowl about burial places <em>at night</em>, imagining +themselves to be <em>wolves</em> or <em>dogs</em>, and go about barking and howling. In +the middle ages such people would even kill children and grown people. +When they came to themselves again, or were cured, they claimed to +know nothing of what had happened. Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst +the Shamans feats of jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing +the best of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of +robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals, painted with +shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The speaker terms himself +a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">75</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_63">63</a>, <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>, <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, <a href="#Footnote_66">66</a>, <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>, <a href="#Footnote_69">69</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">76</span></a> See <a href="#point8">(8)</a> above.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">77</span></a> Page 71.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">78</span></a> Andree, p. 69.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">79</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of the origin of the +wolf: “<em>The wolf</em> was a poor woman, who had so many children that she +could not find enough for them to eat. They became so gaunt and +hungry that they were changed into wolves, constantly roaming over the +land seeking food.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">80</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a> fol.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">81</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine the horrible +howlings, and strange contortions that these jugglers (shamans) or conjurers +make of their bodies, when they are disposing themselves to +conjure.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">82</span></a> Page 71.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">83</span></a> Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician (Abyssinia), +who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate animal-men the teeth of +the persons whom they have killed during the year, with which he +decorates his palace. See also pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151, +about sorcery among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes +of the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of Indian +genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class of ambitious +men and women sufficient influence through their acknowledged power of +exorcism and necromancy to lead a comfortable life at the expense of the +credulous. Page 162: “Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an +order of priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It +is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe that they can +at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos,” etc. Sometimes one +family constitutes the class. See note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>; Andree, p. 69.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">84</span></a> Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches were +priestesses, physicians, fabulous <em>night</em>-wives, never as yet persecuted. +Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into werewolves, and lose nothing +in popular estimation. The abuse of a spell was punished. A wise +woman, healing sickness and charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch +only when with her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil’s +complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the guilt of +criminality fell upon all personal relations with him. Ethn. Rep. +1901-2, p. 393: “Though the witch may be regarded as all powerful, none +but the poor and unfortunate are condemned. Few others are even brought +to trial—their prominence prevents public accusation.” This again reminds +us some of our customs; namely, that of overlooking the transgressions +of the rich and powerful. See note <a href="#Footnote_91">91</a>, and for outlaws note <a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">85</span></a> Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the body, and more +particularly the eyes, so that many shamans (Siberia, America, etc.) +become blind.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">86</span></a> Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia and Lithuania, +according to two bishops, werewolves were in the 16th century +far more destructive than “true and natural wolves.” They were asserted +to have formed “an accursed college” of those “desirous of innovations +contrary to the divine law.” Also see note <a href="#Footnote_90">90</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">87</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, and notes <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>, <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, <a href="#Footnote_66">66</a>, <a href="#Footnote_69">69</a>, <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>, <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>, <a href="#Footnote_110">110</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">88</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a> close, and note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">89</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">90</span></a> Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a woman, whose +husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his house, got hold of him +later in his man shape and killed him. Feats similar to some performed +by him are cited in Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the +Pawnee swallowed arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of +apparently killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zuñi.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">91</span></a> Grimm, Rechtsalterthümer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle aus der +ärmsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>). Literary Digest, +March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism and Spirituality: “Many, +very many, spiritualists seem to care for communion with spirits only that +they may more surely keep physically well, and earn their bread and +butter and clothing the easier.” Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The +absurdity of the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for +the theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in +every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he was +certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not being found in +beast form was satisfactorily disposed of.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">92</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a> and <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">93</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a> and <a href="#Footnote_19">19</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">94</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">95</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: “The deer, which is +still common in the mountains, was the principal dependence of the +Cherokee hunter, and is consequently prominent in myth, folklore, and +ceremonial.” see note <a href="#Footnote_42">42</a>. Page 264: “The largest gens (clan) in the +tribe bears the name of ‘wolf people.’” Page 420: The Cherokee +have always been an agricultural people, and their old country has a +luxuriant flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more important +place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe than it does +among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid sage deserts of the West.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">96</span></a> The St. Louis “Westliche Post” for January 9, 1908, furnishes +another example: A tame wolf which for the past two years has been a +pet in a farmer’s family at Marshfield, Wisconsin, escaped and attacked +a chicken. The farmer’s daughter called to the wolf, but it had become +wild from the taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and +one leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released until +she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar.</p> + +<p>Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13, 1908, +shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite populous districts: +“Wolf-Plage. Aus dem nördlichen Wisconsin wird gemeldet, dass +Wölfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind denn je, und dass sie, durch +Hunger getrieben, sich nahe an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere +und auch Menschen angreifen. Zwei grosse Wölfe griffen in dieser Woche +das Pferd der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den +Wald, wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien +verscheuchten.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">97</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">98</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">99</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_109">109</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">100</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_24">24</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">101</span></a> Close of note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">102</span></a> John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives the origin +and development of the werewolf as follows: From the conception of +wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to the conception of corporeal +werewolves.... Christianity did not fail to impart a new and fearful +character to the belief in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as +a species of witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the +Devil. It was often necessary to kill one’s enemies, and at that time some +even killed for love of it (like the Berserker); often a sort of homicidal +madness, during which they would array themselves in the skins of wolves +or bears and sally forth by <em>night</em> to crack the backbones, smash the skulls +and sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary travelers or +loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an invention of excited +imagination. So people attributed a wolf’s nature to the maniac or idiot +with cannibal appetites, then the myth-forming process assigned to the +unfortunate wretch a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. +Worship of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of transformation +of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The storm-wind +was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead men’s souls or as the howling +of wolf-like monsters (called by Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness +and cannibalism, accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted +as due to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf +superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on a +wolf’s skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence of the fact alleged +of Berserkers haunting the woods by <em>night</em>, clothed in hides of wolves +or bears. A permanent cure was effected by burning the werewolf’s sack, +unless the Devil furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, +to become incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the +outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is the night-wind—a +kind of leader of departed souls, howling in the wintry blasts. +Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:—The Berserkir of Iceland dressed in +the skins of bears and wolves, and further on: “Beastform is in mythology +proper far oftener assumed for malignant than for benignant ends.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">103</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">104</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">105</span></a> Close note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">106</span></a> Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">107</span></a> Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our oldest native +notions make the assumption of wolf-shape depend on arraying oneself in a +wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as transformation into a swan does on putting on the +swan-shirt or swan-ring. Page 1095: “The transformation need not be +for a magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured into, a +wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the appearance, he +acquires also the fierceness and howling of the wolf; roaming the <em>woods</em>, +he rends to pieces everything that comes in his way.” This is like the belief +of the American Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued +with the spirit of the being which his mask represents (note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>); or that +the shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers believe +that he has become, the power he represents (note <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">108</span></a> Thus some American Indian stories represent men transformed into +wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or piece of decayed wood when pursued. +And mantles of invisibility are mentioned in note <a href="#Footnote_60">60</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">109</span></a> See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: “Unter den grossen Raubtieren +treten uns Bär und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen. Der Wolf ist +freilich überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber ganz sicher +ein Waldtier,” etc. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy: “In England by +the 17th century the werewolf had long been extinct. Only small creatures, +the cat, hare, weasel, etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to +transform himself into.” See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">110</span></a> Amongst the American Indians, where various larger animals were +common, the designation “wolf-people” (see the sign-language of the +plains) was bestowed especially on the Pawnees, because, as we have seen, +they best imitated wolves. In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the +wolf alone was universally common, the designation “wolf-people” (or if we +choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one locality or people, +but was bestowed in general on those who assumed the manner of wolves, +and because of their crimes became outcasts like the wolves. They best +imitate wolves, and no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as +wolves (see note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>), and for this reason the <em lang="no" xml:lang="no">warg</em> or outlaw came to be +called a <em>wolf</em> (see close of note <a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>). Thus Golther, Mythologie, p. 102, +says: “Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder getötet, so findet man einen +wunden oder toten Menschen.” The werewolves, as we have seen (ante +p. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>), keep to the <em>woods</em> and the <em>dark</em>, of course in many cases to avoid +detection. Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: “They say that +witches love the <em>night</em> and lurk in <em>shadows and darkness</em>. Witches are +believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts.” Sigmund and Sinfjötli +dwelt as wolves in the <em>woods</em>. Also the progenitor of the Mýramenn in +Iceland at <em>night</em> could leave his house in wolf’s form. Another Norwegian +account reports how earlier many people were able to take on wolf’s +form, then dwelt in <em>grove</em> and <em>woods</em>, where they tore people to pieces, +etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note <a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">111</span></a> Names. See note <a href="#Footnote_31">31</a>. The development in the case of names was +perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>), and of the werewolf +superstition itself (ante p. