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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44134 ***
+
+Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected.
+A more detailed transcriber’s note can be found at the end of this text.
+
+
+
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.[1]
+
+      [1] NOTE.—After the author had written the following article,
+      she gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That
+      the origin and development of the use of masks as given in
+      the Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Ethnology,
+      1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note 32) is similar to the origin and
+      development of the werewolf superstition itself, as given in
+      the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The author
+      has italicized some words in the quotations.
+
+
+The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an animal’s form,
+most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost worldwide superstition.
+Such a transformed person is the Germanic werewolf, or man-wolf; that
+is, a wolf which is really a human being.[2] So the werewolf was a
+man in wolf’s form or wolf’s dress,[2] seen mostly at night,[3] and
+believed generally to be harmful to man.[4]
+
+      [2] According to Mogk, in Paul’s Grundriss der germanischen
+      Philologie III. 272 _wer_ means “man,” found in Old Saxon,
+      Anglo-Saxon, Old High German, and werewolf a man in wolf’s
+      form. Kögel connects _wer_ with Gothic _wasjan_ “kleiden.”
+      “Darum bedeutet _werwolf_ eigentlich Wolfsgewand úlfshamr;
+      ähnlich bedeutet vielleicht _berserkr_ Bärengewand,” therefore
+      werewolf according to Kögel means a wolf’s dress. See also
+      Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde.
+
+      [3] Post p. 24.
+
+      [4] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:—Beastform in
+      mythology proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for
+      benignant ends. See note 52.
+
+The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily
+explained. Adolf Erman[5] explains the allusion of Herodotus[6] to the
+transformation of the Neurians (the people of the present Volhynia, in
+West Russia) into wolves as due merely to their appearance in winter,
+dressed in their furs. This explanation, however, would not fit similar
+superstitions in warm climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy
+to primitive Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the
+members of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.[7]
+Still another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the
+original werewolf.[8]
+
+      [5] Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232.
+
+      [6] Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and
+      Greeks settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once
+      a year every Neurian becomes a wolf for a few days, and then
+      resumes the human form. See concerning this also Hirt, Die
+      Indogermanen, I. 120.
+
+      [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol.
+
+      [8] Note 102, also see note 22.
+
+The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must be one
+which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition is found
+pretty much all over the earth,[9] especially to-day[10] however in
+Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in the lands where the
+wolf is most common.[11][12] According to Mogk[13] the superstition
+prevails to-day especially in the north and east of Germany.[14]
+
+      [9] See also Mogk in Paul’s Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud.
+      Leubuscher, Über die Wehrwölfe und Thierverwandlungen im
+      Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850, mentions cases in ancient Arcadia,
+      in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the almost epidemic disease
+      in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf, Stuttgart,
+      1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia
+      (hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to
+      Encyc. Brit. below; on p. 133 he says: “Tierverwandlungen sind
+      allgemein menschlich, finden wir überall. Die eigentümliche
+      Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen aber finden wir vorzugsweise
+      bei einer bestimmten Völkergruppe, den arischen Stämmen der
+      Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven; bei den südwärts
+      gezogenen Stämmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns gleiche
+      Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten
+      treten die Werwölfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehört die
+      älteste historische Erwähnung der Sage; viel älter aber ist
+      der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische Werwölfe”. According to
+      Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, Stuttgart,
+      1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European
+      country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles,
+      Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants
+      of island Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal
+      peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in Asia, Africa, America; but not in
+      India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit. below), especially
+      though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands.
+
+      As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for
+      1880-81, p. 83, “From their close relations with wild animals
+      Indians’ stories of transformations into beasts and beasts
+      into men are numerous and interesting.... In times of peace,
+      during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller told
+      of those days in the past when men and animals could transform
+      themselves at will and hold converse with one another.”
+
+      Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell & Sons, 1883, II. 668
+      says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic
+      antiquities than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrisûlfr,
+      a son of Loki, makes his appearance in wolf’s shape among the
+      gods.
+
+      Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy,
+      states:—A belief firmly rooted among all savages is that
+      men are in certain circumstances transformed temporarily or
+      permanently into wolves and other inferior animals. In Europe
+      the transformation into a wolf is by far more prominent and
+      frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans, French,
+      Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most
+      prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence.
+      Thus the were-_wolf_ prevails in Europe, also in England,
+      Wales, Ireland; and in S. France, the Netherlands, Germany,
+      Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, Poland, Russia, he can
+      hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note 12). In Denmark,
+      Sweden, Norway and Iceland the _bear_ competes with the wolf
+      for pre-eminence. In Persia the _bear_ is supreme; in Japan the
+      _fox_; in India the _serpent_ vies with the _tiger_ (contrary
+      to Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272, who says:—“Nur Griechen,
+      Römer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter den indogermanischen
+      Völkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und Iraniern ist er
+      unbekannt.” Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in Abyssinia
+      and Borneo the _hyena_ with the _lion_; in E. Africa the _lion_
+      with the _alligator_; in W. Africa the _leopard_ is perhaps
+      most frequently the form assumed by man; among the Abipones the
+      _tiger_, among the Arawaks the _jaguar_, etc.
+
+      In Brockhaus’ Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the
+      werewolf belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and
+      Romanic peoples; found to-day especially in Volhynia and White
+      Russia.
+
+      Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:—Bei den Angelsachsen lässt sich der
+      Werwolf im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern,
+      ihre Herden vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das älteste
+      Zeugnis auf deutschem Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v.
+      Worms (11 century).
+
+      [10] See note 9.
+
+      [11] Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:—There can nowhere be a living
+      belief in contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which
+      has ceased to exist in the particular locality. Belief in
+      metamorphosis into the animal most prominent in any locality
+      itself acquires a special prominence. (See note 12.) In none
+      of these cases however is the power of transformation limited
+      exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal.
+
+      [12] Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under _Wolf_:—The wolf is
+      found in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America
+      from Greenland to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in
+      Ceylon, Burmah or Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in
+      the two latter jackals instead.
+
+      Meyer’s Kleines konversations-lexikon:—Der wolf “ist häufig
+      in Ost- und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika,
+      seltener in Frankreich und Belgien, den Herden gefährlich,
+      besonders in Russland.” Encyc. Brit., XXIV under _Wolf_:—In
+      northern countries the wolf is generally larger and more
+      powerful than in the southern portion of its range. Its habits
+      are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been known
+      to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of
+      his flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance.
+      They usually assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and
+      by their combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower
+      and kill even such great animals as the American bison.
+      Children and even grown people are not infrequently attacked by
+      them when pressed for hunger. The ferocity of the wolf in the
+      wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed, they can rarely be
+      trusted by strangers.
+
+      [13] Paul, Grundriss, III. 272.
+
+      [14] Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p.
+      275 fol., speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: “Noch lebte
+      das Landvolk in ohnmächtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Wölfe,
+      wenig Dörfer, welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere
+      decimirt wurden,” and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:—“Als 1815
+      die gegenwärtige Provinz Posen an Preussen zurückfiel, waren
+      auch dort die Wölfe eine Landplage. Nach Angaben der Posener
+      Provinzialblätter wurden im Regierungsbezirk Posen vom 1. Sept.
+      1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Wölfe erlegt, noch im Jahre 1819
+      im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von Wölfen
+      gefressen.”
+
+The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.[15] The
+point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living human
+being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the wolf was
+common[16] into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa, where these animals
+are common; into a tiger or serpent in India;[17] in other localities
+into other animals characteristic of the region.[18] Among Lapps
+and Finns occur transformations into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish
+or birds; amongst many North Asiatic peoples, as also some American
+Indians, into the bear; amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf,
+turkey or owl; in South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar,
+also into a fish, or serpent. Most universal though it seems was the
+transformation into wolves or dogs.[19]
+
+      [15] Thus in note 6 was mentioned Herodotus’ (484-425 B. C.)
+      statement about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend,
+      according to Hertz, is that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos,
+      the first king of ancient Arcadia. These Arcadians lived as
+      huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert (Andree, p. 65;
+      and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed amongst
+      the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf
+      myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B. C). In the Norse “Edda”
+      we find Odin’s wolves, also Sköll, Hati and Fenrir. In the
+      Völsunga Saga, Sigmund and Sinfjötli become wolves. For other
+      reflections of the fear in which wolves were held, see the
+      10th century ms. of the “Wiener Hundesegen” against male and
+      female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches Lesebuch, 6. aufl.
+      1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,—Geschichte der deutschen sprache
+      s. 233:—“Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte
+      raubthier des waldes dar, und lehrt die nähe des wolfs und
+      fuchses.”
+
+      C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:—“In die
+      ältesten Zeiten hinauf reicht auch bei Jägervölkern die
+      Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil die Eigentümlichkeiten der
+      Tiere erklärend, ihr Gebahren erzählend. Die furchtbaren und
+      die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo die Menschen
+      städtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie einsamer
+      mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine höhere Bedeutung. So wird
+      dem Wäldler Bär und Wolf zum ebenbürtigen Räuber und Kämpfer,
+      menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht,
+      der Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst.”
+
+      [16] Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to
+      Andree, p. 65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it
+      is to-day in Russia. Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: “Der
+      Wolf ist überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber
+      ganz sicher ein Waldtier.”
+
+      [17] Note 9.
+
+      [18] Cf. note 9, Encyc. Brit.
+
+      [19] Leubuscher, p. 1:—Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in
+      Hunde und Wölfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den
+      namen Lykanthropie.
+
+As the superstition is so widespread—Germany, Eastern Europe, Africa,
+Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time, when all these
+peoples were in communication with each other[20] or else, in accord
+with another view of modern science, it arose independently in various
+continents in process of the natural psychical development of the human
+race under similar conditions.
+
+      [20] Or as Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for
+      example amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still
+      formed a whole, as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of
+      herds was especially feared. Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: “Die
+      meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die im Freien lebten,
+      mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte ihrer
+      Einbildungskraft am öftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit
+      zu kämpfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in
+      Einzelnen als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich
+      von Wölfen besonders beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich
+      manche Mordthat nur von Wölfen begangen.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89,
+      p. 282:—“The Dakotas have long believed in the appearance
+      from time to time of a monstrous animal that swallows human
+      beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the bones of
+      mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians.”
+
+The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom of
+primitive man’s of putting on a wolf’s or other animal’s skin[21]
+or dress, or a robe.[22] Thus Leubuscher,[23] says: “Es ist der
+Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten
+hervorgewachsen.”[24][25] Likely also the notion of attributing speech
+to animals originated from such disguising or dressing of men as
+animals. In the following we shall examine into primitive man’s reasons
+for putting on such a skin or robe.
+
+      [21] Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:—In celebrations it is
+      possible that the foxskin so universally worn by the animistic
+      personifications is a survival comparable with the skin of the
+      animal in which formerly the whole body was clothed.
+
+      [22] Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: “In der
+      ältesten Naturreligion ist die Gottheit des Todes und der
+      winterlichen Erde als Wolf gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl
+      in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten nach dem Volksglauben
+      die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu verwandeln. Der
+      Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum raschen
+      Zurücklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders
+      geeignet. Darum nahmen die Götter und die zauberbegabten
+      Menschen zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von
+      Natur gefährlich und wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und
+      beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang nach Mord und Zerstörung die
+      Hauptsache. Die Ursprünge des Werwolfglaubens waren also 1.
+      religiöse Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung (der friedlose
+      Mörder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die
+      Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie.” Page 51. “Die Verwandlung
+      in Wölfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden.” Page 57:
+      “Dass die von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen
+      Waldflüchtigen sich in Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend.”
+
+      [23] Page 46. See also note 9.
+
+      [24] Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p.
+      153 fol.;—“Ist so die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und
+      Götterglauben, zunächst gebunden an das Bedürfnis des Lebens,
+      so sondert sie sich doch allmählich im Verlauf der Kultur von
+      den religiösen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite Welt
+      zu einer unabhängigen Bedeutsamkeit”—like Homer, Dante, etc.
+      See note 20, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:—“Insane
+      delusions must reflect the usages and beliefs of
+      contemporaneous society.”
+
+      [25] Notes 20, 21 and 27.
+
+Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had to conquer
+them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in Europe arose
+probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic peoples were
+still in contact with each other, if not in the original Indo-Germanic
+home, for they all have the superstition (unless, as above, we prefer
+to regard the belief as arising in various localities in process of
+psychical development under similar conditions; namely, when people
+still lived principally by the chase.[26]) Probably the primitive
+Indo-European man before and at the time of the origin of the werewolf
+superstition, was almost helpless in the presence of inexorable nature.
+This was before he used metal for weapons. The great business of life
+was to secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots,
+berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.[27]
+Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any
+size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet
+primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no longer
+crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but began to watch
+and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what certain animals would
+do under certain circumstances, to learn what would frighten them away
+or what would lure them on. So at least the large animals were to early
+man a constant cause of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary
+to have their flesh for food and their skins for clothing.[28]
+
+      [26] See note 15.
+
+      [27] Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:—Traces of the
+      fear in which buffalo “were held may still be discovered in the
+      traditional stories of certain tribes, which set forth how, in
+      those days,” [i. e. in the stone age] “before men were provided
+      with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill, and eat the
+      people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo
+      were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly
+      have arisen save as the result of actual experience of their
+      power to inflict injury and death.” Pliny informs us how the
+      Romans kept the wolf out of their fields, see Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians lived on the steppes,
+      in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains, the animals
+      were their whole study. They moved with the animals, followed
+      them for food.
+
+      [28] Note 27.
+
+Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for trapping
+them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of decoys to lure
+animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits, others more easily
+by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,[29] and similarly, another
+form of the original decoy was no doubt simply the stuffed skin of a
+member of the species, whether animal or bird, say for example a wild
+duck.[30] Of course the hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself
+putting on the animal skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an
+individual dressed for example in a wolf’s skin could approach near
+enough to a solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other
+weapon, without exciting the wolf’s suspicion of the nearness of a
+dangerous foe.[31] So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used
+by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure
+food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise, whole
+or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments
+seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions and cries of
+animals,[32] at first to lure them, when acting as a decoy. With growth
+of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and an additional reason for
+acquiring dance and song was to secure charms against bodily ills,[33]
+and finally enlivenment.[34] In both dance and song, when used for a
+serious purpose, the performers imagined themselves to be the animals
+they were imitating,[35] and in the dance they wore the skins of the
+animals represented.[36]
+
+      [29] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:—It seems that masks
+      were occasionally used as decoys.... Next to the otter the
+      most valuable animal in the estimation of the Kadiak men, is
+      the species of seal or sea-dog called by the Russians nerpa.
+      The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it toward the
+      shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body among
+      the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque
+      resembling the head of a seal and makes a noise like that
+      animal. The unsuspicious seal, imagining that he is about to
+      meet a partner of his own species, hastens to the spot and is
+      instantly killed. Compare note 57.
+
+      [30] Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:—Bering Strait Eskimo stuff
+      rudely the skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon
+      a stick which holds the head outstretched, then imitate the
+      call of the bird, which is trapped in the net attached to the
+      decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft snow into the form
+      of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around the neck
+      for plumage. The call then brought the real birds.
+
+      [31] Thus G. B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his
+      description of the primitive Indians’ method of trapping
+      buffalo, says: “Some men went forth naked, others carried a
+      dress made of the entire skin of a buffalo, the head and horns
+      arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of the skin hung
+      down over the wearer’s back,” etc. This “caller” went near to a
+      herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into
+      the trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often
+      proved fatal to the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85,
+      p. 484, about Central Eskimo seal hunting, is stated: If a
+      hunter is close to an animal he imitates its movements. Some
+      utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. “The sealskin
+      clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is
+      difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance.”
+      And on p. 508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central
+      Eskimos carry guns on their shoulders, two men going together,
+      so as to resemble the antlers of a deer. The men imitate their
+      grunting. If they lie on the ground at some distance they
+      greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to Ross the
+      “inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer,
+      the foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer’s head
+      upon his own.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:—“The old manner of
+      hunting antelope and deer: the hunter would disguise himself by
+      covering his head with the head and skin of an antelope, and so
+      be enabled to approach the game near enough to use his bow and
+      arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask themselves
+      with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo.” Ethn. Rep.
+      1901-02, p. 439;—Two of the party of hunters (Zuñi) out after
+      deer “wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front
+      and back of the shirt being painted to represent as nearly
+      as possible the body of the deer; the hands and the arms to
+      the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to represent the
+      deer’s forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer’s head over his
+      head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as
+      possible, even to the browsing, the game they would catch.”
+
+      [32] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:—“Tradition says the Iroquois
+      derived the music and action of the Buffalo dance while on
+      an expedition against the Cherokee, from the bellowing and
+      the movements of a herd of buffalo which they heard for the
+      first time ‘singing their favorite songs,’ i. e. bellowing and
+      snorting.” Also note 33.
+
+      [33] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent
+      frostbite. The wolf’s, deer’s, fox’s, opossum’s feet it is held
+      never become frostbitten. After each verse of the song, the
+      singer imitates the cry and the action of the animal. The words
+      used are archaic in form and may be rendered “I become a real
+      wolf, etc.” The song runs:
+
+      1. Tsûñ´ wa´ ‘ya-ya´ (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged
+      howl). The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his
+      feet.
+
+      2. Tsûñ´-ka´ wi-ye´ (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh!
+      (imitating the call and jumping of a deer).
+
+      3. Tsûñ´-tsu´ ‘la-ya´ (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih!
+      (imitates barking and scratching of a fox).
+
+      4. Tsûñ´-sĭ´-kwa-ya´ (four times), kĭ+(imitates cry of the
+      opossum when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal
+      does when feigning death).
+
+      [34] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance
+      performed by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep
+      up their spirits, in which each had his robe about him and
+      imitated the actions of the coyote, trotting, glancing around,
+      etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo dance, in which each
+      of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over his head,
+      the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging
+      down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of
+      the buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the
+      Omaha wolf dance, by the society of those who have supernatural
+      communication with wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and
+      dance in imitation of the actions of wolves. Similarly they
+      performed the grizzly bear dance, horse dance, etc.
+
+      [35] Notes 22, 34 and 37.
+
+      [36] See notes 34 and 37.
+
+Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed merely
+for decoys and sport (early dancing),[37] for peaceful purposes
+therefore, such people having whole or partial animal shape were not
+regarded as harmful to man,[38] just as wise women began to pass
+for witches only when with their art they did evil.[39] A similar
+development can be traced in the case of masks.[40] It was some time
+before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing animals that
+were dangerous to life, though these are the ones he first studied;[41]
+and we cannot presuppose that he disguised to represent them until he
+could cope with them, since the original purpose of the disguise was
+to secure food and clothing. Thus far then we see whole or partial
+disguise as animals used to secure _food_ and _clothing_ when acting as
+decoys to lure animals; and in _dancing_.[42]
+
+      [37] Similarly in the use of masks (see note 57). See Wundt,
+      Völkerpsychologie II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this
+      Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss.
+      558-568:—“Der maskierte mensch ist der ekstatische Mensch.
+      Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in ekstase, fühlt
+      er sich in fremde lebensvorgänge ein, eignet er sich das wesen
+      an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert.” Für den
+      naiven menschen, wie für das kind, ist die maske durchaus
+      nicht blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der
+      augenblickstanz wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvölker verwenden
+      ihre masken nur bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertänzen, nicht
+      zu ihrer burlesken mimik; die tänzer sind in Tiermasken, etc.
+
+      [38] Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed
+      into a bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent
+      (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1097:—In Norse accounts also we find
+      transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded as
+      rational and was esteemed.
+
+      [39] Note 84.
+
+      [40] See note 57a.
+
+      [41] Notes 27 and 42.
+
+      [42] The important consideration in the mind of primitive
+      man was whether certain things were harmful or useful. See
+      Behaghel, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 98:—“Die grossen Tiere
+      und die mächtigen Bäume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die für
+      die _Ernährung_ and _Bekleidung_ des Menschen von Bedeutung
+      sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben _bedrohen_, sie haben viel
+      früher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare
+      Käfer im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es,
+      dass die Namen der grösseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbäume,
+      der wichtigsten Getreidearten allen germanischer Stämmen
+      gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie _Wolf_, _Kuh_, _Ochse_,
+      _Birke_, _Buche_, _Erle_, _Gerste_ mit den Benennungen anderer
+      indogermanischer Völker übereinstimmen.” Doubtless animals
+      occupied their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt,
+      Völkerpsychologie, II. 412 fol., about the _maskentanz_:
+      “Überhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit früher Berücksichtigung
+      erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive.” See note 95.
+
+Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal’s skin or dress when
+out as _forager_ (or robber) or _spy_, for the purpose of avoiding
+detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for example,[43] were called
+by neighboring tribes _wolves_, probably not out of contempt, since it
+may be doubted that an Indian feels contempt for a wolf any more than
+he does for a fox, a rabbit, or an elk, but because of their adroitness
+as scouts, warriors and stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think,
+because of their great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so
+as to escape detection by the enemy by day or night; or, according to
+some neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves[44], “have the
+endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can make
+long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their way, or on
+no food at all.” ... And further, “The Pawnees, when they went on the
+warpath, were always prepared to simulate wolves.... Wolves on the
+prairie were too common[45] to excite remark, and at night they would
+approach close to the Indian camps.” ... The Pawnee starting off on the
+warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later times a
+white blanket or a white sheet; and, at _night_, wrapping himself in
+this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he walked or trotted
+here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed himself into a
+common object of the landscape. This disguise was employed by _day_ as
+well, for reconnoissance.... While the party remained hidden in some
+ravine or hollow, one Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to
+the top of the hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches
+looking all over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him,
+would take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the
+Pawnees could imitate wolves best. “An Indian going into an enemy’s
+country is often called a wolf,[46] and the sign for a scout is made up
+of the signs _wolf_ and _look_.”[47] Should any scout detect danger, as
+at _night_ when on duty near an encampment, he must give the cry of the
+coyote.[48]
+
+      [43] G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N. Y.,
+      Scribners, 1893, p. 245, fol.
+
+      [44] Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein
+      sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. _hirpus_ bedeutet _wolf_ in
+      sabinischer oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf
+      führer geworden war, oder nach andrer sage sie wölfe gejagt
+      hatten und gleich wölfen raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen
+      ausdrucks friedlos waren.
+
+      [45] The werewolf story could arise only where the animal,
+      wolf, tiger or lion, etc., was common; and likewise the
+      werewolf tales gradually died out when the animals became rare
+      or extinct. See note 11.
+
+      [46] Grinnell, p. 245.
+
+      [47] The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild
+      beasts save their own totem-animals as _enemy-scouts_ (Encyc.
+      Brit. under Lycanthropy).
+
+      [48] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of
+      the indian, p. 208: The wolf was believed, in the animals’
+      council, to be able to give the Indian the power to creep right
+      into the midst of the enemy’s camp without being seen.
+
+The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in animal form or
+dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal disguise began to
+act not only as decoys for animals dangerous to life, but also as
+scouts (robbers[49]—and later as possessors of supernatural power,
+when growth of culture brought with it growth of supernaturalism[50]);
+when people began to associate, for example, the wolf’s form with a
+lurking enemy.[51]
+
+      [49] See note 53.
+
+      [50] See note 57-b.
+
+      [51] So originally the germanic god _Logi_ was not an evil
+      god. _Logi_ meant the natural force of fire; _Loki_ meant the
+      same, but the burly giant has been made a sly, seducing villain
+      (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of Loki, Fenrisûlfr, appears
+      in wolf’s shape among the gods. Perhaps association with the
+      wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of Logi
+      (Loki) from a good to an evil god.
+
+All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the defensive,
+like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion have sent out
+scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid detection, assumed the
+disguise of the animal most common to the special locality in question,
+just as to-day they are known to disguise in animal skins for purposes
+of plunder or revenge.[52][53]
+
+      [52] Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:—In modern savage life we
+      find beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in
+      beast form for the community; others are said to assume beast
+      form in order to avenge themselves justly on enemies; others
+      for love of bloodshed and cannibalism. See also note 58.
+
+      [53] No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won
+      considerable fame through their skill and bravery, as we should
+      judge from such proper names as _Rudolf_, which means really
+      _Ruhmwolf_, _Ruhm_ related to Gothic _hropeigs_ “victorious,”
+      Sanskrit _kir_ “to praise”; or _Adolf_ from _Adalolf_, which
+      means _Edelwolf_, originally, therefore, _Edelräuber_, for
+      _wolf_ meant originally about the same as _robber_ (Kluge).
+      So _robber_ or _wolf_ was originally a highly respectable
+      appellation, at a time when men lived from robbery and the
+      chase, either as searobbers, or mountain robbers, etc. (about
+      this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen, 1905, p. 268
+      fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace (see
+      appellation “wolves” applied to Pawnees, p. 12.). Later we find
+      such names as _Wulfila_ “little wolf.” Many Indian names are
+      those of animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear,
+      Conquering Bear, Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear
+      Rib, Smoking Bear, Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear,
+      Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe,
+      etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83, p. 169: The names of Indians very
+      often refer to some animal, predicating some attribute or
+      position of that animal. For discussion of names, see note 111.
+
+The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying principle is
+the same; namely, the transformation of a living human being into an
+animal. The origin of the belief in such a transformation, as stated
+above[54] was the simple putting on of an animal skin by early man. The
+object of putting on animal skins was,
+
+      [54] Ante p. 6.
+
+(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries of animals
+were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),[55] artificial decoys
+(like decoy ducks to-day)[56] and finally even masks were used.[57]
+
+      [55] See (3) below.
+
+      [56] See ante p. 8.
+
+      [57] See note 4 and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see
+      note 37):—The use of masks is worldwide. The origin and
+      development of the use of masks is very much the same as
+      the origin and development of the werewolf as given in the
+      preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both originally
+      useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into
+      instruments for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of
+      the mask is described in the above report as follows:
+
+      a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for
+      defense against physical violence, human or otherwise. It
+      was therefore first used merely as a mechanical resistance
+      to the opposing force; then secondly, still in the lowest
+      grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a
+      moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by
+      symbolizing superhuman agencies. Now individual variations
+      arose—devices for example derived or conventionalized from
+      some predatory, shrewd or mysterious animal.
+
+      b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and
+      the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part
+      of the religious paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of
+      the shamans. Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 395:—“When worn in any
+      ceremonial, ... the wearer is believed to become mysteriously
+      and unconsciously imbued with the spirit of the being which his
+      mask represents.”
+
+      c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is
+      used for public amusements and games; by secret societies; as
+      protection against recognition on festive occasions, etc., like
+      the animal skins worn in dances.
+
+(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying animals,
+as in (1) above.
+
+(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals led to
+dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the faces and bodies
+of the participants were painted in imitation of the colors of birds
+and animals, the motions of animals imitated and animal disguises
+used.[58]
+
+      [58] Notes 32, 34, 33, ante p. 11.
+
+(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out foraging, as well
+as for warfare,[59][60] therefore for booty, and self-defense. Either
+they wore the entire skin, or probably later just a part of it as a
+fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as a charm by many of
+our colored people to-day.[61]
+
+      [59] See p. 13.
+
+      [60] Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:—Account of “a cloak or mantle
+      made from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic
+      paintings. It was made and used by the Apaches as a mantle
+      of invisibility, that is, a charmed covering for spies which
+      would enable them to pass with impunity through the country,
+      and even through the camp of their enemies. In this instance
+      the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn.” The
+      Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were
+      the raincloud, serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of
+      the winds of the four cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p.
+      515:—Among the Hidatsa (Sioux) fetiches are especially the
+      skins of the wolf. “When they go to war, they always wear the
+      stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging down
+      the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the
+      warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf’s head
+      hangs down upon his breast.” Finally the magic robes or shirts
+      and girdles came to be a part of the regular paraphernalia of
+      the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the folklore of all
+      countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles.
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: “Some warriors had
+      medicine to change their shape as they pleased, so that they
+      could escape from their enemies.” Page 501: Such stories might
+      be paralleled in any tribe.
+
+      [61] See further development in note 64.
+
+(5) For purposes of revenge,[62],[63] personal or other. For some other
+personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror in the opposing
+agent by hideousness.
+
+      [62] Note 52.
+
+      [63] As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure
+      brutality, we cite from Andree, p. 69:—People in the interior
+      of Africa who understand magic, transform themselves into lions
+      and go about killing people. See also below, note 65, where the
+      wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and sucks his blood, and
+      also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being one of
+      the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this
+      takes place at _night_, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian
+      starting out at night in his wolf’s robe, and trotting up to
+      the hostile village to ascertain where his enemies’ horses
+      are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell’s
+      Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73).
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:—“To recover stolen or lost
+      property, especially ponies, is one of the principal tasks
+      imposed upon the so-called medicine-men” (shamans).
+
+(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing superhuman
+agencies.[64] So now would arise first a belief in superhuman power or
+attributes,[65] and then,
+
+      [64] As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was
+      put on not merely to make the wearer look just like a common
+      object of the landscape, but also because the wearer of the
+      disguise was supposed to take on the characteristics of the
+      animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.), as in the
+      case of masks (see note 57), and finally the wearer of such
+      a robe was believed to actually become transformed, like the
+      wearers of the werewolf shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves
+      were regarded as good hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep.
+      1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:—The wolf is revered by the
+      Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanáti; therefore we can
+      understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of
+      unerring huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those
+      who gained their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of
+      songs imitating the cries of certain animals was supposed to
+      confer a characteristic of the animal in question (see note 33).
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:—To gain animal characteristics a
+      wizard attached crow and owl plumes to his head that he might
+      have the eyes of the crow to see quickly the approach of man,
+      and the eyes of the owl to travel by night. He flapped his
+      arms, ... A Zuñi man hearing a cry like an owl, yet human,
+      looked about him and found a man whom he recognized as a Zuñi.
+      “Aha!” said he, “why have you those plumes upon your head? Aha,
+      you are a sorcerer,” etc.
+
+      An example of the transforming power of the _robe_ we find in
+      Bulletin 26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington,
+      1901, Kathlamet texts, p. 156 fol.:—A woman ate of some of the
+      fat of a bitch, gave birth to five male dogs and one female
+      dog. When they grew older, she discovered one day that they
+      could transform themselves into real children. While they were
+      down at the beach, she entered the house, and now she saw the
+      dog _blankets_. She took them and burnt them. Then the children
+      retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the
+      Völsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according
+      to which an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting
+      on an elkskin.
+
+      W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p.
+      100, writes, “Die Fähigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln
+      können, heisst ‘sich zu häuten, die Hülle zu wechseln’.
+      Das Umwerfen eines äusserlichen Gewandes kann den Wechsel
+      der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas Federgewand, die
+      Schwan- und Krähenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins Adlergewand.
+      Die Wolfsgewänder (úlfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln
+      den Menschen zum Wolfe”. See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel,
+      Zeitschrift für deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261.
+
+      [65] Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:—The owner of fine beads fears
+      that some witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with
+      disease.
+
+      As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman
+      powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances
+      given by Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met
+      in Africa a native said to have power to transform himself
+      into a lion. As lion he would stay for days and months in the
+      _forest_, in a sacred hut, to which however his wife carried
+      beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this lion
+      did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was
+      able to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine
+      brought him by his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:—In Banana,
+      Africa, the members of a certain family transform themselves in
+      the _dark_ of the _forest_ into leopards. They throw down those
+      they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them nor drink
+      their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note 83.)
+
+      The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American
+      Indians, who put on a wolf’s mantle to steal, or to recover
+      stolen animals (Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the
+      story of robbery entitled Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.).
+      Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69, where the lowest caste
+      of laborers are believed to have power to transform themselves
+      into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They
+      employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause,
+      since it yields such returns. They are reported to act like
+      other folk by day, at _night_ though to assume the ways of
+      wolves, kill their enemies and suck their blood, roaming about
+      with other wolves till morning. They are supposed to gain their
+      supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs. They
+      are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since
+      their roaming and plundering is done in the _night_; in the
+      daytime they of course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p.
+      72).
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:—Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and
+      Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the
+      masses and the comparative learning of the few who practised
+      it. Among the American Indians the medicine-man and the more
+      expert sorceress have little learning above that of the body of
+      the tribe, and their success depends entirely upon their own
+      belief in being supernaturally gifted, and upon the faith and
+      fear of their followers.
+
+      The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly
+      animal shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:—“An
+      old blind wolf with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made
+      his head and hands look like those of a wolf. The rest of his
+      body was not changed. He was called a man-wolf.”
+
+(7) Witchcraft.[66] It is very easy to see why it was usually the
+so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who claimed such
+transformation power, because they received remuneration from their
+patients.[67]
+
+      [66] Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:—Witches could and did assume
+      animal shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire
+      streaming from its mouth and nostrils. It was _night_. The man
+      shot at it, and the next morning tracked it by the marks of
+      blood from its wound. At a bridge a woman’s tracks took the
+      place of the dog’s, and finally he found the woman. She had
+      died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a hog, when
+      pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared
+      as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing.
+      So they, the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian
+      Indian one _evening_ pursued a white bull with fire streaming
+      from its nostrils. He had never seen a white bull on the
+      reservation before. “As it passed in front of a house it was
+      transformed into a man with a _large white blanket_, who was
+      ever afterward known as a witch.”
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:—A man going out at _night_ noticed
+      a queer-looking burro. Upon his return home he was told that a
+      large cat had entered the house. He went out again, discovered
+      a man wrapped in a blanket, but not in the Zuñi fashion, his
+      head was sunk low in the blanket. He knew this creature to be a
+      wizard.
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:—That the medicine man (Shaman)
+      has the faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and
+      other animals at pleasure and then resuming the human form, is
+      as implicitly believed in by the American Indians as it was
+      by our own forefathers in Europe. And page 459: The Abipones
+      of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power to put on
+      the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed the
+      power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the
+      Shamans of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz,
+      p. 133 fol.:—“In der christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische
+      Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier entstand mit dem Hexenglauben
+      die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich mit Hilfe des Satans aus
+      reiner Mordlust zu Wölfen verwandeln. So wurde der Werwolf das
+      Bild des tierisch Dämonischen in der Menschennatur.”
+
+      [67] Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:—The medicine-men of the
+      Apache are paid at the time they are consulted, the priest
+      beforehand among the Eskimo. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: “The
+      magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount
+      of the patient’s worldly wealth.” Page 416:—Sioux sorcerers
+      prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep.
+      1901-2, p. 568:—“The shaman, like the theurgist is usually
+      paid after each visit with calico, cotton, or food, according
+      to the wealth of the family, since it is always understood
+      that these doctors expect proper compensation for their
+      services.” Page 387:—“The Zuñi doctor is paid according to his
+      reputation.” Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: “In early
+      days if a man remained sick for three or four weeks, all his
+      possessions went to pay doctors’ fees.”
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.—The American Indian’s theory
+      of disease is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian,
+      the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman—all bodily disorders are
+      attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that is of animal
+      spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated.
+      Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was
+      language which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend.
+      Page 468:—The medicine-men are accused of administering
+      poisons to their enemies. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:—Sioux
+      sorcerers were thought to cause the death of those persons
+      who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p.
+      581:—“When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia
+      he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his
+      followers believe that he has become, the power he represents.”
+      The Mexican priests masked and disguised, and dressed in the
+      skins of the women offered up in sacrifice.
+
+      So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:—The Indian doctor relied far more
+      on magic than on natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the
+      drum, songs, magic feasts and dances, and howling were his
+      ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 210
+      fol.:—They have “firm confidence in dreams.” “Their belief in
+      a future life is in part founded on dreams,” etc.
+
+(8) Finally dreams[68] and exaggerated reports gave rise to fabulous
+stories.[69]
+
+      [68] Note 67, close.
+
+      [69] An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain
+      occurs Andree, p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal
+      at one place, the latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming
+      human form, they attack their enemy in the _night_ at his
+      home. This is the transformation of an animal into a man, but
+      the inventor of the story was no doubt looking towards his
+      own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which
+      in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In
+      Siam stories are told of people who by magic formulae become
+      tigers and roam about at _night_ in search of booty. One of the
+      man-tigers was actually a priest.
+
+We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);[70] for an example under (4) we
+have cited the practices of American Indians.[71] It is probable that
+about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above), what is known as the
+real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied, rabid manwolf) began
+to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin was already a lurking thief
+or enemy, or a destroyer of human life. To advance from this stage
+to the werewolf frenzy, our primitive man must have seen about him
+some exhibition of such a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this
+frenzy particularly with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons,
+and the connecting link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as
+the transformation was usually into a wolf or dog,[72]) for persons
+bitten by it usually went mad too.[73] The ensuing frenzy, with the
+consternation it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds
+as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some no doubt
+actually had the malady; others honestly believed they had it and got
+into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked themselves up into a
+frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.[74] Later, in the Middle
+Ages, when the nature of the real disease came to be better understood,
+the werewolf superstition had become too firmly fixed to be easily
+uprooted.
+
+      [70] Ante pp. 7, 8, 9.
+
+      [71] Ante p. 12 fol.
+
+      [72] See notes 19 and 74.
+
+      [73] Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: “It is said that
+      wolves, which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes
+      went crazy, and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even
+      coming into camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons
+      bitten by a mad wolf generally went mad, too. They trembled and
+      their limbs jerked, they made their jaws work and foamed at the
+      mouth, often trying to bite other people. When any one acted in
+      this way, his relatives tied him hand and foot with ropes, and,
+      having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the green hide,
+      built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until
+      the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and
+      removed the buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure
+      for a mad wolf’s bite.”
+
+      [74] Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a
+      monomania themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this
+      widespread disease or delusion (of the first century till
+      late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.: “The sick” ones would
+      prowl about burial places _at night_, imagining themselves
+      to be _wolves_ or _dogs_, and go about barking and howling.
+      In the middle ages such people would even kill children and
+      grown people. When they came to themselves again, or were
+      cured, they claimed to know nothing of what had happened.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst the Shamans feats of
+      jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing the best
+      of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of
+      robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals,
+      painted with shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The
+      speaker terms himself a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power.
+
+We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.[75] As further
+examples of the development into fabulous story,[76] we may cite any of
+those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man is represented
+as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and tearing to pieces men
+and beasts, until he resumes his human form. Thus an early scout in
+animal garb would be obliged to live on food he found on his way, and
+later fabulous report would represent him as himself when in disguise
+possessing the attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to
+pieces man and beast. For such an account see Andree,[77] concerning
+what eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the
+hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed
+such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread abroad
+such a report as would enhance the influence of the hyena-men far and
+wide. Some savages, as in Africa,[78] came to regard any animal that
+robbed them of children, goats or other animals, as a witch in animal
+form;[79] just as the American Indians ascribe to evil spirits death,
+sickness and other misfortunes.
+
+      [75] Notes 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69.
+
+      [76] See (8) above.
+
+      [77] Page 71.
+
+      [78] Andree, p. 69.
+
+      [79] Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of
+      the origin of the wolf: “_The wolf_ was a poor woman, who had
+      so many children that she could not find enough for them to
+      eat. They became so gaunt and hungry that they were changed
+      into wolves, constantly roaming over the land seeking food.”
+
+We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an animal robe
+would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;[80] how though, as
+soon as the element of magic enters in, he would try to keep up the
+illusion. At this stage, when the original defensive measure had become
+tainted with superstition, men would go about in the night time howling
+and holding their vile revels.[81] Andree,[82] narrates how a soldier
+in Northeast Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and
+came to the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician. No
+hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh wound. Soon
+he died, however the soldier did not survive him long. Doubtless one
+of the magician class was responsible for the death of the soldier,
+just as we to-day put to death the man who so violates our laws, as to
+become a menace to our society, or as formerly kings killed those who
+stood in their way; or as religious sects murder those who dissent
+from their faith. These magicians, supposed to be men who could assume
+animal form, as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly
+feared by other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and
+at _night_ come forth to plunder and kill.[83] It is to their interest
+to counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were
+put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.[84] Their frenzies
+were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in other cases
+they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent opportunities for
+personal gain or vengeance.[85]
+
+      [80] Ante p. 12 fol.
+
+      [81] Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine
+      the horrible howlings, and strange contortions that these
+      jugglers (shamans) or conjurers make of their bodies, when they
+      are disposing themselves to conjure.
+
+      [82] Page 71.
+
+      [83] Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician
+      (Abyssinia), who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate
+      animal-men the teeth of the persons whom they have killed
+      during the year, with which he decorates his palace. See also
+      pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151, about sorcery
+      among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes of
+      the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of
+      Indian genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class
+      of ambitious men and women sufficient influence through
+      their acknowledged power of exorcism and necromancy to lead
+      a comfortable life at the expense of the credulous. Page
+      162: “Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an order of
+      priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It
+      is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe
+      that they can at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos,”
+      etc. Sometimes one family constitutes the class. See note 65;
+      Andree, p. 69.
+
+      [84] Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches
+      were priestesses, physicians, fabulous _night_-wives, never
+      as yet persecuted. Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into
+      werewolves, and lose nothing in popular estimation. The abuse
+      of a spell was punished. A wise woman, healing sickness and
+      charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch only when with
+      her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil’s
+      complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the
+      guilt of criminality fell upon all personal relations with him.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-2, p. 393: “Though the witch may be regarded as
+      all powerful, none but the poor and unfortunate are condemned.
+      Few others are even brought to trial—their prominence prevents
+      public accusation.” This again reminds us some of our customs;
+      namely, that of overlooking the transgressions of the rich and
+      powerful. See note 91, and for outlaws note 112.
+
+      [85] Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the
+      body, and more particularly the eyes, so that many shamans
+      (Siberia, America, etc.) become blind.