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, fol.); namely, a) protection against outside +agencies was sought; b) growth of supernaturalism; c) element of +humor.</p> + +<p>a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: “Children are often +named <em>wolf</em>, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their supernatural foes” (for +similar assumption of characteristics or the nature of animals for personal +advantage see note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>). See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. +1139: “The escort of <em>wolf</em> or <em>raven</em> augured victory;” and in the note: +“A name of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O. H. G. +<em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wolf-hraban</em> (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly promised +victory. Old names are no product of pure chance. Servian mothers +name a son they have longed for, <em lang="sr" xml:lang="sr">Vuk</em>, <em>Wolf</em>: then the witches can’t eat +him up. O. H. G. <em>Wolfbizo</em> was a lucky name, i. e., one bitten by the +wolf and thereby protected,” like our modern curing of like by like in +medicine.</p> + +<p>b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development +mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about the conferring +of secret names, since one could harm a person by his name +alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning his name: “Wenn +man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g’rennt.” Again in XXI. 313 fol.: It +was dangerous to name <em>bear</em> or <em>wolf</em> in regions infested by these animals, +so people, out of fear, avoided calling the name of such animals; called +the bear for example <em>honey-eater</em>, etc.</p> + +<p>c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his fear of +them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and humor enter in, and +such names arise as are mentioned in note <a href="#Footnote_53">53</a>; and such stories as that of +Romulus and Remus, suckled by a wolf.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">112</span></a> Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, +III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws who have fled to +the woods. A notable instance is that of Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the +Völsungasaga. In regard to this W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen +mythologie, Leipzig 1895, p. 102, says: “Die Sage mag auf einem +alten Misverständniss beruhen. <em>Warg</em>, <em>Wolf</em> hiess der Geächtete in der +germanischen Rechtssprache. <em>Warg</em> wurde wörtlich als <em>Wolf</em> verstanden, +und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte.” Golther again, p. 424:—“Gefesselt +wurde Loki als Ächter in den Wald getrieben, er wurde “<em>Warg</em>”, +d. h. <em>Wolf</em>. <em>Wölfe</em> heissen die friedlosen Waldgänger.” As to <em>warg</em>, Schade +in his altdeutsches Wörterbuch defines it as a räuberisch würgendes +wütendes Wesen, Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise, +geächteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetäter; <em>warg</em> ist Benennung +des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und vertragbrüchiger +Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden durch Mord gebrochen und +landflüchtig geworden, oder nun im wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere +haust und wie der Wolf ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche +auf Island Bezeichnung einer gewalttätigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm, +Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American Indians +relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67 fol.: An outlaw is one +who by his crimes has placed himself without the protection of his clan, +is not defended in case he is injured by another. When the sentence of +outlawry has been declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the +duty of the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the +council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty of any member +of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill him like an animal. Page 60 +fol.: “The chief of the Wolf gens is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe” +(see also Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the <em>woods</em> and the +<em>dark</em>. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal skins, and to +terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves. Since therefore so many +outlaws lived, dressed (note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a> close) and acted like wolves, to all intents +and purposes became wolves, <em>wolf</em> and outlaw became synonymous terms.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">113</span></a> The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night in Germany +is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people believed that werewolves, +etc., entered houses at night. In place of the earlier harmful +werewolf is now the “harmful” night air.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="l1" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a><br /> +<a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> + + +<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> + + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><span class="smcap">Andree, Richard.</span> Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche. Stuttgart, +1878.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Behaghel, Otto.</span> Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Braune, Wilhelm.</span> Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brockhaus, F. A.</span> Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bureau of American Ethnology.</span> Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dilthey, Wilhelm.</span> Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Edda.</span> Die lieder der älteren edda. Paderborn, 1876.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Encyclopaedia britannica.</span> New York, 1883, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Erman, Adolf.</span> Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fiske, John.</span> Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Freytag, Gustav.</span> Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Golther, W.</span> Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Rechtsaltertümer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Teutonic mythology. Translation by J. S. Stallybrass, +London, 1882.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, George Bird.</span> Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, G. B.</span> Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, G. B.</span> Story of the Indian. New York, 1895.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hertz, W.</span> Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hirt, H.</span> Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indogermanische forschungen.</span> Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904, +1907.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Kluge, F.</span> Etymologisches wörterbuch der deutschen sprache. Strassburg, +1905.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lemcke, K.</span> Aesthetik in gemeinverständlichen vorträgen. Leipzig, 1890.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Leubuscher, R.</span> Über die wehrwölfe und thierverwandlungen im mittelalter. +Berlin, 1850.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Literary digest.</span> New York and London, March 9, 1907.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Meyers.</span> Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paul, H.</span> Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Schade, O.</span> Altdeutsches wörterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Schrader, O.</span> Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde. Strassburg, +1901.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Völsungasaga.</span> Ranisch, Berlin, 1891.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Westliche post.</span> St. Louis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wundt, W.</span> Völkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für deutsches altertum.</span> Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für deutsche philologie.</span> Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="l1" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> + + +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<p class="num">[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.]</p> + +<ul class="lsoff"> +<li>Abipones, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Abyssinia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Africa, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Alligator, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>America, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>.</li> + +<li>American Indians, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Anglo-Saxons, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Animals, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Animal fable, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Arabia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Arawaks, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Arcadia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Asia, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Assyrians, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Bear, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_38">38</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Belgium, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Benignant, <i><a href="#Footnote_4">4</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_38">38</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Berserkr, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Bird, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li>Bison, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_32">32</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Bohemia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Borneo, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Bretons, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Bulgaria, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Burchard von Worms, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Burmah, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Celebrations, <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Ceylon, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Charms, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li>Clothing, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li>Coyote, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + + +<li>Dancing, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_32">32</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_33">33</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_34">34</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Dante, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Death, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Decoy, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_30">30</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Denmark, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Dog, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Dreams, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Edda, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Enemy, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_48">48</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>English, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Eskimo, <i><a href="#Footnote_30">30</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Europe, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Fenrisûlfr, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_51">51</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Finns, <i><a href="#Footnote_5">5</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Fish, <i><a href="#Footnote_5">5</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Fisherman, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Food, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Forest, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Fox, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>.</li> + +<li>French, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Germany, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Greece, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Greenland, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Harmful, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_51">51</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Herds, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Herodotus, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Hindoos, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Homer, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Hunter, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Hyena, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Iceland, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li> + +<li>India, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Indogermanic, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Insanity, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Iranians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Ireland, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></li> + +<li>Italians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Jackal, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Jaguar, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Japan, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Kadiak, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Kelts, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Knut, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Lapps, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li>Leopard, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Leubuscher, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Lion, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Lithuanians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Loki, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Lycanthropy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Lykaon, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Magic, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Malignant, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_4">4</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Mask, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Mastodon, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Medicinemen (Shamans), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_90">90</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Mexico, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Murder, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Myths, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Names, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Netherlands, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Neurians, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Night, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li> + +<li>North America, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Norway, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Odin, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Island Oesel, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Otter, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Outlaw, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Owl, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Pawnees, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Persia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Plants, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Poles, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Portuguese, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Posen, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Priests, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Professionals, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_86">86</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Provencal, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Prussia, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Reindeer, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li>Religion, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Revenge, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Robber, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_44">44</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Romans, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Russia, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Scandinavia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Scout, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_48">48</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Scythians, <i><a href="#Footnote_6">6</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Seal, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Serpent, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Servia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Shepherds, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Siam, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Sinfjötli, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Song, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_33">33</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Skins (or dress) of animals, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_34">34</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_108">108</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + +<li>South America, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Speech (animals), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li>Stories, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Supernaturalism, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Superstition, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Sweden, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Tiger, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_90">90</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Totemism, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Transformation, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_11">11</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></li> +<li>Traps, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Tschechs, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Turkey, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_108">108</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Volhynia, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Völsungasaga, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li> + + +<li>Wales, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Warfare, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Weapons, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li>Werewolf, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_86">86</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_91">91</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Wiener Hundesegen, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li> + +<li>Witches, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_91">91</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li> +</ul> + + +<div class="tnote"> +<p class="tn"><a name="Transcribers_note" id="Transcribers_note"></a>Transcriber’s note</p> + + +<p>The cover of this book was created by the transcriber and is placed in +the public domain.</p> + +<p>Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were +added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they +were referred to in other notes. The notes were gathered at the end of +the text and provided with links.</p> + +<p>“Völsungasaga” and “Sinfjötli” were in the original mostly written with +a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader's +convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common +spelling with ö.</p> + +<p>Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. +In note 12 “and” was changed to “und” (seltener in Frankreich +und Belgien).</p> + +<p>Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and +missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent +spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir.</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by +Caroline Taylor Stewart + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF *** + +***** This file should be named 44134-h.htm or 44134-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/1/3/44134/ + +Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at + www.gutenberg.org/license. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 +North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email +contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the +Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/old/44134-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/44134-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..427b482 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44134-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/old/44134.txt b/old/44134.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1f55a28 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44134.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2329 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by +Caroline Taylor Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition + +Author: Caroline Taylor Stewart + +Release Date: November 8, 2013 [EBook #44134] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF *** + + + + +Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + + +Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected. +A more detailed transcriber's note can be found at the end of this text. + + + + +THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.[1] + + [1] NOTE.--After the author had written the following article, + she gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That + the origin and development of the use of masks as given in + the Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, + 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note 32) is similar to the origin and + development of the werewolf superstition itself, as given in + the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The author + has italicized some words in the quotations. + + +The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an animal's form, +most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost worldwide superstition. +Such a transformed person is the Germanic werewolf, or man-wolf; that +is, a wolf which is really a human being.[2] So the werewolf was a +man in wolf's form or wolf's dress,[2] seen mostly at night,[3] and +believed generally to be harmful to man.[4] + + [2] According to Mogk, in Paul's Grundriss der germanischen + Philologie III. 272 _wer_ means "man," found in Old Saxon, + Anglo-Saxon, Old High German, and werewolf a man in wolf's + form. Koegel connects _wer_ with Gothic _wasjan_ "kleiden." + "Darum bedeutet _werwolf_ eigentlich Wolfsgewand ulfshamr; + aehnlich bedeutet vielleicht _berserkr_ Baerengewand," therefore + werewolf according to Koegel means a wolf's dress. See also + Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde. + + [3] Post p. 24. + + [4] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:--Beastform in + mythology proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for + benignant ends. See note 52. + +The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily +explained. Adolf Erman[5] explains the allusion of Herodotus[6] to the +transformation of the Neurians (the people of the present Volhynia, in +West Russia) into wolves as due merely to their appearance in winter, +dressed in their furs. This explanation, however, would not fit similar +superstitions in warm climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy +to primitive Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the +members of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.[7] +Still another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the +original werewolf.[8] + + [5] Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232. + + [6] Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and + Greeks settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once + a year every Neurian becomes a wolf for a few days, and then + resumes the human form. See concerning this also Hirt, Die + Indogermanen, I. 120. + + [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol. + + [8] Note 102, also see note 22. + +The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must be one +which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition is found +pretty much all over the earth,[9] especially to-day[10] however in +Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in the lands where the +wolf is most common.[11][12] According to Mogk[13] the superstition +prevails to-day especially in the north and east of Germany.[14] + + [9] See also Mogk in Paul's Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud. + Leubuscher, Ueber die Wehrwoelfe und Thierverwandlungen im + Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850, mentions cases in ancient Arcadia, + in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the almost epidemic disease + in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf, Stuttgart, + 1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia + (hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to + Encyc. Brit. below; on p. 133 he says: "Tierverwandlungen sind + allgemein menschlich, finden wir ueberall. Die eigentuemliche + Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen aber finden wir vorzugsweise + bei einer bestimmten Voelkergruppe, den arischen Staemmen der + Griechen, Roemer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven; bei den suedwaerts + gezogenen Staemmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns gleiche + Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten + treten die Werwoelfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehoert die + aelteste historische Erwaehnung der Sage; viel aelter aber ist + der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische Werwoelfe". According to + Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, Stuttgart, + 1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European + country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles, + Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants + of island Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal + peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in Asia, Africa, America; but not in + India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit. below), especially + though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands. + + As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for + 1880-81, p. 83, "From their close relations with wild animals + Indians' stories of transformations into beasts and beasts + into men are numerous and interesting.... In times of peace, + during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller told + of those days in the past when men and animals could transform + themselves at will and hold converse with one another." + + Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell & Sons, 1883, II. 668 + says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic + antiquities than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrisulfr, + a son of Loki, makes his appearance in wolf's shape among the + gods. + + Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy, + states:--A belief firmly rooted among all savages is that + men are in certain circumstances transformed temporarily or + permanently into wolves and other inferior animals. In Europe + the transformation into a wolf is by far more prominent and + frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans, French, + Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most + prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. + Thus the were-_wolf_ prevails in Europe, also in England, + Wales, Ireland; and in S. France, the Netherlands, Germany, + Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, Poland, Russia, he can + hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note 12). In Denmark, + Sweden, Norway and Iceland the _bear_ competes with the wolf + for pre-eminence. In Persia the _bear_ is supreme; in Japan the + _fox_; in India the _serpent_ vies with the _tiger_ (contrary + to Mogk in Paul's Grd., III. 272, who says:--"Nur Griechen, + Roemer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter den indogermanischen + Voelkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und Iraniern ist er + unbekannt." Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in Abyssinia + and Borneo the _hyena_ with the _lion_; in E. Africa the _lion_ + with the _alligator_; in W. Africa the _leopard_ is perhaps + most frequently the form assumed by man; among the Abipones the + _tiger_, among the Arawaks the _jaguar_, etc. + + In Brockhaus' Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the + werewolf belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and + Romanic peoples; found to-day especially in Volhynia and White + Russia. + + Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:--Bei den Angelsachsen laesst sich der + Werwolf im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern, + ihre Herden vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das aelteste + Zeugnis auf deutschem Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v. + Worms (11 century). + + [10] See note 9. + + [11] Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:--There can nowhere be a living + belief in contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which + has ceased to exist in the particular locality. Belief in + metamorphosis into the animal most prominent in any locality + itself acquires a special prominence. (See note 12.) In none + of these cases however is the power of transformation limited + exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal. + + [12] Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under _Wolf_:--The wolf is + found in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America + from Greenland to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in + Ceylon, Burmah or Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in + the two latter jackals instead. + + Meyer's Kleines konversations-lexikon:--Der wolf "ist haeufig + in Ost- und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika, + seltener in Frankreich und Belgien, den Herden gefaehrlich, + besonders in Russland." Encyc. Brit., XXIV under _Wolf_:--In + northern countries the wolf is generally larger and more + powerful than in the southern portion of its range. Its habits + are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been known + to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of + his flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance. + They usually assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and + by their combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower + and kill even such great animals as the American bison. + Children and even grown people are not infrequently attacked by + them when pressed for hunger. The ferocity of the wolf in the + wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed, they can rarely be + trusted by strangers. + + [13] Paul, Grundriss, III. 272. + + [14] Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p. + 275 fol., speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: "Noch lebte + das Landvolk in ohnmaechtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Woelfe, + wenig Doerfer, welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere + decimirt wurden," and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:--"Als 1815 + die gegenwaertige Provinz Posen an Preussen zurueckfiel, waren + auch dort die Woelfe eine Landplage. Nach Angaben der Posener + Provinzialblaetter wurden im Regierungsbezirk Posen vom 1. Sept. + 1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Woelfe erlegt, noch im Jahre 1819 + im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von Woelfen + gefressen." + +The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.[15] The +point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living human +being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the wolf was +common[16] into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa, where these animals +are common; into a tiger or serpent in India;[17] in other localities +into other animals characteristic of the region.