+
+Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition
+and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the outrages hope
+to escape punishment for their depredations, could they hope to plunder
+and steal with impunity.[86] So they prowled usually under the cloak
+of _night_ or of the dark of the forest,[87] howled and acted like
+the animals they represented, hid the animal skin or blanket, if they
+used one,[88] in the daytime where they thought no one could find
+it, whereas the animal skin which was worn for defence, was put on
+either by day or night,[89] and one story recounts the swallowing of
+a whole goat, the man bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did
+it.[90] Some of the transformed men claimed they could regain human
+form only by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters
+were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,[91]
+no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress, each
+maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices, just as did
+the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those of the American
+negro, who in church, when “shouting,” that is, when stirred up by
+religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy who happens to be in the
+church, of course with impunity; for he is supposed to be under some
+outside control, and when the spell has passed off, like some of the
+delusionists mentioned,[92] claims not to know what he (or generally
+she) has done. Similar also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of
+the fire-eaters, or any other sham.
+
+      [86] Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia
+      and Lithuania, according to two bishops, werewolves were in
+      the 16th century far more destructive than “true and natural
+      wolves.” They were asserted to have formed “an accursed
+      college” of those “desirous of innovations contrary to the
+      divine law.” Also see note 90.
+
+      [87] See ante p. 13, and notes 64, 65, 66, 69, 84, 102, 110.
+
+      [88] Note 22 close, and note 102.
+
+      [89] See ante p. 13.
+
+      [90] Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a
+      woman, whose husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his
+      house, got hold of him later in his man shape and killed him.
+      Feats similar to some performed by him are cited in Ethn. Rep.
+      1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the Pawnee swallowed
+      arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of apparently
+      killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zuñi.
+
+      [91] Grimm, Rechtsalterthümer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle
+      aus der ärmsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note 84).
+      Literary Digest, March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism
+      and Spirituality: “Many, very many, spiritualists seem to care
+      for communion with spirits only that they may more surely keep
+      physically well, and earn their bread and butter and clothing
+      the easier.” Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The absurdity of
+      the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for the
+      theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in
+      every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he
+      was certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not
+      being found in beast form was satisfactorily disposed of.
+
+      [92] Notes 57 and 67.
+
+The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was that most
+often assumed for example in Germanic lands.[93] The term _wolf_
+became synonymous with _robber_, and later (when the robber became an
+outlaw,[94]) with _outlaw_, the robber and outlaw alike being called
+wolf and not some other animal (i. e., only the wolf-man surviving to
+any extent) firstly, because the wolf was plentiful; and secondly,
+because as civilization advanced, there came a time when the wolf was
+practically the only one of the larger undomesticated animals that
+survived.[95] We can notice this in our own United States, for example
+in eastern Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes
+heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the pastures
+adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller animals, and
+dig up buried ones.[96] In Prussia also it is the wolf that survives
+to-day. American Indians, and other savages however do not restrict the
+transformations to the wolf,[97] because other wild animals, are, or
+were till recently, abundant amongst them. As civilization advances,
+one by one the animal myths disappear with the animals that gave rise
+to them (like that connected with the mastodon);[98] or else stories of
+such domestic animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.[99]
+When this stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully
+coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals were shorn
+of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as Aesop’s fables
+would arise.[100] This however was psychologically a long step in
+advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an earlier period.
+
+      [93] Notes 9 and 19.
+
+      [94] Note 112.
+
+      [95] See note 11, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: “The deer,
+      which is still common in the mountains, was the principal
+      dependence of the Cherokee hunter, and is consequently
+      prominent in myth, folklore, and ceremonial.” see note 42.
+      Page 264: “The largest gens (clan) in the tribe bears the name
+      of ‘wolf people.’” Page 420: The Cherokee have always been an
+      agricultural people, and their old country has a luxuriant
+      flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more
+      important place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe
+      than it does among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid
+      sage deserts of the West.
+
+      [96] The St. Louis “Westliche Post” for January 9, 1908,
+      furnishes another example: A tame wolf which for the past
+      two years has been a pet in a farmer’s family at Marshfield,
+      Wisconsin, escaped and attacked a chicken. The farmer’s
+      daughter called to the wolf, but it had become wild from the
+      taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and one
+      leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released
+      until she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar.
+
+      Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13,
+      1908, shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite
+      populous districts: “Wolf-Plage. Aus dem nördlichen Wisconsin
+      wird gemeldet, dass Wölfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind
+      denn je, und dass sie, durch Hunger getrieben, sich nahe
+      an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere und auch Menschen
+      angreifen. Zwei grosse Wölfe griffen in dieser Woche das Pferd
+      der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den Wald,
+      wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien
+      verscheuchten.”
+
+      [97] Note 11.
+
+      [98] Note 20.
+
+      [99] Note 109.
+
+      [100] Note 24.
+
+Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf
+superstition went through various stages of development. The motives
+for assuming wolf’s dress (or animal skins or robes), at first were
+purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to secure food by
+acting as decoys; then it was used for personal advantage or gain by
+foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for purposes of vengeance;[101]
+later from a desire for power over others; and finally men (the
+professional and the superstitious) began to concoct fabulous stories
+which were handed down as tradition or myth, according to the psychic
+level of the narrator and hearer.[102]
+
+      [101] Close of note 102.
+
+      [102] John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives
+      the origin and development of the werewolf as follows: From
+      the conception of wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to
+      the conception of corporeal werewolves.... Christianity did
+      not fail to impart a new and fearful character to the belief
+      in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as a species of
+      witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the
+      Devil. It was often necessary to kill one’s enemies, and at
+      that time some even killed for love of it (like the Berserker);
+      often a sort of homicidal madness, during which they would
+      array themselves in the skins of wolves or bears and sally
+      forth by _night_ to crack the backbones, smash the skulls and
+      sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary
+      travelers or loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an
+      invention of excited imagination. So people attributed a wolf’s
+      nature to the maniac or idiot with cannibal appetites, then
+      the myth-forming process assigned to the unfortunate wretch
+      a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. Worship
+      of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of
+      transformation of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The
+      storm-wind was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead
+      men’s souls or as the howling of wolf-like monsters (called by
+      Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness and cannibalism,
+      accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted as due
+      to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf
+      superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on
+      a wolf’s skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence
+      of the fact alleged of Berserkers haunting the woods by
+      _night_, clothed in hides of wolves or bears. A permanent cure
+      was effected by burning the werewolf’s sack, unless the Devil
+      furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, to become
+      incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the
+      outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is
+      the night-wind—a kind of leader of departed souls, howling
+      in the wintry blasts. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:—The
+      Berserkir of Iceland dressed in the skins of bears and wolves,
+      and further on: “Beastform is in mythology proper far oftener
+      assumed for malignant than for benignant ends.”
+
+The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful werewolf
+is the disguising as some common animal by members of savage races
+when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to escape detection by the
+enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land in search of food. As stated
+above,[103] later fabulous report would represent them as possessing
+in their disguise the attributes of the animal they impersonated,[104]
+and finally even of actually taking on animal form, either wholly or
+in part,[105] for longer or shorter periods of time. Some of the North
+American Indian transformation stories represent men as having only
+the head, hands and feet of a wolf.[106] The transformation into a
+werewolf in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made
+of wolf-skin.[107] This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic
+werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising
+the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent a person
+as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other article of
+apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.[108] The stories especially in Europe
+were of the _were-wolf_ rather than _were-bear_ or other animal,
+because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild animals.[109] It
+was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, which crystallized
+into the household werewolf or transformation tales.[110]
+
+      [103] Ante p. 22.
+
+      [104] Note 57.
+
+      [105] Close note 65.
+
+      [106] Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737.
+
+      [107] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our
+      oldest native notions make the assumption of wolf-shape
+      depend on arraying oneself in a wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as
+      transformation into a swan does on putting on the swan-shirt
+      or swan-ring. Page 1095: “The transformation need not be for a
+      magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured
+      into, a wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the
+      appearance, he acquires also the fierceness and howling of the
+      wolf; roaming the _woods_, he rends to pieces everything that
+      comes in his way.” This is like the belief of the American
+      Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued with the spirit
+      of the being which his mask represents (note 57); or that the
+      shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers
+      believe that he has become, the power he represents (note 67).
+
+      [108] Thus some American Indian stories represent men
+      transformed into wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or
+      piece of decayed wood when pursued. And mantles of invisibility
+      are mentioned in note 60.
+
+      [109] See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: “Unter den grossen
+      Raubtieren treten uns Bär und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen.
+      Der Wolf ist freilich überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der
+      Bär ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier,” etc. Encyc. Brit, under
+      Lycanthropy: “In England by the 17th century the werewolf had
+      long been extinct. Only small creatures, the cat, hare, weasel,
+      etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to transform himself
+      into.” See note 11.
+
+      [110] Amongst the American Indians, where various larger
+      animals were common, the designation “wolf-people” (see the
+      sign-language of the plains) was bestowed especially on the
+      Pawnees, because, as we have seen, they best imitated wolves.
+      In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the wolf alone was
+      universally common, the designation “wolf-people” (or if we
+      choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one
+      locality or people, but was bestowed in general on those who
+      assumed the manner of wolves, and because of their crimes
+      became outcasts like the wolves. They best imitate wolves, and
+      no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as wolves
+      (see note 102), and for this reason the _warg_ or outlaw came
+      to be called a _wolf_ (see close of note 112). Thus Golther,
+      Mythologie, p. 102, says: “Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder
+      getötet, so findet man einen wunden oder toten Menschen.” The
+      werewolves, as we have seen (ante p. 25), keep to the _woods_
+      and the _dark_, of course in many cases to avoid detection.
+      Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: “They say that
+      witches love the _night_ and lurk in _shadows and darkness_.
+      Witches are believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts.”
+      Sigmund and Sinfjötli dwelt as wolves in the _woods_. Also the
+      progenitor of the Mýramenn in Iceland at _night_ could leave
+      his house in wolf’s form. Another Norwegian account reports
+      how earlier many people were able to take on wolf’s form, then
+      dwelt in _grove_ and _woods_, where they tore people to pieces,
+      etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note 113.
+
+      [111] Names. See note 31. The development in the case of names
+      was perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note 57), and of
+      the werewolf superstition itself (ante p. 15, fol.); namely, a)
+      protection against outside agencies was sought; b) growth of
+      supernaturalism; c) element of humor.
+
+      a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: “Children are often
+      named _wolf_, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their
+      supernatural foes” (for similar assumption of characteristics
+      or the nature of animals for personal advantage see note 33).
+      See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1139: “The escort of
+      _wolf_ or _raven_ augured victory;” and in the note: “A name
+      of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O. H. G.
+      _Wolf-hraban_ (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly
+      promised victory. Old names are no product of pure chance.
+      Servian mothers name a son they have longed for, _Vuk_,
+      _Wolf_: then the witches can’t eat him up. O. H. G. _Wolfbizo_
+      was a lucky name, i. e., one bitten by the wolf and thereby
+      protected,” like our modern curing of like by like in medicine.
+
+      b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development
+      mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about
+      the conferring of secret names, since one could harm a person
+      by his name alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning
+      his name: “Wenn man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g’rennt.” Again
+      in XXI. 313 fol.: It was dangerous to name _bear_ or _wolf_
+      in regions infested by these animals, so people, out of fear,
+      avoided calling the name of such animals; called the bear for
+      example _honey-eater_, etc.
+
+      c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his
+      fear of them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and
+      humor enter in, and such names arise as are mentioned in note
+      53; and such stories as that of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a
+      wolf.
+
+      [112] Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws
+      who have fled to the woods. A notable instance is that of
+      Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the Völsungasaga. In regard to this W.
+      Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, Leipzig 1895,
+      p. 102, says: “Die Sage mag auf einem alten Misverständniss
+      beruhen. _Warg_, _Wolf_ hiess der Geächtete in der germanischen
+      Rechtssprache. _Warg_ wurde wörtlich als _Wolf_ verstanden,
+      und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte.” Golther again, p.
+      424:—“Gefesselt wurde Loki als Ächter in den Wald getrieben,
+      er wurde “_Warg_”, d. h. _Wolf_. _Wölfe_ heissen die friedlosen
+      Waldgänger.” As to _warg_, Schade in his altdeutsches
+      Wörterbuch defines it as a räuberisch würgendes wütendes Wesen,
+      Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise,
+      geächteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetäter; _warg_ ist
+      Benennung des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und
+      vertragbrüchiger Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden
+      durch Mord gebrochen und landflüchtig geworden, oder nun im
+      wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere haust und wie der Wolf
+      ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche auf Island
+      Bezeichnung einer gewalttätigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm,
+      Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American
+      Indians relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67
+      fol.: An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself
+      without the protection of his clan, is not defended in case he
+      is injured by another. When the sentence of outlawry has been
+      declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the duty of
+      the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the
+      council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty
+      of any member of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill
+      him like an animal. Page 60 fol.: “The chief of the Wolf gens
+      is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe” (see also Ethn.
+      Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the _woods_ and the
+      _dark_. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal
+      skins, and to terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves.
+      Since therefore so many outlaws lived, dressed (note 22 close)
+      and acted like wolves, to all intents and purposes became
+      wolves, _wolf_ and outlaw became synonymous terms.
+
+      [113] The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night
+      in Germany is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people
+      believed that werewolves, etc., entered houses at night. In
+      place of the earlier harmful werewolf is now the “harmful”
+      night air.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+  ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche.
+        Stuttgart, 1878.
+
+  BEHAGHEL, OTTO. Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902.
+
+  BRAUNE, WILHELM. Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907.
+
+  BROCKHAUS, F. A. Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol.
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901.
+
+  DILTHEY, WILHELM. Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906.
+
+  EDDA. Die lieder der älteren edda. Paderborn, 1876.
+
+  ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. New York, 1883, etc.
+
+  ERMAN, ADOLF. Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833.
+
+  FISKE, JOHN. Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892.
+
+  FREYTAG, GUSTAV. Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904.
+
+  GOLTHER, W. Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Rechtsaltertümer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Teutonic mythology. Translation by J. S. Stallybrass,
+        London, 1882.
+
+  GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD. Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892.
+
+  GRINNELL, G. B. Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893.
+
+  GRINNELL, G. B. Story of the Indian. New York, 1895.
+
+  HERTZ, W. Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862.
+
+  HIRT, H. Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol.
+
+  INDOGERMANISCHE FORSCHUNGEN. Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904, 1907.
+
+  KLUGE, F. Etymologisches wörterbuch der deutschen sprache.
+        Strassburg, 1905.
+
+  LEMCKE, K. Aesthetik in gemeinverständlichen vorträgen. Leipzig,
+        1890.
+
+  LEUBUSCHER, R. Über die wehrwölfe und thierverwandlungen im
+        mittelalter. Berlin, 1850.
+
+  LITERARY DIGEST. New York and London, March 9, 1907.
+
+  MEYERS. Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900.
+
+  PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900.
+
+  SCHADE, O. Altdeutsches wörterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol.
+
+  SCHRADER, O. Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde.
+        Strassburg, 1901.
+
+  VÖLSUNGASAGA. Ranisch, Berlin, 1891.
+
+  WESTLICHE POST. St. Louis.
+
+  WUNDT, W. Völkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905.
+
+  ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR DEUTSCHES ALTERTUM. Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904.
+
+  ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR DEUTSCHE PHILOLOGIE. Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.]
+
+
+  Abipones, _9, 66._
+
+  Abyssinia, _9._
+
+  Africa, 5, 23; _9, 47, 65._
+
+  Alligator, _9._
+
+  America, 5; _9, 85._
+
+  American Indians, 5, 14, 21, 23, 27; _9, 27, 66, 110._
+
+  Anglo-Saxons, _9._
+
+  Animals, _42._
+
+  Animal fable, _15._
+
+  Arabia, _9._
+
+  Arawaks, _9._
+
+  Arcadia, _9, 15._
+
+  Asia, 5; _9, 12, 16._
+
+  Assyrians, _15._
+
+
+  Bear, 5; _9, 15, 16, 38, 102, 109, 111._
+
+  Belgium, _12._
+
+  Benignant, _4, 38._
+
+  Berserkr, 1; _102._
+
+  Bird, 5.
+
+  Bison, _12, 27, 31, 32, 73, 74._
+
+  Bohemia, _9._
+
+  Borneo, _9._
+
+  Bretons, _9._
+
+  Bulgaria, _9._
+
+  Burchard von Worms, _9._
+
+  Burmah, _12._
+
+
+  Celebrations, _21._
+
+  Ceylon, _12._
+
+  Charms, 10, 16.
+
+  Clothing, 8, 9, 11, 16, 28.
+
+  Coyote, 13.
+
+
+  Dancing, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16; _32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 57._
+
+  Dante, _24._
+
+  Death, _22._
+
+  Decoy, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 28; _29, 30, 31._
+
+  Denmark, _9._
+
+  Dog, 5, 21, 27; _19, 64, 73, 74._
+
+  Dreams, 21; _67._
+
+
+  Edda, _15._
+
+  Enemy, 8, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29; _48, 60, 65, 102, 111._
+
+  English, _9, 109._
+
+  Eskimo, _30, 31, 67._
+
+  Europe, 5, 7; _9, 12, 16, 110._
+
+
+  Fenrisûlfr, _9, 51._
+
+  Finns, _5._
+
+  Fish, _5._
+
+  Fisherman, _29._
+
+  Food, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 28, 29; _27, 29._
+
+  Forest, 25; _22, 65, 102, 107, 110, 112._
+
+  Fox, 5, 12; _9, 15, 21._
+
+  French, _9, 12._
+
+
+  Germany, 2, 4, 5; _9, 22._
+
+  Greece, 1, 7; _9, 15, 22._
+
+  Greenland, _12, 69._
+
+
+  Harmful, 1, 11, 13; _42, 51._
+
+  Herds, _9, 12, 20._
+
+  Herodotus, 1; _15._
+
+  Hindoos, _9._
+
+  Homer, _24._
+
+  Hunter, 7, 8; _15, 31, 52, 53, 64, 95._
+
+  Hyena, 5, 23; _9._
+
+
+  Iceland, _9, 110._
+
+  India, 5; _9, 12._
+
+  Indogermanic, 7; _9, 20, 42._
+
+  Insanity, 21, 22, 24; _24, 73, 85, 102._
+
+  Iranians, _9._
+
+  Ireland, _9._
+
+  Italians, _9._
+
+
+  Jackal, _12._
+
+  Jaguar, _9._
+
+  Japan, _9._
+
+
+  Kadiak, _29._
+
+  Kelts, 7; _9._
+
+  Knut, _9._
+
+
+  Lapps, 5.
+
+  Leopard, 5; _9, 65._
+
+  Leubuscher, 6; _9, 20._
+
+  Lion, 5; _9, 45, 65._
+
+  Lithuanians, _9._
+
+  Loki, 14; _9, 112._
+
+  Lycanthropy, 2; _9, 19, 20, 22, 74, 102._
+
+  Lykaon, _9, 15._
+
+
+  Magic, 23, 24; _22, 37, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 84, 107._
+
+  Malignant, 24; _4, 84, 102, 109, 113._
+
+  Mask, 8, 11, 15; _29, 37, 42, 57, 64, 67, 107, 111._
+
+  Mastodon, _20._
+
+  Medicinemen (Shamans), 20; _52, 63, 66, 67, 74, 81, 83, 85, 90,
+    107._
+
+  Mexico, _12, 67._
+
+  Middle Ages, 22; _9, 74, 102._
+
+  Murder, 24; _20, 22, 52, 102, 112._
+
+  Myths, 7, 27; _24, 95, 102._
+
+
+  Names, _42, 53, 109, 111._
+
+  Netherlands, _9._
+
+  Neurians, 1; _15._
+
+  Night, 1, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25; _63, 65, 66, 69, 74, 84, 102, 110,
+    112, 113._
+
+  North America, _12._
+
+  Norway, _9._
+
+
+  Odin, _15._
+
+  Island Oesel, _9._
+
+  Otter, _29._
+
+  Outlaw, 24, 26; _84, 110, 112._
+
+  Owl, 5, 30; _64._
+
+
+  Pawnees, 12, 13, 23; _110._
+
+  Persia, _9._
+
+  Plants, _42, 95._
+
+  Poles, _9, 14._
+
+  Portuguese, _9._
+
+  Posen, _14._
+
+  Priests, _22, 67, 69, 83._
+
+  Professionals, 22, 23, 24, 25; _74, 81, 83, 86._
+
+  Provencal, _9._
+
+  Prussia, _14._
+
+
+  Reindeer, 5.
+
+  Religion, _22, 24, 57._
+
+  Revenge, 14, 17, 24, 28; _52, 69._
+
+  Robber, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28; _15, 20, 44, 53, 65,
+    112._
+
+  Romans, 7; _9, 27._
+
+  Russia, 2; _9, 12, 16._
+
+
+  Scandinavia, _9._
+
+  Scout, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 29; _47, 48, 60._
+
+  Scythians, _6._
+
+  Seal, _29, 31, 69._
+
+  Serpent, 5; _9._
+
+  Servia, _9._
+
+  Shepherds, _15, 20._
+
+  Siam, _12, 69._
+
+  Sinfjötli, _15, 64, 110._
+
+  Song, 9, 10, 15; _33, 64._
+
+  Skins (or dress) of animals, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22,
+    23, 25, 28, 29, 30; _21, 22, 31, 34, 52, 53, 57, 60, 63, 64,
+    65, 66, 67, 74, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112._
+
+  South America, 5; _12._
+
+  Speech (animals), 7.
+
+  Stories, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29; _9, 27, 60, 69, 102, 111._
+
+  Supernaturalism, 10, 17, 18; _57, 65, 102, 111._
+
+  Superstition, 1, 4, 5, 14, 23; _20, 64._
+
+  Sweden, _9._
+
+
+  Tiger, 5; _9, 45, 69, 90._
+
+  Totemism, 2; _47, 102._
+
+  Transformation, 5, 15, 21; _9, 11, 19, 22, 52, 64, 65, 66, 69,
+    107._
+
+  Traps, 8; _31._
+
+  Tschechs, _9._
+
+  Turkey, 5; _108._
+
+
+  Volhynia, 2; _9, 16._
+
+  Völsungasaga, _15, 112._
+
+
+  Wales, _9._
+
+  Warfare, 12, 13, 16; _60._
+
+  Weapons, 7, 8, 9.
+
+  Werewolf, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30; _9, 15, 20, 22, 45,
+    64, 84, 86, 91, 102, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113._
+
+  Wiener Hundesegen, _15._
+
+  Witches, 11, 19, 23; _65, 66, 67, 74, 83, 84, 91, 102, 109, 110,
+    111._
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s note
+
+
+Words in italics were surrounded with _underscores_, and small capitals
+changed to all capitals.
+
+Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were
+added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they
+were referred to in other notes. The notes were moved to directly after
+the paragraph with the corresponding anchor.
+
+“Völsungasaga” and “Sinfjötli” were in the original mostly written with
+a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader’s
+convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common
+spelling with ö.
+
+Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. In note
+12 “and” was changed to “und” (seltener in Frankreich und Belgien).
+
+Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and
+missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent
+spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by 
+Caroline Taylor Stewart
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44134 ***
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44134 ***</div>
+
+<div class="tnote">
+<p>Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected.
+A more detailed transcriber's note can be found at the end of this text.</p>
+
+<div class="centered"><ul class="lsoff">
+  <li class="cnt"><a href="#NOTES">NOTES</a></li>
+  <li class="cnt"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></li>
+  <li class="cnt"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></li>
+  <li class="cnt"><a href="#Transcribers_note">Transcriber&rsquo;s note</a></li></ul></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" width="500" height="761" alt="Cover" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h1>THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></h1>
+
+
+<p>The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an
+animal’s form, most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost
+worldwide superstition. Such a transformed person is the Germanic
+werewolf, or man-wolf; that is, a wolf which is really
+a human being.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> So the werewolf was a man in wolf’s form or
+wolf’s dress,<a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> seen mostly at night,<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> and believed generally to
+be harmful to man.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p>
+
+<p>The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily
+explained. Adolf Erman<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> explains the allusion of
+Herodotus<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> to the transformation of the Neurians (the people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+of the present Volhynia, in West Russia) into wolves as due
+merely to their appearance in winter, dressed in their furs. This
+explanation, however, would not fit similar superstitions in warm
+climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy to primitive
+Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the members
+of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> Still
+another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the
+original werewolf.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must
+be one which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition
+is found pretty much all over the earth,<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> especially to-day<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a>
+however in Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+the lands where the wolf is most common.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a>&nbsp;<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> According to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+Mogk<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> the superstition prevails to-day especially in the north
+and east of Germany.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p>
+
+<p>The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+The point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living
+human being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the
+wolf was common<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa,
+where these animals are common; into a tiger or serpent in
+India;<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> in other localities into other animals characteristic of
+the region.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> Among Lapps and Finns occur transformations
+into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish or birds; amongst many North
+Asiatic peoples, as also some American Indians, into the bear;
+amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf, turkey or owl; in
+South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar, also into a fish, or
+serpent. Most universal though it seems was the transformation
+into wolves or dogs.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p>
+
+<p>As the superstition is so widespread—Germany, Eastern
+Europe, Africa, Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+when all these peoples were in communication with each other<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a>
+or else, in accord with another view of modern science, it arose
+independently in various continents in process of the natural psychical
+development of the human race under similar conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom
+of primitive man’s of putting on a wolf’s or other animal’s
+skin<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> or dress, or a robe.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> Thus Leubuscher,<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> says: “Es ist<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+der Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten
+hervorgewachsen.”<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a>&nbsp;<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> Likely also the notion of attributing
+speech to animals originated from such disguising or
+dressing of men as animals. In the following we shall examine
+into primitive man’s reasons for putting on such a skin or robe.</p>
+
+<p>Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had
+to conquer them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in
+Europe arose probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic
+peoples were still in contact with each other, if not in the
+original Indo-Germanic home, for they all have the superstition
+(unless, as above, we prefer to regard the belief as arising in
+various localities in process of psychical development under similar
+conditions; namely, when people still lived principally by the
+chase.<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a>) Probably the primitive Indo-European man before and
+at the time of the origin of the werewolf superstition, was almost
+helpless in the presence of inexorable nature. This was before
+he used metal for weapons. The great business of life was to
+secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots,
+berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any
+size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet
+primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no
+longer crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but
+began to watch and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what
+certain animals would do under certain circumstances, to learn
+what would frighten them away or what would lure them on.
+So at least the large animals were to early man a constant cause
+of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary to have their
+flesh for food and their skins for clothing.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p>
+
+<p>Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for
+trapping them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of
+decoys to lure animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits,
+others more easily by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a>
+and similarly, another form of the original decoy was no doubt
+simply the stuffed skin of a member of the species, whether animal
+or bird, say for example a wild duck.<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> Of course the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself putting on the animal
+skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an individual dressed
+for example in a wolf’s skin could approach near enough to a
+solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other weapon,
+without exciting the wolf’s suspicion of the nearness of a dangerous
+foe.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used
+by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure
+food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise,
+whole or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions
+and cries of animals,<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> at first to lure them, when acting as a
+decoy. With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism,
+and an additional reason for acquiring dance and song was to
+secure charms against bodily ills,<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> and finally enlivenment.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> In
+both dance and song, when used for a serious purpose, the performers
+imagined themselves to be the animals they were imitating,<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+and in the dance they wore the skins of the animals
+represented.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p>
+
+<p>Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed
+merely for decoys and sport (early dancing),<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> for peaceful
+purposes therefore, such people having whole or partial animal
+shape were not regarded as harmful to man,<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> just as wise women
+began to pass for witches only when with their art they did evil.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a>
+A similar development can be traced in the case of masks.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> It
+was some time before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing
+animals that were dangerous to life, though these are
+the ones he first studied;<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> and we cannot presuppose that he disguised
+to represent them until he could cope with them, since the
+original purpose of the disguise was to secure food and clothing.
+Thus far then we see whole or partial disguise as animals used to
+secure <em>food</em> and <em>clothing</em> when acting as decoys to lure animals;
+and in <em>dancing</em>.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal’s skin or
+dress when out as <em>forager</em> (or robber) or <em>spy</em>, for the purpose
+of avoiding detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for
+example,<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> were called by neighboring tribes <em>wolves</em>, probably
+not out of contempt, since it may be doubted that an Indian feels
+contempt for a wolf any more than he does for a fox, a rabbit, or
+an elk, but because of their adroitness as scouts, warriors and
+stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think, because of their
+great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so as to escape detection
+by the enemy by day or night; or, according to some
+neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a>, “have the
+endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can
+make long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their
+way, or on no food at all.” ... And further, “The Pawnees,
+when they went on the warpath, were always prepared to simulate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+wolves.... Wolves on the prairie were too common<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a>
+to excite remark, and at night they would approach close
+to the Indian camps.” ... The Pawnee starting off on the
+warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later
+times a white blanket or a white sheet; and, at <em>night</em>, wrapping
+himself in this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he
+walked or trotted here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed
+himself into a common object of the landscape. This
+disguise was employed by <em>day</em> as well, for reconnoissance....
+While the party remained hidden in some ravine or hollow, one
+Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to the top of the
+hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches looking all
+over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him, would
+take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the
+Pawnees could imitate wolves best. “An Indian going into an
+enemy’s country is often called a wolf,<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> and the sign for a scout
+is made up of the signs <em>wolf</em> and <em>look</em>.”<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> Should any scout detect
+danger, as at <em>night</em> when on duty near an encampment, he
+must give the cry of the coyote.<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p>
+
+<p>The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in
+animal form or dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal
+disguise began to act not only as decoys for animals dangerous
+to life, but also as scouts (robbers<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a>—and later as possessors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+of supernatural power, when growth of culture brought
+with it growth of supernaturalism<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a>); when people began to associate,
+for example, the wolf’s form with a lurking enemy.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p>
+
+<p>All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the
+defensive, like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion
+have sent out scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid
+detection, assumed the disguise of the animal most common to
+the special locality in question, just as to-day they are known to
+disguise in animal skins for purposes of plunder or revenge.<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a>&nbsp;<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying
+principle is the same; namely, the transformation of a living human
+being into an animal. The origin of the belief in such a
+transformation, as stated above<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> was the simple putting on of
+an animal skin by early man. The object of putting on animal
+skins was,</p>
+
+<p>(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries
+of animals were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a>
+artificial decoys (like decoy ducks to-day)<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> and finally even
+masks were used.<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying
+animals, as in (1) above.</p>
+
+<p><a name="point3" id="point3"></a>(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals
+led to dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the
+faces and bodies of the participants were painted in imitation of
+the colors of birds and animals, the motions of animals imitated
+and animal disguises used.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p>
+
+<p>(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out
+foraging, as well as for warfare,<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a>&nbsp;<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> therefore for booty, and self-defense.
+Either they wore the entire skin, or probably later just
+a part of it as a fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as
+a charm by many of our colored people to-day.<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(5) For purposes of revenge,<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a>,<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> personal or other. For
+some other personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror
+in the opposing agent by hideousness.</p>
+
+<p>(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing
+superhuman agencies.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> So now would arise first a belief in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+superhuman power or attributes,<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> and then,</p>
+
+<p>(7) Witchcraft.<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> It is very easy to see why it was usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a><br /><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+the so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who
+claimed such transformation power, because they received remuneration
+from their patients.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="point8" id="point8"></a>(8) Finally dreams<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> and exaggerated reports gave rise
+to fabulous stories.<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a></p>
+
+<p>We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> for an example under
+(4) we have cited the practices of American Indians.<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> It is
+probable that about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above),
+what is known as the real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied,
+rabid manwolf) began to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin
+was already a lurking thief or enemy, or a destroyer of human
+life. To advance from this stage to the werewolf frenzy, our
+primitive man must have seen about him some exhibition of such
+a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this frenzy particularly
+with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons, and the connecting
+link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as the transformation
+was usually into a wolf or dog,<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a>) for persons bitten
+by it usually went mad too.<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> The ensuing frenzy, with the consternation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds
+as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some
+no doubt actually had the malady; others honestly believed they
+had it and got into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked
+themselves up into a frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a>
+Later, in the Middle Ages, when the nature of the real
+disease came to be better understood, the werewolf superstition
+had become too firmly fixed to be easily uprooted.</p>
+
+<p>We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> As
+further examples of the development into fabulous story,<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> we may
+cite any of those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man
+is represented as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and
+tearing to pieces men and beasts, until he resumes his human
+form. Thus an early scout in animal garb would be obliged
+to live on food he found on his way, and later fabulous report
+would represent him as himself when in disguise possessing the
+attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to pieces man
+and beast. For such an account see Andree,<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> concerning what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the
+hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed
+such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread
+abroad such a report as would enhance the influence of the
+hyena-men far and wide. Some savages, as in Africa,<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> came
+to regard any animal that robbed them of children, goats or other
+animals, as a witch in animal form;<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> just as the American Indians
+ascribe to evil spirits death, sickness and other misfortunes.</p>
+
+<p>We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an
+animal robe would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a>
+how though, as soon as the element of magic enters in, he would
+try to keep up the illusion. At this stage, when the original
+defensive measure had become tainted with superstition, men
+would go about in the night time howling and holding their
+vile revels.<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> Andree,<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> narrates how a soldier in Northeast
+Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and came to
+the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician.
+No hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh
+wound. Soon he died, however the soldier did not survive him
+long. Doubtless one of the magician class was responsible for
+the death of the soldier, just as we to-day put to death the man
+who so violates our laws, as to become a menace to our society,
+or as formerly kings killed those who stood in their way; or as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+religious sects murder those who dissent from their faith. These
+magicians, supposed to be men who could assume animal form,
+as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly feared by
+other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and at
+<em>night</em> come forth to plunder and kill.<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> It is to their interest to
+counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were
+put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> Their frenzies
+were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in
+other cases they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent
+opportunities for personal gain or vengeance.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition
+and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the
+outrages hope to escape punishment for their depredations, could
+they hope to plunder and steal with impunity.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> So they prowled
+usually under the cloak of <em>night</em> or of the dark of the forest,<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a>
+howled and acted like the animals they represented, hid the
+animal skin or blanket, if they used one,<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> in the daytime where
+they thought no one could find it, whereas the animal skin which
+was worn for defence, was put on either by day or night,<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> and
+one story recounts the swallowing of a whole goat, the man
+bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did it.<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> Some of the
+transformed men claimed they could regain human form only
+by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters
+were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress,
+each maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices,
+just as did the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those
+of the American negro, who in church, when “shouting,” that is,
+when stirred up by religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy
+who happens to be in the church, of course with impunity; for
+he is supposed to be under some outside control, and when the
+spell has passed off, like some of the delusionists mentioned,<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a>
+claims not to know what he (or generally she) has done. Similar
+also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of the fire-eaters, or
+any other sham.</p>
+
+<p>The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was
+that most often assumed for example in Germanic lands.<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> The
+term <em>wolf</em> became synonymous with <em>robber</em>, and later (when
+the robber became an outlaw,<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a>) with <em>outlaw</em>, the robber and outlaw
+alike being called wolf and not some other animal (i.&nbsp;e.,
+only the wolf-man surviving to any extent) firstly, because the
+wolf was plentiful; and secondly, because as civilization advanced,
+there came a time when the wolf was practically the only one of
+the larger undomesticated animals that survived.<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> We can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+notice this in our own United States, for example in eastern
+Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes
+heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the
+pastures adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller
+animals, and dig up buried ones.<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> In Prussia also it is the wolf
+that survives to-day. American Indians, and other savages however
+do not restrict the transformations to the wolf,<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> because
+other wild animals, are, or were till recently, abundant amongst
+them. As civilization advances, one by one the animal myths
+disappear with the animals that gave rise to them (like that connected
+with the mastodon);<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> or else stories of such domestic
+animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> When this
+stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully
+coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals
+were shorn of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as
+Aesop’s fables would arise.<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> This however was psychologically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+a long step in advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an
+earlier period.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf
+superstition went through various stages of development. The
+motives for assuming wolf’s dress (or animal skins or robes), at
+first were purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to
+secure food by acting as decoys; then it was used for personal
+advantage or gain by foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for
+purposes of vengeance;<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> later from a desire for power over
+others; and finally men (the professional and the superstitious)
+began to concoct fabulous stories which were handed down as
+tradition or myth, according to the psychic level of the narrator
+and hearer.<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful
+werewolf is the disguising as some common animal by members
+of savage races when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to
+escape detection by the enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land
+in search of food. As stated above,<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> later fabulous report would
+represent them as possessing in their disguise the attributes of
+the animal they impersonated,<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> and finally even of actually
+taking on animal form, either wholly or in part,<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> for longer or
+shorter periods of time. Some of the North American Indian
+transformation stories represent men as having only the head,
+hands and feet of a wolf.<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> The transformation into a werewolf
+in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made of
+wolf-skin.<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising
+the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent
+a person as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other
+article of apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> The stories especially
+in Europe were of the <em>were-wolf</em> rather than <em>were-bear</em> or other
+animal, because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild
+animals.<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> It was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf,
+which crystallized into the household werewolf or transformation
+tales.<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="NOTES" id="NOTES"></a>NOTES:</h2>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> <span class="smcap">Note.</span>—After the author had written the following article, she
+gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That the origin
+and development of the use of masks as given in the Annual Report of the
+United States Bureau of Ethnology, 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note <a href="#Footnote_32">32</a>) is
+similar to the origin and development of the werewolf superstition itself,
+as given in the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The
+author has italicized some words in the quotations.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> According to Mogk, in Paul’s Grundriss der germanischen Philologie
+III. 272 <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wer</em> means “man,” found in Old Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, Old High
+German, and werewolf a man in wolf’s form. Kögel connects <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wer</em> with
+Gothic <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wasjan</em> “kleiden.” “Darum bedeutet <em>werwolf</em> eigentlich Wolfsgewand
+úlfshamr; ähnlich bedeutet vielleicht <em lang="no" xml:lang="no">berserkr</em> Bärengewand,” therefore
+werewolf according to Kögel means a wolf’s dress. See also Schrader,
+Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> Post p. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:—Beastform in mythology
+proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for benignant ends. See
+note <a href="#Footnote_52">52</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and Greeks
+settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once a year every Neurian
+becomes a wolf for a few days, and then resumes the human form.
+See concerning this also Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 120.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>, also see note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> See also Mogk in Paul’s Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud. Leubuscher:
+Über die Wehrwölfe und Thierverwandlungen im Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850,
+mentions cases in ancient Arcadia, in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the
+almost epidemic disease in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf,
+Stuttgart, 1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia
+(hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to Encyc. Brit.
+below; on p. 133 he says: “Tierverwandlungen sind allgemein menschlich,
+finden wir überall. Die eigentümliche Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen
+aber finden wir vorzugsweise bei einer bestimmten Völkergruppe, den
+arischen Stämmen der Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven;
+bei den südwärts gezogenen Stämmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns
+gleiche Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten treten
+die Werwölfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehört die älteste historische
+Erwähnung der Sage; viel älter aber ist der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische
+Werwölfe”. According to Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche,
+Stuttgart, 1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European
+country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles,
+Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants of island
+Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in
+Asia, Africa, America; but not in India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit.
+below), especially though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands.</p>
+
+<p>As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for 1880-81, p. 83,
+“From their close relations with wild animals Indians’ stories of transformations
+into beasts and beasts into men are numerous and interesting.... In
+times of peace, during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller
+told of those days in the past when men and animals could transform
+themselves at will and hold converse with one another.”</p>
+
+<p>Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell &amp; Sons, 1883, II. 668
+says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic antiquities
+than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrisûlfr, a son of Loki, makes
+his appearance in wolf’s shape among the gods.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Encyc_Brit" id="Encyc_Brit"></a>Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy, states:—A
+belief firmly rooted among all savages is that men are in certain circumstances
+transformed temporarily or permanently into wolves and other inferior
+animals. In Europe the transformation into a wolf is by far more
+prominent and frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans,
+French, Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most
+prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. Thus the
+were-<em>wolf</em> prevails in Europe, also in England, Wales, Ireland; and in S.
+France, the Netherlands, Germany, Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia,
+Poland, Russia, he can hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note <a href="#Footnote_12">12</a>).
+In Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland the <em>bear</em> competes with the
+wolf for pre-eminence. In Persia the <em>bear</em> is supreme; in Japan the <em>fox</em>; in
+India the <em>serpent</em> vies with the <em>tiger</em> (contrary to Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III.
+272, who says:—“Nur Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter
+den indogermanischen Völkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und
+Iraniern ist er unbekannt.” Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in
+Abyssinia and Borneo the <em>hyena</em> with the <em>lion</em>; in E. Africa the <em>lion</em> with the
+<em>alligator</em>; in W. Africa the <em>leopard</em> is perhaps most frequently the form
+assumed by man; among the Abipones the <em>tiger</em>, among the Arawaks the
+<em>jaguar</em>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In Brockhaus’ Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the werewolf
+belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and Romanic peoples;
+found to-day especially in Volhynia and White Russia.</p>
+
+<p>Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:—Bei den Angelsachsen lässt sich der Werwolf
+im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern, ihre Herden
+vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das älteste Zeugnis auf deutschem
+Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v. Worms (11 century).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:—There can nowhere be a living belief in
+contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which has ceased to exist
+in the particular locality. Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most
+prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. (See
+note <a href="#Footnote_12">12</a>.) In none of these cases however is the power of transformation
+limited exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under <em>Wolf</em>:—The wolf is found
+in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America from Greenland
+to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in Ceylon, Burmah or
+Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in the two latter jackals
+instead.</p>
+
+<p>Meyer’s Kleines konversations-lexikon:—Der wolf “ist häufig in Ost-
+und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika, seltener in Frankreich
+und Belgien, den Herden gefährlich, besonders in Russland.” Encyc.
+Brit., XXIV under <em>Wolf</em>:—In northern countries the wolf is generally
+larger and more powerful than in the southern portion of its range.
+Its habits are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been
+known to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of his
+flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance. They usually
+assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and by their combined
+and persevering efforts are able to overpower and kill even such great
+animals as the American bison. Children and even grown people
+are not infrequently attacked by them when pressed for hunger. The
+ferocity of the wolf in the wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed,
+they can rarely be trusted by strangers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> Paul, Grundriss, III. 272.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p. 275 fol.,
+speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: “Noch lebte das Landvolk
+in ohnmächtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Wölfe, wenig Dörfer,
+welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere decimirt wurden,”
+and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:—“Als 1815 die gegenwärtige Provinz
+Posen an Preussen zurückfiel, waren auch dort die Wölfe eine Landplage.
+Nach Angaben der Posener Provinzialblätter wurden im Regierungsbezirk
+Posen vom 1. Sept. 1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Wölfe erlegt, noch
+im Jahre 1819 im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von
+Wölfen gefressen.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> Thus in note <a href="#Footnote_6">6</a> was mentioned Herodotus’ (484-425 B.&nbsp;C.) statement
+about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend, according to Hertz, is
+that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos, the first king of ancient Arcadia.
+These Arcadians lived as huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert
+(Andree, p. 65; and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed
+amongst the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf
+myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B.&nbsp;C). In the Norse “Edda” we find
+Odin’s wolves, also Sköll, Hati and Fenrir. In the Völsunga Saga, Sigmund
+and Sinfjötli become wolves. For other reflections of the fear in
+which wolves were held, see the 10th century ms. of the “Wiener
+Hundesegen” against male and female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches
+Lesebuch, 6. aufl. 1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,—Geschichte der deutschen
+sprache s. 233:—“Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte raubthier
+des waldes dar, und lehrt die nähe des wolfs und fuchses.”</p>
+
+<p>C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:—“In die ältesten Zeiten
+hinauf reicht auch bei Jägervölkern die Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil
+die Eigentümlichkeiten der Tiere erklärend, ihr Gebahren erzählend.
+Die furchtbaren und die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo
+die Menschen städtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie
+einsamer mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine höhere Bedeutung. So
+wird dem Wäldler Bär und Wolf zum ebenbürtigen Räuber und Kämpfer,
+menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht, der
+Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to Andree, p.
+65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it is to-day in Russia.
+Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: “Der Wolf ist überall in Europa
+verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> Cf. note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>, <a href="#Encyc_Brit">Encyc. Brit.</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> Leubuscher, p. 1:—Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in Hunde
+und Wölfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den namen Lykanthropie.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> Or as Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for example
+amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still formed a whole,
+as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of herds was especially feared.
+Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: “Die meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die
+im Freien lebten, mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte
+ihrer Einbildungskraft am öftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit zu
+kämpfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in Einzelnen
+als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich von Wölfen besonders
+beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich manche Mordthat nur von
+Wölfen begangen.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 282:—“The Dakotas have long
+believed in the appearance from time to time of a monstrous animal that
+swallows human beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the
+bones of mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:—In celebrations it is possible that the
+foxskin so universally worn by the animistic personifications is a survival
+comparable with the skin of the animal in which formerly the whole
+body was clothed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: “In der ältesten Naturreligion
+ist die Gottheit des Todes und der winterlichen Erde als Wolf
+gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten
+nach dem Volksglauben die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu
+verwandeln. Der Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum
+raschen Zurücklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders
+geeignet. Darum nahmen die Götter und die zauberbegabten Menschen
+zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von Natur gefährlich und
+wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang
+nach Mord und Zerstörung die Hauptsache. Die Ursprünge des Werwolfglaubens
+waren also 1. religiöse Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung
+(der friedlose Mörder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die
+Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie.” Page 51. “Die Verwandlung in
+Wölfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden.” Page 57: “Dass die
+von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen Waldflüchtigen sich in
+Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> Page 46. See also note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p. 153 fol.;—“Ist so
+die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und Götterglauben, zunächst gebunden an
+das Bedürfnis des Lebens, so sondert sie sich doch allmählich im Verlauf
+der Kultur von den religiösen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite
+Welt zu einer unabhängigen Bedeutsamkeit”—like Homer, Dante, etc.
+See note <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:—“Insane delusions
+must reflect the usages and beliefs of contemporaneous society.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">25</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>, <a href="#Footnote_21">21</a> and <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_15">15</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:—Traces of the fear in
+which buffalo “were held may still be discovered in the traditional stories
+of certain tribes, which set forth how, in those days,” [i.&nbsp;e. in the stone
+age] “before men were provided with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill,
+and eat the people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo
+were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly have arisen save
+as the result of actual experience of their power to inflict injury and
+death.” Pliny informs us how the Romans kept the wolf out of their
+fields, see Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians
+lived on the steppes, in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains,
+the animals were their whole study. They moved with the animals,
+followed them for food.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:—It seems that masks were occasionally
+used as decoys.... Next to the otter the most valuable animal in
+the estimation of the Kadiak men, is the species of seal or sea-dog called
+by the Russians nerpa. The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it
+toward the shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body
+among the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque resembling
+the head of a seal and makes a noise like that animal. The unsuspicious
+seal, imagining that he is about to meet a partner of his own
+species, hastens to the spot and is instantly killed. Compare note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:—Bering Strait Eskimo stuff rudely the
+skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon a stick which holds
+the head outstretched, then imitate the call of the bird, which is trapped
+in the net attached to the decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft
+snow into the form of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around
+the neck for plumage. The call then brought the real birds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> Thus G.&nbsp;B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his description
+of the primitive Indians’ method of trapping buffalo, says: “Some
+men went forth naked, others carried a dress made of the entire skin of a
+buffalo, the head and horns arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of
+the skin hung down over the wearer’s back,” etc. This “caller” went near
+to a herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into the
+trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often proved fatal to
+the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85, p. 484, about Central Eskimo
+seal hunting, is stated: If a hunter is close to an animal he imitates its
+movements. Some utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. “The
+sealskin clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is
+difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance.” And on p.
+508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central Eskimos carry guns on
+their shoulders, two men going together, so as to resemble the antlers of a
+deer. The men imitate their grunting. If they lie on the ground at some
+distance they greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to
+Ross the “inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer, the
+foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer’s head upon his own.”
+Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:—“The old manner of hunting antelope and deer:
+the hunter would disguise himself by covering his head with the head and
+skin of an antelope, and so be enabled to approach the game near enough
+to use his bow and arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask
+themselves with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo.” Ethn.
+Rep. 1901-02, p. 439;—Two of the party of hunters (Zuñi) out after deer
+“wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front and back of the
+shirt being painted to represent as nearly as possible the body of the deer;
+the hands and the arms to the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to
+represent the deer’s forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer’s head over
+his head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as possible,
+even to the browsing, the game they would catch.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:—“Tradition says the Iroquois derived the
+music and action of the Buffalo dance while on an expedition against the
+Cherokee, from the bellowing and the movements of a herd of buffalo
+which they heard for the first time ‘singing their favorite songs,’ i.&nbsp;e.
+bellowing and snorting.” Also note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent frostbite. The
+wolf’s, deer’s, fox’s, opossum’s feet it is held never become frostbitten.
+After each verse of the song, the singer imitates the cry and the action of
+the animal. The words used are archaic in form and may be rendered
+“I become a real wolf, etc.” The song runs:</p>
+
+<p>1. Tsûñ´ wa´ ‘ya-ya´ (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged howl).
+The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his feet.</p>
+
+<p>2. Tsûñ´-ka´ wi-ye´ (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh! (imitating
+the call and jumping of a deer).</p>
+
+<p>3. Tsûñ´-tsu´ ‘la-ya´ (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih! (imitates
+barking and scratching of a fox).</p>
+
+<p>4. Tsûñ´-sĭ´-kwa-ya´ (four times), kĭ+(imitates cry of the opossum
+when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal does when
+feigning death).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance performed
+by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep up their spirits, in
+which each had his robe about him and imitated the actions of the coyote,
+trotting, glancing around, etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo
+dance, in which each of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over
+his head, the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging
+down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of the
+buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the Omaha wolf
+dance, by the society of those who have supernatural communication with
+wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and dance in imitation of the
+actions of wolves. Similarly they performed the grizzly bear dance,
+horse dance, etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a>, <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a> and <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> See notes <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a> and <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> Similarly in the use of masks (see note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>). See Wundt, Völkerpsychologie
+II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this Zeitschrift für deutsche
+Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss. 558-568:—“Der maskierte mensch ist der
+ekstatische Mensch. Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in
+ekstase, fühlt er sich in fremde lebensvorgänge ein, eignet er sich das
+wesen an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert.” Für den
+naiven menschen, wie für das kind, ist die maske durchaus nicht
+blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der augenblickstanz
+wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvölker verwenden ihre masken nur
+bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertänzen, nicht zu ihrer burlesken mimik;
+die tänzer sind in Tiermasken, etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed into a
+bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81,
+p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1097:—In Norse
+accounts also we find transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded
+as rational and was esteemed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_57">57a</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a> and <a href="#Footnote_42">42</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> The important consideration in the mind of primitive man was
+whether certain things were harmful or useful. See Behaghel, Die
+deutsche Sprache, p. 98:—“Die grossen Tiere und die mächtigen
+Bäume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die für die <em>Ernährung</em> and <em>Bekleidung</em> des
+Menschen von Bedeutung sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben <em>bedrohen</em>, sie haben
+viel früher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare Käfer
+im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es, dass die Namen
+der grösseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbäume, der wichtigsten Getreidearten
+allen germanischer Stämmen gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie <em>Wolf</em>,
+<em>Kuh</em>, <em>Ochse</em>, <em>Birke</em>, <em>Buche</em>, <em>Erle</em>, <em>Gerste</em> mit den Benennungen anderer
+indogermanischer Völker übereinstimmen.” Doubtless animals occupied
+their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt, Völkerpsychologie, II.
+412 fol., about the <em>maskentanz</em>: “Überhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit
+früher Berücksichtigung erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive.” See note <a href="#Footnote_95">95</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">43</span></a> G.&nbsp;B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N.&nbsp;Y., Scribners,
+1893, p. 245, fol.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">44</span></a> Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein
+sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hirpus</i> bedeutet <em>wolf</em> in sabinischer
+oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf führer geworden
+war, oder nach andrer sage sie wölfe gejagt hatten und gleich wölfen
+raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen ausdrucks friedlos waren.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">45</span></a> The werewolf story could arise only where the animal, wolf, tiger or
+lion, etc., was common; and likewise the werewolf tales gradually died
+out when the animals became rare or extinct. See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">46</span></a> Grinnell, p. 245.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">47</span></a> The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild beasts save
+their own totem-animals as <em>enemy-scouts</em> (Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">48</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of the indian, p.
+208: The wolf was believed, in the animals’ council, to be able to give
+the Indian the power to creep right into the midst of the enemy’s camp
+without being seen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">49</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_53">53</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">50</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_57">57-b</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">51</span></a> So originally the germanic god <em>Logi</em> was not an evil god. <em>Logi</em> meant
+the natural force of fire; <em>Loki</em> meant the same, but the burly giant has
+been made a sly, seducing villain (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of
+Loki, Fenrisûlfr, appears in wolf’s shape among the gods. Perhaps
+association with the wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of
+Logi (Loki) from a good to an evil god.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">52</span></a> Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:—In modern savage life we find
+beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in beast form for
+the community; others are said to assume beast form in order to avenge
+themselves justly on enemies; others for love of bloodshed and cannibalism.
+See also note <a href="#Footnote_58">58</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">53</span></a> No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won considerable
+fame through their skill and bravery, as we should judge from such
+proper names as <em>Rudolf</em>, which means really <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ruhmwolf</em>, <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ruhm</em> related to
+Gothic <em lang="und" xml:lang="und">hropeigs</em> “victorious,” Sanskrit <em lang="sa" xml:lang="sa">kir</em> “to praise”; or <em>Adolf</em> from
+<em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Adalolf</em>, which means <em>Edelwolf</em>, originally, therefore, <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Edelräuber</em>, for
+<em>wolf</em> meant originally about the same as <em>robber</em> (Kluge). So <em>robber</em> or
+<em>wolf</em> was originally a highly respectable appellation, at a time when men
+lived from robbery and the chase, either as searobbers, or mountain
+robbers, etc. (about this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen,
+1905, p. 268 fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace
+(see appellation “wolves” applied to Pawnees, p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.). Later we find
+such names as <em>Wulfila</em> “little wolf.” Many Indian names are those of
+animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear, Conquering Bear,
+Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear Rib, Smoking Bear,
+Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear, Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone
+Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe, etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83,
+p. 169: The names of Indians very often refer to some animal, predicating
+some attribute or position of that animal. For discussion of names, see
+note <a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">54</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">55</span></a> See <a href="#point3">(3)</a> below.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">56</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">57</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_4">4</a> and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>):—The
+use of masks is worldwide. The origin and development of the use of
+masks is very much the same as the origin and development of the werewolf
+as given in the preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both
+originally useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into instruments
+for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of the mask is described
+in the above report as follows:</p>
+
+<p>a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for defense
+against physical violence, human or otherwise. It was therefore first used
+merely as a mechanical resistance to the opposing force; then secondly,
+still in the lowest grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a
+moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by symbolizing
+superhuman agencies. Now individual variations arose—devices for example
+derived or conventionalized from some predatory, shrewd or mysterious
+animal.</p>
+
+<p>b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and
+the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part of the religious
+paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of the shamans. Ethn. Rep.
+1896-97, I. 395:—“When worn in any ceremonial, ... the wearer is
+believed to become mysteriously and unconsciously imbued with the spirit
+of the being which his mask represents.”</p>
+
+<p>c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is used for
+public amusements and games; by secret societies; as protection against
+recognition on festive occasions, etc., like the animal skins worn in
+dances.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">58</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_32">32</a>, <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a>, <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>, ante p. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">59</span></a> See p. <a href="#Footnote_13">13</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">60</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:—Account of “a cloak or mantle made
+from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic paintings. It was
+made and used by the Apaches as a mantle of invisibility, that is, a
+charmed covering for spies which would enable them to pass with impunity
+through the country, and even through the camp of their enemies. In
+this instance the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn.” The
+Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were the raincloud,
+serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of the winds of the four
+cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 515:—Among the Hidatsa (Sioux)
+fetiches are especially the skins of the wolf. “When they go to war, they
+always wear the stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging
+down the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the warrior
+puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf’s head hangs down upon his
+breast.” Finally the magic robes or shirts and girdles came to be a part of
+the regular paraphernalia of the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the
+folklore of all countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles.</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: “Some warriors had medicine
+to change their shape as they pleased, so that they could escape from their
+enemies.” Page 501: Such stories might be paralleled in any tribe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">61</span></a> See further development in note <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">62</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_52">52</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">63</span></a> As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure brutality, we
+cite from Andree, p. 69:—People in the interior of Africa who understand
+magic, transform themselves into lions and go about killing people. See
+also below, note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, where the wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and
+sucks his blood, and also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being
+one of the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this takes place
+at <em>night</em>, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian starting out at night in
+his wolf’s robe, and trotting up to the hostile village to ascertain where his
+enemies’ horses are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell’s
+Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73). Ethn.
+Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:—“To recover stolen or lost property, especially ponies,
+is one of the principal tasks imposed upon the so-called medicine-men”
+(shamans).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">64</span></a> As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was put on not
+merely to make the wearer look just like a common object of the landscape,
+but also because the wearer of the disguise was supposed to take on
+the characteristics of the animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.),
+as in the case of masks (see note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>), and finally the wearer of such a robe
+was believed to actually become transformed, like the wearers of the werewolf
+shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves were regarded as good
+hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:—The wolf
+is revered by the Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanáti; therefore
+we can understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of unerring
+huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those who gained
+their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of songs imitating the
+cries of certain animals was supposed to confer a characteristic of the animal
+in question (see note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:—To gain animal characteristics a wizard attached
+crow and owl plumes to his head that he might have the eyes of the
+crow to see quickly the approach of man, and the eyes of the owl to travel
+by night. He flapped his arms, ... A Zuñi man hearing a cry like
+an owl, yet human, looked about him and found a man whom he recognized
+as a Zuñi. “Aha!” said he, “why have you those plumes upon
+your head? Aha, you are a sorcerer,” etc.</p>
+
+<p>An example of the transforming power of the <em>robe</em> we find in Bulletin
+26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1901, Kathlamet
+texts, p. 156 fol.:—A woman ate of some of the fat of a bitch, gave
+birth to five male dogs and one female dog. When they grew older, she
+discovered one day that they could transform themselves into real children.
+While they were down at the beach, she entered the house, and
+now she saw the dog <em>blankets</em>. She took them and burnt them. Then the
+children retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the
+Völsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according to which
+an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting on an elkskin.</p>
+
+<p>W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p. 100,
+writes, “Die Fähigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln können, heisst ‘sich
+zu häuten, die Hülle zu wechseln’. Das Umwerfen eines äusserlichen
+Gewandes kann den Wechsel der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas
+Federgewand, die Schwan- und Krähenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins
+Adlergewand. Die Wolfsgewänder (úlfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln
+den Menschen zum Wolfe”. See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel, Zeitschrift
+für deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">65</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:—The owner of fine beads fears that some
+witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with disease.</p>
+
+<p>As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman
+powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances given by
+Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met in Africa a native
+said to have power to transform himself into a lion. As lion he would
+stay for days and months in the <em>forest</em>, in a sacred hut, to which however
+his wife carried beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this
+lion did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was able
+to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine brought him by
+his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:—In Banana, Africa, the members of a certain
+family transform themselves in the <em>dark</em> of the <em>forest</em> into leopards.
+They throw down those they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them
+nor drink their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note <a href="#Footnote_83">83</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American Indians,
+who put on a wolf’s mantle to steal, or to recover stolen animals (Grinnell,
+Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the story of robbery entitled
+Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.). Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69,
+where the lowest caste of laborers are believed to have power to transform
+themselves into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They
+employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause, since it yields
+such returns. They are reported to act like other folk by day, at <em>night</em>
+though to assume the ways of wolves, kill their enemies and suck their
+blood, roaming about with other wolves till morning. They are supposed
+to gain their supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs.
+They are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since their
+roaming and plundering is done in the <em>night</em>; in the daytime they of
+course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p. 72).</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:—Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and
+Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the masses
+and the comparative learning of the few who practised it. Among the
+American Indians the medicine-man and the more expert sorceress have
+little learning above that of the body of the tribe, and their success depends
+entirely upon their own belief in being supernaturally gifted, and
+upon the faith and fear of their followers.</p>
+
+<p>The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly animal
+shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:—“An old blind wolf
+with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made his head and hands look
+like those of a wolf. The rest of his body was not changed. He was
+called a man-wolf.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">66</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:—Witches could and did assume animal
+shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire streaming from
+its mouth and nostrils. It was <em>night</em>. The man shot at it, and the next
+morning tracked it by the marks of blood from its wound. At a bridge a
+woman’s tracks took the place of the dog’s, and finally he found the
+woman. She had died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a
+hog, when pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared
+as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing. So they,
+the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian Indian one
+<em>evening</em> pursued a white bull with fire streaming from its nostrils. He had
+never seen a white bull on the reservation before. “As it passed in front of
+a house it was transformed into a man with a <em>large white blanket</em>, who was
+ever afterward known as a witch.”</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:—A man going out at <em>night</em> noticed a queer-looking
+burro. Upon his return home he was told that a large cat had entered
+the house. He went out again, discovered a man wrapped in a blanket,
+but not in the Zuñi fashion, his head was sunk low in the blanket.
+He knew this creature to be a wizard.</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:—That the medicine man (Shaman) has the
+faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and other animals at pleasure
+and then resuming the human form, is as implicitly believed in by the
+American Indians as it was by our own forefathers in Europe. And page
+459: The Abipones of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power
+to put on the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed
+the power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the Shamans
+of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz, p. 133 fol.:—“In der
+christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier
+entstand mit dem Hexenglauben die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich
+mit Hilfe des Satans aus reiner Mordlust zu Wölfen verwandeln. So wurde
+der Werwolf das Bild des tierisch Dämonischen in der Menschennatur.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">67</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:—The medicine-men of the Apache are paid
+at the time they are consulted, the priest beforehand among the Eskimo.
+Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: “The magnitude of the disease is generally measured
+by the amount of the patient’s worldly wealth.” Page 416:—Sioux
+sorcerers prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep.
+1901-2, p. 568:—“The shaman, like the theurgist is usually paid after each visit
+with calico, cotton, or food, according to the wealth of the family, since it is
+always understood that these doctors expect proper compensation for their
+services.” Page 387:—“The Zuñi doctor is paid according to his reputation.”
+Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: “In early days if a man
+remained sick for three or four weeks, all his possessions went to pay
+doctors’ fees.”</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.—The American Indian’s theory of disease
+is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian, the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman—all
+bodily disorders are attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that
+is of animal spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated.
+Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was language
+which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend. Page 468:—The
+medicine-men are accused of administering poisons to their enemies.
+Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:—Sioux sorcerers were thought to cause the
+death of those persons who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep.
+1887-88, p. 581:—“When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia
+he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his followers believe
+that he has become, the power he represents.” The Mexican priests
+masked and disguised, and dressed in the skins of the women offered
+up in sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest. Ethn.
+Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:—The Indian doctor relied far more on magic than on
+natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the drum, songs, magic feasts and
+dances, and howling were his ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story
+of the indian, p. 210 fol.:—They have “firm confidence in dreams.”
+“Their belief in a future life is in part founded on dreams,” etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">68</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>, close.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">69</span></a> An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain occurs Andree,
+p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal at one place, the
+latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming human form, they attack
+their enemy in the <em>night</em> at his home. This is the transformation of an
+animal into a man, but the inventor of the story was no doubt looking
+towards his own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which
+in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In Siam stories
+are told of people who by magic formulae become tigers and roam about
+at <em>night</em> in search of booty. One of the man-tigers was actually a priest.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">70</span></a> Ante pp. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">71</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a> fol.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">72</span></a> See notes <a href="#Footnote_19">19</a> and <a href="#Footnote_74">74</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">73</span></a> Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: “It is said that wolves,
+which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes went crazy,
+and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even coming into
+camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons bitten by a mad wolf
+generally went mad, too. They trembled and their limbs jerked, they
+made their jaws work and foamed at the mouth, often trying to bite other
+people. When any one acted in this way, his relatives tied him hand and
+foot with ropes, and, having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the
+green hide, built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until
+the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and removed the
+buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure for a mad wolf’s bite.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">74</span></a> Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a monomania
+themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this widespread disease
+or delusion (of the first century till late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.:
+“The sick” ones would prowl about burial places <em>at night</em>, imagining
+themselves to be <em>wolves</em> or <em>dogs</em>, and go about barking and howling. In
+the middle ages such people would even kill children and grown people.
+When they came to themselves again, or were cured, they claimed to
+know nothing of what had happened. Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst
+the Shamans feats of jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing
+the best of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of
+robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals, painted with
+shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The speaker terms himself
+a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">75</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_63">63</a>, <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>, <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, <a href="#Footnote_66">66</a>, <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>, <a href="#Footnote_69">69</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">76</span></a> See <a href="#point8">(8)</a> above.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">77</span></a> Page 71.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">78</span></a> Andree, p. 69.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">79</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of the origin of the
+wolf: “<em>The wolf</em> was a poor woman, who had so many children that she
+could not find enough for them to eat. They became so gaunt and
+hungry that they were changed into wolves, constantly roaming over the
+land seeking food.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">80</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a> fol.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">81</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine the horrible
+howlings, and strange contortions that these jugglers (shamans) or conjurers
+make of their bodies, when they are disposing themselves to
+conjure.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">82</span></a> Page 71.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">83</span></a> Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician (Abyssinia),
+who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate animal-men the teeth of
+the persons whom they have killed during the year, with which he
+decorates his palace. See also pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151,
+about sorcery among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes
+of the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of Indian
+genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class of ambitious
+men and women sufficient influence through their acknowledged power of
+exorcism and necromancy to lead a comfortable life at the expense of the
+credulous. Page 162: “Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an
+order of priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It
+is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe that they can
+at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos,” etc. Sometimes one
+family constitutes the class. See note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>; Andree, p. 69.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">84</span></a> Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches were
+priestesses, physicians, fabulous <em>night</em>-wives, never as yet persecuted.
+Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into werewolves, and lose nothing
+in popular estimation. The abuse of a spell was punished. A wise
+woman, healing sickness and charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch
+only when with her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil’s
+complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the guilt of
+criminality fell upon all personal relations with him. Ethn. Rep.
+1901-2, p. 393: “Though the witch may be regarded as all powerful, none
+but the poor and unfortunate are condemned. Few others are even brought
+to trial—their prominence prevents public accusation.” This again reminds
+us some of our customs; namely, that of overlooking the transgressions
+of the rich and powerful. See note <a href="#Footnote_91">91</a>, and for outlaws note <a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">85</span></a> Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the body, and more
+particularly the eyes, so that many shamans (Siberia, America, etc.)
+become blind.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">86</span></a> Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia and Lithuania,
+according to two bishops, werewolves were in the 16th century
+far more destructive than “true and natural wolves.” They were asserted
+to have formed “an accursed college” of those “desirous of innovations
+contrary to the divine law.” Also see note <a href="#Footnote_90">90</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">87</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, and notes <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>, <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, <a href="#Footnote_66">66</a>, <a href="#Footnote_69">69</a>, <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>, <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>, <a href="#Footnote_110">110</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">88</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a> close, and note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">89</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">90</span></a> Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a woman, whose
+husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his house, got hold of him
+later in his man shape and killed him. Feats similar to some performed
+by him are cited in Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the
+Pawnee swallowed arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of
+apparently killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zuñi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">91</span></a> Grimm, Rechtsalterthümer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle aus der
+ärmsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>). Literary Digest,
+March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism and Spirituality: “Many,
+very many, spiritualists seem to care for communion with spirits only that
+they may more surely keep physically well, and earn their bread and
+butter and clothing the easier.” Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The
+absurdity of the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for
+the theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in
+every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he was
+certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not being found in
+beast form was satisfactorily disposed of.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">92</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a> and <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">93</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a> and <a href="#Footnote_19">19</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">94</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">95</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: “The deer, which is
+still common in the mountains, was the principal dependence of the
+Cherokee hunter, and is consequently prominent in myth, folklore, and
+ceremonial.” see note <a href="#Footnote_42">42</a>. Page 264: “The largest gens (clan) in the
+tribe bears the name of ‘wolf people.’” Page 420: The Cherokee
+have always been an agricultural people, and their old country has a
+luxuriant flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more important
+place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe than it does
+among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid sage deserts of the West.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">96</span></a> The St. Louis “Westliche Post” for January 9, 1908, furnishes
+another example: A tame wolf which for the past two years has been a
+pet in a farmer’s family at Marshfield, Wisconsin, escaped and attacked
+a chicken. The farmer’s daughter called to the wolf, but it had become
+wild from the taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and
+one leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released until
+she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar.</p>
+
+<p>Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13, 1908,
+shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite populous districts:
+“Wolf-Plage. Aus dem nördlichen Wisconsin wird gemeldet, dass
+Wölfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind denn je, und dass sie, durch
+Hunger getrieben, sich nahe an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere
+und auch Menschen angreifen. Zwei grosse Wölfe griffen in dieser Woche
+das Pferd der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den
+Wald, wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien
+verscheuchten.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">97</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">98</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">99</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_109">109</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">100</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_24">24</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">101</span></a> Close of note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">102</span></a> John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives the origin
+and development of the werewolf as follows: From the conception of
+wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to the conception of corporeal
+werewolves.... Christianity did not fail to impart a new and fearful
+character to the belief in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as
+a species of witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the
+Devil. It was often necessary to kill one’s enemies, and at that time some
+even killed for love of it (like the Berserker); often a sort of homicidal
+madness, during which they would array themselves in the skins of wolves
+or bears and sally forth by <em>night</em> to crack the backbones, smash the skulls
+and sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary travelers or
+loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an invention of excited
+imagination. So people attributed a wolf’s nature to the maniac or idiot
+with cannibal appetites, then the myth-forming process assigned to the
+unfortunate wretch a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1.
+Worship of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of transformation
+of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The storm-wind
+was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead men’s souls or as the howling
+of wolf-like monsters (called by Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness
+and cannibalism, accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted
+as due to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf
+superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on a
+wolf’s skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence of the fact alleged
+of Berserkers haunting the woods by <em>night</em>, clothed in hides of wolves
+or bears. A permanent cure was effected by burning the werewolf’s sack,
+unless the Devil furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively,
+to become incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the
+outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is the night-wind—a
+kind of leader of departed souls, howling in the wintry blasts.
+Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:—The Berserkir of Iceland dressed in
+the skins of bears and wolves, and further on: “Beastform is in mythology
+proper far oftener assumed for malignant than for benignant ends.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">103</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">104</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">105</span></a> Close note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">106</span></a> Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">107</span></a> Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our oldest native
+notions make the assumption of wolf-shape depend on arraying oneself in a
+wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as transformation into a swan does on putting on the
+swan-shirt or swan-ring. Page 1095: “The transformation need not be
+for a magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured into, a
+wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the appearance, he
+acquires also the fierceness and howling of the wolf; roaming the <em>woods</em>,
+he rends to pieces everything that comes in his way.” This is like the belief
+of the American Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued
+with the spirit of the being which his mask represents (note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>); or that
+the shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers believe
+that he has become, the power he represents (note <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">108</span></a> Thus some American Indian stories represent men transformed into
+wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or piece of decayed wood when pursued.
+And mantles of invisibility are mentioned in note <a href="#Footnote_60">60</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">109</span></a> See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: “Unter den grossen Raubtieren
+treten uns Bär und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen. Der Wolf ist
+freilich überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber ganz sicher
+ein Waldtier,” etc. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy: “In England by
+the 17th century the werewolf had long been extinct. Only small creatures,
+the cat, hare, weasel, etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to
+transform himself into.” See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">110</span></a> Amongst the American Indians, where various larger animals were
+common, the designation “wolf-people” (see the sign-language of the
+plains) was bestowed especially on the Pawnees, because, as we have seen,
+they best imitated wolves. In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the
+wolf alone was universally common, the designation “wolf-people” (or if we
+choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one locality or people,
+but was bestowed in general on those who assumed the manner of wolves,
+and because of their crimes became outcasts like the wolves. They best
+imitate wolves, and no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as
+wolves (see note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>), and for this reason the <em lang="no" xml:lang="no">warg</em> or outlaw came to be
+called a <em>wolf</em> (see close of note <a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>). Thus Golther, Mythologie, p. 102,
+says: “Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder getötet, so findet man einen
+wunden oder toten Menschen.” The werewolves, as we have seen (ante
+p. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>), keep to the <em>woods</em> and the <em>dark</em>, of course in many cases to avoid
+detection. Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: “They say that
+witches love the <em>night</em> and lurk in <em>shadows and darkness</em>. Witches are
+believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts.” Sigmund and Sinfjötli
+dwelt as wolves in the <em>woods</em>. Also the progenitor of the Mýramenn in
+Iceland at <em>night</em> could leave his house in wolf’s form. Another Norwegian
+account reports how earlier many people were able to take on wolf’s
+form, then dwelt in <em>grove</em> and <em>woods</em>, where they tore people to pieces,
+etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note <a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">111</span></a> Names. See note <a href="#Footnote_31">31</a>. The development in the case of names was
+perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>), and of the werewolf
+superstition itself (ante p. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, fol.); namely, a) protection against outside
+agencies was sought; b) growth of supernaturalism; c) element of
+humor.</p>
+
+<p>a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: “Children are often
+named <em>wolf</em>, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their supernatural foes” (for
+similar assumption of characteristics or the nature of animals for personal
+advantage see note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>). See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III.
+1139: “The escort of <em>wolf</em> or <em>raven</em> augured victory;” and in the note:
+“A name of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;G.
+<em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wolf-hraban</em> (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly promised
+victory. Old names are no product of pure chance. Servian mothers
+name a son they have longed for, <em lang="sr" xml:lang="sr">Vuk</em>, <em>Wolf</em>: then the witches can’t eat
+him up. O.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;G. <em>Wolfbizo</em> was a lucky name, i.&nbsp;e., one bitten by the
+wolf and thereby protected,” like our modern curing of like by like in
+medicine.</p>
+
+<p>b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development
+mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about the conferring
+of secret names, since one could harm a person by his name
+alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning his name: “Wenn
+man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g’rennt.” Again in XXI. 313 fol.: It
+was dangerous to name <em>bear</em> or <em>wolf</em> in regions infested by these animals,
+so people, out of fear, avoided calling the name of such animals; called
+the bear for example <em>honey-eater</em>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his fear of
+them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and humor enter in, and
+such names arise as are mentioned in note <a href="#Footnote_53">53</a>; and such stories as that of
+Romulus and Remus, suckled by a wolf.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">112</span></a> Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic Mythology,
+III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws who have fled to
+the woods. A notable instance is that of Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the
+Völsungasaga. In regard to this W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen
+mythologie, Leipzig 1895, p. 102, says: “Die Sage mag auf einem
+alten Misverständniss beruhen. <em>Warg</em>, <em>Wolf</em> hiess der Geächtete in der
+germanischen Rechtssprache. <em>Warg</em> wurde wörtlich als <em>Wolf</em> verstanden,
+und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte.” Golther again, p. 424:—“Gefesselt
+wurde Loki als Ächter in den Wald getrieben, er wurde “<em>Warg</em>”,
+d. h. <em>Wolf</em>. <em>Wölfe</em> heissen die friedlosen Waldgänger.” As to <em>warg</em>, Schade
+in his altdeutsches Wörterbuch defines it as a räuberisch würgendes
+wütendes Wesen, Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise,
+geächteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetäter; <em>warg</em> ist Benennung
+des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und vertragbrüchiger
+Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden durch Mord gebrochen und
+landflüchtig geworden, oder nun im wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere
+haust und wie der Wolf ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche
+auf Island Bezeichnung einer gewalttätigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm,
+Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American Indians
+relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67 fol.: An outlaw is one
+who by his crimes has placed himself without the protection of his clan,
+is not defended in case he is injured by another. When the sentence of
+outlawry has been declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the
+duty of the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the
+council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty of any member
+of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill him like an animal. Page 60
+fol.: “The chief of the Wolf gens is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe”
+(see also Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the <em>woods</em> and the
+<em>dark</em>. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal skins, and to
+terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves. Since therefore so many
+outlaws lived, dressed (note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a> close) and acted like wolves, to all intents
+and purposes became wolves, <em>wolf</em> and outlaw became synonymous terms.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">113</span></a> The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night in Germany
+is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people believed that werewolves,
+etc., entered houses at night. In place of the earlier harmful
+werewolf is now the “harmful” night air.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="l1" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a><br />
+<a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><span class="smcap">Andree, Richard.</span> Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche. Stuttgart,
+1878.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Behaghel, Otto.</span> Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Braune, Wilhelm.</span> Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brockhaus, F. A.</span> Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bureau of American Ethnology.</span> Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dilthey, Wilhelm.</span> Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Edda.</span> Die lieder der älteren edda. Paderborn, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Encyclopaedia britannica.</span> New York, 1883, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Erman, Adolf.</span> Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fiske, John.</span> Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Freytag, Gustav.</span> Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Golther, W.</span> Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Rechtsaltertümer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Teutonic mythology. Translation by J.&nbsp;S. Stallybrass,
+London, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, George Bird.</span> Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, G. B.</span> Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, G. B.</span> Story of the Indian. New York, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hertz, W.</span> Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hirt, H.</span> Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Indogermanische forschungen.</span> Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904,
+1907.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kluge, F.</span> Etymologisches wörterbuch der deutschen sprache. Strassburg,
+1905.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lemcke, K.</span> Aesthetik in gemeinverständlichen vorträgen. Leipzig, 1890.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Leubuscher, R.</span> Über die wehrwölfe und thierverwandlungen im mittelalter.
+Berlin, 1850.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Literary digest.</span> New York and London, March 9, 1907.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meyers.</span> Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Paul, H.</span> Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Schade, O.</span> Altdeutsches wörterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Schrader, O.</span> Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde. Strassburg,
+1901.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Völsungasaga.</span> Ranisch, Berlin, 1891.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Westliche post.</span> St. Louis.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wundt, W.</span> Völkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für deutsches altertum.</span> Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für deutsche philologie.</span> Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="l1" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<p class="num">[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.]</p>
+
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li>Abipones, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Abyssinia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Africa, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Alligator, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>America, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>American Indians, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Anglo-Saxons, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Animals, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Animal fable, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Arabia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Arawaks, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Arcadia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Asia, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Assyrians, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Bear, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_38">38</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Belgium, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Benignant, <i><a href="#Footnote_4">4</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_38">38</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Berserkr, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Bird, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bison, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_32">32</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Bohemia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Borneo, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Bretons, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Bulgaria, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Burchard von Worms, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Burmah, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Celebrations, <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Ceylon, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Charms, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clothing, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coyote, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Dancing, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_32">32</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_33">33</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_34">34</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Dante, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Death, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Decoy, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_30">30</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Denmark, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Dog, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Dreams, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Edda, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Enemy, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_48">48</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>English, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Eskimo, <i><a href="#Footnote_30">30</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Europe, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Fenrisûlfr, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_51">51</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Finns, <i><a href="#Footnote_5">5</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Fish, <i><a href="#Footnote_5">5</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Fisherman, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Food, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Fox, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>French, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Germany, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Greece, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Greenland, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Harmful, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_51">51</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Herds, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Herodotus, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Hindoos, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Homer, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Hunter, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Hyena, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Iceland, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>India, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Indogermanic, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Insanity, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Iranians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Ireland, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Italians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Jackal, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Jaguar, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Japan, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Kadiak, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Kelts, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Knut, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Lapps, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leopard, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Leubuscher, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Lion, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Lithuanians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Loki, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Lycanthropy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Lykaon, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Magic, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Malignant, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_4">4</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Mask, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Mastodon, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Medicinemen (Shamans), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_90">90</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Mexico, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Murder, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Myths, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Names, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Netherlands, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Neurians, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Night, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>North America, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Norway, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Odin, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Island Oesel, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Otter, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Outlaw, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Owl, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Pawnees, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Persia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Plants, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Poles, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Portuguese, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Posen, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Priests, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Professionals, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_86">86</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Provencal, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Prussia, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Reindeer, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Religion, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Revenge, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Robber, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_44">44</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Romans, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Russia, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Scandinavia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Scout, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_48">48</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Scythians, <i><a href="#Footnote_6">6</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Seal, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Serpent, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Servia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Shepherds, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Siam, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Sinfjötli, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Song, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_33">33</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Skins (or dress) of animals, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_34">34</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_108">108</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>South America, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Speech (animals), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stories, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Supernaturalism, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Superstition, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Sweden, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Tiger, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_90">90</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Totemism, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Transformation, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_11">11</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></li>
+<li>Traps, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Tschechs, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Turkey, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_108">108</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Volhynia, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Völsungasaga, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Wales, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Warfare, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Weapons, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Werewolf, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_86">86</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_91">91</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Wiener Hundesegen, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Witches, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_91">91</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<div class="tnote">
+<p class="tn"><a name="Transcribers_note" id="Transcribers_note"></a>Transcriber’s note</p>
+
+
+<p>The cover of this book was created by the transcriber and is placed in
+the public domain.</p>
+
+<p>Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were
+added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they
+were referred to in other notes. The notes were gathered at the end of
+the text and provided with links.</p>
+
+<p>“Völsungasaga” and “Sinfjötli” were in the original mostly written with
+a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader's
+convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common
+spelling with ö.</p>
+
+<p>Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added.
+In note 12 “and” was changed to “und” (seltener in Frankreich
+und Belgien).</p>
+
+<p>Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and
+missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent
+spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44134 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+eBook #44134 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44134)
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by 
+Caroline Taylor Stewart
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition
+
+Author: Caroline Taylor Stewart
+
+Release Date: November 8, 2013 [EBook #44134]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected.
+A more detailed transcriber’s note can be found at the end of this text.
+
+
+
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.[1]
+
+      [1] NOTE.—After the author had written the following article,
+      she gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That
+      the origin and development of the use of masks as given in
+      the Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Ethnology,
+      1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note 32) is similar to the origin and
+      development of the werewolf superstition itself, as given in
+      the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The author
+      has italicized some words in the quotations.
+
+
+The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an animal’s form,
+most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost worldwide superstition.
+Such a transformed person is the Germanic werewolf, or man-wolf; that
+is, a wolf which is really a human being.[2] So the werewolf was a
+man in wolf’s form or wolf’s dress,[2] seen mostly at night,[3] and
+believed generally to be harmful to man.[4]
+
+      [2] According to Mogk, in Paul’s Grundriss der germanischen
+      Philologie III. 272 _wer_ means “man,” found in Old Saxon,
+      Anglo-Saxon, Old High German, and werewolf a man in wolf’s
+      form. Kögel connects _wer_ with Gothic _wasjan_ “kleiden.”
+      “Darum bedeutet _werwolf_ eigentlich Wolfsgewand úlfshamr;
+      ähnlich bedeutet vielleicht _berserkr_ Bärengewand,” therefore
+      werewolf according to Kögel means a wolf’s dress. See also
+      Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde.
+
+      [3] Post p. 24.
+
+      [4] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:—Beastform in
+      mythology proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for
+      benignant ends. See note 52.
+
+The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily
+explained. Adolf Erman[5] explains the allusion of Herodotus[6] to the
+transformation of the Neurians (the people of the present Volhynia, in
+West Russia) into wolves as due merely to their appearance in winter,
+dressed in their furs. This explanation, however, would not fit similar
+superstitions in warm climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy
+to primitive Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the
+members of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.[7]
+Still another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the
+original werewolf.[8]
+
+      [5] Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232.