[18] Among Lapps +and Finns occur transformations into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish +or birds; amongst many North Asiatic peoples, as also some American +Indians, into the bear; amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf, +turkey or owl; in South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar, +also into a fish, or serpent. Most universal though it seems was the +transformation into wolves or dogs.[19] + + [15] Thus in note 6 was mentioned Herodotus' (484-425 B. C.) + statement about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend, + according to Hertz, is that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos, + the first king of ancient Arcadia. These Arcadians lived as + huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert (Andree, p. 65; + and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed amongst + the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf + myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B. C). In the Norse "Edda" + we find Odin's wolves, also Skoell, Hati and Fenrir. In the + Voelsunga Saga, Sigmund and Sinfjoetli become wolves. For other + reflections of the fear in which wolves were held, see the + 10th century ms. of the "Wiener Hundesegen" against male and + female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches Lesebuch, 6. aufl. + 1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,--Geschichte der deutschen sprache + s. 233:--"Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte + raubthier des waldes dar, und lehrt die naehe des wolfs und + fuchses." + + C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:--"In die + aeltesten Zeiten hinauf reicht auch bei Jaegervoelkern die + Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil die Eigentuemlichkeiten der + Tiere erklaerend, ihr Gebahren erzaehlend. Die furchtbaren und + die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo die Menschen + staedtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie einsamer + mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine hoehere Bedeutung. So wird + dem Waeldler Baer und Wolf zum ebenbuertigen Raeuber und Kaempfer, + menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht, + der Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst." + + [16] Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to + Andree, p. 65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it + is to-day in Russia. Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: "Der + Wolf ist ueberall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Baer ist aber + ganz sicher ein Waldtier." + + [17] Note 9. + + [18] Cf. note 9, Encyc. Brit. + + [19] Leubuscher, p. 1:--Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in + Hunde und Woelfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den + namen Lykanthropie. + +As the superstition is so widespread--Germany, Eastern Europe, Africa, +Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time, when all these +peoples were in communication with each other[20] or else, in accord +with another view of modern science, it arose independently in various +continents in process of the natural psychical development of the human +race under similar conditions. + + [20] Or as Mogk in Paul's Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for + example amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still + formed a whole, as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of + herds was especially feared. Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: "Die + meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die im Freien lebten, + mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte ihrer + Einbildungskraft am oeftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit + zu kaempfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in + Einzelnen als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich + von Woelfen besonders beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich + manche Mordthat nur von Woelfen begangen." Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, + p. 282:--"The Dakotas have long believed in the appearance + from time to time of a monstrous animal that swallows human + beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the bones of + mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians." + +The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom of +primitive man's of putting on a wolf's or other animal's skin[21] +or dress, or a robe.[22] Thus Leubuscher,[23] says: "Es ist der +Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten +hervorgewachsen."[24][25] Likely also the notion of attributing speech +to animals originated from such disguising or dressing of men as +animals. In the following we shall examine into primitive man's reasons +for putting on such a skin or robe. + + [21] Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:--In celebrations it is + possible that the foxskin so universally worn by the animistic + personifications is a survival comparable with the skin of the + animal in which formerly the whole body was clothed. + + [22] Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: "In der + aeltesten Naturreligion ist die Gottheit des Todes und der + winterlichen Erde als Wolf gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl + in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten nach dem Volksglauben + die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu verwandeln. Der + Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum raschen + Zuruecklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders + geeignet. Darum nahmen die Goetter und die zauberbegabten + Menschen zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von + Natur gefaehrlich und wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und + beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang nach Mord und Zerstoerung die + Hauptsache. Die Urspruenge des Werwolfglaubens waren also 1. + religioese Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung (der friedlose + Moerder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die + Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie." Page 51. "Die Verwandlung + in Woelfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden." Page 57: + "Dass die von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen + Waldfluechtigen sich in Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend." + + [23] Page 46. See also note 9. + + [24] Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p. + 153 fol.;--"Ist so die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und + Goetterglauben, zunaechst gebunden an das Beduerfnis des Lebens, + so sondert sie sich doch allmaehlich im Verlauf der Kultur von + den religioesen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite Welt + zu einer unabhaengigen Bedeutsamkeit"--like Homer, Dante, etc. + See note 20, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:--"Insane + delusions must reflect the usages and beliefs of + contemporaneous society." + + [25] Notes 20, 21 and 27. + +Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had to conquer +them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in Europe arose +probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic peoples were +still in contact with each other, if not in the original Indo-Germanic +home, for they all have the superstition (unless, as above, we prefer +to regard the belief as arising in various localities in process of +psychical development under similar conditions; namely, when people +still lived principally by the chase.[26]) Probably the primitive +Indo-European man before and at the time of the origin of the werewolf +superstition, was almost helpless in the presence of inexorable nature. +This was before he used metal for weapons. The great business of life +was to secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots, +berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.[27] +Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any +size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet +primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no longer +crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but began to watch +and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what certain animals would +do under certain circumstances, to learn what would frighten them away +or what would lure them on. So at least the large animals were to early +man a constant cause of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary +to have their flesh for food and their skins for clothing.[28] + + [26] See note 15. + + [27] Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:--Traces of the + fear in which buffalo "were held may still be discovered in the + traditional stories of certain tribes, which set forth how, in + those days," [i. e. in the stone age] "before men were provided + with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill, and eat the + people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo + were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly + have arisen save as the result of actual experience of their + power to inflict injury and death." Pliny informs us how the + Romans kept the wolf out of their fields, see Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians lived on the steppes, + in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains, the animals + were their whole study. They moved with the animals, followed + them for food. + + [28] Note 27. + +Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for trapping +them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of decoys to lure +animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits, others more easily +by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,[29] and similarly, another +form of the original decoy was no doubt simply the stuffed skin of a +member of the species, whether animal or bird, say for example a wild +duck.[30] Of course the hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself +putting on the animal skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an +individual dressed for example in a wolf's skin could approach near +enough to a solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other +weapon, without exciting the wolf's suspicion of the nearness of a +dangerous foe.[31] So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used +by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure +food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise, whole +or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments +seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions and cries of +animals,[32] at first to lure them, when acting as a decoy. With growth +of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and an additional reason for +acquiring dance and song was to secure charms against bodily ills,[33] +and finally enlivenment.[34] In both dance and song, when used for a +serious purpose, the performers imagined themselves to be the animals +they were imitating,[35] and in the dance they wore the skins of the +animals represented.[36] + + [29] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:--It seems that masks + were occasionally used as decoys.... Next to the otter the + most valuable animal in the estimation of the Kadiak men, is + the species of seal or sea-dog called by the Russians nerpa. + The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it toward the + shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body among + the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque + resembling the head of a seal and makes a noise like that + animal. The unsuspicious seal, imagining that he is about to + meet a partner of his own species, hastens to the spot and is + instantly killed. Compare note 57. + + [30] Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:--Bering Strait Eskimo stuff + rudely the skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon + a stick which holds the head outstretched, then imitate the + call of the bird, which is trapped in the net attached to the + decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft snow into the form + of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around the neck + for plumage. The call then brought the real birds. + + [31] Thus G. B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his + description of the primitive Indians' method of trapping + buffalo, says: "Some men went forth naked, others carried a + dress made of the entire skin of a buffalo, the head and horns + arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of the skin hung + down over the wearer's back," etc. This "caller" went near to a + herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into + the trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often + proved fatal to the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85, + p. 484, about Central Eskimo seal hunting, is stated: If a + hunter is close to an animal he imitates its movements. Some + utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. "The sealskin + clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is + difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance." + And on p. 508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central + Eskimos carry guns on their shoulders, two men going together, + so as to resemble the antlers of a deer. The men imitate their + grunting. If they lie on the ground at some distance they + greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to Ross the + "inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer, + the foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer's head + upon his own." Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:--"The old manner of + hunting antelope and deer: the hunter would disguise himself by + covering his head with the head and skin of an antelope, and so + be enabled to approach the game near enough to use his bow and + arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask themselves + with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo." Ethn. Rep. + 1901-02, p. 439;--Two of the party of hunters (Zuni) out after + deer "wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front + and back of the shirt being painted to represent as nearly + as possible the body of the deer; the hands and the arms to + the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to represent the + deer's forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer's head over his + head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as + possible, even to the browsing, the game they would catch." + + [32] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:--"Tradition says the Iroquois + derived the music and action of the Buffalo dance while on + an expedition against the Cherokee, from the bellowing and + the movements of a herd of buffalo which they heard for the + first time 'singing their favorite songs,' i. e. bellowing and + snorting." Also note 33. + + [33] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent + frostbite. The wolf's, deer's, fox's, opossum's feet it is held + never become frostbitten. After each verse of the song, the + singer imitates the cry and the action of the animal. The words + used are archaic in form and may be rendered "I become a real + wolf, etc." The song runs: + + 1. Tsun' wa' 'ya-ya' (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged + howl). The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his + feet. + + 2. Tsun'-ka' wi-ye' (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh! + (imitating the call and jumping of a deer). + + 3. Tsun'-tsu' 'la-ya' (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih! + (imitates barking and scratching of a fox). + + 4. Tsun'-si'-kwa-ya' (four times), ki+(imitates cry of the + opossum when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal + does when feigning death). + + [34] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance + performed by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep + up their spirits, in which each had his robe about him and + imitated the actions of the coyote, trotting, glancing around, + etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo dance, in which each + of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over his head, + the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging + down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of + the buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the + Omaha wolf dance, by the society of those who have supernatural + communication with wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and + dance in imitation of the actions of wolves. Similarly they + performed the grizzly bear dance, horse dance, etc. + + [35] Notes 22, 34 and 37. + + [36] See notes 34 and 37. + +Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed merely +for decoys and sport (early dancing),[37] for peaceful purposes +therefore, such people having whole or partial animal shape were not +regarded as harmful to man,[38] just as wise women began to pass +for witches only when with their art they did evil.