+
+      [6] Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and
+      Greeks settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once
+      a year every Neurian becomes a wolf for a few days, and then
+      resumes the human form. See concerning this also Hirt, Die
+      Indogermanen, I. 120.
+
+      [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol.
+
+      [8] Note 102, also see note 22.
+
+The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must be one
+which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition is found
+pretty much all over the earth,[9] especially to-day[10] however in
+Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in the lands where the
+wolf is most common.[11][12] According to Mogk[13] the superstition
+prevails to-day especially in the north and east of Germany.[14]
+
+      [9] See also Mogk in Paul’s Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud.
+      Leubuscher, Über die Wehrwölfe und Thierverwandlungen im
+      Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850, mentions cases in ancient Arcadia,
+      in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the almost epidemic disease
+      in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf, Stuttgart,
+      1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia
+      (hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to
+      Encyc. Brit. below; on p. 133 he says: “Tierverwandlungen sind
+      allgemein menschlich, finden wir überall. Die eigentümliche
+      Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen aber finden wir vorzugsweise
+      bei einer bestimmten Völkergruppe, den arischen Stämmen der
+      Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven; bei den südwärts
+      gezogenen Stämmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns gleiche
+      Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten
+      treten die Werwölfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehört die
+      älteste historische Erwähnung der Sage; viel älter aber ist
+      der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische Werwölfe”. According to
+      Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, Stuttgart,
+      1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European
+      country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles,
+      Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants
+      of island Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal
+      peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in Asia, Africa, America; but not in
+      India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit. below), especially
+      though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands.
+
+      As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for
+      1880-81, p. 83, “From their close relations with wild animals
+      Indians’ stories of transformations into beasts and beasts
+      into men are numerous and interesting.... In times of peace,
+      during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller told
+      of those days in the past when men and animals could transform
+      themselves at will and hold converse with one another.”
+
+      Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell & Sons, 1883, II. 668
+      says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic
+      antiquities than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrisûlfr,
+      a son of Loki, makes his appearance in wolf’s shape among the
+      gods.
+
+      Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy,
+      states:—A belief firmly rooted among all savages is that
+      men are in certain circumstances transformed temporarily or
+      permanently into wolves and other inferior animals. In Europe
+      the transformation into a wolf is by far more prominent and
+      frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans, French,
+      Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most
+      prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence.
+      Thus the were-_wolf_ prevails in Europe, also in England,
+      Wales, Ireland; and in S. France, the Netherlands, Germany,
+      Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, Poland, Russia, he can
+      hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note 12). In Denmark,
+      Sweden, Norway and Iceland the _bear_ competes with the wolf
+      for pre-eminence. In Persia the _bear_ is supreme; in Japan the
+      _fox_; in India the _serpent_ vies with the _tiger_ (contrary
+      to Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272, who says:—“Nur Griechen,
+      Römer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter den indogermanischen
+      Völkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und Iraniern ist er
+      unbekannt.” Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in Abyssinia
+      and Borneo the _hyena_ with the _lion_; in E. Africa the _lion_
+      with the _alligator_; in W. Africa the _leopard_ is perhaps
+      most frequently the form assumed by man; among the Abipones the
+      _tiger_, among the Arawaks the _jaguar_, etc.
+
+      In Brockhaus’ Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the
+      werewolf belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and
+      Romanic peoples; found to-day especially in Volhynia and White
+      Russia.
+
+      Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:—Bei den Angelsachsen lässt sich der
+      Werwolf im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern,
+      ihre Herden vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das älteste
+      Zeugnis auf deutschem Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v.
+      Worms (11 century).
+
+      [10] See note 9.
+
+      [11] Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:—There can nowhere be a living
+      belief in contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which
+      has ceased to exist in the particular locality. Belief in
+      metamorphosis into the animal most prominent in any locality
+      itself acquires a special prominence. (See note 12.) In none
+      of these cases however is the power of transformation limited
+      exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal.
+
+      [12] Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under _Wolf_:—The wolf is
+      found in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America
+      from Greenland to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in
+      Ceylon, Burmah or Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in
+      the two latter jackals instead.
+
+      Meyer’s Kleines konversations-lexikon:—Der wolf “ist häufig
+      in Ost- und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika,
+      seltener in Frankreich und Belgien, den Herden gefährlich,
+      besonders in Russland.” Encyc. Brit., XXIV under _Wolf_:—In
+      northern countries the wolf is generally larger and more
+      powerful than in the southern portion of its range. Its habits
+      are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been known
+      to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of
+      his flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance.
+      They usually assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and
+      by their combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower
+      and kill even such great animals as the American bison.
+      Children and even grown people are not infrequently attacked by
+      them when pressed for hunger. The ferocity of the wolf in the
+      wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed, they can rarely be
+      trusted by strangers.
+
+      [13] Paul, Grundriss, III. 272.
+
+      [14] Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p.
+      275 fol., speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: “Noch lebte
+      das Landvolk in ohnmächtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Wölfe,
+      wenig Dörfer, welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere
+      decimirt wurden,” and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:—“Als 1815
+      die gegenwärtige Provinz Posen an Preussen zurückfiel, waren
+      auch dort die Wölfe eine Landplage. Nach Angaben der Posener
+      Provinzialblätter wurden im Regierungsbezirk Posen vom 1. Sept.
+      1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Wölfe erlegt, noch im Jahre 1819
+      im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von Wölfen
+      gefressen.”
+
+The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.[15] The
+point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living human
+being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the wolf was
+common[16] into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa, where these animals
+are common; into a tiger or serpent in India;[17] in other localities
+into other animals characteristic of the region.[18] Among Lapps
+and Finns occur transformations into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish
+or birds; amongst many North Asiatic peoples, as also some American
+Indians, into the bear; amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf,
+turkey or owl; in South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar,
+also into a fish, or serpent. Most universal though it seems was the
+transformation into wolves or dogs.[19]
+
+      [15] Thus in note 6 was mentioned Herodotus’ (484-425 B. C.)
+      statement about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend,
+      according to Hertz, is that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos,
+      the first king of ancient Arcadia. These Arcadians lived as
+      huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert (Andree, p. 65;
+      and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed amongst
+      the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf
+      myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B. C). In the Norse “Edda”
+      we find Odin’s wolves, also Sköll, Hati and Fenrir. In the
+      Völsunga Saga, Sigmund and Sinfjötli become wolves. For other
+      reflections of the fear in which wolves were held, see the
+      10th century ms. of the “Wiener Hundesegen” against male and
+      female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches Lesebuch, 6. aufl.
+      1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,—Geschichte der deutschen sprache
+      s. 233:—“Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte
+      raubthier des waldes dar, und lehrt die nähe des wolfs und
+      fuchses.”
+
+      C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:—“In die
+      ältesten Zeiten hinauf reicht auch bei Jägervölkern die
+      Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil die Eigentümlichkeiten der
+      Tiere erklärend, ihr Gebahren erzählend. Die furchtbaren und
+      die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo die Menschen
+      städtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie einsamer
+      mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine höhere Bedeutung. So wird
+      dem Wäldler Bär und Wolf zum ebenbürtigen Räuber und Kämpfer,
+      menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht,
+      der Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst.”
+
+      [16] Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to
+      Andree, p. 65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it
+      is to-day in Russia. Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: “Der
+      Wolf ist überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber
+      ganz sicher ein Waldtier.”
+
+      [17] Note 9.
+
+      [18] Cf. note 9, Encyc. Brit.
+
+      [19] Leubuscher, p. 1:—Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in
+      Hunde und Wölfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den
+      namen Lykanthropie.
+
+As the superstition is so widespread—Germany, Eastern Europe, Africa,
+Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time, when all these
+peoples were in communication with each other[20] or else, in accord
+with another view of modern science, it arose independently in various
+continents in process of the natural psychical development of the human
+race under similar conditions.
+
+      [20] Or as Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for
+      example amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still
+      formed a whole, as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of
+      herds was especially feared. Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: “Die
+      meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die im Freien lebten,
+      mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte ihrer
+      Einbildungskraft am öftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit
+      zu kämpfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in
+      Einzelnen als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich
+      von Wölfen besonders beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich
+      manche Mordthat nur von Wölfen begangen.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89,
+      p. 282:—“The Dakotas have long believed in the appearance
+      from time to time of a monstrous animal that swallows human
+      beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the bones of
+      mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians.”
+
+The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom of
+primitive man’s of putting on a wolf’s or other animal’s skin[21]
+or dress, or a robe.[22] Thus Leubuscher,[23] says: “Es ist der
+Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten
+hervorgewachsen.”[24][25] Likely also the notion of attributing speech
+to animals originated from such disguising or dressing of men as
+animals. In the following we shall examine into primitive man’s reasons
+for putting on such a skin or robe.
+
+      [21] Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:—In celebrations it is
+      possible that the foxskin so universally worn by the animistic
+      personifications is a survival comparable with the skin of the
+      animal in which formerly the whole body was clothed.
+
+      [22] Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: “In der
+      ältesten Naturreligion ist die Gottheit des Todes und der
+      winterlichen Erde als Wolf gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl
+      in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten nach dem Volksglauben
+      die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu verwandeln. Der
+      Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum raschen
+      Zurücklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders
+      geeignet. Darum nahmen die Götter und die zauberbegabten
+      Menschen zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von
+      Natur gefährlich und wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und
+      beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang nach Mord und Zerstörung die
+      Hauptsache. Die Ursprünge des Werwolfglaubens waren also 1.
+      religiöse Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung (der friedlose
+      Mörder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die
+      Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie.” Page 51. “Die Verwandlung
+      in Wölfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden.” Page 57:
+      “Dass die von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen
+      Waldflüchtigen sich in Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend.”
+
+      [23] Page 46. See also note 9.
+
+      [24] Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p.
+      153 fol.;—“Ist so die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und
+      Götterglauben, zunächst gebunden an das Bedürfnis des Lebens,
+      so sondert sie sich doch allmählich im Verlauf der Kultur von
+      den religiösen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite Welt
+      zu einer unabhängigen Bedeutsamkeit”—like Homer, Dante, etc.
+      See note 20, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:—“Insane
+      delusions must reflect the usages and beliefs of
+      contemporaneous society.”
+
+      [25] Notes 20, 21 and 27.
+
+Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had to conquer
+them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in Europe arose
+probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic peoples were
+still in contact with each other, if not in the original Indo-Germanic
+home, for they all have the superstition (unless, as above, we prefer
+to regard the belief as arising in various localities in process of
+psychical development under similar conditions; namely, when people
+still lived principally by the chase.[26]) Probably the primitive
+Indo-European man before and at the time of the origin of the werewolf
+superstition, was almost helpless in the presence of inexorable nature.
+This was before he used metal for weapons. The great business of life
+was to secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots,
+berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.[27]
+Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any
+size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet
+primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no longer
+crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but began to watch
+and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what certain animals would
+do under certain circumstances, to learn what would frighten them away
+or what would lure them on. So at least the large animals were to early
+man a constant cause of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary
+to have their flesh for food and their skins for clothing.[28]
+
+      [26] See note 15.
+
+      [27] Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:—Traces of the
+      fear in which buffalo “were held may still be discovered in the
+      traditional stories of certain tribes, which set forth how, in
+      those days,” [i. e. in the stone age] “before men were provided
+      with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill, and eat the
+      people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo
+      were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly
+      have arisen save as the result of actual experience of their
+      power to inflict injury and death.” Pliny informs us how the
+      Romans kept the wolf out of their fields, see Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians lived on the steppes,
+      in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains, the animals
+      were their whole study. They moved with the animals, followed
+      them for food.
+
+      [28] Note 27.
+
+Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for trapping
+them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of decoys to lure
+animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits, others more easily
+by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,[29] and similarly, another
+form of the original decoy was no doubt simply the stuffed skin of a
+member of the species, whether animal or bird, say for example a wild
+duck.[30] Of course the hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself
+putting on the animal skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an
+individual dressed for example in a wolf’s skin could approach near
+enough to a solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other
+weapon, without exciting the wolf’s suspicion of the nearness of a
+dangerous foe.[31] So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used
+by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure
+food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise, whole
+or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments
+seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions and cries of
+animals,[32] at first to lure them, when acting as a decoy. With growth
+of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and an additional reason for
+acquiring dance and song was to secure charms against bodily ills,[33]
+and finally enlivenment.[34] In both dance and song, when used for a
+serious purpose, the performers imagined themselves to be the animals
+they were imitating,[35] and in the dance they wore the skins of the
+animals represented.[36]
+
+      [29] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:—It seems that masks
+      were occasionally used as decoys.... Next to the otter the
+      most valuable animal in the estimation of the Kadiak men, is
+      the species of seal or sea-dog called by the Russians nerpa.
+      The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it toward the
+      shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body among
+      the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque
+      resembling the head of a seal and makes a noise like that
+      animal. The unsuspicious seal, imagining that he is about to
+      meet a partner of his own species, hastens to the spot and is
+      instantly killed. Compare note 57.
+
+      [30] Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:—Bering Strait Eskimo stuff
+      rudely the skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon
+      a stick which holds the head outstretched, then imitate the
+      call of the bird, which is trapped in the net attached to the
+      decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft snow into the form
+      of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around the neck
+      for plumage. The call then brought the real birds.
+
+      [31] Thus G. B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his
+      description of the primitive Indians’ method of trapping
+      buffalo, says: “Some men went forth naked, others carried a
+      dress made of the entire skin of a buffalo, the head and horns
+      arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of the skin hung
+      down over the wearer’s back,” etc. This “caller” went near to a
+      herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into
+      the trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often
+      proved fatal to the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85,
+      p. 484, about Central Eskimo seal hunting, is stated: If a
+      hunter is close to an animal he imitates its movements. Some
+      utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. “The sealskin
+      clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is
+      difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance.”
+      And on p. 508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central
+      Eskimos carry guns on their shoulders, two men going together,
+      so as to resemble the antlers of a deer. The men imitate their
+      grunting. If they lie on the ground at some distance they
+      greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to Ross the
+      “inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer,
+      the foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer’s head
+      upon his own.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:—“The old manner of
+      hunting antelope and deer: the hunter would disguise himself by
+      covering his head with the head and skin of an antelope, and so
+      be enabled to approach the game near enough to use his bow and
+      arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask themselves
+      with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo.” Ethn. Rep.
+      1901-02, p. 439;—Two of the party of hunters (Zuñi) out after
+      deer “wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front
+      and back of the shirt being painted to represent as nearly
+      as possible the body of the deer; the hands and the arms to
+      the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to represent the
+      deer’s forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer’s head over his
+      head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as
+      possible, even to the browsing, the game they would catch.”
+
+      [32] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:—“Tradition says the Iroquois
+      derived the music and action of the Buffalo dance while on
+      an expedition against the Cherokee, from the bellowing and
+      the movements of a herd of buffalo which they heard for the
+      first time ‘singing their favorite songs,’ i. e. bellowing and
+      snorting.” Also note 33.
+
+      [33] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent
+      frostbite. The wolf’s, deer’s, fox’s, opossum’s feet it is held
+      never become frostbitten. After each verse of the song, the
+      singer imitates the cry and the action of the animal. The words
+      used are archaic in form and may be rendered “I become a real
+      wolf, etc.” The song runs:
+
+      1. Tsûñ´ wa´ ‘ya-ya´ (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged
+      howl). The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his
+      feet.
+
+      2. Tsûñ´-ka´ wi-ye´ (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh!
+      (imitating the call and jumping of a deer).
+
+      3. Tsûñ´-tsu´ ‘la-ya´ (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih!
+      (imitates barking and scratching of a fox).
+
+      4. Tsûñ´-sĭ´-kwa-ya´ (four times), kĭ+(imitates cry of the
+      opossum when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal
+      does when feigning death).
+
+      [34] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance
+      performed by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep
+      up their spirits, in which each had his robe about him and
+      imitated the actions of the coyote, trotting, glancing around,
+      etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo dance, in which each
+      of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over his head,
+      the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging
+      down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of
+      the buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the
+      Omaha wolf dance, by the society of those who have supernatural
+      communication with wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and
+      dance in imitation of the actions of wolves. Similarly they
+      performed the grizzly bear dance, horse dance, etc.
+
+      [35] Notes 22, 34 and 37.
+
+      [36] See notes 34 and 37.
+
+Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed merely
+for decoys and sport (early dancing),[37] for peaceful purposes
+therefore, such people having whole or partial animal shape were not
+regarded as harmful to man,[38] just as wise women began to pass
+for witches only when with their art they did evil.[39] A similar
+development can be traced in the case of masks.[40] It was some time
+before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing animals that
+were dangerous to life, though these are the ones he first studied;[41]
+and we cannot presuppose that he disguised to represent them until he
+could cope with them, since the original purpose of the disguise was
+to secure food and clothing. Thus far then we see whole or partial
+disguise as animals used to secure _food_ and _clothing_ when acting as
+decoys to lure animals; and in _dancing_.[42]
+
+      [37] Similarly in the use of masks (see note 57). See Wundt,
+      Völkerpsychologie II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this
+      Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss.
+      558-568:—“Der maskierte mensch ist der ekstatische Mensch.
+      Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in ekstase, fühlt
+      er sich in fremde lebensvorgänge ein, eignet er sich das wesen
+      an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert.” Für den
+      naiven menschen, wie für das kind, ist die maske durchaus
+      nicht blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der
+      augenblickstanz wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvölker verwenden
+      ihre masken nur bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertänzen, nicht
+      zu ihrer burlesken mimik; die tänzer sind in Tiermasken, etc.
+
+      [38] Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed
+      into a bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent
+      (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1097:—In Norse accounts also we find
+      transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded as
+      rational and was esteemed.
+
+      [39] Note 84.
+
+      [40] See note 57a.
+
+      [41] Notes 27 and 42.
+
+      [42] The important consideration in the mind of primitive
+      man was whether certain things were harmful or useful. See
+      Behaghel, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 98:—“Die grossen Tiere
+      und die mächtigen Bäume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die für
+      die _Ernährung_ and _Bekleidung_ des Menschen von Bedeutung
+      sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben _bedrohen_, sie haben viel
+      früher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare
+      Käfer im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es,
+      dass die Namen der grösseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbäume,
+      der wichtigsten Getreidearten allen germanischer Stämmen
+      gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie _Wolf_, _Kuh_, _Ochse_,
+      _Birke_, _Buche_, _Erle_, _Gerste_ mit den Benennungen anderer
+      indogermanischer Völker übereinstimmen.” Doubtless animals
+      occupied their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt,
+      Völkerpsychologie, II. 412 fol., about the _maskentanz_:
+      “Überhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit früher Berücksichtigung
+      erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive.” See note 95.
+
+Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal’s skin or dress when
+out as _forager_ (or robber) or _spy_, for the purpose of avoiding
+detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for example,[43] were called
+by neighboring tribes _wolves_, probably not out of contempt, since it
+may be doubted that an Indian feels contempt for a wolf any more than
+he does for a fox, a rabbit, or an elk, but because of their adroitness
+as scouts, warriors and stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think,
+because of their great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so
+as to escape detection by the enemy by day or night; or, according to
+some neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves[44], “have the
+endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can make
+long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their way, or on
+no food at all.” ... And further, “The Pawnees, when they went on the
+warpath, were always prepared to simulate wolves.... Wolves on the
+prairie were too common[45] to excite remark, and at night they would
+approach close to the Indian camps.” ... The Pawnee starting off on the
+warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later times a
+white blanket or a white sheet; and, at _night_, wrapping himself in
+this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he walked or trotted
+here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed himself into a
+common object of the landscape. This disguise was employed by _day_ as
+well, for reconnoissance.... While the party remained hidden in some
+ravine or hollow, one Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to
+the top of the hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches
+looking all over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him,
+would take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the
+Pawnees could imitate wolves best. “An Indian going into an enemy’s
+country is often called a wolf,[46] and the sign for a scout is made up
+of the signs _wolf_ and _look_.”[47] Should any scout detect danger, as
+at _night_ when on duty near an encampment, he must give the cry of the
+coyote.[48]
+
+      [43] G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N. Y.,
+      Scribners, 1893, p. 245, fol.
+
+      [44] Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein
+      sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. _hirpus_ bedeutet _wolf_ in
+      sabinischer oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf
+      führer geworden war, oder nach andrer sage sie wölfe gejagt
+      hatten und gleich wölfen raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen
+      ausdrucks friedlos waren.
+
+      [45] The werewolf story could arise only where the animal,
+      wolf, tiger or lion, etc., was common; and likewise the
+      werewolf tales gradually died out when the animals became rare
+      or extinct. See note 11.
+
+      [46] Grinnell, p. 245.
+
+      [47] The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild
+      beasts save their own totem-animals as _enemy-scouts_ (Encyc.
+      Brit. under Lycanthropy).
+
+      [48] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of
+      the indian, p. 208: The wolf was believed, in the animals’
+      council, to be able to give the Indian the power to creep right
+      into the midst of the enemy’s camp without being seen.
+
+The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in animal form or
+dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal disguise began to
+act not only as decoys for animals dangerous to life, but also as
+scouts (robbers[49]—and later as possessors of supernatural power,
+when growth of culture brought with it growth of supernaturalism[50]);
+when people began to associate, for example, the wolf’s form with a
+lurking enemy.[51]
+
+      [49] See note 53.
+
+      [50] See note 57-b.
+
+      [51] So originally the germanic god _Logi_ was not an evil
+      god. _Logi_ meant the natural force of fire; _Loki_ meant the
+      same, but the burly giant has been made a sly, seducing villain
+      (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of Loki, Fenrisûlfr, appears
+      in wolf’s shape among the gods. Perhaps association with the
+      wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of Logi
+      (Loki) from a good to an evil god.
+
+All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the defensive,
+like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion have sent out
+scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid detection, assumed the
+disguise of the animal most common to the special locality in question,
+just as to-day they are known to disguise in animal skins for purposes
+of plunder or revenge.[52][53]
+
+      [52] Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:—In modern savage life we
+      find beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in
+      beast form for the community; others are said to assume beast
+      form in order to avenge themselves justly on enemies; others
+      for love of bloodshed and cannibalism. See also note 58.
+
+      [53] No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won
+      considerable fame through their skill and bravery, as we should
+      judge from such proper names as _Rudolf_, which means really
+      _Ruhmwolf_, _Ruhm_ related to Gothic _hropeigs_ “victorious,”
+      Sanskrit _kir_ “to praise”; or _Adolf_ from _Adalolf_, which
+      means _Edelwolf_, originally, therefore, _Edelräuber_, for
+      _wolf_ meant originally about the same as _robber_ (Kluge).
+      So _robber_ or _wolf_ was originally a highly respectable
+      appellation, at a time when men lived from robbery and the
+      chase, either as searobbers, or mountain robbers, etc. (about
+      this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen, 1905, p. 268
+      fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace (see
+      appellation “wolves” applied to Pawnees, p. 12.). Later we find
+      such names as _Wulfila_ “little wolf.” Many Indian names are
+      those of animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear,
+      Conquering Bear, Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear
+      Rib, Smoking Bear, Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear,
+      Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe,
+      etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83, p. 169: The names of Indians very
+      often refer to some animal, predicating some attribute or
+      position of that animal. For discussion of names, see note 111.
+
+The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying principle is
+the same; namely, the transformation of a living human being into an
+animal. The origin of the belief in such a transformation, as stated
+above[54] was the simple putting on of an animal skin by early man. The
+object of putting on animal skins was,
+
+      [54] Ante p. 6.
+
+(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries of animals
+were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),[55] artificial decoys
+(like decoy ducks to-day)[56] and finally even masks were used.[57]
+
+      [55] See (3) below.
+
+      [56] See ante p. 8.
+
+      [57] See note 4 and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see
+      note 37):—The use of masks is worldwide. The origin and
+      development of the use of masks is very much the same as
+      the origin and development of the werewolf as given in the
+      preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both originally
+      useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into
+      instruments for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of
+      the mask is described in the above report as follows:
+
+      a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for
+      defense against physical violence, human or otherwise. It
+      was therefore first used merely as a mechanical resistance
+      to the opposing force; then secondly, still in the lowest
+      grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a
+      moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by
+      symbolizing superhuman agencies. Now individual variations
+      arose—devices for example derived or conventionalized from
+      some predatory, shrewd or mysterious animal.
+
+      b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and
+      the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part
+      of the religious paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of
+      the shamans. Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 395:—“When worn in any
+      ceremonial, ... the wearer is believed to become mysteriously
+      and unconsciously imbued with the spirit of the being which his
+      mask represents.”
+
+      c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is
+      used for public amusements and games; by secret societies; as
+      protection against recognition on festive occasions, etc., like
+      the animal skins worn in dances.
+
+(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying animals,
+as in (1) above.
+
+(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals led to
+dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the faces and bodies
+of the participants were painted in imitation of the colors of birds
+and animals, the motions of animals imitated and animal disguises
+used.[58]
+
+      [58] Notes 32, 34, 33, ante p. 11.
+
+(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out foraging, as well
+as for warfare,[59][60] therefore for booty, and self-defense. Either
+they wore the entire skin, or probably later just a part of it as a
+fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as a charm by many of
+our colored people to-day.[61]
+
+      [59] See p. 13.
+
+      [60] Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:—Account of “a cloak or mantle
+      made from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic
+      paintings. It was made and used by the Apaches as a mantle
+      of invisibility, that is, a charmed covering for spies which
+      would enable them to pass with impunity through the country,
+      and even through the camp of their enemies. In this instance
+      the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn.” The
+      Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were
+      the raincloud, serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of
+      the winds of the four cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p.
+      515:—Among the Hidatsa (Sioux) fetiches are especially the
+      skins of the wolf. “When they go to war, they always wear the
+      stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging down
+      the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the
+      warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf’s head
+      hangs down upon his breast.” Finally the magic robes or shirts
+      and girdles came to be a part of the regular paraphernalia of
+      the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the folklore of all
+      countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles.
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: “Some warriors had
+      medicine to change their shape as they pleased, so that they
+      could escape from their enemies.” Page 501: Such stories might
+      be paralleled in any tribe.
+
+      [61] See further development in note 64.
+
+(5) For purposes of revenge,[62],[63] personal or other. For some other
+personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror in the opposing
+agent by hideousness.
+
+      [62] Note 52.
+
+      [63] As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure
+      brutality, we cite from Andree, p. 69:—People in the interior
+      of Africa who understand magic, transform themselves into lions
+      and go about killing people. See also below, note 65, where the
+      wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and sucks his blood, and
+      also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being one of
+      the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this
+      takes place at _night_, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian
+      starting out at night in his wolf’s robe, and trotting up to
+      the hostile village to ascertain where his enemies’ horses
+      are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell’s
+      Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73).
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:—“To recover stolen or lost
+      property, especially ponies, is one of the principal tasks
+      imposed upon the so-called medicine-men” (shamans).
+
+(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing superhuman
+agencies.[64] So now would arise first a belief in superhuman power or
+attributes,[65] and then,
+
+      [64] As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was
+      put on not merely to make the wearer look just like a common
+      object of the landscape, but also because the wearer of the
+      disguise was supposed to take on the characteristics of the
+      animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.), as in the
+      case of masks (see note 57), and finally the wearer of such
+      a robe was believed to actually become transformed, like the
+      wearers of the werewolf shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves
+      were regarded as good hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep.
+      1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:—The wolf is revered by the
+      Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanáti; therefore we can
+      understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of
+      unerring huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those
+      who gained their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of
+      songs imitating the cries of certain animals was supposed to
+      confer a characteristic of the animal in question (see note 33).
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:—To gain animal characteristics a
+      wizard attached crow and owl plumes to his head that he might
+      have the eyes of the crow to see quickly the approach of man,
+      and the eyes of the owl to travel by night. He flapped his
+      arms, ... A Zuñi man hearing a cry like an owl, yet human,
+      looked about him and found a man whom he recognized as a Zuñi.
+      “Aha!” said he, “why have you those plumes upon your head? Aha,
+      you are a sorcerer,” etc.
+
+      An example of the transforming power of the _robe_ we find in
+      Bulletin 26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington,
+      1901, Kathlamet texts, p. 156 fol.:—A woman ate of some of the
+      fat of a bitch, gave birth to five male dogs and one female
+      dog. When they grew older, she discovered one day that they
+      could transform themselves into real children. While they were
+      down at the beach, she entered the house, and now she saw the
+      dog _blankets_. She took them and burnt them. Then the children
+      retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the
+      Völsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according
+      to which an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting
+      on an elkskin.
+
+      W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p.
+      100, writes, “Die Fähigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln
+      können, heisst ‘sich zu häuten, die Hülle zu wechseln’.
+      Das Umwerfen eines äusserlichen Gewandes kann den Wechsel
+      der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas Federgewand, die
+      Schwan- und Krähenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins Adlergewand.
+      Die Wolfsgewänder (úlfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln
+      den Menschen zum Wolfe”. See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel,
+      Zeitschrift für deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261.
+
+      [65] Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:—The owner of fine beads fears
+      that some witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with
+      disease.
+
+      As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman
+      powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances
+      given by Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met
+      in Africa a native said to have power to transform himself
+      into a lion. As lion he would stay for days and months in the
+      _forest_, in a sacred hut, to which however his wife carried
+      beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this lion
+      did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was
+      able to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine
+      brought him by his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:—In Banana,
+      Africa, the members of a certain family transform themselves in
+      the _dark_ of the _forest_ into leopards. They throw down those
+      they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them nor drink
+      their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note 83.)
+
+      The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American
+      Indians, who put on a wolf’s mantle to steal, or to recover
+      stolen animals (Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the
+      story of robbery entitled Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.).
+      Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69, where the lowest caste
+      of laborers are believed to have power to transform themselves
+      into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They
+      employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause,
+      since it yields such returns. They are reported to act like
+      other folk by day, at _night_ though to assume the ways of
+      wolves, kill their enemies and suck their blood, roaming about
+      with other wolves till morning. They are supposed to gain their
+      supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs. They
+      are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since
+      their roaming and plundering is done in the _night_; in the
+      daytime they of course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p.
+      72).
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:—Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and
+      Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the
+      masses and the comparative learning of the few who practised
+      it. Among the American Indians the medicine-man and the more
+      expert sorceress have little learning above that of the body of
+      the tribe, and their success depends entirely upon their own
+      belief in being supernaturally gifted, and upon the faith and
+      fear of their followers.
+
+      The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly
+      animal shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:—“An
+      old blind wolf with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made
+      his head and hands look like those of a wolf. The rest of his
+      body was not changed. He was called a man-wolf.”
+
+(7) Witchcraft.[66] It is very easy to see why it was usually the
+so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who claimed such
+transformation power, because they received remuneration from their
+patients.[67]
+
+      [66] Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:—Witches could and did assume
+      animal shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire
+      streaming from its mouth and nostrils. It was _night_. The man
+      shot at it, and the next morning tracked it by the marks of
+      blood from its wound. At a bridge a woman’s tracks took the
+      place of the dog’s, and finally he found the woman. She had
+      died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a hog, when
+      pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared
+      as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing.
+      So they, the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian
+      Indian one _evening_ pursued a white bull with fire streaming
+      from its nostrils. He had never seen a white bull on the
+      reservation before. “As it passed in front of a house it was
+      transformed into a man with a _large white blanket_, who was
+      ever afterward known as a witch.”
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:—A man going out at _night_ noticed
+      a queer-looking burro. Upon his return home he was told that a
+      large cat had entered the house. He went out again, discovered
+      a man wrapped in a blanket, but not in the Zuñi fashion, his
+      head was sunk low in the blanket. He knew this creature to be a
+      wizard.
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:—That the medicine man (Shaman)
+      has the faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and
+      other animals at pleasure and then resuming the human form, is
+      as implicitly believed in by the American Indians as it was
+      by our own forefathers in Europe. And page 459: The Abipones
+      of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power to put on
+      the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed the
+      power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the
+      Shamans of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz,
+      p. 133 fol.:—“In der christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische
+      Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier entstand mit dem Hexenglauben
+      die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich mit Hilfe des Satans aus
+      reiner Mordlust zu Wölfen verwandeln. So wurde der Werwolf das
+      Bild des tierisch Dämonischen in der Menschennatur.”
+
+      [67] Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:—The medicine-men of the
+      Apache are paid at the time they are consulted, the priest
+      beforehand among the Eskimo. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: “The
+      magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount
+      of the patient’s worldly wealth.” Page 416:—Sioux sorcerers
+      prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep.
+      1901-2, p. 568:—“The shaman, like the theurgist is usually
+      paid after each visit with calico, cotton, or food, according
+      to the wealth of the family, since it is always understood
+      that these doctors expect proper compensation for their
+      services.” Page 387:—“The Zuñi doctor is paid according to his
+      reputation.” Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: “In early
+      days if a man remained sick for three or four weeks, all his
+      possessions went to pay doctors’ fees.”
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.—The American Indian’s theory
+      of disease is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian,
+      the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman—all bodily disorders are
+      attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that is of animal
+      spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated.
+      Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was
+      language which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend.
+      Page 468:—The medicine-men are accused of administering
+      poisons to their enemies. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:—Sioux
+      sorcerers were thought to cause the death of those persons
+      who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p.
+      581:—“When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia
+      he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his
+      followers believe that he has become, the power he represents.”
+      The Mexican priests masked and disguised, and dressed in the
+      skins of the women offered up in sacrifice.
+
+      So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:—The Indian doctor relied far more
+      on magic than on natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the
+      drum, songs, magic feasts and dances, and howling were his
+      ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 210
+      fol.:—They have “firm confidence in dreams.” “Their belief in
+      a future life is in part founded on dreams,” etc.
+
+(8) Finally dreams[68] and exaggerated reports gave rise to fabulous
+stories.[69]
+
+      [68] Note 67, close.
+
+      [69] An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain
+      occurs Andree, p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal
+      at one place, the latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming
+      human form, they attack their enemy in the _night_ at his
+      home. This is the transformation of an animal into a man, but
+      the inventor of the story was no doubt looking towards his
+      own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which
+      in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In
+      Siam stories are told of people who by magic formulae become
+      tigers and roam about at _night_ in search of booty. One of the
+      man-tigers was actually a priest.
+
+We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);[70] for an example under (4) we
+have cited the practices of American Indians.[71] It is probable that
+about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above), what is known as the
+real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied, rabid manwolf) began
+to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin was already a lurking thief
+or enemy, or a destroyer of human life. To advance from this stage
+to the werewolf frenzy, our primitive man must have seen about him
+some exhibition of such a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this
+frenzy particularly with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons,
+and the connecting link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as
+the transformation was usually into a wolf or dog,[72]) for persons
+bitten by it usually went mad too.[73] The ensuing frenzy, with the
+consternation it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds
+as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some no doubt
+actually had the malady; others honestly believed they had it and got
+into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked themselves up into a
+frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.[74] Later, in the Middle
+Ages, when the nature of the real disease came to be better understood,
+the werewolf superstition had become too firmly fixed to be easily
+uprooted.
+
+      [70] Ante pp. 7, 8, 9.
+
+      [71] Ante p. 12 fol.
+
+      [72] See notes 19 and 74.
+
+      [73] Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: “It is said that
+      wolves, which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes
+      went crazy, and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even
+      coming into camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons
+      bitten by a mad wolf generally went mad, too. They trembled and
+      their limbs jerked, they made their jaws work and foamed at the
+      mouth, often trying to bite other people. When any one acted in
+      this way, his relatives tied him hand and foot with ropes, and,
+      having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the green hide,
+      built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until
+      the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and
+      removed the buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure
+      for a mad wolf’s bite.”
+
+      [74] Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a
+      monomania themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this
+      widespread disease or delusion (of the first century till
+      late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.: “The sick” ones would
+      prowl about burial places _at night_, imagining themselves
+      to be _wolves_ or _dogs_, and go about barking and howling.
+      In the middle ages such people would even kill children and
+      grown people. When they came to themselves again, or were
+      cured, they claimed to know nothing of what had happened.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst the Shamans feats of
+      jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing the best
+      of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of
+      robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals,
+      painted with shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The
+      speaker terms himself a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power.
+
+We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.[75] As further
+examples of the development into fabulous story,[76] we may cite any of
+those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man is represented
+as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and tearing to pieces men
+and beasts, until he resumes his human form. Thus an early scout in
+animal garb would be obliged to live on food he found on his way, and
+later fabulous report would represent him as himself when in disguise
+possessing the attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to
+pieces man and beast. For such an account see Andree,[77] concerning
+what eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the
+hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed
+such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread abroad
+such a report as would enhance the influence of the hyena-men far and
+wide. Some savages, as in Africa,[78] came to regard any animal that
+robbed them of children, goats or other animals, as a witch in animal
+form;[79] just as the American Indians ascribe to evil spirits death,
+sickness and other misfortunes.
+
+      [75] Notes 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69.
+
+      [76] See (8) above.
+
+      [77] Page 71.
+
+      [78] Andree, p. 69.
+
+      [79] Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of
+      the origin of the wolf: “_The wolf_ was a poor woman, who had
+      so many children that she could not find enough for them to
+      eat. They became so gaunt and hungry that they were changed
+      into wolves, constantly roaming over the land seeking food.”
+
+We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an animal robe
+would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;[80] how though, as
+soon as the element of magic enters in, he would try to keep up the
+illusion. At this stage, when the original defensive measure had become
+tainted with superstition, men would go about in the night time howling
+and holding their vile revels.[81] Andree,[82] narrates how a soldier
+in Northeast Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and
+came to the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician. No
+hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh wound. Soon
+he died, however the soldier did not survive him long. Doubtless one
+of the magician class was responsible for the death of the soldier,
+just as we to-day put to death the man who so violates our laws, as to
+become a menace to our society, or as formerly kings killed those who
+stood in their way; or as religious sects murder those who dissent
+from their faith. These magicians, supposed to be men who could assume
+animal form, as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly
+feared by other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and
+at _night_ come forth to plunder and kill.[83] It is to their interest
+to counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were
+put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.[84] Their frenzies
+were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in other cases
+they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent opportunities for
+personal gain or vengeance.[85]
+
+      [80] Ante p. 12 fol.
+
+      [81] Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine
+      the horrible howlings, and strange contortions that these
+      jugglers (shamans) or conjurers make of their bodies, when they
+      are disposing themselves to conjure.
+
+      [82] Page 71.
+
+      [83] Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician
+      (Abyssinia), who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate
+      animal-men the teeth of the persons whom they have killed
+      during the year, with which he decorates his palace. See also
+      pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151, about sorcery
+      among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes of
+      the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of
+      Indian genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class
+      of ambitious men and women sufficient influence through
+      their acknowledged power of exorcism and necromancy to lead
+      a comfortable life at the expense of the credulous. Page
+      162: “Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an order of
+      priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It
+      is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe
+      that they can at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos,”
+      etc. Sometimes one family constitutes the class. See note 65;
+      Andree, p. 69.
+
+      [84] Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches
+      were priestesses, physicians, fabulous _night_-wives, never
+      as yet persecuted. Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into
+      werewolves, and lose nothing in popular estimation. The abuse
+      of a spell was punished. A wise woman, healing sickness and
+      charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch only when with
+      her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil’s
+      complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the
+      guilt of criminality fell upon all personal relations with him.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-2, p. 393: “Though the witch may be regarded as
+      all powerful, none but the poor and unfortunate are condemned.
+      Few others are even brought to trial—their prominence prevents
+      public accusation.” This again reminds us some of our customs;
+      namely, that of overlooking the transgressions of the rich and
+      powerful. See note 91, and for outlaws note 112.
+
+      [85] Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the
+      body, and more particularly the eyes, so that many shamans
+      (Siberia, America, etc.) become blind.
+
+Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition
+and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the outrages hope
+to escape punishment for their depredations, could they hope to plunder
+and steal with impunity.[86] So they prowled usually under the cloak
+of _night_ or of the dark of the forest,[87] howled and acted like
+the animals they represented, hid the animal skin or blanket, if they
+used one,[88] in the daytime where they thought no one could find
+it, whereas the animal skin which was worn for defence, was put on
+either by day or night,[89] and one story recounts the swallowing of
+a whole goat, the man bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did
+it.[90] Some of the transformed men claimed they could regain human
+form only by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters
+were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,[91]
+no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress, each
+maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices, just as did
+the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those of the American
+negro, who in church, when “shouting,” that is, when stirred up by
+religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy who happens to be in the
+church, of course with impunity; for he is supposed to be under some
+outside control, and when the spell has passed off, like some of the
+delusionists mentioned,[92] claims not to know what he (or generally
+she) has done. Similar also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of
+the fire-eaters, or any other sham.
+
+      [86] Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia
+      and Lithuania, according to two bishops, werewolves were in
+      the 16th century far more destructive than “true and natural
+      wolves.” They were asserted to have formed “an accursed
+      college” of those “desirous of innovations contrary to the
+      divine law.” Also see note 90.
+
+      [87] See ante p. 13, and notes 64, 65, 66, 69, 84, 102, 110.
+
+      [88] Note 22 close, and note 102.
+
+      [89] See ante p. 13.
+
+      [90] Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a
+      woman, whose husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his
+      house, got hold of him later in his man shape and killed him.
+      Feats similar to some performed by him are cited in Ethn. Rep.
+      1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the Pawnee swallowed
+      arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of apparently
+      killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zuñi.
+
+      [91] Grimm, Rechtsalterthümer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle
+      aus der ärmsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note 84).
+      Literary Digest, March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism
+      and Spirituality: “Many, very many, spiritualists seem to care
+      for communion with spirits only that they may more surely keep
+      physically well, and earn their bread and butter and clothing
+      the easier.” Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The absurdity of
+      the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for the
+      theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in
+      every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he
+      was certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not
+      being found in beast form was satisfactorily disposed of.
+
+      [92] Notes 57 and 67.