[39] A similar +development can be traced in the case of masks.[40] It was some time +before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing animals that +were dangerous to life, though these are the ones he first studied;[41] +and we cannot presuppose that he disguised to represent them until he +could cope with them, since the original purpose of the disguise was +to secure food and clothing. Thus far then we see whole or partial +disguise as animals used to secure _food_ and _clothing_ when acting as +decoys to lure animals; and in _dancing_.[42] + + [37] Similarly in the use of masks (see note 57). See Wundt, + Voelkerpsychologie II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this + Zeitschrift fuer deutsche Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss. + 558-568:--"Der maskierte mensch ist der ekstatische Mensch. + Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in ekstase, fuehlt + er sich in fremde lebensvorgaenge ein, eignet er sich das wesen + an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert." Fuer den + naiven menschen, wie fuer das kind, ist die maske durchaus + nicht blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der + augenblickstanz wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvoelker verwenden + ihre masken nur bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertaenzen, nicht + zu ihrer burlesken mimik; die taenzer sind in Tiermasken, etc. + + [38] Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed + into a bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent + (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1097:--In Norse accounts also we find + transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded as + rational and was esteemed. + + [39] Note 84. + + [40] See note 57a. + + [41] Notes 27 and 42. + + [42] The important consideration in the mind of primitive + man was whether certain things were harmful or useful. See + Behaghel, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 98:--"Die grossen Tiere + und die maechtigen Baeume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die fuer + die _Ernaehrung_ and _Bekleidung_ des Menschen von Bedeutung + sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben _bedrohen_, sie haben viel + frueher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare + Kaefer im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es, + dass die Namen der groesseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbaeume, + der wichtigsten Getreidearten allen germanischer Staemmen + gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie _Wolf_, _Kuh_, _Ochse_, + _Birke_, _Buche_, _Erle_, _Gerste_ mit den Benennungen anderer + indogermanischer Voelker uebereinstimmen." Doubtless animals + occupied their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt, + Voelkerpsychologie, II. 412 fol., about the _maskentanz_: + "Ueberhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit frueher Beruecksichtigung + erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive." See note 95. + +Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal's skin or dress when +out as _forager_ (or robber) or _spy_, for the purpose of avoiding +detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for example,[43] were called +by neighboring tribes _wolves_, probably not out of contempt, since it +may be doubted that an Indian feels contempt for a wolf any more than +he does for a fox, a rabbit, or an elk, but because of their adroitness +as scouts, warriors and stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think, +because of their great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so +as to escape detection by the enemy by day or night; or, according to +some neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves[44], "have the +endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can make +long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their way, or on +no food at all." ... And further, "The Pawnees, when they went on the +warpath, were always prepared to simulate wolves.... Wolves on the +prairie were too common[45] to excite remark, and at night they would +approach close to the Indian camps." ... The Pawnee starting off on the +warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later times a +white blanket or a white sheet; and, at _night_, wrapping himself in +this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he walked or trotted +here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed himself into a +common object of the landscape. This disguise was employed by _day_ as +well, for reconnoissance.... While the party remained hidden in some +ravine or hollow, one Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to +the top of the hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches +looking all over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him, +would take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the +Pawnees could imitate wolves best. "An Indian going into an enemy's +country is often called a wolf,[46] and the sign for a scout is made up +of the signs _wolf_ and _look_."[47] Should any scout detect danger, as +at _night_ when on duty near an encampment, he must give the cry of the +coyote.[48] + + [43] G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N. Y., + Scribners, 1893, p. 245, fol. + + [44] Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein + sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. _hirpus_ bedeutet _wolf_ in + sabinischer oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf + fuehrer geworden war, oder nach andrer sage sie woelfe gejagt + hatten und gleich woelfen raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen + ausdrucks friedlos waren. + + [45] The werewolf story could arise only where the animal, + wolf, tiger or lion, etc., was common; and likewise the + werewolf tales gradually died out when the animals became rare + or extinct. See note 11. + + [46] Grinnell, p. 245. + + [47] The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild + beasts save their own totem-animals as _enemy-scouts_ (Encyc. + Brit. under Lycanthropy). + + [48] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of + the indian, p. 208: The wolf was believed, in the animals' + council, to be able to give the Indian the power to creep right + into the midst of the enemy's camp without being seen. + +The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in animal form or +dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal disguise began to +act not only as decoys for animals dangerous to life, but also as +scouts (robbers[49]--and later as possessors of supernatural power, +when growth of culture brought with it growth of supernaturalism[50]); +when people began to associate, for example, the wolf's form with a +lurking enemy.[51] + + [49] See note 53. + + [50] See note 57-b. + + [51] So originally the germanic god _Logi_ was not an evil + god. _Logi_ meant the natural force of fire; _Loki_ meant the + same, but the burly giant has been made a sly, seducing villain + (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of Loki, Fenrisulfr, appears + in wolf's shape among the gods. Perhaps association with the + wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of Logi + (Loki) from a good to an evil god. + +All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the defensive, +like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion have sent out +scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid detection, assumed the +disguise of the animal most common to the special locality in question, +just as to-day they are known to disguise in animal skins for purposes +of plunder or revenge.[52][53] + + [52] Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:--In modern savage life we + find beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in + beast form for the community; others are said to assume beast + form in order to avenge themselves justly on enemies; others + for love of bloodshed and cannibalism. See also note 58. + + [53] No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won + considerable fame through their skill and bravery, as we should + judge from such proper names as _Rudolf_, which means really + _Ruhmwolf_, _Ruhm_ related to Gothic _hropeigs_ "victorious," + Sanskrit _kir_ "to praise"; or _Adolf_ from _Adalolf_, which + means _Edelwolf_, originally, therefore, _Edelraeuber_, for + _wolf_ meant originally about the same as _robber_ (Kluge). + So _robber_ or _wolf_ was originally a highly respectable + appellation, at a time when men lived from robbery and the + chase, either as searobbers, or mountain robbers, etc. (about + this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen, 1905, p. 268 + fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace (see + appellation "wolves" applied to Pawnees, p. 12.). Later we find + such names as _Wulfila_ "little wolf." Many Indian names are + those of animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear, + Conquering Bear, Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear + Rib, Smoking Bear, Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear, + Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe, + etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83, p. 169: The names of Indians very + often refer to some animal, predicating some attribute or + position of that animal. For discussion of names, see note 111. + +The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying principle is +the same; namely, the transformation of a living human being into an +animal. The origin of the belief in such a transformation, as stated +above[54] was the simple putting on of an animal skin by early man. The +object of putting on animal skins was, + + [54] Ante p. 6. + +(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries of animals +were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),[55] artificial decoys +(like decoy ducks to-day)[56] and finally even masks were used.[57] + + [55] See (3) below. + + [56] See ante p. 8. + + [57] See note 4 and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see + note 37):--The use of masks is worldwide. The origin and + development of the use of masks is very much the same as + the origin and development of the werewolf as given in the + preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both originally + useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into + instruments for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of + the mask is described in the above report as follows: + + a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for + defense against physical violence, human or otherwise. It + was therefore first used merely as a mechanical resistance + to the opposing force; then secondly, still in the lowest + grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a + moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by + symbolizing superhuman agencies. Now individual variations + arose--devices for example derived or conventionalized from + some predatory, shrewd or mysterious animal. + + b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and + the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part + of the religious paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of + the shamans. Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 395:--"When worn in any + ceremonial, ... the wearer is believed to become mysteriously + and unconsciously imbued with the spirit of the being which his + mask represents." + + c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is + used for public amusements and games; by secret societies; as + protection against recognition on festive occasions, etc., like + the animal skins worn in dances. + +(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying animals, +as in (1) above. + +(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals led to +dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the faces and bodies +of the participants were painted in imitation of the colors of birds +and animals, the motions of animals imitated and animal disguises +used.[58] + + [58] Notes 32, 34, 33, ante p. 11. + +(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out foraging, as well +as for warfare,[59][60] therefore for booty, and self-defense. Either +they wore the entire skin, or probably later just a part of it as a +fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as a charm by many of +our colored people to-day.[61] + + [59] See p. 13. + + [60] Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:--Account of "a cloak or mantle + made from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic + paintings. It was made and used by the Apaches as a mantle + of invisibility, that is, a charmed covering for spies which + would enable them to pass with impunity through the country, + and even through the camp of their enemies. In this instance + the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn." The + Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were + the raincloud, serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of + the winds of the four cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. + 515:--Among the Hidatsa (Sioux) fetiches are especially the + skins of the wolf. "When they go to war, they always wear the + stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging down + the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the + warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf's head + hangs down upon his breast." Finally the magic robes or shirts + and girdles came to be a part of the regular paraphernalia of + the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the folklore of all + countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles. + + Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: "Some warriors had + medicine to change their shape as they pleased, so that they + could escape from their enemies." Page 501: Such stories might + be paralleled in any tribe. + + [61] See further development in note 64. + +(5) For purposes of revenge,[62],[63] personal or other. For some other +personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror in the opposing +agent by hideousness. + + [62] Note 52. + + [63] As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure + brutality, we cite from Andree, p. 69:--People in the interior + of Africa who understand magic, transform themselves into lions + and go about killing people. See also below, note 65, where the + wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and sucks his blood, and + also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being one of + the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this + takes place at _night_, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian + starting out at night in his wolf's robe, and trotting up to + the hostile village to ascertain where his enemies' horses + are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell's + Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73). + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:--"To recover stolen or lost + property, especially ponies, is one of the principal tasks + imposed upon the so-called medicine-men" (shamans). + +(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing superhuman +agencies.[64] So now would arise first a belief in superhuman power or +attributes,[65] and then, + + [64] As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was + put on not merely to make the wearer look just like a common + object of the landscape, but also because the wearer of the + disguise was supposed to take on the characteristics of the + animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.), as in the + case of masks (see note 57), and finally the wearer of such + a robe was believed to actually become transformed, like the + wearers of the werewolf shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves + were regarded as good hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep. + 1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:--The wolf is revered by the + Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanati; therefore we can + understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of + unerring huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those + who gained their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of + songs imitating the cries of certain animals was supposed to + confer a characteristic of the animal in question (see note 33). + + Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:--To gain animal characteristics a + wizard attached crow and owl plumes to his head that he might + have the eyes of the crow to see quickly the approach of man, + and the eyes of the owl to travel by night. He flapped his + arms, ... A Zuni man hearing a cry like an owl, yet human, + looked about him and found a man whom he recognized as a Zuni. + "Aha!" said he, "why have you those plumes upon your head? Aha, + you are a sorcerer," etc. + + An example of the transforming power of the _robe_ we find in + Bulletin 26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, + 1901, Kathlamet texts, p. 156 fol.:--A woman ate of some of the + fat of a bitch, gave birth to five male dogs and one female + dog. When they grew older, she discovered one day that they + could transform themselves into real children. While they were + down at the beach, she entered the house, and now she saw the + dog _blankets_. She took them and burnt them. Then the children + retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjoetli in the + Voelsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according + to which an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting + on an elkskin. + + W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p. + 100, writes, "Die Faehigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln + koennen, heisst 'sich zu haeuten, die Huelle zu wechseln'. + Das Umwerfen eines aeusserlichen Gewandes kann den Wechsel + der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas Federgewand, die + Schwan- und Kraehenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins Adlergewand. + Die Wolfsgewaender (ulfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln + den Menschen zum Wolfe". See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel, + Zeitschrift fuer deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261. + + [65] Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:--The owner of fine beads fears + that some witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with + disease. + + As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman + powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances + given by Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met + in Africa a native said to have power to transform himself + into a lion. As lion he would stay for days and months in the + _forest_, in a sacred hut, to which however his wife carried + beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this lion + did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was + able to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine + brought him by his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:--In Banana, + Africa, the members of a certain family transform themselves in + the _dark_ of the _forest_ into leopards. They throw down those + they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them nor drink + their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note 83.) + + The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American + Indians, who put on a wolf's mantle to steal, or to recover + stolen animals (Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the + story of robbery entitled Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.). + Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69, where the lowest caste + of laborers are believed to have power to transform themselves + into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They + employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause, + since it yields such returns. They are reported to act like + other folk by day, at _night_ though to assume the ways of + wolves, kill their enemies and suck their blood, roaming about + with other wolves till morning. They are supposed to gain their + supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs. They + are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since + their roaming and plundering is done in the _night_; in the + daytime they of course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p. + 72). + + Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:--Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and + Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the + masses and the comparative learning of the few who practised + it. Among the American Indians the medicine-man and the more + expert sorceress have little learning above that of the body of + the tribe, and their success depends entirely upon their own + belief in being supernaturally gifted, and upon the faith and + fear of their followers. + + The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly + animal shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:--"An + old blind wolf with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made + his head and hands look like those of a wolf. The rest of his + body was not changed. He was called a man-wolf." + +(7) Witchcraft.[66] It is very easy to see why it was usually the +so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who claimed such +transformation power, because they received remuneration from their +patients.[67] + + [66] Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:--Witches could and did assume + animal shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire + streaming from its mouth and nostrils. It was _night_. The man + shot at it, and the next morning tracked it by the marks of + blood from its wound. At a bridge a woman's tracks took the + place of the dog's, and finally he found the woman. She had + died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a hog, when + pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared + as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing. + So they, the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian + Indian one _evening_ pursued a white bull with fire streaming + from its nostrils. He had never seen a white bull on the + reservation before. "As it passed in front of a house it was + transformed into a man with a _large white blanket_, who was + ever afterward known as a witch." + + Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:--A man going out at _night_ noticed + a queer-looking burro. Upon his return home he was told that a + large cat had entered the house. He went out again, discovered + a man wrapped in a blanket, but not in the Zuni fashion, his + head was sunk low in the blanket. He knew this creature to be a + wizard. + + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:--That the medicine man (Shaman) + has the faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and + other animals at pleasure and then resuming the human form, is + as implicitly believed in by the American Indians as it was + by our own forefathers in Europe. And page 459: The Abipones + of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power to put on + the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed the + power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the + Shamans of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz, + p. 133 fol.:--"In der christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische + Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier entstand mit dem Hexenglauben + die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich mit Hilfe des Satans aus + reiner Mordlust zu Woelfen verwandeln. So wurde der Werwolf das + Bild des tierisch Daemonischen in der Menschennatur." + + [67] Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:--The medicine-men of the + Apache are paid at the time they are consulted, the priest + beforehand among the Eskimo. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: "The + magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount + of the patient's worldly wealth." Page 416:--Sioux sorcerers + prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep. + 1901-2, p. 568:--"The shaman, like the theurgist is usually + paid after each visit with calico, cotton, or food, according + to the wealth of the family, since it is always understood + that these doctors expect proper compensation for their + services." Page 387:--"The Zuni doctor is paid according to his + reputation." Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: "In early + days if a man remained sick for three or four weeks, all his + possessions went to pay doctors' fees." + + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.--The American Indian's theory + of disease is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian, + the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman--all bodily disorders are + attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that is of animal + spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated. + Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was + language which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend. + Page 468:--The medicine-men are accused of administering + poisons to their enemies. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:--Sioux + sorcerers were thought to cause the death of those persons + who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. + 581:--"When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia + he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his + followers believe that he has become, the power he represents." + The Mexican priests masked and disguised, and dressed in the + skins of the women offered up in sacrifice. + + So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest. + Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:--The Indian doctor relied far more + on magic than on natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the + drum, songs, magic feasts and dances, and howling were his + ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 210 + fol.:--They have "firm confidence in dreams." "Their belief in + a future life is in part founded on dreams," etc. + +(8) Finally dreams[68] and exaggerated reports gave rise to fabulous +stories.[69] + + [68] Note 67, close. + + [69] An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain + occurs Andree, p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal + at one place, the latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming + human form, they attack their enemy in the _night_ at his + home. This is the transformation of an animal into a man, but + the inventor of the story was no doubt looking towards his + own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which + in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In + Siam stories are told of people who by magic formulae become + tigers and roam about at _night_ in search of booty. One of the + man-tigers was actually a priest. + +We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);[70] for an example under (4) we +have cited the practices of American Indians.[71] It is probable that +about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above), what is known as the +real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied, rabid manwolf) began +to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin was already a lurking thief +or enemy, or a destroyer of human life. To advance from this stage +to the werewolf frenzy, our primitive man must have seen about him +some exhibition of such a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this +frenzy particularly with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons, +and the connecting link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as +the transformation was usually into a wolf or dog,[72]) for persons +bitten by it usually went mad too.[73] The ensuing frenzy, with the +consternation it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds +as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some no doubt +actually had the malady; others honestly believed they had it and got +into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked themselves up into a +frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.[74] Later, in the Middle +Ages, when the nature of the real disease came to be better understood, +the werewolf superstition had become too firmly fixed to be easily +uprooted. + + [70] Ante pp. 7, 8, 9. + + [71] Ante p. 12 fol. + + [72] See notes 19 and 74. + + [73] Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: "It is said that + wolves, which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes + went crazy, and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even + coming into camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons + bitten by a mad wolf generally went mad, too. They trembled and + their limbs jerked, they made their jaws work and foamed at the + mouth, often trying to bite other people. When any one acted in + this way, his relatives tied him hand and foot with ropes, and, + having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the green hide, + built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until + the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and + removed the buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure + for a mad wolf's bite." + + [74] Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a + monomania themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this + widespread disease or delusion (of the first century till + late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.: "The sick" ones would + prowl about burial places _at night_, imagining themselves + to be _wolves_ or _dogs_, and go about barking and howling. + In the middle ages such people would even kill children and + grown people. When they came to themselves again, or were + cured, they claimed to know nothing of what had happened. + Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst the Shamans feats of + jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing the best + of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of + robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals, + painted with shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The + speaker terms himself a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power. + +We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.[75] As further +examples of the development into fabulous story,[76] we may cite any of +those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man is represented +as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and tearing to pieces men +and beasts, until he resumes his human form. Thus an early scout in +animal garb would be obliged to live on food he found on his way, and +later fabulous report would represent him as himself when in disguise +possessing the attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to +pieces man and beast. For such an account see Andree,[77] concerning +what eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the +hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed +such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread abroad +such a report as would enhance the influence of the hyena-men far and +wide. Some savages, as in Africa,[78] came to regard any animal that +robbed them of children, goats or other animals, as a witch in animal +form;[79] just as the American Indians ascribe to evil spirits death, +sickness and other misfortunes. + + [75] Notes 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69. + + [76] See (8) above. + + [77] Page 71. + + [78] Andree, p. 69. + + [79] Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of + the origin of the wolf: "_The wolf_ was a poor woman, who had + so many children that she could not find enough for them to + eat. They became so gaunt and hungry that they were changed + into wolves, constantly roaming over the land seeking food." + +We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an animal robe +would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;[80] how though, as +soon as the element of magic enters in, he would try to keep up the +illusion. At this stage, when the original defensive measure had become +tainted with superstition, men would go about in the night time howling +and holding their vile revels.