+
+The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was that most
+often assumed for example in Germanic lands.[93] The term _wolf_
+became synonymous with _robber_, and later (when the robber became an
+outlaw,[94]) with _outlaw_, the robber and outlaw alike being called
+wolf and not some other animal (i. e., only the wolf-man surviving to
+any extent) firstly, because the wolf was plentiful; and secondly,
+because as civilization advanced, there came a time when the wolf was
+practically the only one of the larger undomesticated animals that
+survived.[95] We can notice this in our own United States, for example
+in eastern Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes
+heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the pastures
+adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller animals, and
+dig up buried ones.[96] In Prussia also it is the wolf that survives
+to-day. American Indians, and other savages however do not restrict the
+transformations to the wolf,[97] because other wild animals, are, or
+were till recently, abundant amongst them. As civilization advances,
+one by one the animal myths disappear with the animals that gave rise
+to them (like that connected with the mastodon);[98] or else stories of
+such domestic animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.[99]
+When this stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully
+coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals were shorn
+of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as Aesop’s fables
+would arise.[100] This however was psychologically a long step in
+advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an earlier period.
+
+      [93] Notes 9 and 19.
+
+      [94] Note 112.
+
+      [95] See note 11, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: “The deer,
+      which is still common in the mountains, was the principal
+      dependence of the Cherokee hunter, and is consequently
+      prominent in myth, folklore, and ceremonial.” see note 42.
+      Page 264: “The largest gens (clan) in the tribe bears the name
+      of ‘wolf people.’” Page 420: The Cherokee have always been an
+      agricultural people, and their old country has a luxuriant
+      flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more
+      important place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe
+      than it does among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid
+      sage deserts of the West.
+
+      [96] The St. Louis “Westliche Post” for January 9, 1908,
+      furnishes another example: A tame wolf which for the past
+      two years has been a pet in a farmer’s family at Marshfield,
+      Wisconsin, escaped and attacked a chicken. The farmer’s
+      daughter called to the wolf, but it had become wild from the
+      taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and one
+      leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released
+      until she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar.
+
+      Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13,
+      1908, shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite
+      populous districts: “Wolf-Plage. Aus dem nördlichen Wisconsin
+      wird gemeldet, dass Wölfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind
+      denn je, und dass sie, durch Hunger getrieben, sich nahe
+      an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere und auch Menschen
+      angreifen. Zwei grosse Wölfe griffen in dieser Woche das Pferd
+      der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den Wald,
+      wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien
+      verscheuchten.”
+
+      [97] Note 11.
+
+      [98] Note 20.
+
+      [99] Note 109.
+
+      [100] Note 24.
+
+Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf
+superstition went through various stages of development. The motives
+for assuming wolf’s dress (or animal skins or robes), at first were
+purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to secure food by
+acting as decoys; then it was used for personal advantage or gain by
+foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for purposes of vengeance;[101]
+later from a desire for power over others; and finally men (the
+professional and the superstitious) began to concoct fabulous stories
+which were handed down as tradition or myth, according to the psychic
+level of the narrator and hearer.[102]
+
+      [101] Close of note 102.
+
+      [102] John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives
+      the origin and development of the werewolf as follows: From
+      the conception of wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to
+      the conception of corporeal werewolves.... Christianity did
+      not fail to impart a new and fearful character to the belief
+      in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as a species of
+      witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the
+      Devil. It was often necessary to kill one’s enemies, and at
+      that time some even killed for love of it (like the Berserker);
+      often a sort of homicidal madness, during which they would
+      array themselves in the skins of wolves or bears and sally
+      forth by _night_ to crack the backbones, smash the skulls and
+      sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary
+      travelers or loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an
+      invention of excited imagination. So people attributed a wolf’s
+      nature to the maniac or idiot with cannibal appetites, then
+      the myth-forming process assigned to the unfortunate wretch
+      a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. Worship
+      of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of
+      transformation of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The
+      storm-wind was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead
+      men’s souls or as the howling of wolf-like monsters (called by
+      Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness and cannibalism,
+      accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted as due
+      to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf
+      superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on
+      a wolf’s skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence
+      of the fact alleged of Berserkers haunting the woods by
+      _night_, clothed in hides of wolves or bears. A permanent cure
+      was effected by burning the werewolf’s sack, unless the Devil
+      furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, to become
+      incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the
+      outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is
+      the night-wind—a kind of leader of departed souls, howling
+      in the wintry blasts. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:—The
+      Berserkir of Iceland dressed in the skins of bears and wolves,
+      and further on: “Beastform is in mythology proper far oftener
+      assumed for malignant than for benignant ends.”
+
+The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful werewolf
+is the disguising as some common animal by members of savage races
+when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to escape detection by the
+enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land in search of food. As stated
+above,[103] later fabulous report would represent them as possessing
+in their disguise the attributes of the animal they impersonated,[104]
+and finally even of actually taking on animal form, either wholly or
+in part,[105] for longer or shorter periods of time. Some of the North
+American Indian transformation stories represent men as having only
+the head, hands and feet of a wolf.[106] The transformation into a
+werewolf in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made
+of wolf-skin.[107] This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic
+werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising
+the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent a person
+as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other article of
+apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.[108] The stories especially in Europe
+were of the _were-wolf_ rather than _were-bear_ or other animal,
+because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild animals.[109] It
+was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, which crystallized
+into the household werewolf or transformation tales.[110]
+
+      [103] Ante p. 22.
+
+      [104] Note 57.
+
+      [105] Close note 65.
+
+      [106] Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737.
+
+      [107] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our
+      oldest native notions make the assumption of wolf-shape
+      depend on arraying oneself in a wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as
+      transformation into a swan does on putting on the swan-shirt
+      or swan-ring. Page 1095: “The transformation need not be for a
+      magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured
+      into, a wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the
+      appearance, he acquires also the fierceness and howling of the
+      wolf; roaming the _woods_, he rends to pieces everything that
+      comes in his way.” This is like the belief of the American
+      Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued with the spirit
+      of the being which his mask represents (note 57); or that the
+      shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers
+      believe that he has become, the power he represents (note 67).
+
+      [108] Thus some American Indian stories represent men
+      transformed into wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or
+      piece of decayed wood when pursued. And mantles of invisibility
+      are mentioned in note 60.
+
+      [109] See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: “Unter den grossen
+      Raubtieren treten uns Bär und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen.
+      Der Wolf ist freilich überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der
+      Bär ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier,” etc. Encyc. Brit, under
+      Lycanthropy: “In England by the 17th century the werewolf had
+      long been extinct. Only small creatures, the cat, hare, weasel,
+      etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to transform himself
+      into.” See note 11.
+
+      [110] Amongst the American Indians, where various larger
+      animals were common, the designation “wolf-people” (see the
+      sign-language of the plains) was bestowed especially on the
+      Pawnees, because, as we have seen, they best imitated wolves.
+      In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the wolf alone was
+      universally common, the designation “wolf-people” (or if we
+      choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one
+      locality or people, but was bestowed in general on those who
+      assumed the manner of wolves, and because of their crimes
+      became outcasts like the wolves. They best imitate wolves, and
+      no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as wolves
+      (see note 102), and for this reason the _warg_ or outlaw came
+      to be called a _wolf_ (see close of note 112). Thus Golther,
+      Mythologie, p. 102, says: “Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder
+      getötet, so findet man einen wunden oder toten Menschen.” The
+      werewolves, as we have seen (ante p. 25), keep to the _woods_
+      and the _dark_, of course in many cases to avoid detection.
+      Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: “They say that
+      witches love the _night_ and lurk in _shadows and darkness_.
+      Witches are believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts.”
+      Sigmund and Sinfjötli dwelt as wolves in the _woods_. Also the
+      progenitor of the Mýramenn in Iceland at _night_ could leave
+      his house in wolf’s form. Another Norwegian account reports
+      how earlier many people were able to take on wolf’s form, then
+      dwelt in _grove_ and _woods_, where they tore people to pieces,
+      etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note 113.
+
+      [111] Names. See note 31. The development in the case of names
+      was perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note 57), and of
+      the werewolf superstition itself (ante p. 15, fol.); namely, a)
+      protection against outside agencies was sought; b) growth of
+      supernaturalism; c) element of humor.
+
+      a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: “Children are often
+      named _wolf_, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their
+      supernatural foes” (for similar assumption of characteristics
+      or the nature of animals for personal advantage see note 33).
+      See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1139: “The escort of
+      _wolf_ or _raven_ augured victory;” and in the note: “A name
+      of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O. H. G.
+      _Wolf-hraban_ (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly
+      promised victory. Old names are no product of pure chance.
+      Servian mothers name a son they have longed for, _Vuk_,
+      _Wolf_: then the witches can’t eat him up. O. H. G. _Wolfbizo_
+      was a lucky name, i. e., one bitten by the wolf and thereby
+      protected,” like our modern curing of like by like in medicine.
+
+      b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development
+      mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about
+      the conferring of secret names, since one could harm a person
+      by his name alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning
+      his name: “Wenn man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g’rennt.” Again
+      in XXI. 313 fol.: It was dangerous to name _bear_ or _wolf_
+      in regions infested by these animals, so people, out of fear,
+      avoided calling the name of such animals; called the bear for
+      example _honey-eater_, etc.
+
+      c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his
+      fear of them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and
+      humor enter in, and such names arise as are mentioned in note
+      53; and such stories as that of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a
+      wolf.
+
+      [112] Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws
+      who have fled to the woods. A notable instance is that of
+      Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the Völsungasaga. In regard to this W.
+      Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, Leipzig 1895,
+      p. 102, says: “Die Sage mag auf einem alten Misverständniss
+      beruhen. _Warg_, _Wolf_ hiess der Geächtete in der germanischen
+      Rechtssprache. _Warg_ wurde wörtlich als _Wolf_ verstanden,
+      und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte.” Golther again, p.
+      424:—“Gefesselt wurde Loki als Ächter in den Wald getrieben,
+      er wurde “_Warg_”, d. h. _Wolf_. _Wölfe_ heissen die friedlosen
+      Waldgänger.” As to _warg_, Schade in his altdeutsches
+      Wörterbuch defines it as a räuberisch würgendes wütendes Wesen,
+      Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise,
+      geächteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetäter; _warg_ ist
+      Benennung des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und
+      vertragbrüchiger Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden
+      durch Mord gebrochen und landflüchtig geworden, oder nun im
+      wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere haust und wie der Wolf
+      ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche auf Island
+      Bezeichnung einer gewalttätigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm,
+      Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American
+      Indians relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67
+      fol.: An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself
+      without the protection of his clan, is not defended in case he
+      is injured by another. When the sentence of outlawry has been
+      declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the duty of
+      the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the
+      council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty
+      of any member of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill
+      him like an animal. Page 60 fol.: “The chief of the Wolf gens
+      is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe” (see also Ethn.
+      Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the _woods_ and the
+      _dark_. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal
+      skins, and to terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves.
+      Since therefore so many outlaws lived, dressed (note 22 close)
+      and acted like wolves, to all intents and purposes became
+      wolves, _wolf_ and outlaw became synonymous terms.
+
+      [113] The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night
+      in Germany is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people
+      believed that werewolves, etc., entered houses at night. In
+      place of the earlier harmful werewolf is now the “harmful”
+      night air.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+  ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche.
+        Stuttgart, 1878.
+
+  BEHAGHEL, OTTO. Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902.
+
+  BRAUNE, WILHELM. Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907.
+
+  BROCKHAUS, F. A. Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol.
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901.
+
+  DILTHEY, WILHELM. Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906.
+
+  EDDA. Die lieder der älteren edda. Paderborn, 1876.
+
+  ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. New York, 1883, etc.
+
+  ERMAN, ADOLF. Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833.
+
+  FISKE, JOHN. Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892.
+
+  FREYTAG, GUSTAV. Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904.
+
+  GOLTHER, W. Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Rechtsaltertümer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Teutonic mythology. Translation by J. S. Stallybrass,
+        London, 1882.
+
+  GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD. Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892.
+
+  GRINNELL, G. B. Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893.
+
+  GRINNELL, G. B. Story of the Indian. New York, 1895.
+
+  HERTZ, W. Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862.
+
+  HIRT, H. Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol.
+
+  INDOGERMANISCHE FORSCHUNGEN. Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904, 1907.
+
+  KLUGE, F. Etymologisches wörterbuch der deutschen sprache.
+        Strassburg, 1905.
+
+  LEMCKE, K. Aesthetik in gemeinverständlichen vorträgen. Leipzig,
+        1890.
+
+  LEUBUSCHER, R. Über die wehrwölfe und thierverwandlungen im
+        mittelalter. Berlin, 1850.
+
+  LITERARY DIGEST. New York and London, March 9, 1907.
+
+  MEYERS. Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900.
+
+  PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900.
+
+  SCHADE, O. Altdeutsches wörterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol.
+
+  SCHRADER, O. Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde.
+        Strassburg, 1901.
+
+  VÖLSUNGASAGA. Ranisch, Berlin, 1891.
+
+  WESTLICHE POST. St. Louis.
+
+  WUNDT, W. Völkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905.
+
+  ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR DEUTSCHES ALTERTUM. Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904.
+
+  ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR DEUTSCHE PHILOLOGIE. Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.]
+
+
+  Abipones, _9, 66._
+
+  Abyssinia, _9._
+
+  Africa, 5, 23; _9, 47, 65._
+
+  Alligator, _9._
+
+  America, 5; _9, 85._
+
+  American Indians, 5, 14, 21, 23, 27; _9, 27, 66, 110._
+
+  Anglo-Saxons, _9._
+
+  Animals, _42._
+
+  Animal fable, _15._
+
+  Arabia, _9._
+
+  Arawaks, _9._
+
+  Arcadia, _9, 15._
+
+  Asia, 5; _9, 12, 16._
+
+  Assyrians, _15._
+
+
+  Bear, 5; _9, 15, 16, 38, 102, 109, 111._
+
+  Belgium, _12._
+
+  Benignant, _4, 38._
+
+  Berserkr, 1; _102._
+
+  Bird, 5.
+
+  Bison, _12, 27, 31, 32, 73, 74._
+
+  Bohemia, _9._
+
+  Borneo, _9._
+
+  Bretons, _9._
+
+  Bulgaria, _9._
+
+  Burchard von Worms, _9._
+
+  Burmah, _12._
+
+
+  Celebrations, _21._
+
+  Ceylon, _12._
+
+  Charms, 10, 16.
+
+  Clothing, 8, 9, 11, 16, 28.
+
+  Coyote, 13.
+
+
+  Dancing, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16; _32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 57._
+
+  Dante, _24._
+
+  Death, _22._
+
+  Decoy, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 28; _29, 30, 31._
+
+  Denmark, _9._
+
+  Dog, 5, 21, 27; _19, 64, 73, 74._
+
+  Dreams, 21; _67._
+
+
+  Edda, _15._
+
+  Enemy, 8, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29; _48, 60, 65, 102, 111._
+
+  English, _9, 109._
+
+  Eskimo, _30, 31, 67._
+
+  Europe, 5, 7; _9, 12, 16, 110._
+
+
+  Fenrisûlfr, _9, 51._
+
+  Finns, _5._
+
+  Fish, _5._
+
+  Fisherman, _29._
+
+  Food, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 28, 29; _27, 29._
+
+  Forest, 25; _22, 65, 102, 107, 110, 112._
+
+  Fox, 5, 12; _9, 15, 21._
+
+  French, _9, 12._
+
+
+  Germany, 2, 4, 5; _9, 22._
+
+  Greece, 1, 7; _9, 15, 22._
+
+  Greenland, _12, 69._
+
+
+  Harmful, 1, 11, 13; _42, 51._
+
+  Herds, _9, 12, 20._
+
+  Herodotus, 1; _15._
+
+  Hindoos, _9._
+
+  Homer, _24._
+
+  Hunter, 7, 8; _15, 31, 52, 53, 64, 95._
+
+  Hyena, 5, 23; _9._
+
+
+  Iceland, _9, 110._
+
+  India, 5; _9, 12._
+
+  Indogermanic, 7; _9, 20, 42._
+
+  Insanity, 21, 22, 24; _24, 73, 85, 102._
+
+  Iranians, _9._
+
+  Ireland, _9._
+
+  Italians, _9._
+
+
+  Jackal, _12._
+
+  Jaguar, _9._
+
+  Japan, _9._
+
+
+  Kadiak, _29._
+
+  Kelts, 7; _9._
+
+  Knut, _9._
+
+
+  Lapps, 5.
+
+  Leopard, 5; _9, 65._
+
+  Leubuscher, 6; _9, 20._
+
+  Lion, 5; _9, 45, 65._
+
+  Lithuanians, _9._
+
+  Loki, 14; _9, 112._
+
+  Lycanthropy, 2; _9, 19, 20, 22, 74, 102._
+
+  Lykaon, _9, 15._
+
+
+  Magic, 23, 24; _22, 37, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 84, 107._
+
+  Malignant, 24; _4, 84, 102, 109, 113._
+
+  Mask, 8, 11, 15; _29, 37, 42, 57, 64, 67, 107, 111._
+
+  Mastodon, _20._
+
+  Medicinemen (Shamans), 20; _52, 63, 66, 67, 74, 81, 83, 85, 90,
+    107._
+
+  Mexico, _12, 67._
+
+  Middle Ages, 22; _9, 74, 102._
+
+  Murder, 24; _20, 22, 52, 102, 112._
+
+  Myths, 7, 27; _24, 95, 102._
+
+
+  Names, _42, 53, 109, 111._
+
+  Netherlands, _9._
+
+  Neurians, 1; _15._
+
+  Night, 1, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25; _63, 65, 66, 69, 74, 84, 102, 110,
+    112, 113._
+
+  North America, _12._
+
+  Norway, _9._
+
+
+  Odin, _15._
+
+  Island Oesel, _9._
+
+  Otter, _29._
+
+  Outlaw, 24, 26; _84, 110, 112._
+
+  Owl, 5, 30; _64._
+
+
+  Pawnees, 12, 13, 23; _110._
+
+  Persia, _9._
+
+  Plants, _42, 95._
+
+  Poles, _9, 14._
+
+  Portuguese, _9._
+
+  Posen, _14._
+
+  Priests, _22, 67, 69, 83._
+
+  Professionals, 22, 23, 24, 25; _74, 81, 83, 86._
+
+  Provencal, _9._
+
+  Prussia, _14._
+
+
+  Reindeer, 5.
+
+  Religion, _22, 24, 57._
+
+  Revenge, 14, 17, 24, 28; _52, 69._
+
+  Robber, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28; _15, 20, 44, 53, 65,
+    112._
+
+  Romans, 7; _9, 27._
+
+  Russia, 2; _9, 12, 16._
+
+
+  Scandinavia, _9._
+
+  Scout, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 29; _47, 48, 60._
+
+  Scythians, _6._
+
+  Seal, _29, 31, 69._
+
+  Serpent, 5; _9._
+
+  Servia, _9._
+
+  Shepherds, _15, 20._
+
+  Siam, _12, 69._
+
+  Sinfjötli, _15, 64, 110._
+
+  Song, 9, 10, 15; _33, 64._
+
+  Skins (or dress) of animals, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22,
+    23, 25, 28, 29, 30; _21, 22, 31, 34, 52, 53, 57, 60, 63, 64,
+    65, 66, 67, 74, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112._
+
+  South America, 5; _12._
+
+  Speech (animals), 7.
+
+  Stories, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29; _9, 27, 60, 69, 102, 111._
+
+  Supernaturalism, 10, 17, 18; _57, 65, 102, 111._
+
+  Superstition, 1, 4, 5, 14, 23; _20, 64._
+
+  Sweden, _9._
+
+
+  Tiger, 5; _9, 45, 69, 90._
+
+  Totemism, 2; _47, 102._
+
+  Transformation, 5, 15, 21; _9, 11, 19, 22, 52, 64, 65, 66, 69,
+    107._
+
+  Traps, 8; _31._
+
+  Tschechs, _9._
+
+  Turkey, 5; _108._
+
+
+  Volhynia, 2; _9, 16._
+
+  Völsungasaga, _15, 112._
+
+
+  Wales, _9._
+
+  Warfare, 12, 13, 16; _60._
+
+  Weapons, 7, 8, 9.
+
+  Werewolf, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30; _9, 15, 20, 22, 45,
+    64, 84, 86, 91, 102, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113._
+
+  Wiener Hundesegen, _15._
+
+  Witches, 11, 19, 23; _65, 66, 67, 74, 83, 84, 91, 102, 109, 110,
+    111._
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s note
+
+
+Words in italics were surrounded with _underscores_, and small capitals
+changed to all capitals.
+
+Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were
+added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they
+were referred to in other notes. The notes were moved to directly after
+the paragraph with the corresponding anchor.
+
+“Völsungasaga” and “Sinfjötli” were in the original mostly written with
+a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader’s
+convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common
+spelling with ö.
+
+Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. In note
+12 “and” was changed to “und” (seltener in Frankreich und Belgien).
+
+Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and
+missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent
+spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir.
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+Caroline Taylor Stewart
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by 
+Caroline Taylor Stewart
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition
+
+Author: Caroline Taylor Stewart
+
+Release Date: November 8, 2013 [EBook #44134]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected.
+A more detailed transcriber's note can be found at the end of this text.
+
+
+
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.[1]
+
+      [1] NOTE.--After the author had written the following article,
+      she gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That
+      the origin and development of the use of masks as given in
+      the Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Ethnology,
+      1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note 32) is similar to the origin and
+      development of the werewolf superstition itself, as given in
+      the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The author
+      has italicized some words in the quotations.
+
+
+The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an animal's form,
+most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost worldwide superstition.
+Such a transformed person is the Germanic werewolf, or man-wolf; that
+is, a wolf which is really a human being.[2] So the werewolf was a
+man in wolf's form or wolf's dress,[2] seen mostly at night,[3] and
+believed generally to be harmful to man.[4]
+
+      [2] According to Mogk, in Paul's Grundriss der germanischen
+      Philologie III. 272 _wer_ means "man," found in Old Saxon,
+      Anglo-Saxon, Old High German, and werewolf a man in wolf's
+      form. K�gel connects _wer_ with Gothic _wasjan_ "kleiden."
+      "Darum bedeutet _werwolf_ eigentlich Wolfsgewand �lfshamr;
+      �hnlich bedeutet vielleicht _berserkr_ B�rengewand," therefore
+      werewolf according to K�gel means a wolf's dress. See also
+      Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde.
+
+      [3] Post p. 24.
+
+      [4] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:--Beastform in
+      mythology proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for
+      benignant ends. See note 52.
+
+The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily
+explained. Adolf Erman[5] explains the allusion of Herodotus[6] to the
+transformation of the Neurians (the people of the present Volhynia, in
+West Russia) into wolves as due merely to their appearance in winter,
+dressed in their furs. This explanation, however, would not fit similar
+superstitions in warm climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy
+to primitive Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the
+members of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.[7]
+Still another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the
+original werewolf.[8]
+
+      [5] Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232.
+
+      [6] Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and
+      Greeks settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once
+      a year every Neurian becomes a wolf for a few days, and then
+      resumes the human form. See concerning this also Hirt, Die
+      Indogermanen, I. 120.
+
+      [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol.
+
+      [8] Note 102, also see note 22.
+
+The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must be one
+which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition is found
+pretty much all over the earth,[9] especially to-day[10] however in
+Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in the lands where the
+wolf is most common.[11][12] According to Mogk[13] the superstition
+prevails to-day especially in the north and east of Germany.[14]
+
+      [9] See also Mogk in Paul's Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud.
+      Leubuscher, �ber die Wehrw�lfe und Thierverwandlungen im
+      Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850, mentions cases in ancient Arcadia,
+      in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the almost epidemic disease
+      in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf, Stuttgart,
+      1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia
+      (hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to
+      Encyc. Brit. below; on p. 133 he says: "Tierverwandlungen sind
+      allgemein menschlich, finden wir �berall. Die eigent�mliche
+      Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen aber finden wir vorzugsweise
+      bei einer bestimmten V�lkergruppe, den arischen St�mmen der
+      Griechen, R�mer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven; bei den s�dw�rts
+      gezogenen St�mmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns gleiche
+      Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten
+      treten die Werw�lfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen geh�rt die
+      �lteste historische Erw�hnung der Sage; viel �lter aber ist
+      der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische Werw�lfe". According to
+      Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, Stuttgart,
+      1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European
+      country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles,
+      Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants
+      of island Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal
+      peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in Asia, Africa, America; but not in
+      India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit. below), especially
+      though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands.
+
+      As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for
+      1880-81, p. 83, "From their close relations with wild animals
+      Indians' stories of transformations into beasts and beasts
+      into men are numerous and interesting.... In times of peace,
+      during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller told
+      of those days in the past when men and animals could transform
+      themselves at will and hold converse with one another."
+
+      Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell & Sons, 1883, II. 668
+      says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic
+      antiquities than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenris�lfr,
+      a son of Loki, makes his appearance in wolf's shape among the
+      gods.
+
+      Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy,
+      states:--A belief firmly rooted among all savages is that
+      men are in certain circumstances transformed temporarily or
+      permanently into wolves and other inferior animals. In Europe
+      the transformation into a wolf is by far more prominent and
+      frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans, French,
+      Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most
+      prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence.
+      Thus the were-_wolf_ prevails in Europe, also in England,
+      Wales, Ireland; and in S. France, the Netherlands, Germany,
+      Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, Poland, Russia, he can
+      hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note 12). In Denmark,
+      Sweden, Norway and Iceland the _bear_ competes with the wolf
+      for pre-eminence. In Persia the _bear_ is supreme; in Japan the
+      _fox_; in India the _serpent_ vies with the _tiger_ (contrary
+      to Mogk in Paul's Grd., III. 272, who says:--"Nur Griechen,
+      R�mer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter den indogermanischen
+      V�lkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und Iraniern ist er
+      unbekannt." Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in Abyssinia
+      and Borneo the _hyena_ with the _lion_; in E. Africa the _lion_
+      with the _alligator_; in W. Africa the _leopard_ is perhaps
+      most frequently the form assumed by man; among the Abipones the
+      _tiger_, among the Arawaks the _jaguar_, etc.
+
+      In Brockhaus' Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the
+      werewolf belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and
+      Romanic peoples; found to-day especially in Volhynia and White
+      Russia.
+
+      Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:--Bei den Angelsachsen l�sst sich der
+      Werwolf im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern,
+      ihre Herden vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das �lteste
+      Zeugnis auf deutschem Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v.
+      Worms (11 century).
+
+      [10] See note 9.
+
+      [11] Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:--There can nowhere be a living
+      belief in contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which
+      has ceased to exist in the particular locality. Belief in
+      metamorphosis into the animal most prominent in any locality
+      itself acquires a special prominence. (See note 12.) In none
+      of these cases however is the power of transformation limited
+      exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal.
+
+      [12] Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under _Wolf_:--The wolf is
+      found in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America
+      from Greenland to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in
+      Ceylon, Burmah or Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in
+      the two latter jackals instead.
+
+      Meyer's Kleines konversations-lexikon:--Der wolf "ist h�ufig
+      in Ost- und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika,
+      seltener in Frankreich und Belgien, den Herden gef�hrlich,
+      besonders in Russland." Encyc. Brit., XXIV under _Wolf_:--In
+      northern countries the wolf is generally larger and more
+      powerful than in the southern portion of its range. Its habits
+      are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been known
+      to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of
+      his flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance.
+      They usually assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and
+      by their combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower
+      and kill even such great animals as the American bison.
+      Children and even grown people are not infrequently attacked by
+      them when pressed for hunger. The ferocity of the wolf in the
+      wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed, they can rarely be
+      trusted by strangers.
+
+      [13] Paul, Grundriss, III. 272.
+
+      [14] Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p.
+      275 fol., speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: "Noch lebte
+      das Landvolk in ohnm�chtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der W�lfe,
+      wenig D�rfer, welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere
+      decimirt wurden," and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:--"Als 1815
+      die gegenw�rtige Provinz Posen an Preussen zur�ckfiel, waren
+      auch dort die W�lfe eine Landplage. Nach Angaben der Posener
+      Provinzialbl�tter wurden im Regierungsbezirk Posen vom 1. Sept.
+      1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 W�lfe erlegt, noch im Jahre 1819
+      im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von W�lfen
+      gefressen."
+
+The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.[15] The
+point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living human
+being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the wolf was
+common[16] into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa, where these animals
+are common; into a tiger or serpent in India;[17] in other localities
+into other animals characteristic of the region.[18] Among Lapps
+and Finns occur transformations into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish
+or birds; amongst many North Asiatic peoples, as also some American
+Indians, into the bear; amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf,
+turkey or owl; in South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar,
+also into a fish, or serpent. Most universal though it seems was the
+transformation into wolves or dogs.[19]
+
+      [15] Thus in note 6 was mentioned Herodotus' (484-425 B.�C.)
+      statement about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend,
+      according to Hertz, is that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos,
+      the first king of ancient Arcadia. These Arcadians lived as
+      huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert (Andree, p. 65;
+      and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed amongst
+      the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf
+      myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B.�C). In the Norse "Edda"
+      we find Odin's wolves, also Sk�ll, Hati and Fenrir. In the
+      V�lsunga Saga, Sigmund and Sinfj�tli become wolves. For other
+      reflections of the fear in which wolves were held, see the
+      10th century ms. of the "Wiener Hundesegen" against male and
+      female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches Lesebuch, 6. aufl.
+      1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,--Geschichte der deutschen sprache
+      s. 233:--"Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte
+      raubthier des waldes dar, und lehrt die n�he des wolfs und
+      fuchses."
+
+      C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:--"In die
+      �ltesten Zeiten hinauf reicht auch bei J�gerv�lkern die
+      Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil die Eigent�mlichkeiten der
+      Tiere erkl�rend, ihr Gebahren erz�hlend. Die furchtbaren und
+      die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo die Menschen
+      st�dtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie einsamer
+      mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine h�here Bedeutung. So wird
+      dem W�ldler B�r und Wolf zum ebenb�rtigen R�uber und K�mpfer,
+      menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht,
+      der Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst."
+
+      [16] Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to
+      Andree, p. 65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it
+      is to-day in Russia. Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: "Der
+      Wolf ist �berall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der B�r ist aber
+      ganz sicher ein Waldtier."
+
+      [17] Note 9.
+
+      [18] Cf. note 9, Encyc. Brit.
+
+      [19] Leubuscher, p. 1:--Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in
+      Hunde und W�lfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den
+      namen Lykanthropie.
+
+As the superstition is so widespread--Germany, Eastern Europe, Africa,
+Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time, when all these
+peoples were in communication with each other[20] or else, in accord
+with another view of modern science, it arose independently in various
+continents in process of the natural psychical development of the human
+race under similar conditions.
+
+      [20] Or as Mogk in Paul's Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for
+      example amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still
+      formed a whole, as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of
+      herds was especially feared. Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: "Die
+      meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die im Freien lebten,
+      mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte ihrer
+      Einbildungskraft am �ftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit
+      zu k�mpfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in
+      Einzelnen als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich
+      von W�lfen besonders beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich
+      manche Mordthat nur von W�lfen begangen." Ethn. Rep. 1888-89,
+      p. 282:--"The Dakotas have long believed in the appearance
+      from time to time of a monstrous animal that swallows human
+      beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the bones of
+      mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians."
+
+The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom of
+primitive man's of putting on a wolf's or other animal's skin[21]
+or dress, or a robe.[22] Thus Leubuscher,[23] says: "Es ist der
+Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten
+hervorgewachsen."[24][25] Likely also the notion of attributing speech
+to animals originated from such disguising or dressing of men as
+animals. In the following we shall examine into primitive man's reasons
+for putting on such a skin or robe.
+
+      [21] Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:--In celebrations it is
+      possible that the foxskin so universally worn by the animistic
+      personifications is a survival comparable with the skin of the
+      animal in which formerly the whole body was clothed.
+
+      [22] Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: "In der
+      �ltesten Naturreligion ist die Gottheit des Todes und der
+      winterlichen Erde als Wolf gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl
+      in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten nach dem Volksglauben
+      die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu verwandeln. Der
+      Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum raschen
+      Zur�cklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders
+      geeignet. Darum nahmen die G�tter und die zauberbegabten
+      Menschen zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von
+      Natur gef�hrlich und wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und
+      beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang nach Mord und Zerst�rung die
+      Hauptsache. Die Urspr�nge des Werwolfglaubens waren also 1.
+      religi�se Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung (der friedlose
+      M�rder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die
+      Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie." Page 51. "Die Verwandlung
+      in W�lfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden." Page 57:
+      "Dass die von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen
+      Waldfl�chtigen sich in Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend."
+
+      [23] Page 46. See also note 9.
+
+      [24] Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p.
+      153 fol.;--"Ist so die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und
+      G�tterglauben, zun�chst gebunden an das Bed�rfnis des Lebens,
+      so sondert sie sich doch allm�hlich im Verlauf der Kultur von
+      den religi�sen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite Welt
+      zu einer unabh�ngigen Bedeutsamkeit"--like Homer, Dante, etc.
+      See note 20, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:--"Insane
+      delusions must reflect the usages and beliefs of
+      contemporaneous society."
+
+      [25] Notes 20, 21 and 27.
+
+Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had to conquer
+them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in Europe arose
+probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic peoples were
+still in contact with each other, if not in the original Indo-Germanic
+home, for they all have the superstition (unless, as above, we prefer
+to regard the belief as arising in various localities in process of
+psychical development under similar conditions; namely, when people
+still lived principally by the chase.[26]) Probably the primitive
+Indo-European man before and at the time of the origin of the werewolf
+superstition, was almost helpless in the presence of inexorable nature.
+This was before he used metal for weapons. The great business of life
+was to secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots,
+berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.[27]
+Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any
+size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet
+primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no longer
+crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but began to watch
+and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what certain animals would
+do under certain circumstances, to learn what would frighten them away
+or what would lure them on. So at least the large animals were to early
+man a constant cause of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary
+to have their flesh for food and their skins for clothing.[28]
+
+      [26] See note 15.
+
+      [27] Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:--Traces of the
+      fear in which buffalo "were held may still be discovered in the
+      traditional stories of certain tribes, which set forth how, in
+      those days," [i.�e. in the stone age] "before men were provided
+      with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill, and eat the
+      people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo
+      were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly
+      have arisen save as the result of actual experience of their
+      power to inflict injury and death." Pliny informs us how the
+      Romans kept the wolf out of their fields, see Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians lived on the steppes,
+      in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains, the animals
+      were their whole study. They moved with the animals, followed
+      them for food.
+
+      [28] Note 27.
+
+Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for trapping
+them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of decoys to lure
+animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits, others more easily
+by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,[29] and similarly, another
+form of the original decoy was no doubt simply the stuffed skin of a
+member of the species, whether animal or bird, say for example a wild
+duck.[30] Of course the hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself
+putting on the animal skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an
+individual dressed for example in a wolf's skin could approach near
+enough to a solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other
+weapon, without exciting the wolf's suspicion of the nearness of a
+dangerous foe.[31] So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used
+by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure
+food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise, whole
+or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments
+seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions and cries of
+animals,[32] at first to lure them, when acting as a decoy. With growth
+of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and an additional reason for
+acquiring dance and song was to secure charms against bodily ills,[33]
+and finally enlivenment.[34] In both dance and song, when used for a
+serious purpose, the performers imagined themselves to be the animals
+they were imitating,[35] and in the dance they wore the skins of the
+animals represented.[36]
+
+      [29] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:--It seems that masks
+      were occasionally used as decoys.... Next to the otter the
+      most valuable animal in the estimation of the Kadiak men, is
+      the species of seal or sea-dog called by the Russians nerpa.
+      The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it toward the
+      shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body among
+      the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque
+      resembling the head of a seal and makes a noise like that
+      animal. The unsuspicious seal, imagining that he is about to
+      meet a partner of his own species, hastens to the spot and is
+      instantly killed. Compare note 57.
+
+      [30] Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:--Bering Strait Eskimo stuff
+      rudely the skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon
+      a stick which holds the head outstretched, then imitate the
+      call of the bird, which is trapped in the net attached to the
+      decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft snow into the form
+      of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around the neck
+      for plumage. The call then brought the real birds.
+
+      [31] Thus G.�B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his
+      description of the primitive Indians' method of trapping
+      buffalo, says: "Some men went forth naked, others carried a
+      dress made of the entire skin of a buffalo, the head and horns
+      arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of the skin hung
+      down over the wearer's back," etc. This "caller" went near to a
+      herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into
+      the trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often
+      proved fatal to the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85,
+      p. 484, about Central Eskimo seal hunting, is stated: If a
+      hunter is close to an animal he imitates its movements. Some
+      utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. "The sealskin
+      clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is
+      difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance."
+      And on p. 508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central
+      Eskimos carry guns on their shoulders, two men going together,
+      so as to resemble the antlers of a deer. The men imitate their
+      grunting. If they lie on the ground at some distance they
+      greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to Ross the
+      "inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer,
+      the foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer's head
+      upon his own." Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:--"The old manner of
+      hunting antelope and deer: the hunter would disguise himself by
+      covering his head with the head and skin of an antelope, and so
+      be enabled to approach the game near enough to use his bow and
+      arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask themselves
+      with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo." Ethn. Rep.
+      1901-02, p. 439;--Two of the party of hunters (Zu�i) out after
+      deer "wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front
+      and back of the shirt being painted to represent as nearly
+      as possible the body of the deer; the hands and the arms to
+      the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to represent the
+      deer's forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer's head over his
+      head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as
+      possible, even to the browsing, the game they would catch."
+
+      [32] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:--"Tradition says the Iroquois
+      derived the music and action of the Buffalo dance while on
+      an expedition against the Cherokee, from the bellowing and
+      the movements of a herd of buffalo which they heard for the
+      first time 'singing their favorite songs,' i.�e. bellowing and
+      snorting." Also note 33.
+
+      [33] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent
+      frostbite. The wolf's, deer's, fox's, opossum's feet it is held
+      never become frostbitten. After each verse of the song, the
+      singer imitates the cry and the action of the animal. The words
+      used are archaic in form and may be rendered "I become a real
+      wolf, etc." The song runs:
+
+      1. Ts�� wa� 'ya-ya� (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged
+      howl). The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his
+      feet.
+
+      2. Ts��-ka� wi-ye� (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh!
+      (imitating the call and jumping of a deer).
+
+      3. Ts��-tsu� 'la-ya� (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih!
+      (imitates barking and scratching of a fox).
+
+      4. Ts��-si�-kwa-ya� (four times), ki+(imitates cry of the
+      opossum when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal
+      does when feigning death).
+
+      [34] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance
+      performed by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep
+      up their spirits, in which each had his robe about him and
+      imitated the actions of the coyote, trotting, glancing around,
+      etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo dance, in which each
+      of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over his head,
+      the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging
+      down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of
+      the buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the
+      Omaha wolf dance, by the society of those who have supernatural
+      communication with wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and
+      dance in imitation of the actions of wolves. Similarly they
+      performed the grizzly bear dance, horse dance, etc.
+
+      [35] Notes 22, 34 and 37.
+
+      [36] See notes 34 and 37.
+
+Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed merely
+for decoys and sport (early dancing),[37] for peaceful purposes
+therefore, such people having whole or partial animal shape were not
+regarded as harmful to man,[38] just as wise women began to pass
+for witches only when with their art they did evil.[39] A similar
+development can be traced in the case of masks.[40] It was some time
+before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing animals that
+were dangerous to life, though these are the ones he first studied;[41]
+and we cannot presuppose that he disguised to represent them until he
+could cope with them, since the original purpose of the disguise was
+to secure food and clothing. Thus far then we see whole or partial
+disguise as animals used to secure _food_ and _clothing_ when acting as
+decoys to lure animals; and in _dancing_.[42]
+
+      [37] Similarly in the use of masks (see note 57). See Wundt,
+      V�lkerpsychologie II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this
+      Zeitschrift f�r deutsche Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss.
+      558-568:--"Der maskierte mensch ist der ekstatische Mensch.
+      Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in ekstase, f�hlt
+      er sich in fremde lebensvorg�nge ein, eignet er sich das wesen
+      an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert." F�r den
+      naiven menschen, wie f�r das kind, ist die maske durchaus
+      nicht blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der
+      augenblickstanz wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturv�lker verwenden
+      ihre masken nur bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubert�nzen, nicht
+      zu ihrer burlesken mimik; die t�nzer sind in Tiermasken, etc.
+
+      [38] Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed
+      into a bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent
+      (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1097:--In Norse accounts also we find
+      transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded as
+      rational and was esteemed.
+
+      [39] Note 84.
+
+      [40] See note 57a.
+
+      [41] Notes 27 and 42.
+
+      [42] The important consideration in the mind of primitive
+      man was whether certain things were harmful or useful. See
+      Behaghel, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 98:--"Die grossen Tiere
+      und die m�chtigen B�ume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die f�r
+      die _Ern�hrung_ and _Bekleidung_ des Menschen von Bedeutung
+      sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben _bedrohen_, sie haben viel
+      fr�her sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare
+      K�fer im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es,
+      dass die Namen der gr�sseren Tiere, der grossen Waldb�ume,
+      der wichtigsten Getreidearten allen germanischer St�mmen
+      gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie _Wolf_, _Kuh_, _Ochse_,
+      _Birke_, _Buche_, _Erle_, _Gerste_ mit den Benennungen anderer
+      indogermanischer V�lker �bereinstimmen." Doubtless animals
+      occupied their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt,
+      V�lkerpsychologie, II. 412 fol., about the _maskentanz_:
+      "�berhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit fr�her Ber�cksichtigung
+      erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive." See note 95.