[81] Andree,[82] narrates how a soldier +in Northeast Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and +came to the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician. No +hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh wound. Soon +he died, however the soldier did not survive him long. Doubtless one +of the magician class was responsible for the death of the soldier, +just as we to-day put to death the man who so violates our laws, as to +become a menace to our society, or as formerly kings killed those who +stood in their way; or as religious sects murder those who dissent +from their faith. These magicians, supposed to be men who could assume +animal form, as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly +feared by other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and +at _night_ come forth to plunder and kill.[83] It is to their interest +to counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were +put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.[84] Their frenzies +were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in other cases +they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent opportunities for +personal gain or vengeance.[85] + + [80] Ante p. 12 fol. + + [81] Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine + the horrible howlings, and strange contortions that these + jugglers (shamans) or conjurers make of their bodies, when they + are disposing themselves to conjure. + + [82] Page 71. + + [83] Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician + (Abyssinia), who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate + animal-men the teeth of the persons whom they have killed + during the year, with which he decorates his palace. See also + pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151, about sorcery + among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes of + the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of + Indian genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class + of ambitious men and women sufficient influence through + their acknowledged power of exorcism and necromancy to lead + a comfortable life at the expense of the credulous. Page + 162: "Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an order of + priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It + is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe + that they can at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos," + etc. Sometimes one family constitutes the class. See note 65; + Andree, p. 69. + + [84] Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches + were priestesses, physicians, fabulous _night_-wives, never + as yet persecuted. Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into + werewolves, and lose nothing in popular estimation. The abuse + of a spell was punished. A wise woman, healing sickness and + charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch only when with + her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil's + complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the + guilt of criminality fell upon all personal relations with him. + Ethn. Rep. 1901-2, p. 393: "Though the witch may be regarded as + all powerful, none but the poor and unfortunate are condemned. + Few others are even brought to trial--their prominence prevents + public accusation." This again reminds us some of our customs; + namely, that of overlooking the transgressions of the rich and + powerful. See note 91, and for outlaws note 112. + + [85] Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the + body, and more particularly the eyes, so that many shamans + (Siberia, America, etc.) become blind. + +Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition +and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the outrages hope +to escape punishment for their depredations, could they hope to plunder +and steal with impunity.[86] So they prowled usually under the cloak +of _night_ or of the dark of the forest,[87] howled and acted like +the animals they represented, hid the animal skin or blanket, if they +used one,[88] in the daytime where they thought no one could find +it, whereas the animal skin which was worn for defence, was put on +either by day or night,[89] and one story recounts the swallowing of +a whole goat, the man bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did +it.[90] Some of the transformed men claimed they could regain human +form only by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters +were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,[91] +no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress, each +maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices, just as did +the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those of the American +negro, who in church, when "shouting," that is, when stirred up by +religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy who happens to be in the +church, of course with impunity; for he is supposed to be under some +outside control, and when the spell has passed off, like some of the +delusionists mentioned,[92] claims not to know what he (or generally +she) has done. Similar also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of +the fire-eaters, or any other sham. + + [86] Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia + and Lithuania, according to two bishops, werewolves were in + the 16th century far more destructive than "true and natural + wolves." They were asserted to have formed "an accursed + college" of those "desirous of innovations contrary to the + divine law." Also see note 90. + + [87] See ante p. 13, and notes 64, 65, 66, 69, 84, 102, 110. + + [88] Note 22 close, and note 102. + + [89] See ante p. 13. + + [90] Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a + woman, whose husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his + house, got hold of him later in his man shape and killed him. + Feats similar to some performed by him are cited in Ethn. Rep. + 1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the Pawnee swallowed + arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of apparently + killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zuni. + + [91] Grimm, Rechtsalterthuemer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle + aus der aermsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note 84). + Literary Digest, March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism + and Spirituality: "Many, very many, spiritualists seem to care + for communion with spirits only that they may more surely keep + physically well, and earn their bread and butter and clothing + the easier." Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The absurdity of + the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for the + theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in + every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he + was certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not + being found in beast form was satisfactorily disposed of. + + [92] Notes 57 and 67. + +The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was that most +often assumed for example in Germanic lands.[93] The term _wolf_ +became synonymous with _robber_, and later (when the robber became an +outlaw,[94]) with _outlaw_, the robber and outlaw alike being called +wolf and not some other animal (i. e., only the wolf-man surviving to +any extent) firstly, because the wolf was plentiful; and secondly, +because as civilization advanced, there came a time when the wolf was +practically the only one of the larger undomesticated animals that +survived.[95] We can notice this in our own United States, for example +in eastern Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes +heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the pastures +adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller animals, and +dig up buried ones.[96] In Prussia also it is the wolf that survives +to-day. American Indians, and other savages however do not restrict the +transformations to the wolf,[97] because other wild animals, are, or +were till recently, abundant amongst them. As civilization advances, +one by one the animal myths disappear with the animals that gave rise +to them (like that connected with the mastodon);[98] or else stories of +such domestic animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.[99] +When this stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully +coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals were shorn +of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as Aesop's fables +would arise.[100] This however was psychologically a long step in +advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an earlier period. + + [93] Notes 9 and 19. + + [94] Note 112. + + [95] See note 11, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: "The deer, + which is still common in the mountains, was the principal + dependence of the Cherokee hunter, and is consequently + prominent in myth, folklore, and ceremonial." see note 42. + Page 264: "The largest gens (clan) in the tribe bears the name + of 'wolf people.'" Page 420: The Cherokee have always been an + agricultural people, and their old country has a luxuriant + flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more + important place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe + than it does among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid + sage deserts of the West. + + [96] The St. Louis "Westliche Post" for January 9, 1908, + furnishes another example: A tame wolf which for the past + two years has been a pet in a farmer's family at Marshfield, + Wisconsin, escaped and attacked a chicken. The farmer's + daughter called to the wolf, but it had become wild from the + taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and one + leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released + until she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar. + + Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13, + 1908, shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite + populous districts: "Wolf-Plage. Aus dem noerdlichen Wisconsin + wird gemeldet, dass Woelfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind + denn je, und dass sie, durch Hunger getrieben, sich nahe + an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere und auch Menschen + angreifen. Zwei grosse Woelfe griffen in dieser Woche das Pferd + der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den Wald, + wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien + verscheuchten." + + [97] Note 11. + + [98] Note 20. + + [99] Note 109. + + [100] Note 24. + +Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf +superstition went through various stages of development. The motives +for assuming wolf's dress (or animal skins or robes), at first were +purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to secure food by +acting as decoys; then it was used for personal advantage or gain by +foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for purposes of vengeance;[101] +later from a desire for power over others; and finally men (the +professional and the superstitious) began to concoct fabulous stories +which were handed down as tradition or myth, according to the psychic +level of the narrator and hearer.[102] + + [101] Close of note 102. + + [102] John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives + the origin and development of the werewolf as follows: From + the conception of wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to + the conception of corporeal werewolves.... Christianity did + not fail to impart a new and fearful character to the belief + in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as a species of + witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the + Devil. It was often necessary to kill one's enemies, and at + that time some even killed for love of it (like the Berserker); + often a sort of homicidal madness, during which they would + array themselves in the skins of wolves or bears and sally + forth by _night_ to crack the backbones, smash the skulls and + sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary + travelers or loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an + invention of excited imagination. So people attributed a wolf's + nature to the maniac or idiot with cannibal appetites, then + the myth-forming process assigned to the unfortunate wretch + a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. Worship + of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of + transformation of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The + storm-wind was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead + men's souls or as the howling of wolf-like monsters (called by + Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness and cannibalism, + accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted as due + to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf + superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on + a wolf's skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence + of the fact alleged of Berserkers haunting the woods by + _night_, clothed in hides of wolves or bears. A permanent cure + was effected by burning the werewolf's sack, unless the Devil + furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, to become + incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the + outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is + the night-wind--a kind of leader of departed souls, howling + in the wintry blasts. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:--The + Berserkir of Iceland dressed in the skins of bears and wolves, + and further on: "Beastform is in mythology proper far oftener + assumed for malignant than for benignant ends." + +The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful werewolf +is the disguising as some common animal by members of savage races +when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to escape detection by the +enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land in search of food. As stated +above,[103] later fabulous report would represent them as possessing +in their disguise the attributes of the animal they impersonated,[104] +and finally even of actually taking on animal form, either wholly or +in part,[105] for longer or shorter periods of time. Some of the North +American Indian transformation stories represent men as having only +the head, hands and feet of a wolf.[106] The transformation into a +werewolf in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made +of wolf-skin.[107] This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic +werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising +the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent a person +as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other article of +apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.[108] The stories especially in Europe +were of the _were-wolf_ rather than _were-bear_ or other animal, +because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild animals.[109] It +was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, which crystallized +into the household werewolf or transformation tales.