+
+Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal's skin or dress when
+out as _forager_ (or robber) or _spy_, for the purpose of avoiding
+detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for example,[43] were called
+by neighboring tribes _wolves_, probably not out of contempt, since it
+may be doubted that an Indian feels contempt for a wolf any more than
+he does for a fox, a rabbit, or an elk, but because of their adroitness
+as scouts, warriors and stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think,
+because of their great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so
+as to escape detection by the enemy by day or night; or, according to
+some neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves[44], "have the
+endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can make
+long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their way, or on
+no food at all." ... And further, "The Pawnees, when they went on the
+warpath, were always prepared to simulate wolves.... Wolves on the
+prairie were too common[45] to excite remark, and at night they would
+approach close to the Indian camps." ... The Pawnee starting off on the
+warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later times a
+white blanket or a white sheet; and, at _night_, wrapping himself in
+this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he walked or trotted
+here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed himself into a
+common object of the landscape. This disguise was employed by _day_ as
+well, for reconnoissance.... While the party remained hidden in some
+ravine or hollow, one Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to
+the top of the hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches
+looking all over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him,
+would take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the
+Pawnees could imitate wolves best. "An Indian going into an enemy's
+country is often called a wolf,[46] and the sign for a scout is made up
+of the signs _wolf_ and _look_."[47] Should any scout detect danger, as
+at _night_ when on duty near an encampment, he must give the cry of the
+coyote.[48]
+
+      [43] G.�B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N.�Y.,
+      Scribners, 1893, p. 245, fol.
+
+      [44] Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein
+      sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. _hirpus_ bedeutet _wolf_ in
+      sabinischer oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf
+      f�hrer geworden war, oder nach andrer sage sie w�lfe gejagt
+      hatten und gleich w�lfen raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen
+      ausdrucks friedlos waren.
+
+      [45] The werewolf story could arise only where the animal,
+      wolf, tiger or lion, etc., was common; and likewise the
+      werewolf tales gradually died out when the animals became rare
+      or extinct. See note 11.
+
+      [46] Grinnell, p. 245.
+
+      [47] The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild
+      beasts save their own totem-animals as _enemy-scouts_ (Encyc.
+      Brit. under Lycanthropy).
+
+      [48] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of
+      the indian, p. 208: The wolf was believed, in the animals'
+      council, to be able to give the Indian the power to creep right
+      into the midst of the enemy's camp without being seen.
+
+The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in animal form or
+dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal disguise began to
+act not only as decoys for animals dangerous to life, but also as
+scouts (robbers[49]--and later as possessors of supernatural power,
+when growth of culture brought with it growth of supernaturalism[50]);
+when people began to associate, for example, the wolf's form with a
+lurking enemy.[51]
+
+      [49] See note 53.
+
+      [50] See note 57-b.
+
+      [51] So originally the germanic god _Logi_ was not an evil
+      god. _Logi_ meant the natural force of fire; _Loki_ meant the
+      same, but the burly giant has been made a sly, seducing villain
+      (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of Loki, Fenris�lfr, appears
+      in wolf's shape among the gods. Perhaps association with the
+      wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of Logi
+      (Loki) from a good to an evil god.
+
+All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the defensive,
+like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion have sent out
+scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid detection, assumed the
+disguise of the animal most common to the special locality in question,
+just as to-day they are known to disguise in animal skins for purposes
+of plunder or revenge.[52][53]
+
+      [52] Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:--In modern savage life we
+      find beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in
+      beast form for the community; others are said to assume beast
+      form in order to avenge themselves justly on enemies; others
+      for love of bloodshed and cannibalism. See also note 58.
+
+      [53] No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won
+      considerable fame through their skill and bravery, as we should
+      judge from such proper names as _Rudolf_, which means really
+      _Ruhmwolf_, _Ruhm_ related to Gothic _hropeigs_ "victorious,"
+      Sanskrit _kir_ "to praise"; or _Adolf_ from _Adalolf_, which
+      means _Edelwolf_, originally, therefore, _Edelr�uber_, for
+      _wolf_ meant originally about the same as _robber_ (Kluge).
+      So _robber_ or _wolf_ was originally a highly respectable
+      appellation, at a time when men lived from robbery and the
+      chase, either as searobbers, or mountain robbers, etc. (about
+      this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen, 1905, p. 268
+      fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace (see
+      appellation "wolves" applied to Pawnees, p. 12.). Later we find
+      such names as _Wulfila_ "little wolf." Many Indian names are
+      those of animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear,
+      Conquering Bear, Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear
+      Rib, Smoking Bear, Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear,
+      Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe,
+      etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83, p. 169: The names of Indians very
+      often refer to some animal, predicating some attribute or
+      position of that animal. For discussion of names, see note 111.
+
+The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying principle is
+the same; namely, the transformation of a living human being into an
+animal. The origin of the belief in such a transformation, as stated
+above[54] was the simple putting on of an animal skin by early man. The
+object of putting on animal skins was,
+
+      [54] Ante p. 6.
+
+(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries of animals
+were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),[55] artificial decoys
+(like decoy ducks to-day)[56] and finally even masks were used.[57]
+
+      [55] See (3) below.
+
+      [56] See ante p. 8.
+
+      [57] See note 4 and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see
+      note 37):--The use of masks is worldwide. The origin and
+      development of the use of masks is very much the same as
+      the origin and development of the werewolf as given in the
+      preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both originally
+      useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into
+      instruments for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of
+      the mask is described in the above report as follows:
+
+      a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for
+      defense against physical violence, human or otherwise. It
+      was therefore first used merely as a mechanical resistance
+      to the opposing force; then secondly, still in the lowest
+      grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a
+      moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by
+      symbolizing superhuman agencies. Now individual variations
+      arose--devices for example derived or conventionalized from
+      some predatory, shrewd or mysterious animal.
+
+      b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and
+      the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part
+      of the religious paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of
+      the shamans. Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 395:--"When worn in any
+      ceremonial, ... the wearer is believed to become mysteriously
+      and unconsciously imbued with the spirit of the being which his
+      mask represents."
+
+      c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is
+      used for public amusements and games; by secret societies; as
+      protection against recognition on festive occasions, etc., like
+      the animal skins worn in dances.
+
+(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying animals,
+as in (1) above.
+
+(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals led to
+dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the faces and bodies
+of the participants were painted in imitation of the colors of birds
+and animals, the motions of animals imitated and animal disguises
+used.[58]
+
+      [58] Notes 32, 34, 33, ante p. 11.
+
+(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out foraging, as well
+as for warfare,[59][60] therefore for booty, and self-defense. Either
+they wore the entire skin, or probably later just a part of it as a
+fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as a charm by many of
+our colored people to-day.[61]
+
+      [59] See p. 13.
+
+      [60] Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:--Account of "a cloak or mantle
+      made from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic
+      paintings. It was made and used by the Apaches as a mantle
+      of invisibility, that is, a charmed covering for spies which
+      would enable them to pass with impunity through the country,
+      and even through the camp of their enemies. In this instance
+      the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn." The
+      Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were
+      the raincloud, serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of
+      the winds of the four cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p.
+      515:--Among the Hidatsa (Sioux) fetiches are especially the
+      skins of the wolf. "When they go to war, they always wear the
+      stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging down
+      the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the
+      warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf's head
+      hangs down upon his breast." Finally the magic robes or shirts
+      and girdles came to be a part of the regular paraphernalia of
+      the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the folklore of all
+      countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles.
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: "Some warriors had
+      medicine to change their shape as they pleased, so that they
+      could escape from their enemies." Page 501: Such stories might
+      be paralleled in any tribe.
+
+      [61] See further development in note 64.
+
+(5) For purposes of revenge,[62],[63] personal or other. For some other
+personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror in the opposing
+agent by hideousness.
+
+      [62] Note 52.
+
+      [63] As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure
+      brutality, we cite from Andree, p. 69:--People in the interior
+      of Africa who understand magic, transform themselves into lions
+      and go about killing people. See also below, note 65, where the
+      wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and sucks his blood, and
+      also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being one of
+      the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this
+      takes place at _night_, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian
+      starting out at night in his wolf's robe, and trotting up to
+      the hostile village to ascertain where his enemies' horses
+      are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell's
+      Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73).
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:--"To recover stolen or lost
+      property, especially ponies, is one of the principal tasks
+      imposed upon the so-called medicine-men" (shamans).
+
+(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing superhuman
+agencies.[64] So now would arise first a belief in superhuman power or
+attributes,[65] and then,
+
+      [64] As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was
+      put on not merely to make the wearer look just like a common
+      object of the landscape, but also because the wearer of the
+      disguise was supposed to take on the characteristics of the
+      animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.), as in the
+      case of masks (see note 57), and finally the wearer of such
+      a robe was believed to actually become transformed, like the
+      wearers of the werewolf shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves
+      were regarded as good hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep.
+      1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:--The wolf is revered by the
+      Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kan�ti; therefore we can
+      understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of
+      unerring huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those
+      who gained their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of
+      songs imitating the cries of certain animals was supposed to
+      confer a characteristic of the animal in question (see note 33).
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:--To gain animal characteristics a
+      wizard attached crow and owl plumes to his head that he might
+      have the eyes of the crow to see quickly the approach of man,
+      and the eyes of the owl to travel by night. He flapped his
+      arms, ... A Zu�i man hearing a cry like an owl, yet human,
+      looked about him and found a man whom he recognized as a Zu�i.
+      "Aha!" said he, "why have you those plumes upon your head? Aha,
+      you are a sorcerer," etc.
+
+      An example of the transforming power of the _robe_ we find in
+      Bulletin 26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington,
+      1901, Kathlamet texts, p. 156 fol.:--A woman ate of some of the
+      fat of a bitch, gave birth to five male dogs and one female
+      dog. When they grew older, she discovered one day that they
+      could transform themselves into real children. While they were
+      down at the beach, she entered the house, and now she saw the
+      dog _blankets_. She took them and burnt them. Then the children
+      retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfj�tli in the
+      V�lsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according
+      to which an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting
+      on an elkskin.
+
+      W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p.
+      100, writes, "Die F�higkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln
+      k�nnen, heisst 'sich zu h�uten, die H�lle zu wechseln'.
+      Das Umwerfen eines �usserlichen Gewandes kann den Wechsel
+      der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas Federgewand, die
+      Schwan- und Kr�henhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins Adlergewand.
+      Die Wolfsgew�nder (�lfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln
+      den Menschen zum Wolfe". See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel,
+      Zeitschrift f�r deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261.
+
+      [65] Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:--The owner of fine beads fears
+      that some witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with
+      disease.
+
+      As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman
+      powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances
+      given by Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met
+      in Africa a native said to have power to transform himself
+      into a lion. As lion he would stay for days and months in the
+      _forest_, in a sacred hut, to which however his wife carried
+      beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this lion
+      did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was
+      able to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine
+      brought him by his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:--In Banana,
+      Africa, the members of a certain family transform themselves in
+      the _dark_ of the _forest_ into leopards. They throw down those
+      they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them nor drink
+      their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note 83.)
+
+      The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American
+      Indians, who put on a wolf's mantle to steal, or to recover
+      stolen animals (Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the
+      story of robbery entitled Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.).
+      Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69, where the lowest caste
+      of laborers are believed to have power to transform themselves
+      into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They
+      employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause,
+      since it yields such returns. They are reported to act like
+      other folk by day, at _night_ though to assume the ways of
+      wolves, kill their enemies and suck their blood, roaming about
+      with other wolves till morning. They are supposed to gain their
+      supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs. They
+      are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since
+      their roaming and plundering is done in the _night_; in the
+      daytime they of course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p.
+      72).
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:--Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and
+      Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the
+      masses and the comparative learning of the few who practised
+      it. Among the American Indians the medicine-man and the more
+      expert sorceress have little learning above that of the body of
+      the tribe, and their success depends entirely upon their own
+      belief in being supernaturally gifted, and upon the faith and
+      fear of their followers.
+
+      The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly
+      animal shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:--"An
+      old blind wolf with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made
+      his head and hands look like those of a wolf. The rest of his
+      body was not changed. He was called a man-wolf."
+
+(7) Witchcraft.[66] It is very easy to see why it was usually the
+so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who claimed such
+transformation power, because they received remuneration from their
+patients.[67]
+
+      [66] Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:--Witches could and did assume
+      animal shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire
+      streaming from its mouth and nostrils. It was _night_. The man
+      shot at it, and the next morning tracked it by the marks of
+      blood from its wound. At a bridge a woman's tracks took the
+      place of the dog's, and finally he found the woman. She had
+      died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a hog, when
+      pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared
+      as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing.
+      So they, the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian
+      Indian one _evening_ pursued a white bull with fire streaming
+      from its nostrils. He had never seen a white bull on the
+      reservation before. "As it passed in front of a house it was
+      transformed into a man with a _large white blanket_, who was
+      ever afterward known as a witch."
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:--A man going out at _night_ noticed
+      a queer-looking burro. Upon his return home he was told that a
+      large cat had entered the house. He went out again, discovered
+      a man wrapped in a blanket, but not in the Zu�i fashion, his
+      head was sunk low in the blanket. He knew this creature to be a
+      wizard.
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:--That the medicine man (Shaman)
+      has the faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and
+      other animals at pleasure and then resuming the human form, is
+      as implicitly believed in by the American Indians as it was
+      by our own forefathers in Europe. And page 459: The Abipones
+      of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power to put on
+      the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed the
+      power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the
+      Shamans of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz,
+      p. 133 fol.:--"In der christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische
+      Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier entstand mit dem Hexenglauben
+      die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich mit Hilfe des Satans aus
+      reiner Mordlust zu W�lfen verwandeln. So wurde der Werwolf das
+      Bild des tierisch D�monischen in der Menschennatur."
+
+      [67] Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:--The medicine-men of the
+      Apache are paid at the time they are consulted, the priest
+      beforehand among the Eskimo. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: "The
+      magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount
+      of the patient's worldly wealth." Page 416:--Sioux sorcerers
+      prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep.
+      1901-2, p. 568:--"The shaman, like the theurgist is usually
+      paid after each visit with calico, cotton, or food, according
+      to the wealth of the family, since it is always understood
+      that these doctors expect proper compensation for their
+      services." Page 387:--"The Zu�i doctor is paid according to his
+      reputation." Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: "In early
+      days if a man remained sick for three or four weeks, all his
+      possessions went to pay doctors' fees."
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.--The American Indian's theory
+      of disease is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian,
+      the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman--all bodily disorders are
+      attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that is of animal
+      spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated.
+      Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was
+      language which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend.
+      Page 468:--The medicine-men are accused of administering
+      poisons to their enemies. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:--Sioux
+      sorcerers were thought to cause the death of those persons
+      who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p.
+      581:--"When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia
+      he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his
+      followers believe that he has become, the power he represents."
+      The Mexican priests masked and disguised, and dressed in the
+      skins of the women offered up in sacrifice.
+
+      So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:--The Indian doctor relied far more
+      on magic than on natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the
+      drum, songs, magic feasts and dances, and howling were his
+      ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 210
+      fol.:--They have "firm confidence in dreams." "Their belief in
+      a future life is in part founded on dreams," etc.
+
+(8) Finally dreams[68] and exaggerated reports gave rise to fabulous
+stories.[69]
+
+      [68] Note 67, close.
+
+      [69] An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain
+      occurs Andree, p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal
+      at one place, the latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming
+      human form, they attack their enemy in the _night_ at his
+      home. This is the transformation of an animal into a man, but
+      the inventor of the story was no doubt looking towards his
+      own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which
+      in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In
+      Siam stories are told of people who by magic formulae become
+      tigers and roam about at _night_ in search of booty. One of the
+      man-tigers was actually a priest.
+
+We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);[70] for an example under (4) we
+have cited the practices of American Indians.[71] It is probable that
+about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above), what is known as the
+real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied, rabid manwolf) began
+to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin was already a lurking thief
+or enemy, or a destroyer of human life. To advance from this stage
+to the werewolf frenzy, our primitive man must have seen about him
+some exhibition of such a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this
+frenzy particularly with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons,
+and the connecting link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as
+the transformation was usually into a wolf or dog,[72]) for persons
+bitten by it usually went mad too.[73] The ensuing frenzy, with the
+consternation it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds
+as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some no doubt
+actually had the malady; others honestly believed they had it and got
+into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked themselves up into a
+frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.[74] Later, in the Middle
+Ages, when the nature of the real disease came to be better understood,
+the werewolf superstition had become too firmly fixed to be easily
+uprooted.
+
+      [70] Ante pp. 7, 8, 9.
+
+      [71] Ante p. 12 fol.
+
+      [72] See notes 19 and 74.
+
+      [73] Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: "It is said that
+      wolves, which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes
+      went crazy, and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even
+      coming into camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons
+      bitten by a mad wolf generally went mad, too. They trembled and
+      their limbs jerked, they made their jaws work and foamed at the
+      mouth, often trying to bite other people. When any one acted in
+      this way, his relatives tied him hand and foot with ropes, and,
+      having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the green hide,
+      built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until
+      the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and
+      removed the buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure
+      for a mad wolf's bite."
+
+      [74] Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a
+      monomania themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this
+      widespread disease or delusion (of the first century till
+      late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.: "The sick" ones would
+      prowl about burial places _at night_, imagining themselves
+      to be _wolves_ or _dogs_, and go about barking and howling.
+      In the middle ages such people would even kill children and
+      grown people. When they came to themselves again, or were
+      cured, they claimed to know nothing of what had happened.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst the Shamans feats of
+      jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing the best
+      of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of
+      robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals,
+      painted with shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The
+      speaker terms himself a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power.
+
+We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.[75] As further
+examples of the development into fabulous story,[76] we may cite any of
+those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man is represented
+as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and tearing to pieces men
+and beasts, until he resumes his human form. Thus an early scout in
+animal garb would be obliged to live on food he found on his way, and
+later fabulous report would represent him as himself when in disguise
+possessing the attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to
+pieces man and beast. For such an account see Andree,[77] concerning
+what eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the
+hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed
+such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread abroad
+such a report as would enhance the influence of the hyena-men far and
+wide. Some savages, as in Africa,[78] came to regard any animal that
+robbed them of children, goats or other animals, as a witch in animal
+form;[79] just as the American Indians ascribe to evil spirits death,
+sickness and other misfortunes.
+
+      [75] Notes 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69.
+
+      [76] See (8) above.
+
+      [77] Page 71.
+
+      [78] Andree, p. 69.
+
+      [79] Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of
+      the origin of the wolf: "_The wolf_ was a poor woman, who had
+      so many children that she could not find enough for them to
+      eat. They became so gaunt and hungry that they were changed
+      into wolves, constantly roaming over the land seeking food."
+
+We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an animal robe
+would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;[80] how though, as
+soon as the element of magic enters in, he would try to keep up the
+illusion. At this stage, when the original defensive measure had become
+tainted with superstition, men would go about in the night time howling
+and holding their vile revels.[81] Andree,[82] narrates how a soldier
+in Northeast Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and
+came to the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician. No
+hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh wound. Soon
+he died, however the soldier did not survive him long. Doubtless one
+of the magician class was responsible for the death of the soldier,
+just as we to-day put to death the man who so violates our laws, as to
+become a menace to our society, or as formerly kings killed those who
+stood in their way; or as religious sects murder those who dissent
+from their faith. These magicians, supposed to be men who could assume
+animal form, as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly
+feared by other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and
+at _night_ come forth to plunder and kill.[83] It is to their interest
+to counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were
+put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.[84] Their frenzies
+were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in other cases
+they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent opportunities for
+personal gain or vengeance.[85]
+
+      [80] Ante p. 12 fol.
+
+      [81] Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine
+      the horrible howlings, and strange contortions that these
+      jugglers (shamans) or conjurers make of their bodies, when they
+      are disposing themselves to conjure.
+
+      [82] Page 71.
+
+      [83] Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician
+      (Abyssinia), who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate
+      animal-men the teeth of the persons whom they have killed
+      during the year, with which he decorates his palace. See also
+      pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151, about sorcery
+      among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes of
+      the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of
+      Indian genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class
+      of ambitious men and women sufficient influence through
+      their acknowledged power of exorcism and necromancy to lead
+      a comfortable life at the expense of the credulous. Page
+      162: "Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an order of
+      priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It
+      is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe
+      that they can at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos,"
+      etc. Sometimes one family constitutes the class. See note 65;
+      Andree, p. 69.
+
+      [84] Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches
+      were priestesses, physicians, fabulous _night_-wives, never
+      as yet persecuted. Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into
+      werewolves, and lose nothing in popular estimation. The abuse
+      of a spell was punished. A wise woman, healing sickness and
+      charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch only when with
+      her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil's
+      complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the
+      guilt of criminality fell upon all personal relations with him.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-2, p. 393: "Though the witch may be regarded as
+      all powerful, none but the poor and unfortunate are condemned.
+      Few others are even brought to trial--their prominence prevents
+      public accusation." This again reminds us some of our customs;
+      namely, that of overlooking the transgressions of the rich and
+      powerful. See note 91, and for outlaws note 112.
+
+      [85] Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the
+      body, and more particularly the eyes, so that many shamans
+      (Siberia, America, etc.) become blind.
+
+Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition
+and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the outrages hope
+to escape punishment for their depredations, could they hope to plunder
+and steal with impunity.[86] So they prowled usually under the cloak
+of _night_ or of the dark of the forest,[87] howled and acted like
+the animals they represented, hid the animal skin or blanket, if they
+used one,[88] in the daytime where they thought no one could find
+it, whereas the animal skin which was worn for defence, was put on
+either by day or night,[89] and one story recounts the swallowing of
+a whole goat, the man bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did
+it.[90] Some of the transformed men claimed they could regain human
+form only by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters
+were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,[91]
+no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress, each
+maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices, just as did
+the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those of the American
+negro, who in church, when "shouting," that is, when stirred up by
+religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy who happens to be in the
+church, of course with impunity; for he is supposed to be under some
+outside control, and when the spell has passed off, like some of the
+delusionists mentioned,[92] claims not to know what he (or generally
+she) has done. Similar also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of
+the fire-eaters, or any other sham.
+
+      [86] Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia
+      and Lithuania, according to two bishops, werewolves were in
+      the 16th century far more destructive than "true and natural
+      wolves." They were asserted to have formed "an accursed
+      college" of those "desirous of innovations contrary to the
+      divine law." Also see note 90.
+
+      [87] See ante p. 13, and notes 64, 65, 66, 69, 84, 102, 110.
+
+      [88] Note 22 close, and note 102.
+
+      [89] See ante p. 13.
+
+      [90] Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a
+      woman, whose husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his
+      house, got hold of him later in his man shape and killed him.
+      Feats similar to some performed by him are cited in Ethn. Rep.
+      1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the Pawnee swallowed
+      arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of apparently
+      killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zu�i.
+
+      [91] Grimm, Rechtsalterth�mer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle
+      aus der �rmsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note 84).
+      Literary Digest, March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism
+      and Spirituality: "Many, very many, spiritualists seem to care
+      for communion with spirits only that they may more surely keep
+      physically well, and earn their bread and butter and clothing
+      the easier." Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The absurdity of
+      the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for the
+      theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in
+      every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he
+      was certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not
+      being found in beast form was satisfactorily disposed of.
+
+      [92] Notes 57 and 67.
+
+The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was that most
+often assumed for example in Germanic lands.[93] The term _wolf_
+became synonymous with _robber_, and later (when the robber became an
+outlaw,[94]) with _outlaw_, the robber and outlaw alike being called
+wolf and not some other animal (i.�e., only the wolf-man surviving to
+any extent) firstly, because the wolf was plentiful; and secondly,
+because as civilization advanced, there came a time when the wolf was
+practically the only one of the larger undomesticated animals that
+survived.[95] We can notice this in our own United States, for example
+in eastern Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes
+heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the pastures
+adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller animals, and
+dig up buried ones.[96] In Prussia also it is the wolf that survives
+to-day. American Indians, and other savages however do not restrict the
+transformations to the wolf,[97] because other wild animals, are, or
+were till recently, abundant amongst them. As civilization advances,
+one by one the animal myths disappear with the animals that gave rise
+to them (like that connected with the mastodon);[98] or else stories of
+such domestic animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.[99]
+When this stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully
+coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals were shorn
+of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as Aesop's fables
+would arise.[100] This however was psychologically a long step in
+advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an earlier period.
+
+      [93] Notes 9 and 19.
+
+      [94] Note 112.
+
+      [95] See note 11, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: "The deer,
+      which is still common in the mountains, was the principal
+      dependence of the Cherokee hunter, and is consequently
+      prominent in myth, folklore, and ceremonial." see note 42.
+      Page 264: "The largest gens (clan) in the tribe bears the name
+      of 'wolf people.'" Page 420: The Cherokee have always been an
+      agricultural people, and their old country has a luxuriant
+      flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more
+      important place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe
+      than it does among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid
+      sage deserts of the West.
+
+      [96] The St. Louis "Westliche Post" for January 9, 1908,
+      furnishes another example: A tame wolf which for the past
+      two years has been a pet in a farmer's family at Marshfield,
+      Wisconsin, escaped and attacked a chicken. The farmer's
+      daughter called to the wolf, but it had become wild from the
+      taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and one
+      leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released
+      until she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar.
+
+      Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13,
+      1908, shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite
+      populous districts: "Wolf-Plage. Aus dem n�rdlichen Wisconsin
+      wird gemeldet, dass W�lfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind
+      denn je, und dass sie, durch Hunger getrieben, sich nahe
+      an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere und auch Menschen
+      angreifen. Zwei grosse W�lfe griffen in dieser Woche das Pferd
+      der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den Wald,
+      wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien
+      verscheuchten."
+
+      [97] Note 11.
+
+      [98] Note 20.
+
+      [99] Note 109.
+
+      [100] Note 24.
+
+Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf
+superstition went through various stages of development. The motives
+for assuming wolf's dress (or animal skins or robes), at first were
+purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to secure food by
+acting as decoys; then it was used for personal advantage or gain by
+foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for purposes of vengeance;[101]
+later from a desire for power over others; and finally men (the
+professional and the superstitious) began to concoct fabulous stories
+which were handed down as tradition or myth, according to the psychic
+level of the narrator and hearer.[102]
+
+      [101] Close of note 102.
+
+      [102] John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives
+      the origin and development of the werewolf as follows: From
+      the conception of wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to
+      the conception of corporeal werewolves.... Christianity did
+      not fail to impart a new and fearful character to the belief
+      in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as a species of
+      witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the
+      Devil. It was often necessary to kill one's enemies, and at
+      that time some even killed for love of it (like the Berserker);
+      often a sort of homicidal madness, during which they would
+      array themselves in the skins of wolves or bears and sally
+      forth by _night_ to crack the backbones, smash the skulls and
+      sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary
+      travelers or loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an
+      invention of excited imagination. So people attributed a wolf's
+      nature to the maniac or idiot with cannibal appetites, then
+      the myth-forming process assigned to the unfortunate wretch
+      a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. Worship
+      of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of
+      transformation of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The
+      storm-wind was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead
+      men's souls or as the howling of wolf-like monsters (called by
+      Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness and cannibalism,
+      accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted as due
+      to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf
+      superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on
+      a wolf's skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence
+      of the fact alleged of Berserkers haunting the woods by
+      _night_, clothed in hides of wolves or bears. A permanent cure
+      was effected by burning the werewolf's sack, unless the Devil
+      furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, to become
+      incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the
+      outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is
+      the night-wind--a kind of leader of departed souls, howling
+      in the wintry blasts. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:--The
+      Berserkir of Iceland dressed in the skins of bears and wolves,
+      and further on: "Beastform is in mythology proper far oftener
+      assumed for malignant than for benignant ends."
+
+The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful werewolf
+is the disguising as some common animal by members of savage races
+when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to escape detection by the
+enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land in search of food. As stated
+above,[103] later fabulous report would represent them as possessing
+in their disguise the attributes of the animal they impersonated,[104]
+and finally even of actually taking on animal form, either wholly or
+in part,[105] for longer or shorter periods of time. Some of the North
+American Indian transformation stories represent men as having only
+the head, hands and feet of a wolf.[106] The transformation into a
+werewolf in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made
+of wolf-skin.[107] This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic
+werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising
+the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent a person
+as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other article of
+apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.[108] The stories especially in Europe
+were of the _were-wolf_ rather than _were-bear_ or other animal,
+because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild animals.[109] It
+was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, which crystallized
+into the household werewolf or transformation tales.[110]
+
+      [103] Ante p. 22.
+
+      [104] Note 57.
+
+      [105] Close note 65.
+
+      [106] Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737.
+
+      [107] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our
+      oldest native notions make the assumption of wolf-shape
+      depend on arraying oneself in a wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as
+      transformation into a swan does on putting on the swan-shirt
+      or swan-ring. Page 1095: "The transformation need not be for a
+      magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured
+      into, a wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the
+      appearance, he acquires also the fierceness and howling of the
+      wolf; roaming the _woods_, he rends to pieces everything that
+      comes in his way." This is like the belief of the American
+      Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued with the spirit
+      of the being which his mask represents (note 57); or that the
+      shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers
+      believe that he has become, the power he represents (note 67).
+
+      [108] Thus some American Indian stories represent men
+      transformed into wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or
+      piece of decayed wood when pursued. And mantles of invisibility
+      are mentioned in note 60.
+
+      [109] See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: "Unter den grossen
+      Raubtieren treten uns B�r und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen.
+      Der Wolf ist freilich �berall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der
+      B�r ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier," etc. Encyc. Brit, under
+      Lycanthropy: "In England by the 17th century the werewolf had
+      long been extinct. Only small creatures, the cat, hare, weasel,
+      etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to transform himself
+      into." See note 11.
+
+      [110] Amongst the American Indians, where various larger
+      animals were common, the designation "wolf-people" (see the
+      sign-language of the plains) was bestowed especially on the
+      Pawnees, because, as we have seen, they best imitated wolves.
+      In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the wolf alone was
+      universally common, the designation "wolf-people" (or if we
+      choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one
+      locality or people, but was bestowed in general on those who
+      assumed the manner of wolves, and because of their crimes
+      became outcasts like the wolves. They best imitate wolves, and
+      no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as wolves
+      (see note 102), and for this reason the _warg_ or outlaw came
+      to be called a _wolf_ (see close of note 112). Thus Golther,
+      Mythologie, p. 102, says: "Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder
+      get�tet, so findet man einen wunden oder toten Menschen." The
+      werewolves, as we have seen (ante p. 25), keep to the _woods_
+      and the _dark_, of course in many cases to avoid detection.
+      Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: "They say that
+      witches love the _night_ and lurk in _shadows and darkness_.
+      Witches are believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts."
+      Sigmund and Sinfj�tli dwelt as wolves in the _woods_. Also the
+      progenitor of the M�ramenn in Iceland at _night_ could leave
+      his house in wolf's form. Another Norwegian account reports
+      how earlier many people were able to take on wolf's form, then
+      dwelt in _grove_ and _woods_, where they tore people to pieces,
+      etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note 113.
+
+      [111] Names. See note 31. The development in the case of names
+      was perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note 57), and of
+      the werewolf superstition itself (ante p. 15, fol.); namely, a)
+      protection against outside agencies was sought; b) growth of
+      supernaturalism; c) element of humor.
+
+      a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: "Children are often
+      named _wolf_, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their
+      supernatural foes" (for similar assumption of characteristics
+      or the nature of animals for personal advantage see note 33).
+      See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1139: "The escort of
+      _wolf_ or _raven_ augured victory;" and in the note: "A name
+      of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O.�H.�G.
+      _Wolf-hraban_ (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly
+      promised victory. Old names are no product of pure chance.
+      Servian mothers name a son they have longed for, _Vuk_,
+      _Wolf_: then the witches can't eat him up. O.�H.�G. _Wolfbizo_
+      was a lucky name, i.�e., one bitten by the wolf and thereby
+      protected," like our modern curing of like by like in medicine.
+
+      b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development
+      mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about
+      the conferring of secret names, since one could harm a person
+      by his name alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning
+      his name: "Wenn man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g'rennt." Again
+      in XXI. 313 fol.: It was dangerous to name _bear_ or _wolf_
+      in regions infested by these animals, so people, out of fear,
+      avoided calling the name of such animals; called the bear for
+      example _honey-eater_, etc.
+
+      c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his
+      fear of them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and
+      humor enter in, and such names arise as are mentioned in note
+      53; and such stories as that of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a
+      wolf.
+
+      [112] Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws
+      who have fled to the woods. A notable instance is that of
+      Sigmund and Sinfj�tli in the V�lsungasaga. In regard to this W.
+      Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, Leipzig 1895,
+      p. 102, says: "Die Sage mag auf einem alten Misverst�ndniss
+      beruhen. _Warg_, _Wolf_ hiess der Ge�chtete in der germanischen
+      Rechtssprache. _Warg_ wurde w�rtlich als _Wolf_ verstanden,
+      und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte." Golther again, p.
+      424:--"Gefesselt wurde Loki als �chter in den Wald getrieben,
+      er wurde "_Warg_", d. h. _Wolf_. _W�lfe_ heissen die friedlosen
+      Waldg�nger." As to _warg_, Schade in his altdeutsches
+      W�rterbuch defines it as a r�uberisch w�rgendes w�tendes Wesen,
+      Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise,
+      ge�chteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Misset�ter; _warg_ ist
+      Benennung des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und
+      vertragbr�chiger Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden
+      durch Mord gebrochen und landfl�chtig geworden, oder nun im
+      wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere haust und wie der Wolf
+      ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche auf Island
+      Bezeichnung einer gewaltt�tigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm,
+      Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American
+      Indians relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67
+      fol.: An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself
+      without the protection of his clan, is not defended in case he
+      is injured by another. When the sentence of outlawry has been
+      declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the duty of
+      the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the
+      council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty
+      of any member of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill
+      him like an animal. Page 60 fol.: "The chief of the Wolf gens
+      is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe" (see also Ethn.
+      Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the _woods_ and the
+      _dark_. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal
+      skins, and to terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves.
+      Since therefore so many outlaws lived, dressed (note 22 close)
+      and acted like wolves, to all intents and purposes became
+      wolves, _wolf_ and outlaw became synonymous terms.
+
+      [113] The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night
+      in Germany is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people
+      believed that werewolves, etc., entered houses at night. In
+      place of the earlier harmful werewolf is now the "harmful"
+      night air.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+  ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche.
+        Stuttgart, 1878.
+
+  BEHAGHEL, OTTO. Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902.
+
+  BRAUNE, WILHELM. Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907.
+
+  BROCKHAUS, F. A. Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol.
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901.
+
+  DILTHEY, WILHELM. Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906.
+
+  EDDA. Die lieder der �lteren edda. Paderborn, 1876.
+
+  ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. New York, 1883, etc.
+
+  ERMAN, ADOLF. Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833.
+
+  FISKE, JOHN. Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892.
+
+  FREYTAG, GUSTAV. Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904.
+
+  GOLTHER, W. Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Rechtsaltert�mer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Teutonic mythology. Translation by J.�S. Stallybrass,
+        London, 1882.
+
+  GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD. Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892.
+
+  GRINNELL, G. B. Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893.
+
+  GRINNELL, G. B. Story of the Indian. New York, 1895.
+
+  HERTZ, W. Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862.
+
+  HIRT, H. Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol.
+
+  INDOGERMANISCHE FORSCHUNGEN. Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904, 1907.
+
+  KLUGE, F. Etymologisches w�rterbuch der deutschen sprache.
+        Strassburg, 1905.
+
+  LEMCKE, K. Aesthetik in gemeinverst�ndlichen vortr�gen. Leipzig,
+        1890.
+
+  LEUBUSCHER, R. �ber die wehrw�lfe und thierverwandlungen im
+        mittelalter. Berlin, 1850.
+
+  LITERARY DIGEST. New York and London, March 9, 1907.
+
+  MEYERS. Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900.
+
+  PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900.
+
+  SCHADE, O. Altdeutsches w�rterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol.
+
+  SCHRADER, O. Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde.
+        Strassburg, 1901.
+
+  V�LSUNGASAGA. Ranisch, Berlin, 1891.
+
+  WESTLICHE POST. St. Louis.
+
+  WUNDT, W. V�lkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905.
+
+  ZEITSCHRIFT F�R DEUTSCHES ALTERTUM. Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904.
+
+  ZEITSCHRIFT F�R DEUTSCHE PHILOLOGIE. Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.]
+
+
+  Abipones, _9, 66._
+
+  Abyssinia, _9._
+
+  Africa, 5, 23; _9, 47, 65._
+
+  Alligator, _9._
+
+  America, 5; _9, 85._
+
+  American Indians, 5, 14, 21, 23, 27; _9, 27, 66, 110._
+
+  Anglo-Saxons, _9._
+
+  Animals, _42._
+
+  Animal fable, _15._
+
+  Arabia, _9._
+
+  Arawaks, _9._
+
+  Arcadia, _9, 15._
+
+  Asia, 5; _9, 12, 16._
+
+  Assyrians, _15._
+
+
+  Bear, 5; _9, 15, 16, 38, 102, 109, 111._
+
+  Belgium, _12._
+
+  Benignant, _4, 38._
+
+  Berserkr, 1; _102._
+
+  Bird, 5.
+
+  Bison, _12, 27, 31, 32, 73, 74._
+
+  Bohemia, _9._
+
+  Borneo, _9._
+
+  Bretons, _9._
+
+  Bulgaria, _9._
+
+  Burchard von Worms, _9._
+
+  Burmah, _12._
+
+
+  Celebrations, _21._
+
+  Ceylon, _12._
+
+  Charms, 10, 16.
+
+  Clothing, 8, 9, 11, 16, 28.
+
+  Coyote, 13.
+
+
+  Dancing, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16; _32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 57._
+
+  Dante, _24._
+
+  Death, _22._
+
+  Decoy, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 28; _29, 30, 31._
+
+  Denmark, _9._
+
+  Dog, 5, 21, 27; _19, 64, 73, 74._
+
+  Dreams, 21; _67._
+
+
+  Edda, _15._
+
+  Enemy, 8, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29; _48, 60, 65, 102, 111._
+
+  English, _9, 109._
+
+  Eskimo, _30, 31, 67._
+
+  Europe, 5, 7; _9, 12, 16, 110._
+
+
+  Fenris�lfr, _9, 51._
+
+  Finns, _5._
+
+  Fish, _5._
+
+  Fisherman, _29._
+
+  Food, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 28, 29; _27, 29._
+
+  Forest, 25; _22, 65, 102, 107, 110, 112._
+
+  Fox, 5, 12; _9, 15, 21._
+
+  French, _9, 12._
+
+
+  Germany, 2, 4, 5; _9, 22._
+
+  Greece, 1, 7; _9, 15, 22._
+
+  Greenland, _12, 69._
+
+
+  Harmful, 1, 11, 13; _42, 51._
+
+  Herds, _9, 12, 20._
+
+  Herodotus, 1; _15._
+
+  Hindoos, _9._
+
+  Homer, _24._
+
+  Hunter, 7, 8; _15, 31, 52, 53, 64, 95._
+
+  Hyena, 5, 23; _9._
+
+
+  Iceland, _9, 110._
+
+  India, 5; _9, 12._
+
+  Indogermanic, 7; _9, 20, 42._
+
+  Insanity, 21, 22, 24; _24, 73, 85, 102._
+
+  Iranians, _9._
+
+  Ireland, _9._
+
+  Italians, _9._
+
+
+  Jackal, _12._
+
+  Jaguar, _9._
+
+  Japan, _9._
+
+
+  Kadiak, _29._
+
+  Kelts, 7; _9._
+
+  Knut, _9._
+
+
+  Lapps, 5.
+
+  Leopard, 5; _9, 65._
+
+  Leubuscher, 6; _9, 20._
+
+  Lion, 5; _9, 45, 65._
+
+  Lithuanians, _9._
+
+  Loki, 14; _9, 112._
+
+  Lycanthropy, 2; _9, 19, 20, 22, 74, 102._
+
+  Lykaon, _9, 15._
+
+
+  Magic, 23, 24; _22, 37, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 84, 107._
+
+  Malignant, 24; _4, 84, 102, 109, 113._
+
+  Mask, 8, 11, 15; _29, 37, 42, 57, 64, 67, 107, 111._
+
+  Mastodon, _20._
+
+  Medicinemen (Shamans), 20; _52, 63, 66, 67, 74, 81, 83, 85, 90,
+    107._
+
+  Mexico, _12, 67._
+
+  Middle Ages, 22; _9, 74, 102._
+
+  Murder, 24; _20, 22, 52, 102, 112._
+
+  Myths, 7, 27; _24, 95, 102._
+
+
+  Names, _42, 53, 109, 111._
+
+  Netherlands, _9._
+
+  Neurians, 1; _15._
+
+  Night, 1, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25; _63, 65, 66, 69, 74, 84, 102, 110,
+    112, 113._
+
+  North America, _12._
+
+  Norway, _9._
+
+
+  Odin, _15._
+
+  Island Oesel, _9._
+
+  Otter, _29._
+
+  Outlaw, 24, 26; _84, 110, 112._
+
+  Owl, 5, 30; _64._
+
+
+  Pawnees, 12, 13, 23; _110._
+
+  Persia, _9._
+
+  Plants, _42, 95._
+
+  Poles, _9, 14._
+
+  Portuguese, _9._
+
+  Posen, _14._
+
+  Priests, _22, 67, 69, 83._
+
+  Professionals, 22, 23, 24, 25; _74, 81, 83, 86._
+
+  Provencal, _9._
+
+  Prussia, _14._
+
+
+  Reindeer, 5.