[110] + + [103] Ante p. 22. + + [104] Note 57. + + [105] Close note 65. + + [106] Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737. + + [107] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our + oldest native notions make the assumption of wolf-shape + depend on arraying oneself in a wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as + transformation into a swan does on putting on the swan-shirt + or swan-ring. Page 1095: "The transformation need not be for a + magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured + into, a wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the + appearance, he acquires also the fierceness and howling of the + wolf; roaming the _woods_, he rends to pieces everything that + comes in his way." This is like the belief of the American + Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued with the spirit + of the being which his mask represents (note 57); or that the + shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers + believe that he has become, the power he represents (note 67). + + [108] Thus some American Indian stories represent men + transformed into wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or + piece of decayed wood when pursued. And mantles of invisibility + are mentioned in note 60. + + [109] See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: "Unter den grossen + Raubtieren treten uns Baer und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen. + Der Wolf ist freilich ueberall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der + Baer ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier," etc. Encyc. Brit, under + Lycanthropy: "In England by the 17th century the werewolf had + long been extinct. Only small creatures, the cat, hare, weasel, + etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to transform himself + into." See note 11. + + [110] Amongst the American Indians, where various larger + animals were common, the designation "wolf-people" (see the + sign-language of the plains) was bestowed especially on the + Pawnees, because, as we have seen, they best imitated wolves. + In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the wolf alone was + universally common, the designation "wolf-people" (or if we + choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one + locality or people, but was bestowed in general on those who + assumed the manner of wolves, and because of their crimes + became outcasts like the wolves. They best imitate wolves, and + no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as wolves + (see note 102), and for this reason the _warg_ or outlaw came + to be called a _wolf_ (see close of note 112). Thus Golther, + Mythologie, p. 102, says: "Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder + getoetet, so findet man einen wunden oder toten Menschen." The + werewolves, as we have seen (ante p. 25), keep to the _woods_ + and the _dark_, of course in many cases to avoid detection. + Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: "They say that + witches love the _night_ and lurk in _shadows and darkness_. + Witches are believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts." + Sigmund and Sinfjoetli dwelt as wolves in the _woods_. Also the + progenitor of the Myramenn in Iceland at _night_ could leave + his house in wolf's form. Another Norwegian account reports + how earlier many people were able to take on wolf's form, then + dwelt in _grove_ and _woods_, where they tore people to pieces, + etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note 113. + + [111] Names. See note 31. The development in the case of names + was perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note 57), and of + the werewolf superstition itself (ante p. 15, fol.); namely, a) + protection against outside agencies was sought; b) growth of + supernaturalism; c) element of humor. + + a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: "Children are often + named _wolf_, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their + supernatural foes" (for similar assumption of characteristics + or the nature of animals for personal advantage see note 33). + See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1139: "The escort of + _wolf_ or _raven_ augured victory;" and in the note: "A name + of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O. H. G. + _Wolf-hraban_ (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly + promised victory. Old names are no product of pure chance. + Servian mothers name a son they have longed for, _Vuk_, + _Wolf_: then the witches can't eat him up. O. H. G. _Wolfbizo_ + was a lucky name, i. e., one bitten by the wolf and thereby + protected," like our modern curing of like by like in medicine. + + b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development + mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about + the conferring of secret names, since one could harm a person + by his name alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning + his name: "Wenn man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g'rennt." Again + in XXI. 313 fol.: It was dangerous to name _bear_ or _wolf_ + in regions infested by these animals, so people, out of fear, + avoided calling the name of such animals; called the bear for + example _honey-eater_, etc. + + c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his + fear of them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and + humor enter in, and such names arise as are mentioned in note + 53; and such stories as that of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a + wolf. + + [112] Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic + Mythology, III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws + who have fled to the woods. A notable instance is that of + Sigmund and Sinfjoetli in the Voelsungasaga. In regard to this W. + Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, Leipzig 1895, + p. 102, says: "Die Sage mag auf einem alten Misverstaendniss + beruhen. _Warg_, _Wolf_ hiess der Geaechtete in der germanischen + Rechtssprache. _Warg_ wurde woertlich als _Wolf_ verstanden, + und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte." Golther again, p. + 424:--"Gefesselt wurde Loki als Aechter in den Wald getrieben, + er wurde "_Warg_", d. h. _Wolf_. _Woelfe_ heissen die friedlosen + Waldgaenger." As to _warg_, Schade in his altdeutsches + Woerterbuch defines it as a raeuberisch wuergendes wuetendes Wesen, + Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise, + geaechteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetaeter; _warg_ ist + Benennung des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und + vertragbruechiger Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden + durch Mord gebrochen und landfluechtig geworden, oder nun im + wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere haust und wie der Wolf + ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche auf Island + Bezeichnung einer gewalttaetigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm, + Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American + Indians relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67 + fol.: An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself + without the protection of his clan, is not defended in case he + is injured by another. When the sentence of outlawry has been + declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the duty of + the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the + council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty + of any member of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill + him like an animal. Page 60 fol.: "The chief of the Wolf gens + is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe" (see also Ethn. + Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the _woods_ and the + _dark_. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal + skins, and to terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves. + Since therefore so many outlaws lived, dressed (note 22 close) + and acted like wolves, to all intents and purposes became + wolves, _wolf_ and outlaw became synonymous terms. + + [113] The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night + in Germany is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people + believed that werewolves, etc., entered houses at night. In + place of the earlier harmful werewolf is now the "harmful" + night air. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + + ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche. + Stuttgart, 1878. + + BEHAGHEL, OTTO. Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902. + + BRAUNE, WILHELM. Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907. + + BROCKHAUS, F. A. Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol. + + BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901. + + DILTHEY, WILHELM. Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906. + + EDDA. Die lieder der aelteren edda. Paderborn, 1876. + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. New York, 1883, etc. + + ERMAN, ADOLF. Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833. + + FISKE, JOHN. Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892. + + FREYTAG, GUSTAV. Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904. + + GOLTHER, W. Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Rechtsaltertuemer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899. + + GRIMM, JAKOB. Teutonic mythology. Translation by J. S. Stallybrass, + London, 1882. + + GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD. Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892. + + GRINNELL, G. B. Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893. + + GRINNELL, G. B. Story of the Indian. New York, 1895. + + HERTZ, W. Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862. + + HIRT, H. Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol. + + INDOGERMANISCHE FORSCHUNGEN. Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904, 1907. + + KLUGE, F. Etymologisches woerterbuch der deutschen sprache. + Strassburg, 1905. + + LEMCKE, K. Aesthetik in gemeinverstaendlichen vortraegen. Leipzig, + 1890. + + LEUBUSCHER, R. Ueber die wehrwoelfe und thierverwandlungen im + mittelalter. Berlin, 1850. + + LITERARY DIGEST. New York and London, March 9, 1907. + + MEYERS. Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900. + + PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900. + + SCHADE, O. Altdeutsches woerterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol. + + SCHRADER, O. Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde. + Strassburg, 1901. + + VOeLSUNGASAGA. Ranisch, Berlin, 1891. + + WESTLICHE POST. St. Louis. + + WUNDT, W. Voelkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905. + + ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR DEUTSCHES ALTERTUM. Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904. + + ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR DEUTSCHE PHILOLOGIE. Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906. + + + + +INDEX + +[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.] + + + Abipones, _9, 66._ + + Abyssinia, _9._ + + Africa, 5, 23; _9, 47, 65._ + + Alligator, _9._ + + America, 5; _9, 85._ + + American Indians, 5, 14, 21, 23, 27; _9, 27, 66, 110._ + + Anglo-Saxons, _9._ + + Animals, _42._ + + Animal fable, _15._ + + Arabia, _9._ + + Arawaks, _9._ + + Arcadia, _9, 15._ + + Asia, 5; _9, 12, 16._ + + Assyrians, _15._ + + + Bear, 5; _9, 15, 16, 38, 102, 109, 111._ + + Belgium, _12._ + + Benignant, _4, 38._ + + Berserkr, 1; _102._ + + Bird, 5. + + Bison, _12, 27, 31, 32, 73, 74._ + + Bohemia, _9._ + + Borneo, _9._ + + Bretons, _9._ + + Bulgaria, _9._ + + Burchard von Worms, _9._ + + Burmah, _12._ + + + Celebrations, _21._ + + Ceylon, _12._ + + Charms, 10, 16. + + Clothing, 8, 9, 11, 16, 28. + + Coyote, 13. + + + Dancing, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16; _32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 57._ + + Dante, _24._ + + Death, _22._ + + Decoy, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 28; _29, 30, 31._ + + Denmark, _9._ + + Dog, 5, 21, 27; _19, 64, 73, 74._ + + Dreams, 21; _67._ + + + Edda, _15._ + + Enemy, 8, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29; _48, 60, 65, 102, 111._ + + English, _9, 109._ + + Eskimo, _30, 31, 67._ + + Europe, 5, 7; _9, 12, 16, 110._ + + + Fenrisulfr, _9, 51._ + + Finns, _5._ + + Fish, _5._ + + Fisherman, _29._ + + Food, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 28, 29; _27, 29._ + + Forest, 25; _22, 65, 102, 107, 110, 112._ + + Fox, 5, 12; _9, 15, 21._ + + French, _9, 12._ + + + Germany, 2, 4, 5; _9, 22._ + + Greece, 1, 7; _9, 15, 22._ + + Greenland, _12, 69._ + + + Harmful, 1, 11, 13; _42, 51._ + + Herds, _9, 12, 20._ + + Herodotus, 1; _15._ + + Hindoos, _9._ + + Homer, _24._ + + Hunter, 7, 8; _15, 31, 52, 53, 64, 95._ + + Hyena, 5, 23; _9._ + + + Iceland, _9, 110._ + + India, 5; _9, 12._ + + Indogermanic, 7; _9, 20, 42._ + + Insanity, 21, 22, 24; _24, 73, 85, 102._ + + Iranians, _9._ + + Ireland, _9._ + + Italians, _9._ + + + Jackal, _12._ + + Jaguar, _9._ + + Japan, _9._ + + + Kadiak, _29._ + + Kelts, 7; _9._ + + Knut, _9._ + + + Lapps, 5. + + Leopard, 5; _9, 65._ + + Leubuscher, 6; _9, 20._ + + Lion, 5; _9, 45, 65._ + + Lithuanians, _9._ + + Loki, 14; _9, 112._ + + Lycanthropy, 2; _9, 19, 20, 22, 74, 102._ + + Lykaon, _9, 15._ + + + Magic, 23, 24; _22, 37, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 84, 107._ + + Malignant, 24; _4, 84, 102, 109, 113._ + + Mask, 8, 11, 15; _29, 37, 42, 57, 64, 67, 107, 111._ + + Mastodon, _20._ + + Medicinemen (Shamans), 20; _52, 63, 66, 67, 74, 81, 83, 85, 90, + 107._ + + Mexico, _12, 67._ + + Middle Ages, 22; _9, 74, 102._ + + Murder, 24; _20, 22, 52, 102, 112._ + + Myths, 7, 27; _24, 95, 102._ + + + Names, _42, 53, 109, 111._ + + Netherlands, _9._ + + Neurians, 1; _15._ + + Night, 1, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25; _63, 65, 66, 69, 74, 84, 102, 110, + 112, 113._ + + North America, _12._ + + Norway, _9._ + + + Odin, _15._ + + Island Oesel, _9._ + + Otter, _29._ + + Outlaw, 24, 26; _84, 110, 112._ + + Owl, 5, 30; _64._ + + + Pawnees, 12, 13, 23; _110._ + + Persia, _9._ + + Plants, _42, 95._ + + Poles, _9, 14._ + + Portuguese, _9._ + + Posen, _14._ + + Priests, _22, 67, 69, 83._ + + Professionals, 22, 23, 24, 25; _74, 81, 83, 86._ + + Provencal, _9._ + + Prussia, _14._ + + + Reindeer, 5. + + Religion, _22, 24, 57._ + + Revenge, 14, 17, 24, 28; _52, 69._ + + Robber, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28; _15, 20, 44, 53, 65, + 112._ + + Romans, 7; _9, 27._ + + Russia, 2; _9, 12, 16._ + + + Scandinavia, _9._ + + Scout, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 29; _47, 48, 60._ + + Scythians, _6._ + + Seal, _29, 31, 69._ + + Serpent, 5; _9._ + + Servia, _9._ + + Shepherds, _15, 20._ + + Siam, _12, 69._ + + Sinfjoetli, _15, 64, 110._ + + Song, 9, 10, 15; _33, 64._ + + Skins (or dress) of animals, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, + 23, 25, 28, 29, 30; _21, 22, 31, 34, 52, 53, 57, 60, 63, 64, + 65, 66, 67, 74, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112._ + + South America, 5; _12._ + + Speech (animals), 7. + + Stories, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29; _9, 27, 60, 69, 102, 111._ + + Supernaturalism, 10, 17, 18; _57, 65, 102, 111._ + + Superstition, 1, 4, 5, 14, 23; _20, 64._ + + Sweden, _9._ + + + Tiger, 5; _9, 45, 69, 90._ + + Totemism, 2; _47, 102._ + + Transformation, 5, 15, 21; _9, 11, 19, 22, 52, 64, 65, 66, 69, + 107._ + + Traps, 8; _31._ + + Tschechs, _9._ + + Turkey, 5; _108._ + + + Volhynia, 2; _9, 16._ + + Voelsungasaga, _15, 112._ + + + Wales, _9._ + + Warfare, 12, 13, 16; _60._ + + Weapons, 7, 8, 9. + + Werewolf, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30; _9, 15, 20, 22, 45, + 64, 84, 86, 91, 102, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113._ + + Wiener Hundesegen, _15._ + + Witches, 11, 19, 23; _65, 66, 67, 74, 83, 84, 91, 102, 109, 110, + 111._ + + + + +Transcriber's note + + +Words in italics were surrounded with _underscores_, and small capitals +changed to all capitals. + +Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were +added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they +were referred to in other notes. The notes were moved to directly after +the paragraph with the corresponding anchor. + +In note 32 "Tsun'-si'-kwa-ya'" and "ki+" were in the original +written with a breve on the i, this has been changed to a plain i. +"Voelsungasaga" and "Sinfjoetli" were in the original mostly written with +a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader's +convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common +spelling with oe. + +Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. In note +12 "and" was changed to "und" (seltener in Frankreich und Belgien). + +Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and +missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent +spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by +Caroline Taylor Stewart + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF *** + +***** This file should be named 44134.txt or 44134.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/1/3/44134/ + +Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at + www.gutenberg.org/license. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 +North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email +contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the +Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + diff --git a/old/44134.zip b/old/44134.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f72e365 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44134.zip |