+
+  Religion, _22, 24, 57._
+
+  Revenge, 14, 17, 24, 28; _52, 69._
+
+  Robber, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28; _15, 20, 44, 53, 65,
+    112._
+
+  Romans, 7; _9, 27._
+
+  Russia, 2; _9, 12, 16._
+
+
+  Scandinavia, _9._
+
+  Scout, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 29; _47, 48, 60._
+
+  Scythians, _6._
+
+  Seal, _29, 31, 69._
+
+  Serpent, 5; _9._
+
+  Servia, _9._
+
+  Shepherds, _15, 20._
+
+  Siam, _12, 69._
+
+  Sinfj�tli, _15, 64, 110._
+
+  Song, 9, 10, 15; _33, 64._
+
+  Skins (or dress) of animals, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22,
+    23, 25, 28, 29, 30; _21, 22, 31, 34, 52, 53, 57, 60, 63, 64,
+    65, 66, 67, 74, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112._
+
+  South America, 5; _12._
+
+  Speech (animals), 7.
+
+  Stories, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29; _9, 27, 60, 69, 102, 111._
+
+  Supernaturalism, 10, 17, 18; _57, 65, 102, 111._
+
+  Superstition, 1, 4, 5, 14, 23; _20, 64._
+
+  Sweden, _9._
+
+
+  Tiger, 5; _9, 45, 69, 90._
+
+  Totemism, 2; _47, 102._
+
+  Transformation, 5, 15, 21; _9, 11, 19, 22, 52, 64, 65, 66, 69,
+    107._
+
+  Traps, 8; _31._
+
+  Tschechs, _9._
+
+  Turkey, 5; _108._
+
+
+  Volhynia, 2; _9, 16._
+
+  V�lsungasaga, _15, 112._
+
+
+  Wales, _9._
+
+  Warfare, 12, 13, 16; _60._
+
+  Weapons, 7, 8, 9.
+
+  Werewolf, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30; _9, 15, 20, 22, 45,
+    64, 84, 86, 91, 102, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113._
+
+  Wiener Hundesegen, _15._
+
+  Witches, 11, 19, 23; _65, 66, 67, 74, 83, 84, 91, 102, 109, 110,
+    111._
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note
+
+
+Words in italics were surrounded with _underscores_, and small capitals
+changed to all capitals.
+
+Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were
+added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they
+were referred to in other notes. The notes were moved to directly after
+the paragraph with the corresponding anchor.
+
+In note 32 "Ts��-si�-kwa-ya�" and "ki+" were in the original
+written with a breve on the i, this has been changed to a plain i.
+"V�lsungasaga" and "Sinfj�tli" were in the original mostly written with
+a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader's
+convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common
+spelling with �.
+
+Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. In note
+12 "and" was changed to "und" (seltener in Frankreich und Belgien).
+
+Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and
+missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent
+spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by 
+Caroline Taylor Stewart
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+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
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+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition., by Caroline Taylor Stewart.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by 
+Caroline Taylor Stewart
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition
+
+Author: Caroline Taylor Stewart
+
+Release Date: November 8, 2013 [EBook #44134]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="tnote">
+<p>Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected.
+A more detailed transcriber's note can be found at the end of this text.</p>
+
+<div class="centered"><ul class="lsoff">
+  <li class="cnt"><a href="#NOTES">NOTES</a></li>
+  <li class="cnt"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></li>
+  <li class="cnt"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></li>
+  <li class="cnt"><a href="#Transcribers_note">Transcriber&rsquo;s note</a></li></ul></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" width="500" height="761" alt="Cover" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h1>THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></h1>
+
+
+<p>The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an
+animal’s form, most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost
+worldwide superstition. Such a transformed person is the Germanic
+werewolf, or man-wolf; that is, a wolf which is really
+a human being.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> So the werewolf was a man in wolf’s form or
+wolf’s dress,<a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> seen mostly at night,<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> and believed generally to
+be harmful to man.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p>
+
+<p>The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily
+explained. Adolf Erman<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> explains the allusion of
+Herodotus<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> to the transformation of the Neurians (the people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+of the present Volhynia, in West Russia) into wolves as due
+merely to their appearance in winter, dressed in their furs. This
+explanation, however, would not fit similar superstitions in warm
+climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy to primitive
+Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the members
+of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> Still
+another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the
+original werewolf.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must
+be one which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition
+is found pretty much all over the earth,<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> especially to-day<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a>
+however in Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+the lands where the wolf is most common.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a>&nbsp;<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> According to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+Mogk<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> the superstition prevails to-day especially in the north
+and east of Germany.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p>
+
+<p>The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+The point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living
+human being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the
+wolf was common<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa,
+where these animals are common; into a tiger or serpent in
+India;<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> in other localities into other animals characteristic of
+the region.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> Among Lapps and Finns occur transformations
+into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish or birds; amongst many North
+Asiatic peoples, as also some American Indians, into the bear;
+amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf, turkey or owl; in
+South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar, also into a fish, or
+serpent. Most universal though it seems was the transformation
+into wolves or dogs.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p>
+
+<p>As the superstition is so widespread—Germany, Eastern
+Europe, Africa, Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+when all these peoples were in communication with each other<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a>
+or else, in accord with another view of modern science, it arose
+independently in various continents in process of the natural psychical
+development of the human race under similar conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom
+of primitive man’s of putting on a wolf’s or other animal’s
+skin<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> or dress, or a robe.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> Thus Leubuscher,<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> says: “Es ist<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+der Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten
+hervorgewachsen.”<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a>&nbsp;<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> Likely also the notion of attributing
+speech to animals originated from such disguising or
+dressing of men as animals. In the following we shall examine
+into primitive man’s reasons for putting on such a skin or robe.</p>
+
+<p>Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had
+to conquer them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in
+Europe arose probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic
+peoples were still in contact with each other, if not in the
+original Indo-Germanic home, for they all have the superstition
+(unless, as above, we prefer to regard the belief as arising in
+various localities in process of psychical development under similar
+conditions; namely, when people still lived principally by the
+chase.<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a>) Probably the primitive Indo-European man before and
+at the time of the origin of the werewolf superstition, was almost
+helpless in the presence of inexorable nature. This was before
+he used metal for weapons. The great business of life was to
+secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots,
+berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any
+size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet
+primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no
+longer crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but
+began to watch and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what
+certain animals would do under certain circumstances, to learn
+what would frighten them away or what would lure them on.
+So at least the large animals were to early man a constant cause
+of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary to have their
+flesh for food and their skins for clothing.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p>
+
+<p>Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for
+trapping them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of
+decoys to lure animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits,
+others more easily by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a>
+and similarly, another form of the original decoy was no doubt
+simply the stuffed skin of a member of the species, whether animal
+or bird, say for example a wild duck.<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> Of course the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself putting on the animal
+skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an individual dressed
+for example in a wolf’s skin could approach near enough to a
+solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other weapon,
+without exciting the wolf’s suspicion of the nearness of a dangerous
+foe.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used
+by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure
+food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise,
+whole or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions
+and cries of animals,<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> at first to lure them, when acting as a
+decoy. With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism,
+and an additional reason for acquiring dance and song was to
+secure charms against bodily ills,<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> and finally enlivenment.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> In
+both dance and song, when used for a serious purpose, the performers
+imagined themselves to be the animals they were imitating,<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+and in the dance they wore the skins of the animals
+represented.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p>
+
+<p>Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed
+merely for decoys and sport (early dancing),<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> for peaceful
+purposes therefore, such people having whole or partial animal
+shape were not regarded as harmful to man,<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> just as wise women
+began to pass for witches only when with their art they did evil.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a>
+A similar development can be traced in the case of masks.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> It
+was some time before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing
+animals that were dangerous to life, though these are
+the ones he first studied;<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> and we cannot presuppose that he disguised
+to represent them until he could cope with them, since the
+original purpose of the disguise was to secure food and clothing.
+Thus far then we see whole or partial disguise as animals used to
+secure <em>food</em> and <em>clothing</em> when acting as decoys to lure animals;
+and in <em>dancing</em>.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal’s skin or
+dress when out as <em>forager</em> (or robber) or <em>spy</em>, for the purpose
+of avoiding detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for
+example,<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> were called by neighboring tribes <em>wolves</em>, probably
+not out of contempt, since it may be doubted that an Indian feels
+contempt for a wolf any more than he does for a fox, a rabbit, or
+an elk, but because of their adroitness as scouts, warriors and
+stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think, because of their
+great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so as to escape detection
+by the enemy by day or night; or, according to some
+neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a>, “have the
+endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can
+make long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their
+way, or on no food at all.” ... And further, “The Pawnees,
+when they went on the warpath, were always prepared to simulate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+wolves.... Wolves on the prairie were too common<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a>
+to excite remark, and at night they would approach close
+to the Indian camps.” ... The Pawnee starting off on the
+warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later
+times a white blanket or a white sheet; and, at <em>night</em>, wrapping
+himself in this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he
+walked or trotted here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed
+himself into a common object of the landscape. This
+disguise was employed by <em>day</em> as well, for reconnoissance....
+While the party remained hidden in some ravine or hollow, one
+Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to the top of the
+hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches looking all
+over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him, would
+take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the
+Pawnees could imitate wolves best. “An Indian going into an
+enemy’s country is often called a wolf,<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> and the sign for a scout
+is made up of the signs <em>wolf</em> and <em>look</em>.”<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> Should any scout detect
+danger, as at <em>night</em> when on duty near an encampment, he
+must give the cry of the coyote.<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p>
+
+<p>The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in
+animal form or dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal
+disguise began to act not only as decoys for animals dangerous
+to life, but also as scouts (robbers<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a>—and later as possessors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+of supernatural power, when growth of culture brought
+with it growth of supernaturalism<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a>); when people began to associate,
+for example, the wolf’s form with a lurking enemy.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p>
+
+<p>All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the
+defensive, like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion
+have sent out scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid
+detection, assumed the disguise of the animal most common to
+the special locality in question, just as to-day they are known to
+disguise in animal skins for purposes of plunder or revenge.<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a>&nbsp;<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying
+principle is the same; namely, the transformation of a living human
+being into an animal. The origin of the belief in such a
+transformation, as stated above<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> was the simple putting on of
+an animal skin by early man. The object of putting on animal
+skins was,</p>
+
+<p>(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries
+of animals were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a>
+artificial decoys (like decoy ducks to-day)<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> and finally even
+masks were used.<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying
+animals, as in (1) above.</p>
+
+<p><a name="point3" id="point3"></a>(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals
+led to dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the
+faces and bodies of the participants were painted in imitation of
+the colors of birds and animals, the motions of animals imitated
+and animal disguises used.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p>
+
+<p>(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out
+foraging, as well as for warfare,<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a>&nbsp;<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> therefore for booty, and self-defense.
+Either they wore the entire skin, or probably later just
+a part of it as a fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as
+a charm by many of our colored people to-day.<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(5) For purposes of revenge,<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a>,<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> personal or other. For
+some other personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror
+in the opposing agent by hideousness.</p>
+
+<p>(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing
+superhuman agencies.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> So now would arise first a belief in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+superhuman power or attributes,<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> and then,</p>
+
+<p>(7) Witchcraft.<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> It is very easy to see why it was usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a><br /><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+the so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who
+claimed such transformation power, because they received remuneration
+from their patients.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="point8" id="point8"></a>(8) Finally dreams<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> and exaggerated reports gave rise
+to fabulous stories.<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a></p>
+
+<p>We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> for an example under
+(4) we have cited the practices of American Indians.<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> It is
+probable that about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above),
+what is known as the real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied,
+rabid manwolf) began to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin
+was already a lurking thief or enemy, or a destroyer of human
+life. To advance from this stage to the werewolf frenzy, our
+primitive man must have seen about him some exhibition of such
+a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this frenzy particularly
+with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons, and the connecting
+link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as the transformation
+was usually into a wolf or dog,<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a>) for persons bitten
+by it usually went mad too.<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> The ensuing frenzy, with the consternation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds
+as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some
+no doubt actually had the malady; others honestly believed they
+had it and got into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked
+themselves up into a frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a>
+Later, in the Middle Ages, when the nature of the real
+disease came to be better understood, the werewolf superstition
+had become too firmly fixed to be easily uprooted.</p>
+
+<p>We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> As
+further examples of the development into fabulous story,<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> we may
+cite any of those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man
+is represented as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and
+tearing to pieces men and beasts, until he resumes his human
+form. Thus an early scout in animal garb would be obliged
+to live on food he found on his way, and later fabulous report
+would represent him as himself when in disguise possessing the
+attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to pieces man
+and beast. For such an account see Andree,<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> concerning what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the
+hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed
+such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread
+abroad such a report as would enhance the influence of the
+hyena-men far and wide. Some savages, as in Africa,<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> came
+to regard any animal that robbed them of children, goats or other
+animals, as a witch in animal form;<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> just as the American Indians
+ascribe to evil spirits death, sickness and other misfortunes.</p>
+
+<p>We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an
+animal robe would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a>
+how though, as soon as the element of magic enters in, he would
+try to keep up the illusion. At this stage, when the original
+defensive measure had become tainted with superstition, men
+would go about in the night time howling and holding their
+vile revels.<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> Andree,<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> narrates how a soldier in Northeast
+Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and came to
+the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician.
+No hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh
+wound. Soon he died, however the soldier did not survive him
+long. Doubtless one of the magician class was responsible for
+the death of the soldier, just as we to-day put to death the man
+who so violates our laws, as to become a menace to our society,
+or as formerly kings killed those who stood in their way; or as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+religious sects murder those who dissent from their faith. These
+magicians, supposed to be men who could assume animal form,
+as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly feared by
+other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and at
+<em>night</em> come forth to plunder and kill.<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> It is to their interest to
+counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were
+put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> Their frenzies
+were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in
+other cases they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent
+opportunities for personal gain or vengeance.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition
+and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the
+outrages hope to escape punishment for their depredations, could
+they hope to plunder and steal with impunity.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> So they prowled
+usually under the cloak of <em>night</em> or of the dark of the forest,<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a>
+howled and acted like the animals they represented, hid the
+animal skin or blanket, if they used one,<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> in the daytime where
+they thought no one could find it, whereas the animal skin which
+was worn for defence, was put on either by day or night,<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> and
+one story recounts the swallowing of a whole goat, the man
+bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did it.<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> Some of the
+transformed men claimed they could regain human form only
+by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters
+were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress,
+each maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices,
+just as did the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those
+of the American negro, who in church, when “shouting,” that is,
+when stirred up by religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy
+who happens to be in the church, of course with impunity; for
+he is supposed to be under some outside control, and when the
+spell has passed off, like some of the delusionists mentioned,<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a>
+claims not to know what he (or generally she) has done. Similar
+also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of the fire-eaters, or
+any other sham.</p>
+
+<p>The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was
+that most often assumed for example in Germanic lands.<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> The
+term <em>wolf</em> became synonymous with <em>robber</em>, and later (when
+the robber became an outlaw,<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a>) with <em>outlaw</em>, the robber and outlaw
+alike being called wolf and not some other animal (i.&nbsp;e.,
+only the wolf-man surviving to any extent) firstly, because the
+wolf was plentiful; and secondly, because as civilization advanced,
+there came a time when the wolf was practically the only one of
+the larger undomesticated animals that survived.<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> We can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+notice this in our own United States, for example in eastern
+Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes
+heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the
+pastures adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller
+animals, and dig up buried ones.<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> In Prussia also it is the wolf
+that survives to-day. American Indians, and other savages however
+do not restrict the transformations to the wolf,<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> because
+other wild animals, are, or were till recently, abundant amongst
+them. As civilization advances, one by one the animal myths
+disappear with the animals that gave rise to them (like that connected
+with the mastodon);<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> or else stories of such domestic
+animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> When this
+stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully
+coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals
+were shorn of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as
+Aesop’s fables would arise.<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> This however was psychologically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+a long step in advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an
+earlier period.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf
+superstition went through various stages of development. The
+motives for assuming wolf’s dress (or animal skins or robes), at
+first were purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to
+secure food by acting as decoys; then it was used for personal
+advantage or gain by foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for
+purposes of vengeance;<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> later from a desire for power over
+others; and finally men (the professional and the superstitious)
+began to concoct fabulous stories which were handed down as
+tradition or myth, according to the psychic level of the narrator
+and hearer.<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful
+werewolf is the disguising as some common animal by members
+of savage races when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to
+escape detection by the enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land
+in search of food. As stated above,<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> later fabulous report would
+represent them as possessing in their disguise the attributes of
+the animal they impersonated,<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> and finally even of actually
+taking on animal form, either wholly or in part,<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> for longer or
+shorter periods of time. Some of the North American Indian
+transformation stories represent men as having only the head,
+hands and feet of a wolf.<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> The transformation into a werewolf
+in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made of
+wolf-skin.<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising
+the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent
+a person as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other
+article of apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> The stories especially
+in Europe were of the <em>were-wolf</em> rather than <em>were-bear</em> or other
+animal, because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild
+animals.<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> It was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf,
+which crystallized into the household werewolf or transformation
+tales.<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="NOTES" id="NOTES"></a>NOTES:</h2>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> <span class="smcap">Note.</span>—After the author had written the following article, she
+gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That the origin
+and development of the use of masks as given in the Annual Report of the
+United States Bureau of Ethnology, 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note <a href="#Footnote_32">32</a>) is
+similar to the origin and development of the werewolf superstition itself,
+as given in the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The
+author has italicized some words in the quotations.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> According to Mogk, in Paul’s Grundriss der germanischen Philologie
+III. 272 <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wer</em> means “man,” found in Old Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, Old High
+German, and werewolf a man in wolf’s form. Kögel connects <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wer</em> with
+Gothic <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">wasjan</em> “kleiden.” “Darum bedeutet <em>werwolf</em> eigentlich Wolfsgewand
+úlfshamr; ähnlich bedeutet vielleicht <em lang="no" xml:lang="no">berserkr</em> Bärengewand,” therefore
+werewolf according to Kögel means a wolf’s dress. See also Schrader,
+Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> Post p. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:—Beastform in mythology
+proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for benignant ends. See
+note <a href="#Footnote_52">52</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and Greeks
+settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once a year every Neurian
+becomes a wolf for a few days, and then resumes the human form.
+See concerning this also Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 120.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>, also see note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> See also Mogk in Paul’s Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud. Leubuscher:
+Über die Wehrwölfe und Thierverwandlungen im Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850,
+mentions cases in ancient Arcadia, in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the
+almost epidemic disease in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf,
+Stuttgart, 1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia
+(hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to Encyc. Brit.
+below; on p. 133 he says: “Tierverwandlungen sind allgemein menschlich,
+finden wir überall. Die eigentümliche Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen
+aber finden wir vorzugsweise bei einer bestimmten Völkergruppe, den
+arischen Stämmen der Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven;
+bei den südwärts gezogenen Stämmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns
+gleiche Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten treten
+die Werwölfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehört die älteste historische
+Erwähnung der Sage; viel älter aber ist der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische
+Werwölfe”. According to Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche,
+Stuttgart, 1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European
+country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles,
+Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants of island
+Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in
+Asia, Africa, America; but not in India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit.
+below), especially though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands.</p>
+
+<p>As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for 1880-81, p. 83,
+“From their close relations with wild animals Indians’ stories of transformations
+into beasts and beasts into men are numerous and interesting.... In
+times of peace, during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller
+told of those days in the past when men and animals could transform
+themselves at will and hold converse with one another.”</p>
+
+<p>Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell &amp; Sons, 1883, II. 668
+says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic antiquities
+than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrisûlfr, a son of Loki, makes
+his appearance in wolf’s shape among the gods.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Encyc_Brit" id="Encyc_Brit"></a>Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy, states:—A
+belief firmly rooted among all savages is that men are in certain circumstances
+transformed temporarily or permanently into wolves and other inferior
+animals. In Europe the transformation into a wolf is by far more
+prominent and frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans,
+French, Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most
+prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. Thus the
+were-<em>wolf</em> prevails in Europe, also in England, Wales, Ireland; and in S.
+France, the Netherlands, Germany, Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia,
+Poland, Russia, he can hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note <a href="#Footnote_12">12</a>).
+In Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland the <em>bear</em> competes with the
+wolf for pre-eminence. In Persia the <em>bear</em> is supreme; in Japan the <em>fox</em>; in
+India the <em>serpent</em> vies with the <em>tiger</em> (contrary to Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III.
+272, who says:—“Nur Griechen, Römer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter
+den indogermanischen Völkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und
+Iraniern ist er unbekannt.” Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in
+Abyssinia and Borneo the <em>hyena</em> with the <em>lion</em>; in E. Africa the <em>lion</em> with the
+<em>alligator</em>; in W. Africa the <em>leopard</em> is perhaps most frequently the form
+assumed by man; among the Abipones the <em>tiger</em>, among the Arawaks the
+<em>jaguar</em>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In Brockhaus’ Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the werewolf
+belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and Romanic peoples;
+found to-day especially in Volhynia and White Russia.</p>
+
+<p>Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:—Bei den Angelsachsen lässt sich der Werwolf
+im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern, ihre Herden
+vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das älteste Zeugnis auf deutschem
+Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v. Worms (11 century).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:—There can nowhere be a living belief in
+contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which has ceased to exist
+in the particular locality. Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most
+prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence. (See
+note <a href="#Footnote_12">12</a>.) In none of these cases however is the power of transformation
+limited exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under <em>Wolf</em>:—The wolf is found
+in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America from Greenland
+to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in Ceylon, Burmah or
+Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in the two latter jackals
+instead.</p>
+
+<p>Meyer’s Kleines konversations-lexikon:—Der wolf “ist häufig in Ost-
+und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika, seltener in Frankreich
+und Belgien, den Herden gefährlich, besonders in Russland.” Encyc.
+Brit., XXIV under <em>Wolf</em>:—In northern countries the wolf is generally
+larger and more powerful than in the southern portion of its range.
+Its habits are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been
+known to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of his
+flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance. They usually
+assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and by their combined
+and persevering efforts are able to overpower and kill even such great
+animals as the American bison. Children and even grown people
+are not infrequently attacked by them when pressed for hunger. The
+ferocity of the wolf in the wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed,
+they can rarely be trusted by strangers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> Paul, Grundriss, III. 272.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p. 275 fol.,
+speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: “Noch lebte das Landvolk
+in ohnmächtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Wölfe, wenig Dörfer,
+welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere decimirt wurden,”
+and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:—“Als 1815 die gegenwärtige Provinz
+Posen an Preussen zurückfiel, waren auch dort die Wölfe eine Landplage.
+Nach Angaben der Posener Provinzialblätter wurden im Regierungsbezirk
+Posen vom 1. Sept. 1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Wölfe erlegt, noch
+im Jahre 1819 im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von
+Wölfen gefressen.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> Thus in note <a href="#Footnote_6">6</a> was mentioned Herodotus’ (484-425 B.&nbsp;C.) statement
+about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend, according to Hertz, is
+that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos, the first king of ancient Arcadia.
+These Arcadians lived as huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert
+(Andree, p. 65; and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed
+amongst the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf
+myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B.&nbsp;C). In the Norse “Edda” we find
+Odin’s wolves, also Sköll, Hati and Fenrir. In the Völsunga Saga, Sigmund
+and Sinfjötli become wolves. For other reflections of the fear in
+which wolves were held, see the 10th century ms. of the “Wiener
+Hundesegen” against male and female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches
+Lesebuch, 6. aufl. 1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,—Geschichte der deutschen
+sprache s. 233:—“Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte raubthier
+des waldes dar, und lehrt die nähe des wolfs und fuchses.”</p>
+
+<p>C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:—“In die ältesten Zeiten
+hinauf reicht auch bei Jägervölkern die Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil
+die Eigentümlichkeiten der Tiere erklärend, ihr Gebahren erzählend.
+Die furchtbaren und die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo
+die Menschen städtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie
+einsamer mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine höhere Bedeutung. So
+wird dem Wäldler Bär und Wolf zum ebenbürtigen Räuber und Kämpfer,
+menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht, der
+Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to Andree, p.
+65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it is to-day in Russia.
+Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: “Der Wolf ist überall in Europa
+verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> Cf. note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>, <a href="#Encyc_Brit">Encyc. Brit.</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> Leubuscher, p. 1:—Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in Hunde
+und Wölfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den namen Lykanthropie.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> Or as Mogk in Paul’s Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for example
+amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still formed a whole,
+as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of herds was especially feared.
+Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: “Die meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die
+im Freien lebten, mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte
+ihrer Einbildungskraft am öftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit zu
+kämpfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in Einzelnen
+als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich von Wölfen besonders
+beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich manche Mordthat nur von
+Wölfen begangen.” Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 282:—“The Dakotas have long
+believed in the appearance from time to time of a monstrous animal that
+swallows human beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the
+bones of mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:—In celebrations it is possible that the
+foxskin so universally worn by the animistic personifications is a survival
+comparable with the skin of the animal in which formerly the whole
+body was clothed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: “In der ältesten Naturreligion
+ist die Gottheit des Todes und der winterlichen Erde als Wolf
+gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten
+nach dem Volksglauben die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu
+verwandeln. Der Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum
+raschen Zurücklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders
+geeignet. Darum nahmen die Götter und die zauberbegabten Menschen
+zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von Natur gefährlich und
+wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang
+nach Mord und Zerstörung die Hauptsache. Die Ursprünge des Werwolfglaubens
+waren also 1. religiöse Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung
+(der friedlose Mörder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die
+Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie.” Page 51. “Die Verwandlung in
+Wölfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden.” Page 57: “Dass die
+von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen Waldflüchtigen sich in
+Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> Page 46. See also note <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p. 153 fol.;—“Ist so
+die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und Götterglauben, zunächst gebunden an
+das Bedürfnis des Lebens, so sondert sie sich doch allmählich im Verlauf
+der Kultur von den religiösen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite
+Welt zu einer unabhängigen Bedeutsamkeit”—like Homer, Dante, etc.
+See note <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:—“Insane delusions
+must reflect the usages and beliefs of contemporaneous society.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">25</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>, <a href="#Footnote_21">21</a> and <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_15">15</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:—Traces of the fear in
+which buffalo “were held may still be discovered in the traditional stories
+of certain tribes, which set forth how, in those days,” [i.&nbsp;e. in the stone
+age] “before men were provided with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill,
+and eat the people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo
+were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly have arisen save
+as the result of actual experience of their power to inflict injury and
+death.” Pliny informs us how the Romans kept the wolf out of their
+fields, see Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians
+lived on the steppes, in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains,
+the animals were their whole study. They moved with the animals,
+followed them for food.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:—It seems that masks were occasionally
+used as decoys.... Next to the otter the most valuable animal in
+the estimation of the Kadiak men, is the species of seal or sea-dog called
+by the Russians nerpa. The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it
+toward the shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body
+among the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque resembling
+the head of a seal and makes a noise like that animal. The unsuspicious
+seal, imagining that he is about to meet a partner of his own
+species, hastens to the spot and is instantly killed. Compare note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:—Bering Strait Eskimo stuff rudely the
+skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon a stick which holds
+the head outstretched, then imitate the call of the bird, which is trapped
+in the net attached to the decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft
+snow into the form of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around
+the neck for plumage. The call then brought the real birds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> Thus G.&nbsp;B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his description
+of the primitive Indians’ method of trapping buffalo, says: “Some
+men went forth naked, others carried a dress made of the entire skin of a
+buffalo, the head and horns arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of
+the skin hung down over the wearer’s back,” etc. This “caller” went near
+to a herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into the
+trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often proved fatal to
+the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85, p. 484, about Central Eskimo
+seal hunting, is stated: If a hunter is close to an animal he imitates its
+movements. Some utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. “The
+sealskin clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is
+difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance.” And on p.
+508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central Eskimos carry guns on
+their shoulders, two men going together, so as to resemble the antlers of a
+deer. The men imitate their grunting. If they lie on the ground at some
+distance they greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to
+Ross the “inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer, the
+foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer’s head upon his own.”
+Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:—“The old manner of hunting antelope and deer:
+the hunter would disguise himself by covering his head with the head and
+skin of an antelope, and so be enabled to approach the game near enough
+to use his bow and arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask
+themselves with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo.” Ethn.
+Rep. 1901-02, p. 439;—Two of the party of hunters (Zuñi) out after deer
+“wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front and back of the
+shirt being painted to represent as nearly as possible the body of the deer;
+the hands and the arms to the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to
+represent the deer’s forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer’s head over
+his head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as possible,
+even to the browsing, the game they would catch.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:—“Tradition says the Iroquois derived the
+music and action of the Buffalo dance while on an expedition against the
+Cherokee, from the bellowing and the movements of a herd of buffalo
+which they heard for the first time ‘singing their favorite songs,’ i.&nbsp;e.
+bellowing and snorting.” Also note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent frostbite. The
+wolf’s, deer’s, fox’s, opossum’s feet it is held never become frostbitten.
+After each verse of the song, the singer imitates the cry and the action of
+the animal. The words used are archaic in form and may be rendered
+“I become a real wolf, etc.” The song runs:</p>
+
+<p>1. Tsûñ´ wa´ ‘ya-ya´ (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged howl).
+The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his feet.</p>
+
+<p>2. Tsûñ´-ka´ wi-ye´ (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh! (imitating
+the call and jumping of a deer).</p>
+
+<p>3. Tsûñ´-tsu´ ‘la-ya´ (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih! (imitates
+barking and scratching of a fox).</p>
+
+<p>4. Tsûñ´-sĭ´-kwa-ya´ (four times), kĭ+(imitates cry of the opossum
+when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal does when
+feigning death).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance performed
+by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep up their spirits, in
+which each had his robe about him and imitated the actions of the coyote,
+trotting, glancing around, etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo
+dance, in which each of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over
+his head, the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging
+down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of the
+buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the Omaha wolf
+dance, by the society of those who have supernatural communication with
+wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and dance in imitation of the
+actions of wolves. Similarly they performed the grizzly bear dance,
+horse dance, etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a>, <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a> and <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> See notes <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a> and <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> Similarly in the use of masks (see note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>). See Wundt, Völkerpsychologie
+II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this Zeitschrift für deutsche
+Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss. 558-568:—“Der maskierte mensch ist der
+ekstatische Mensch. Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in
+ekstase, fühlt er sich in fremde lebensvorgänge ein, eignet er sich das
+wesen an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert.” Für den
+naiven menschen, wie für das kind, ist die maske durchaus nicht
+blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der augenblickstanz
+wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvölker verwenden ihre masken nur
+bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertänzen, nicht zu ihrer burlesken mimik;
+die tänzer sind in Tiermasken, etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed into a
+bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81,
+p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1097:—In Norse
+accounts also we find transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded
+as rational and was esteemed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_57">57a</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_27">27</a> and <a href="#Footnote_42">42</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> The important consideration in the mind of primitive man was
+whether certain things were harmful or useful. See Behaghel, Die
+deutsche Sprache, p. 98:—“Die grossen Tiere und die mächtigen
+Bäume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die für die <em>Ernährung</em> and <em>Bekleidung</em> des
+Menschen von Bedeutung sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben <em>bedrohen</em>, sie haben
+viel früher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare Käfer
+im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es, dass die Namen
+der grösseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbäume, der wichtigsten Getreidearten
+allen germanischer Stämmen gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie <em>Wolf</em>,
+<em>Kuh</em>, <em>Ochse</em>, <em>Birke</em>, <em>Buche</em>, <em>Erle</em>, <em>Gerste</em> mit den Benennungen anderer
+indogermanischer Völker übereinstimmen.” Doubtless animals occupied
+their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt, Völkerpsychologie, II.
+412 fol., about the <em>maskentanz</em>: “Überhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit
+früher Berücksichtigung erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive.” See note <a href="#Footnote_95">95</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">43</span></a> G.&nbsp;B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N.&nbsp;Y., Scribners,
+1893, p. 245, fol.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">44</span></a> Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein
+sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hirpus</i> bedeutet <em>wolf</em> in sabinischer
+oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf führer geworden
+war, oder nach andrer sage sie wölfe gejagt hatten und gleich wölfen
+raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen ausdrucks friedlos waren.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">45</span></a> The werewolf story could arise only where the animal, wolf, tiger or
+lion, etc., was common; and likewise the werewolf tales gradually died
+out when the animals became rare or extinct. See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">46</span></a> Grinnell, p. 245.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">47</span></a> The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild beasts save
+their own totem-animals as <em>enemy-scouts</em> (Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">48</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of the indian, p.
+208: The wolf was believed, in the animals’ council, to be able to give
+the Indian the power to creep right into the midst of the enemy’s camp
+without being seen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">49</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_53">53</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">50</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_57">57-b</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">51</span></a> So originally the germanic god <em>Logi</em> was not an evil god. <em>Logi</em> meant
+the natural force of fire; <em>Loki</em> meant the same, but the burly giant has
+been made a sly, seducing villain (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of
+Loki, Fenrisûlfr, appears in wolf’s shape among the gods. Perhaps
+association with the wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of
+Logi (Loki) from a good to an evil god.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">52</span></a> Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:—In modern savage life we find
+beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in beast form for
+the community; others are said to assume beast form in order to avenge
+themselves justly on enemies; others for love of bloodshed and cannibalism.
+See also note <a href="#Footnote_58">58</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">53</span></a> No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won considerable
+fame through their skill and bravery, as we should judge from such
+proper names as <em>Rudolf</em>, which means really <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ruhmwolf</em>, <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ruhm</em> related to
+Gothic <em lang="und" xml:lang="und">hropeigs</em> “victorious,” Sanskrit <em lang="sa" xml:lang="sa">kir</em> “to praise”; or <em>Adolf</em> from
+<em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Adalolf</em>, which means <em>Edelwolf</em>, originally, therefore, <em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Edelräuber</em>, for
+<em>wolf</em> meant originally about the same as <em>robber</em> (Kluge). So <em>robber</em> or
+<em>wolf</em> was originally a highly respectable appellation, at a time when men
+lived from robbery and the chase, either as searobbers, or mountain
+robbers, etc. (about this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen,
+1905, p. 268 fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace
+(see appellation “wolves” applied to Pawnees, p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.). Later we find
+such names as <em>Wulfila</em> “little wolf.” Many Indian names are those of
+animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear, Conquering Bear,
+Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear Rib, Smoking Bear,
+Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear, Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone
+Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe, etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83,
+p. 169: The names of Indians very often refer to some animal, predicating
+some attribute or position of that animal. For discussion of names, see
+note <a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">54</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">55</span></a> See <a href="#point3">(3)</a> below.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">56</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">57</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_4">4</a> and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note <a href="#Footnote_37">37</a>):—The
+use of masks is worldwide. The origin and development of the use of
+masks is very much the same as the origin and development of the werewolf
+as given in the preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both
+originally useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into instruments
+for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of the mask is described
+in the above report as follows:</p>
+
+<p>a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for defense
+against physical violence, human or otherwise. It was therefore first used
+merely as a mechanical resistance to the opposing force; then secondly,
+still in the lowest grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a
+moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by symbolizing
+superhuman agencies. Now individual variations arose—devices for example
+derived or conventionalized from some predatory, shrewd or mysterious
+animal.</p>
+
+<p>b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and
+the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part of the religious
+paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of the shamans. Ethn. Rep.
+1896-97, I. 395:—“When worn in any ceremonial, ... the wearer is
+believed to become mysteriously and unconsciously imbued with the spirit
+of the being which his mask represents.”</p>
+
+<p>c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is used for
+public amusements and games; by secret societies; as protection against
+recognition on festive occasions, etc., like the animal skins worn in
+dances.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">58</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_32">32</a>, <a href="#Footnote_34">34</a>, <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>, ante p. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">59</span></a> See p. <a href="#Footnote_13">13</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">60</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:—Account of “a cloak or mantle made
+from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic paintings. It was
+made and used by the Apaches as a mantle of invisibility, that is, a
+charmed covering for spies which would enable them to pass with impunity
+through the country, and even through the camp of their enemies. In
+this instance the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn.” The
+Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were the raincloud,
+serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of the winds of the four
+cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 515:—Among the Hidatsa (Sioux)
+fetiches are especially the skins of the wolf. “When they go to war, they
+always wear the stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging
+down the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the warrior
+puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf’s head hangs down upon his
+breast.” Finally the magic robes or shirts and girdles came to be a part of
+the regular paraphernalia of the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the
+folklore of all countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles.</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: “Some warriors had medicine
+to change their shape as they pleased, so that they could escape from their
+enemies.” Page 501: Such stories might be paralleled in any tribe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">61</span></a> See further development in note <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">62</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_52">52</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">63</span></a> As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure brutality, we
+cite from Andree, p. 69:—People in the interior of Africa who understand
+magic, transform themselves into lions and go about killing people. See
+also below, note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, where the wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and
+sucks his blood, and also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being
+one of the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this takes place
+at <em>night</em>, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian starting out at night in
+his wolf’s robe, and trotting up to the hostile village to ascertain where his
+enemies’ horses are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell’s
+Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73). Ethn.
+Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:—“To recover stolen or lost property, especially ponies,
+is one of the principal tasks imposed upon the so-called medicine-men”
+(shamans).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">64</span></a> As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was put on not
+merely to make the wearer look just like a common object of the landscape,
+but also because the wearer of the disguise was supposed to take on
+the characteristics of the animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.),
+as in the case of masks (see note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>), and finally the wearer of such a robe
+was believed to actually become transformed, like the wearers of the werewolf
+shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves were regarded as good
+hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:—The wolf
+is revered by the Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanáti; therefore
+we can understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of unerring
+huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those who gained
+their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of songs imitating the
+cries of certain animals was supposed to confer a characteristic of the animal
+in question (see note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:—To gain animal characteristics a wizard attached
+crow and owl plumes to his head that he might have the eyes of the
+crow to see quickly the approach of man, and the eyes of the owl to travel
+by night. He flapped his arms, ... A Zuñi man hearing a cry like
+an owl, yet human, looked about him and found a man whom he recognized
+as a Zuñi. “Aha!” said he, “why have you those plumes upon
+your head? Aha, you are a sorcerer,” etc.</p>
+
+<p>An example of the transforming power of the <em>robe</em> we find in Bulletin
+26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1901, Kathlamet
+texts, p. 156 fol.:—A woman ate of some of the fat of a bitch, gave
+birth to five male dogs and one female dog. When they grew older, she
+discovered one day that they could transform themselves into real children.
+While they were down at the beach, she entered the house, and
+now she saw the dog <em>blankets</em>. She took them and burnt them. Then the
+children retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the
+Völsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according to which
+an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting on an elkskin.</p>
+
+<p>W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p. 100,
+writes, “Die Fähigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln können, heisst ‘sich
+zu häuten, die Hülle zu wechseln’. Das Umwerfen eines äusserlichen
+Gewandes kann den Wechsel der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas
+Federgewand, die Schwan- und Krähenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins
+Adlergewand. Die Wolfsgewänder (úlfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln
+den Menschen zum Wolfe”. See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel, Zeitschrift
+für deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">65</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:—The owner of fine beads fears that some
+witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with disease.</p>
+
+<p>As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman
+powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances given by
+Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met in Africa a native
+said to have power to transform himself into a lion. As lion he would
+stay for days and months in the <em>forest</em>, in a sacred hut, to which however
+his wife carried beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this
+lion did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was able
+to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine brought him by
+his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:—In Banana, Africa, the members of a certain
+family transform themselves in the <em>dark</em> of the <em>forest</em> into leopards.
+They throw down those they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them
+nor drink their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note <a href="#Footnote_83">83</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American Indians,
+who put on a wolf’s mantle to steal, or to recover stolen animals (Grinnell,
+Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the story of robbery entitled
+Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.). Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69,
+where the lowest caste of laborers are believed to have power to transform
+themselves into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They
+employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause, since it yields
+such returns. They are reported to act like other folk by day, at <em>night</em>
+though to assume the ways of wolves, kill their enemies and suck their
+blood, roaming about with other wolves till morning. They are supposed
+to gain their supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs.
+They are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since their
+roaming and plundering is done in the <em>night</em>; in the daytime they of
+course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p. 72).</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:—Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and
+Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the masses
+and the comparative learning of the few who practised it. Among the
+American Indians the medicine-man and the more expert sorceress have
+little learning above that of the body of the tribe, and their success depends
+entirely upon their own belief in being supernaturally gifted, and
+upon the faith and fear of their followers.</p>
+
+<p>The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly animal
+shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:—“An old blind wolf
+with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made his head and hands look
+like those of a wolf. The rest of his body was not changed. He was
+called a man-wolf.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">66</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:—Witches could and did assume animal
+shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire streaming from
+its mouth and nostrils. It was <em>night</em>. The man shot at it, and the next
+morning tracked it by the marks of blood from its wound. At a bridge a
+woman’s tracks took the place of the dog’s, and finally he found the
+woman. She had died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a
+hog, when pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared
+as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing. So they,
+the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian Indian one
+<em>evening</em> pursued a white bull with fire streaming from its nostrils. He had
+never seen a white bull on the reservation before. “As it passed in front of
+a house it was transformed into a man with a <em>large white blanket</em>, who was
+ever afterward known as a witch.”</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:—A man going out at <em>night</em> noticed a queer-looking
+burro. Upon his return home he was told that a large cat had entered
+the house. He went out again, discovered a man wrapped in a blanket,
+but not in the Zuñi fashion, his head was sunk low in the blanket.
+He knew this creature to be a wizard.</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:—That the medicine man (Shaman) has the
+faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and other animals at pleasure
+and then resuming the human form, is as implicitly believed in by the
+American Indians as it was by our own forefathers in Europe. And page
+459: The Abipones of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power
+to put on the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed
+the power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the Shamans
+of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz, p. 133 fol.:—“In der
+christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier
+entstand mit dem Hexenglauben die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich
+mit Hilfe des Satans aus reiner Mordlust zu Wölfen verwandeln. So wurde
+der Werwolf das Bild des tierisch Dämonischen in der Menschennatur.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">67</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:—The medicine-men of the Apache are paid
+at the time they are consulted, the priest beforehand among the Eskimo.
+Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: “The magnitude of the disease is generally measured
+by the amount of the patient’s worldly wealth.” Page 416:—Sioux
+sorcerers prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep.
+1901-2, p. 568:—“The shaman, like the theurgist is usually paid after each visit
+with calico, cotton, or food, according to the wealth of the family, since it is
+always understood that these doctors expect proper compensation for their
+services.” Page 387:—“The Zuñi doctor is paid according to his reputation.”
+Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: “In early days if a man
+remained sick for three or four weeks, all his possessions went to pay
+doctors’ fees.”</p>
+
+<p>Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.—The American Indian’s theory of disease
+is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian, the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman—all
+bodily disorders are attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that
+is of animal spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated.
+Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was language
+which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend. Page 468:—The
+medicine-men are accused of administering poisons to their enemies.
+Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:—Sioux sorcerers were thought to cause the
+death of those persons who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep.
+1887-88, p. 581:—“When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia
+he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his followers believe
+that he has become, the power he represents.” The Mexican priests
+masked and disguised, and dressed in the skins of the women offered
+up in sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest. Ethn.
+Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:—The Indian doctor relied far more on magic than on
+natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the drum, songs, magic feasts and
+dances, and howling were his ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story
+of the indian, p. 210 fol.:—They have “firm confidence in dreams.”
+“Their belief in a future life is in part founded on dreams,” etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">68</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>, close.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">69</span></a> An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain occurs Andree,
+p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal at one place, the
+latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming human form, they attack
+their enemy in the <em>night</em> at his home. This is the transformation of an
+animal into a man, but the inventor of the story was no doubt looking
+towards his own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which
+in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In Siam stories
+are told of people who by magic formulae become tigers and roam about
+at <em>night</em> in search of booty. One of the man-tigers was actually a priest.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">70</span></a> Ante pp. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">71</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a> fol.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">72</span></a> See notes <a href="#Footnote_19">19</a> and <a href="#Footnote_74">74</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">73</span></a> Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: “It is said that wolves,
+which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes went crazy,
+and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even coming into
+camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons bitten by a mad wolf
+generally went mad, too. They trembled and their limbs jerked, they
+made their jaws work and foamed at the mouth, often trying to bite other
+people. When any one acted in this way, his relatives tied him hand and
+foot with ropes, and, having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the
+green hide, built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until
+the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and removed the
+buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure for a mad wolf’s bite.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">74</span></a> Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a monomania
+themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this widespread disease
+or delusion (of the first century till late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.:
+“The sick” ones would prowl about burial places <em>at night</em>, imagining
+themselves to be <em>wolves</em> or <em>dogs</em>, and go about barking and howling. In
+the middle ages such people would even kill children and grown people.
+When they came to themselves again, or were cured, they claimed to
+know nothing of what had happened. Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst
+the Shamans feats of jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing
+the best of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of
+robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals, painted with
+shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The speaker terms himself
+a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">75</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_63">63</a>, <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>, <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, <a href="#Footnote_66">66</a>, <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>, <a href="#Footnote_69">69</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">76</span></a> See <a href="#point8">(8)</a> above.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">77</span></a> Page 71.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">78</span></a> Andree, p. 69.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">79</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of the origin of the
+wolf: “<em>The wolf</em> was a poor woman, who had so many children that she
+could not find enough for them to eat. They became so gaunt and
+hungry that they were changed into wolves, constantly roaming over the
+land seeking food.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">80</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a> fol.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">81</span></a> Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine the horrible
+howlings, and strange contortions that these jugglers (shamans) or conjurers
+make of their bodies, when they are disposing themselves to
+conjure.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">82</span></a> Page 71.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">83</span></a> Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician (Abyssinia),
+who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate animal-men the teeth of
+the persons whom they have killed during the year, with which he
+decorates his palace. See also pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151,
+about sorcery among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes
+of the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of Indian
+genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class of ambitious
+men and women sufficient influence through their acknowledged power of
+exorcism and necromancy to lead a comfortable life at the expense of the
+credulous. Page 162: “Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an
+order of priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It
+is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe that they can
+at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos,” etc. Sometimes one
+family constitutes the class. See note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>; Andree, p. 69.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">84</span></a> Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches were
+priestesses, physicians, fabulous <em>night</em>-wives, never as yet persecuted.
+Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into werewolves, and lose nothing
+in popular estimation. The abuse of a spell was punished. A wise
+woman, healing sickness and charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch
+only when with her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil’s
+complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the guilt of
+criminality fell upon all personal relations with him. Ethn. Rep.
+1901-2, p. 393: “Though the witch may be regarded as all powerful, none
+but the poor and unfortunate are condemned. Few others are even brought
+to trial—their prominence prevents public accusation.” This again reminds
+us some of our customs; namely, that of overlooking the transgressions
+of the rich and powerful. See note <a href="#Footnote_91">91</a>, and for outlaws note <a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">85</span></a> Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the body, and more
+particularly the eyes, so that many shamans (Siberia, America, etc.)
+become blind.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">86</span></a> Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia and Lithuania,
+according to two bishops, werewolves were in the 16th century
+far more destructive than “true and natural wolves.” They were asserted
+to have formed “an accursed college” of those “desirous of innovations
+contrary to the divine law.” Also see note <a href="#Footnote_90">90</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">87</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, and notes <a href="#Footnote_64">64</a>, <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>, <a href="#Footnote_66">66</a>, <a href="#Footnote_69">69</a>, <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>, <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>, <a href="#Footnote_110">110</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">88</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a> close, and note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">89</span></a> See ante p. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">90</span></a> Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a woman, whose
+husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his house, got hold of him
+later in his man shape and killed him. Feats similar to some performed
+by him are cited in Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the
+Pawnee swallowed arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of
+apparently killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zuñi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">91</span></a> Grimm, Rechtsalterthümer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle aus der
+ärmsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note <a href="#Footnote_84">84</a>). Literary Digest,
+March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism and Spirituality: “Many,
+very many, spiritualists seem to care for communion with spirits only that
+they may more surely keep physically well, and earn their bread and
+butter and clothing the easier.” Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The
+absurdity of the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for
+the theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in
+every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he was
+certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not being found in
+beast form was satisfactorily disposed of.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">92</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a> and <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">93</span></a> Notes <a href="#Footnote_9">9</a> and <a href="#Footnote_19">19</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">94</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">95</span></a> See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: “The deer, which is
+still common in the mountains, was the principal dependence of the
+Cherokee hunter, and is consequently prominent in myth, folklore, and
+ceremonial.” see note <a href="#Footnote_42">42</a>. Page 264: “The largest gens (clan) in the
+tribe bears the name of ‘wolf people.’” Page 420: The Cherokee
+have always been an agricultural people, and their old country has a
+luxuriant flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more important
+place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe than it does
+among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid sage deserts of the West.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">96</span></a> The St. Louis “Westliche Post” for January 9, 1908, furnishes
+another example: A tame wolf which for the past two years has been a
+pet in a farmer’s family at Marshfield, Wisconsin, escaped and attacked
+a chicken. The farmer’s daughter called to the wolf, but it had become
+wild from the taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and
+one leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released until
+she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar.</p>
+
+<p>Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13, 1908,
+shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite populous districts:
+“Wolf-Plage. Aus dem nördlichen Wisconsin wird gemeldet, dass
+Wölfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind denn je, und dass sie, durch
+Hunger getrieben, sich nahe an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere
+und auch Menschen angreifen. Zwei grosse Wölfe griffen in dieser Woche
+das Pferd der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den
+Wald, wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien
+verscheuchten.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">97</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">98</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_20">20</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">99</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_109">109</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">100</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_24">24</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">101</span></a> Close of note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">102</span></a> John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives the origin
+and development of the werewolf as follows: From the conception of
+wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to the conception of corporeal
+werewolves.... Christianity did not fail to impart a new and fearful
+character to the belief in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as
+a species of witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the
+Devil. It was often necessary to kill one’s enemies, and at that time some
+even killed for love of it (like the Berserker); often a sort of homicidal
+madness, during which they would array themselves in the skins of wolves
+or bears and sally forth by <em>night</em> to crack the backbones, smash the skulls
+and sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary travelers or
+loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an invention of excited
+imagination. So people attributed a wolf’s nature to the maniac or idiot
+with cannibal appetites, then the myth-forming process assigned to the
+unfortunate wretch a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1.
+Worship of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of transformation
+of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The storm-wind
+was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead men’s souls or as the howling
+of wolf-like monsters (called by Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness
+and cannibalism, accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted
+as due to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf
+superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on a
+wolf’s skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence of the fact alleged
+of Berserkers haunting the woods by <em>night</em>, clothed in hides of wolves
+or bears. A permanent cure was effected by burning the werewolf’s sack,
+unless the Devil furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively,
+to become incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the
+outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is the night-wind—a
+kind of leader of departed souls, howling in the wintry blasts.
+Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:—The Berserkir of Iceland dressed in
+the skins of bears and wolves, and further on: “Beastform is in mythology
+proper far oftener assumed for malignant than for benignant ends.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">103</span></a> Ante p. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">104</span></a> Note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">105</span></a> Close note <a href="#Footnote_65">65</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">106</span></a> Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">107</span></a> Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our oldest native
+notions make the assumption of wolf-shape depend on arraying oneself in a
+wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as transformation into a swan does on putting on the
+swan-shirt or swan-ring. Page 1095: “The transformation need not be
+for a magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured into, a
+wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the appearance, he
+acquires also the fierceness and howling of the wolf; roaming the <em>woods</em>,
+he rends to pieces everything that comes in his way.” This is like the belief
+of the American Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued
+with the spirit of the being which his mask represents (note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>); or that
+the shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers believe
+that he has become, the power he represents (note <a href="#Footnote_67">67</a>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">108</span></a> Thus some American Indian stories represent men transformed into
+wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or piece of decayed wood when pursued.
+And mantles of invisibility are mentioned in note <a href="#Footnote_60">60</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">109</span></a> See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: “Unter den grossen Raubtieren
+treten uns Bär und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen. Der Wolf ist
+freilich überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber ganz sicher
+ein Waldtier,” etc. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy: “In England by
+the 17th century the werewolf had long been extinct. Only small creatures,
+the cat, hare, weasel, etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to
+transform himself into.” See note <a href="#Footnote_11">11</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">110</span></a> Amongst the American Indians, where various larger animals were
+common, the designation “wolf-people” (see the sign-language of the
+plains) was bestowed especially on the Pawnees, because, as we have seen,
+they best imitated wolves. In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the
+wolf alone was universally common, the designation “wolf-people” (or if we
+choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one locality or people,
+but was bestowed in general on those who assumed the manner of wolves,
+and because of their crimes became outcasts like the wolves. They best
+imitate wolves, and no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as
+wolves (see note <a href="#Footnote_102">102</a>), and for this reason the <em lang="no" xml:lang="no">warg</em> or outlaw came to be
+called a <em>wolf</em> (see close of note <a href="#Footnote_112">112</a>). Thus Golther, Mythologie, p. 102,
+says: “Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder getötet, so findet man einen
+wunden oder toten Menschen.” The werewolves, as we have seen (ante
+p. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>), keep to the <em>woods</em> and the <em>dark</em>, of course in many cases to avoid
+detection. Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: “They say that
+witches love the <em>night</em> and lurk in <em>shadows and darkness</em>. Witches are
+believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts.” Sigmund and Sinfjötli
+dwelt as wolves in the <em>woods</em>. Also the progenitor of the Mýramenn in
+Iceland at <em>night</em> could leave his house in wolf’s form. Another Norwegian
+account reports how earlier many people were able to take on wolf’s
+form, then dwelt in <em>grove</em> and <em>woods</em>, where they tore people to pieces,
+etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note <a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">111</span></a> Names. See note <a href="#Footnote_31">31</a>. The development in the case of names was
+perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note <a href="#Footnote_57">57</a>), and of the werewolf
+superstition itself (ante p. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, fol.); namely, a) protection against outside
+agencies was sought; b) growth of supernaturalism; c) element of
+humor.</p>
+
+<p>a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: “Children are often
+named <em>wolf</em>, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their supernatural foes” (for
+similar assumption of characteristics or the nature of animals for personal
+advantage see note <a href="#Footnote_33">33</a>). See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III.
+1139: “The escort of <em>wolf</em> or <em>raven</em> augured victory;” and in the note:
+“A name of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;G.
+<em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wolf-hraban</em> (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly promised
+victory. Old names are no product of pure chance. Servian mothers
+name a son they have longed for, <em lang="sr" xml:lang="sr">Vuk</em>, <em>Wolf</em>: then the witches can’t eat
+him up. O.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;G. <em>Wolfbizo</em> was a lucky name, i.&nbsp;e., one bitten by the
+wolf and thereby protected,” like our modern curing of like by like in
+medicine.</p>
+
+<p>b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development
+mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about the conferring
+of secret names, since one could harm a person by his name
+alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning his name: “Wenn
+man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g’rennt.” Again in XXI. 313 fol.: It
+was dangerous to name <em>bear</em> or <em>wolf</em> in regions infested by these animals,
+so people, out of fear, avoided calling the name of such animals; called
+the bear for example <em>honey-eater</em>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his fear of
+them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and humor enter in, and
+such names arise as are mentioned in note <a href="#Footnote_53">53</a>; and such stories as that of
+Romulus and Remus, suckled by a wolf.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">112</span></a> Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic Mythology,
+III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws who have fled to
+the woods. A notable instance is that of Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the
+Völsungasaga. In regard to this W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen
+mythologie, Leipzig 1895, p. 102, says: “Die Sage mag auf einem
+alten Misverständniss beruhen. <em>Warg</em>, <em>Wolf</em> hiess der Geächtete in der
+germanischen Rechtssprache. <em>Warg</em> wurde wörtlich als <em>Wolf</em> verstanden,
+und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte.” Golther again, p. 424:—“Gefesselt
+wurde Loki als Ächter in den Wald getrieben, er wurde “<em>Warg</em>”,
+d. h. <em>Wolf</em>. <em>Wölfe</em> heissen die friedlosen Waldgänger.” As to <em>warg</em>, Schade
+in his altdeutsches Wörterbuch defines it as a räuberisch würgendes
+wütendes Wesen, Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise,
+geächteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetäter; <em>warg</em> ist Benennung
+des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und vertragbrüchiger
+Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden durch Mord gebrochen und
+landflüchtig geworden, oder nun im wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere
+haust und wie der Wolf ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche
+auf Island Bezeichnung einer gewalttätigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm,
+Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American Indians
+relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67 fol.: An outlaw is one
+who by his crimes has placed himself without the protection of his clan,
+is not defended in case he is injured by another. When the sentence of
+outlawry has been declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the
+duty of the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the
+council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty of any member
+of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill him like an animal. Page 60
+fol.: “The chief of the Wolf gens is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe”
+(see also Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the <em>woods</em> and the
+<em>dark</em>. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal skins, and to
+terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves. Since therefore so many
+outlaws lived, dressed (note <a href="#Footnote_22">22</a> close) and acted like wolves, to all intents
+and purposes became wolves, <em>wolf</em> and outlaw became synonymous terms.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">113</span></a> The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night in Germany
+is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people believed that werewolves,
+etc., entered houses at night. In place of the earlier harmful
+werewolf is now the “harmful” night air.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="l1" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a><br />
+<a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><span class="smcap">Andree, Richard.</span> Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche. Stuttgart,
+1878.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Behaghel, Otto.</span> Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Braune, Wilhelm.</span> Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brockhaus, F. A.</span> Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bureau of American Ethnology.</span> Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dilthey, Wilhelm.</span> Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Edda.</span> Die lieder der älteren edda. Paderborn, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Encyclopaedia britannica.</span> New York, 1883, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Erman, Adolf.</span> Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fiske, John.</span> Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Freytag, Gustav.</span> Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Golther, W.</span> Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Rechtsaltertümer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grimm, Jakob.</span> Teutonic mythology. Translation by J.&nbsp;S. Stallybrass,
+London, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, George Bird.</span> Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, G. B.</span> Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, G. B.</span> Story of the Indian. New York, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hertz, W.</span> Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hirt, H.</span> Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Indogermanische forschungen.</span> Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904,
+1907.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kluge, F.</span> Etymologisches wörterbuch der deutschen sprache. Strassburg,
+1905.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lemcke, K.</span> Aesthetik in gemeinverständlichen vorträgen. Leipzig, 1890.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Leubuscher, R.</span> Über die wehrwölfe und thierverwandlungen im mittelalter.
+Berlin, 1850.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Literary digest.</span> New York and London, March 9, 1907.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meyers.</span> Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Paul, H.</span> Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Schade, O.</span> Altdeutsches wörterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Schrader, O.</span> Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde. Strassburg,
+1901.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Völsungasaga.</span> Ranisch, Berlin, 1891.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Westliche post.</span> St. Louis.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wundt, W.</span> Völkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für deutsches altertum.</span> Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für deutsche philologie.</span> Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="l1" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<p class="num">[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.]</p>
+
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li>Abipones, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Abyssinia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Africa, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Alligator, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>America, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>American Indians, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Anglo-Saxons, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Animals, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Animal fable, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Arabia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Arawaks, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Arcadia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Asia, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Assyrians, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Bear, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_38">38</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Belgium, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Benignant, <i><a href="#Footnote_4">4</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_38">38</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Berserkr, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Bird, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bison, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_32">32</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Bohemia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Borneo, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Bretons, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Bulgaria, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Burchard von Worms, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Burmah, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Celebrations, <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Ceylon, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Charms, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clothing, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coyote, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Dancing, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_32">32</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_33">33</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_34">34</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Dante, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Death, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Decoy, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_30">30</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Denmark, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Dog, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Dreams, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Edda, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Enemy, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_48">48</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>English, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Eskimo, <i><a href="#Footnote_30">30</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Europe, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Fenrisûlfr, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_51">51</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Finns, <i><a href="#Footnote_5">5</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Fish, <i><a href="#Footnote_5">5</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Fisherman, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Food, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Fox, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>French, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Germany, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Greece, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Greenland, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Harmful, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_51">51</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Herds, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Herodotus, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Hindoos, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Homer, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Hunter, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Hyena, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Iceland, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>India, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Indogermanic, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Insanity, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_73">73</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Iranians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Ireland, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Italians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Jackal, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Jaguar, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Japan, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Kadiak, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Kelts, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Knut, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Lapps, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leopard, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Leubuscher, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Lion, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Lithuanians, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Loki, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Lycanthropy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Lykaon, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Magic, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Malignant, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_4">4</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Mask, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_37">37</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Mastodon, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Medicinemen (Shamans), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_85">85</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_90">90</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Mexico, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Murder, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Myths, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Names, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Netherlands, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Neurians, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Night, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>North America, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Norway, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Odin, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Island Oesel, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Otter, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Outlaw, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Owl, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Pawnees, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Persia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Plants, <i><a href="#Footnote_42">42</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_95">95</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Poles, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Portuguese, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Posen, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Priests, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Professionals, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_81">81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_86">86</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Provencal, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Prussia, <i><a href="#Footnote_14">14</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Reindeer, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Religion, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_24">24</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Revenge, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Robber, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_44">44</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Romans, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Russia, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Scandinavia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Scout, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_48">48</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Scythians, <i><a href="#Footnote_6">6</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Seal, <i><a href="#Footnote_29">29</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Serpent, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Servia, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Shepherds, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Siam, <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Sinfjötli, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Song, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_33">33</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Skins (or dress) of animals, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_21">21</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_34">34</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_53">53</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_63">63</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_108">108</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>South America, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_12">12</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Speech (animals), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stories, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_27">27</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Supernaturalism, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_57">57</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Superstition, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Sweden, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Tiger, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_90">90</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Totemism, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_47">47</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Transformation, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_11">11</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_19">19</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_52">52</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_69">69</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></li>
+<li>Traps, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_31">31</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Tschechs, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Turkey, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_108">108</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Volhynia, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_16">16</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Völsungasaga, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Wales, <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Warfare, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_60">60</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Weapons, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Werewolf, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_9">9</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_20">20</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_22">22</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_45">45</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_64">64</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_86">86</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_91">91</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_107">107</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_112">112</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_113">113</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Wiener Hundesegen, <i><a href="#Footnote_15">15</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Witches, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; <i><a href="#Footnote_65">65</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_66">66</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_67">67</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_74">74</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_83">83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_84">84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_91">91</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_102">102</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_109">109</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_110">110</a></i>, <i><a href="#Footnote_111">111</a></i>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<div class="tnote">
+<p class="tn"><a name="Transcribers_note" id="Transcribers_note"></a>Transcriber’s note</p>
+
+
+<p>The cover of this book was created by the transcriber and is placed in
+the public domain.</p>
+
+<p>Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were
+added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they
+were referred to in other notes. The notes were gathered at the end of
+the text and provided with links.</p>
+
+<p>“Völsungasaga” and “Sinfjötli” were in the original mostly written with
+a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader's
+convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common
+spelling with ö.</p>
+
+<p>Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added.
+In note 12 “and” was changed to “und” (seltener in Frankreich
+und Belgien).</p>
+
+<p>Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and
+missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent
+spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by 
+Caroline Taylor Stewart
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by
+Caroline Taylor Stewart
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition
+
+Author: Caroline Taylor Stewart
+
+Release Date: November 8, 2013 [EBook #44134]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Note: Errors in German quotes and booktitles were mostly not corrected.
+A more detailed transcriber's note can be found at the end of this text.
+
+
+
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE WEREWOLF SUPERSTITION.[1]
+
+      [1] NOTE.--After the author had written the following article,
+      she gathered most of the material contained in the notes. That
+      the origin and development of the use of masks as given in
+      the Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Ethnology,
+      1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see note 32) is similar to the origin and
+      development of the werewolf superstition itself, as given in
+      the following pages, was an unexpected coincidence. The author
+      has italicized some words in the quotations.
+
+
+The belief that a human being is capable of assuming an animal's form,
+most frequently that of a wolf, is an almost worldwide superstition.
+Such a transformed person is the Germanic werewolf, or man-wolf; that
+is, a wolf which is really a human being.[2] So the werewolf was a
+man in wolf's form or wolf's dress,[2] seen mostly at night,[3] and
+believed generally to be harmful to man.[4]
+
+      [2] According to Mogk, in Paul's Grundriss der germanischen
+      Philologie III. 272 _wer_ means "man," found in Old Saxon,
+      Anglo-Saxon, Old High German, and werewolf a man in wolf's
+      form. Koegel connects _wer_ with Gothic _wasjan_ "kleiden."
+      "Darum bedeutet _werwolf_ eigentlich Wolfsgewand ulfshamr;
+      aehnlich bedeutet vielleicht _berserkr_ Baerengewand," therefore
+      werewolf according to Koegel means a wolf's dress. See also
+      Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde.
+
+      [3] Post p. 24.
+
+      [4] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV. 90 fol., 1883:--Beastform in
+      mythology proper is far oftener assumed for malignant than for
+      benignant ends. See note 52.
+
+The origin of this werewolf superstition has not been satisfactorily
+explained. Adolf Erman[5] explains the allusion of Herodotus[6] to the
+transformation of the Neurians (the people of the present Volhynia, in
+West Russia) into wolves as due merely to their appearance in winter,
+dressed in their furs. This explanation, however, would not fit similar
+superstitions in warm climes. Others ascribe the origin of lycanthropy
+to primitive Totemism, in which the totem is an animal revered by the
+members of a tribe and supposed to be hostile to their enemies.[7]
+Still another explanation is that of a leader of departed souls as the
+original werewolf.[8]
+
+      [5] Reise um die erde durch Nordasien, Berlin, 1833, I. 232.
+
+      [6] Herodotus says of the Neurians, that among Scythians and
+      Greeks settled in Scythia they pass for magicians, because once
+      a year every Neurian becomes a wolf for a few days, and then
+      resumes the human form. See concerning this also Hirt, Die
+      Indogermanen, I. 120.
+
+      [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXIII. 467 fol.
+
+      [8] Note 102, also see note 22.
+
+The explanation of the origin of the belief in werewolves must be one
+which will apply the world over, as the werewolf superstition is found
+pretty much all over the earth,[9] especially to-day[10] however in
+Northwest Germany and Slavic lands; namely, in the lands where the
+wolf is most common.[11][12] According to Mogk[13] the superstition
+prevails to-day especially in the north and east of Germany.[14]
+
+      [9] See also Mogk in Paul's Grundriss, III. 272. Dr. Rud.
+      Leubuscher, Ueber die Wehrwoelfe und Thierverwandlungen im
+      Mittelalter, Berlin, 1850, mentions cases in ancient Arcadia,
+      in Arabia, Abyssinia (hyenas), and the almost epidemic disease
+      in the Middle Ages. Dr. W. Hertz, Der Werwolf, Stuttgart,
+      1862, ascribes the superstition to Armenia, Egypt, Abyssinia
+      (hyenas), Greece (pages 20-28), but not to India, contrary to
+      Encyc. Brit. below; on p. 133 he says: "Tierverwandlungen sind
+      allgemein menschlich, finden wir ueberall. Die eigentuemliche
+      Entwicklung der Werwolfsagen aber finden wir vorzugsweise
+      bei einer bestimmten Voelkergruppe, den arischen Staemmen der
+      Griechen, Roemer, Kelten, Germanen und Slaven; bei den suedwaerts
+      gezogenen Staemmen der Inder und Iranier sind uns gleiche
+      Sagen nicht begegnet [but see below]. Am massenhaftesten
+      treten die Werwoelfe bei den Slaven auf, und ihnen gehoert die
+      aelteste historische Erwaehnung der Sage; viel aelter aber ist
+      der Lykaon Mythus und arkadische Werwoelfe". According to
+      Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, Stuttgart,
+      1878, ss. 62-80, the superstition is found in every European
+      country (amongst Anglo-Saxons, English, French, Bretons, Poles,
+      Tschechs, Lithuanians, White Russians of Poland, inhabitants
+      of island Oesel, Russians, Italians, Portuguese, Provencal
+      peoples, Greeks, Kelts, in Asia, Africa, America; but not in
+      India nor Persia, contrary to Encyc. Brit. below), especially
+      though in northwestern Germany and in Slavic lands.
+
+      As to the American Indians, see Ethnological Report for
+      1880-81, p. 83, "From their close relations with wild animals
+      Indians' stories of transformations into beasts and beasts
+      into men are numerous and interesting.... In times of peace,
+      during the long winter evenings, some famous storyteller told
+      of those days in the past when men and animals could transform
+      themselves at will and hold converse with one another."
+
+      Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, Bell & Sons, 1883, II. 668
+      says no metamorphosis occurs more frequently in Germanic
+      antiquities than that of men into werewolves. Thus Fenrisulfr,
+      a son of Loki, makes his appearance in wolf's shape among the
+      gods.
+
+      Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol., under the heading Lycanthropy,
+      states:--A belief firmly rooted among all savages is that
+      men are in certain circumstances transformed temporarily or
+      permanently into wolves and other inferior animals. In Europe
+      the transformation into a wolf is by far more prominent and
+      frequent (amongst Greeks, Russians, English, Germans, French,
+      Scandinavians). Belief in metamorphosis into the animal most
+      prominent in any locality itself acquires a special prominence.
+      Thus the were-_wolf_ prevails in Europe, also in England,
+      Wales, Ireland; and in S. France, the Netherlands, Germany,
+      Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, Poland, Russia, he can
+      hardly be pronounced extinct now (see note 12). In Denmark,
+      Sweden, Norway and Iceland the _bear_ competes with the wolf
+      for pre-eminence. In Persia the _bear_ is supreme; in Japan the
+      _fox_; in India the _serpent_ vies with the _tiger_ (contrary
+      to Mogk in Paul's Grd., III. 272, who says:--"Nur Griechen,
+      Roemer, Kelten, Germanen, Slaven unter den indogermanischen
+      Voelkern kennen den Werwolf, den Indern und Iraniern ist er
+      unbekannt." Compare notes 6 and 9, Hertz, p. 133); in Abyssinia
+      and Borneo the _hyena_ with the _lion_; in E. Africa the _lion_
+      with the _alligator_; in W. Africa the _leopard_ is perhaps
+      most frequently the form assumed by man; among the Abipones the
+      _tiger_, among the Arawaks the _jaguar_, etc.
+
+      In Brockhaus' Konversations-Lexikon, for the Middle Ages the
+      werewolf belief is ascribed to all Slavic, Keltic, Germanic and
+      Romanic peoples; found to-day especially in Volhynia and White
+      Russia.
+
+      Paul, Grundriss, III. 272:--Bei den Angelsachsen laesst sich der
+      Werwolf im 11. Jahrh. nachweisen: Knut befahl den Priestern,
+      ihre Herden vor dem werewulf zu schirmen.... Das aelteste
+      Zeugnis auf deutschem Gebiete vom Werwolf ist vom Burchard v.
+      Worms (11 century).
+
+      [10] See note 9.
+
+      [11] Encyc. Brit. XV. 89 fol.:--There can nowhere be a living
+      belief in contemporary metamorphosis into any animal which
+      has ceased to exist in the particular locality. Belief in
+      metamorphosis into the animal most prominent in any locality
+      itself acquires a special prominence. (See note 12.) In none
+      of these cases however is the power of transformation limited
+      exclusively to the prominent and dominant animal.
+
+      [12] Encyc. Brit. XXIV. 628 fol. under _Wolf_:--The wolf is
+      found in nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, North America
+      from Greenland to Mexico, the Indian peninsula, but not in
+      Ceylon, Burmah or Siam; and not in South America or Africa, in
+      the two latter jackals instead.
+
+      Meyer's Kleines konversations-lexikon:--Der wolf "ist haeufig
+      in Ost- und Nordeuropa, Mittel- und Nordasien, Nordamerika,
+      seltener in Frankreich und Belgien, den Herden gefaehrlich,
+      besonders in Russland." Encyc. Brit., XXIV under _Wolf_:--In
+      northern countries the wolf is generally larger and more
+      powerful than in the southern portion of its range. Its habits
+      are similar everywhere. It has from time immemorial been known
+      to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of
+      his flocks of sheep. It has speed and remarkable endurance.
+      They usually assemble in troops or packs, except in summer, and
+      by their combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower
+      and kill even such great animals as the American bison.
+      Children and even grown people are not infrequently attacked by
+      them when pressed for hunger. The ferocity of the wolf in the
+      wild state is proverbial. Even when tamed, they can rarely be
+      trusted by strangers.
+
+      [13] Paul, Grundriss, III. 272.
+
+      [14] Gustav Freytag, Bilder aus neuer zeit, Leipzig, 1904, p.
+      275 fol., speaking of the Polish borderlands, says: "Noch lebte
+      das Landvolk in ohnmaechtigem Kampf mit den Heerden der Woelfe,
+      wenig Doerfer, welchen nicht in jedem Winter Menschen und Thiere
+      decimirt wurden," and in the same note 2, pp. 275-6:--"Als 1815
+      die gegenwaertige Provinz Posen an Preussen zurueckfiel, waren
+      auch dort die Woelfe eine Landplage. Nach Angaben der Posener
+      Provinzialblaetter wurden im Regierungsbezirk Posen vom 1. Sept.
+      1815 his Ende Februar 1816, 41 Woelfe erlegt, noch im Jahre 1819
+      im Kreise Wongrowitz 16 Kinder und 3 Erwachsene von Woelfen
+      gefressen."
+
+The werewolf superstition is an old one, a primitive one.[15] The
+point in common everywhere is the transformation of a living human
+being into an animal, into a wolf in regions where the wolf was
+common[16] into a lion, hyena or leopard in Africa, where these animals
+are common; into a tiger or serpent in India;[17] in other localities
+into other animals characteristic of the region.[18] Among Lapps
+and Finns occur transformations into the bear, wolf, reindeer, fish
+or birds; amongst many North Asiatic peoples, as also some American
+Indians, into the bear; amongst the latter also into the fox, wolf,
+turkey or owl; in South America, besides into a tiger or jaguar,
+also into a fish, or serpent. Most universal though it seems was the
+transformation into wolves or dogs.[19]
+
+      [15] Thus in note 6 was mentioned Herodotus' (484-425 B. C.)
+      statement about the Neurians. The oldest werewolf legend,
+      according to Hertz, is that of Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos,
+      the first king of ancient Arcadia. These Arcadians lived as
+      huntsmen and shepherds. According to J. Oppert (Andree, p. 65;
+      and notes 6 and 9) the werewolf superstition existed amongst
+      the Assyrians; and Andree states, the oldest Hellenic werewolf
+      myth is found in Pausanias (died 467 B. C). In the Norse "Edda"
+      we find Odin's wolves, also Skoell, Hati and Fenrir. In the
+      Voelsunga Saga, Sigmund and Sinfjoetli become wolves. For other
+      reflections of the fear in which wolves were held, see the
+      10th century ms. of the "Wiener Hundesegen" against male and
+      female wolves (Braune, Althochdeutsches Lesebuch, 6. aufl.
+      1907, p. 85). Jacob Grimm,--Geschichte der deutschen sprache
+      s. 233:--"Unsere thierfabel stellt vortrefflich das gebannte
+      raubthier des waldes dar, und lehrt die naehe des wolfs und
+      fuchses."
+
+      C. Lemcke, Aesthetik, 6. aufl. II. 1890, s. 562:--"In die
+      aeltesten Zeiten hinauf reicht auch bei Jaegervoelkern die
+      Tiersage, in ihrer Weise zum Teil die Eigentuemlichkeiten der
+      Tiere erklaerend, ihr Gebahren erzaehlend. Die furchtbaren und
+      die listigen Tiere boten sich am besten dar.... Wo die Menschen
+      staedtisch beisammen wohnen, bleibt Tier Tier; wo sie einsamer
+      mit Tieren leben, bekommen diese eine hoehere Bedeutung. So wird
+      dem Waeldler Baer und Wolf zum ebenbuertigen Raeuber und Kaempfer,
+      menschlicher aufgefasst zum Gegner voll Mut, List, Rachsucht,
+      der Gedanken hat wie der Mensch selbst."
+
+      [16] Volhynia, Europe, Northern Asia. Formerly, according to
+      Andree, p. 65, the wolf was as common throughout Europe as it
+      is to-day in Russia. Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187, says: "Der
+      Wolf ist ueberall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Baer ist aber
+      ganz sicher ein Waldtier."
+
+      [17] Note 9.
+
+      [18] Cf. note 9, Encyc. Brit.
+
+      [19] Leubuscher, p. 1:--Weil die Verwandlung vorzugsweise in
+      Hunde und Woelfe geschehen sollte, so erhielt die Krankheit den
+      namen Lykanthropie.
+
+As the superstition is so widespread--Germany, Eastern Europe, Africa,
+Asia, America, it either arose at a very early time, when all these
+peoples were in communication with each other[20] or else, in accord
+with another view of modern science, it arose independently in various
+continents in process of the natural psychical development of the human
+race under similar conditions.
+
+      [20] Or as Mogk in Paul's Grd., III. 272 expresses it, for
+      example amongst the West Indogermanic peoples when they still
+      formed a whole, as shepherds, by whom the wolf as robber of
+      herds was especially feared. Leubuscher, p. 55 writes: "Die
+      meisten Lykanthropen waren Hirten, die im Freien lebten,
+      mit Tieren viel verkehrten, und der Wolf schwebte ihrer
+      Einbildungskraft am oeftersten vor, weil sie am meisten damit
+      zu kaempfen hatten. Wenn das Gespenst des Wehrwolfes sich in
+      Einzelnen als Krankheit erhob, war die Gegend wahrscheinlich
+      von Woelfen besonders beunruhigt worden, und wahrscheinlich
+      manche Mordthat nur von Woelfen begangen." Ethn. Rep. 1888-89,
+      p. 282:--"The Dakotas have long believed in the appearance
+      from time to time of a monstrous animal that swallows human
+      beings. The superstition was perhaps suggested by the bones of
+      mastodons, often found in the territory of those Indians."
+
+The origin of the superstition must have been an old custom of
+primitive man's of putting on a wolf's or other animal's skin[21]
+or dress, or a robe.[22] Thus Leubuscher,[23] says: "Es ist der
+Mythenkreis eines jeden Volkes aus einfachen wahren Begebenheiten
+hervorgewachsen."[24][25] Likely also the notion of attributing speech
+to animals originated from such disguising or dressing of men as
+animals. In the following we shall examine into primitive man's reasons
+for putting on such a skin or robe.
+
+      [21] Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. 267:--In celebrations it is
+      possible that the foxskin so universally worn by the animistic
+      personifications is a survival comparable with the skin of the
+      animal in which formerly the whole body was clothed.
+
+      [22] Hertz, p. 17, gives the origin as follows: "In der
+      aeltesten Naturreligion ist die Gottheit des Todes und der
+      winterlichen Erde als Wolf gedacht. Ihre Priester trugen wohl
+      in der Vorzeit Wolfsfelle und hatten nach dem Volksglauben
+      die Gabe, sich in das Tier der Gottheit zu verwandeln. Der
+      Wolf, als das schnelle, kampfgewandte Tier, war zum raschen
+      Zuruecklegen weiter Wege und zur Erlegung von Feinden besonders
+      geeignet. Darum nahmen die Goetter und die zauberbegabten
+      Menschen zu solchen Zwecken Wolfsgestalt. Der Wolf ist von
+      Natur gefaehrlich und wurde darum als diabolisch gedacht, und
+      beim Werwolfe auch ist Drang nach Mord und Zerstoerung die
+      Hauptsache. Die Urspruenge des Werwolfglaubens waren also 1.
+      religioese Vorstellungen, 2. Rechtsvorstellung (der friedlose
+      Moerder ist ein Wolf bei Griechen und Germanen); 3. die
+      Geisteskrankheit der Lykanthropie." Page 51. "Die Verwandlung
+      in Woelfe geschieht vorzugsweise durch Wolfshemden." Page 57:
+      "Dass die von allem menschlichen Verkehr abgeschnittenen
+      Waldfluechtigen sich in Tierfelle kleideten, ist nahe liegend."
+
+      [23] Page 46. See also note 9.
+
+      [24] Similarly Dilthey, Erlebnis und Dichtung, 1906, p.
+      153 fol.;--"Ist so die Einbildungskraft in Mythos und
+      Goetterglauben, zunaechst gebunden an das Beduerfnis des Lebens,
+      so sondert sie sich doch allmaehlich im Verlauf der Kultur von
+      den religioesen Zweckbeziehungen und erhebt jene zweite Welt
+      zu einer unabhaengigen Bedeutsamkeit"--like Homer, Dante, etc.
+      See note 20, close, and Encyc. Brit., Lycanthropy:--"Insane
+      delusions must reflect the usages and beliefs of
+      contemporaneous society."
+
+      [25] Notes 20, 21 and 27.
+
+Primitive man was face to face with animal foes, and had to conquer
+them or be destroyed. The werewolf superstition in Europe arose
+probably while the Greeks, Romans, Kelts and Germanic peoples were
+still in contact with each other, if not in the original Indo-Germanic
+home, for they all have the superstition (unless, as above, we prefer
+to regard the belief as arising in various localities in process of
+psychical development under similar conditions; namely, when people
+still lived principally by the chase.[26]) Probably the primitive
+Indo-European man before and at the time of the origin of the werewolf
+superstition, was almost helpless in the presence of inexorable nature.
+This was before he used metal for weapons. The great business of life
+was to secure food. Food was furnished from three sources, roots,
+berries, animals, and the most important of these was animals.[27]
+Without efficient weapons, it was difficult to kill an animal of any
+size, in fact the assailant was likely himself to be killed. Yet
+primitive man had to learn to master the brute foe. Soon he no longer
+crouched in sheltered places and avoided the enemy, but began to watch
+and study it, to learn its habits, to learn what certain animals would
+do under certain circumstances, to learn what would frighten them away
+or what would lure them on. So at least the large animals were to early
+man a constant cause of fear and source of danger; yet it was necessary
+to have their flesh for food and their skins for clothing.[28]
+
+      [26] See note 15.
+
+      [27] Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 54, says:--Traces of the
+      fear in which buffalo "were held may still be discovered in the
+      traditional stories of certain tribes, which set forth how, in
+      those days," [i. e. in the stone age] "before men were provided
+      with arms, the buffalo used to chase, kill, and eat the
+      people. Such tales show very clearly how greatly the buffalo
+      were dreaded in ancient times, and such fear could hardly
+      have arisen save as the result of actual experience of their
+      power to inflict injury and death." Pliny informs us how the
+      Romans kept the wolf out of their fields, see Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1241. Whether the Indians lived on the steppes,
+      in the woods, on the coast, or in the mountains, the animals
+      were their whole study. They moved with the animals, followed
+      them for food.
+
+      [28] Note 27.
+
+Very soon various ingenious contrivances were devised for trapping
+them. No doubt one primitive method was the use of decoys to lure
+animals into a trap. Some could be lured by baits, others more easily
+by their kind. Occasionally masks were used,[29] and similarly, another
+form of the original decoy was no doubt simply the stuffed skin of a
+member of the species, whether animal or bird, say for example a wild
+duck.[30] Of course the hunter would soon hit on the plan of himself
+putting on the animal skin, in the case of larger animals; that is, an
+individual dressed for example in a wolf's skin could approach near
+enough to a solitary wolf to attack it with his club, stone or other
+weapon, without exciting the wolf's suspicion of the nearness of a
+dangerous foe.[31] So the animal disguise, entire or partial, was used
+by early man acting in the capacity of a decoy, firstly, to secure
+food and clothing. Secondly, he would assume animal disguise, whole
+or partial, in dancing and singing; and both these accomplishments
+seem to have arisen from the imitation of the motions and cries of
+animals,[32] at first to lure them, when acting as a decoy. With growth
+of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and an additional reason for
+acquiring dance and song was to secure charms against bodily ills,[33]
+and finally enlivenment.[34] In both dance and song, when used for a
+serious purpose, the performers imagined themselves to be the animals
+they were imitating,[35] and in the dance they wore the skins of the
+animals represented.[36]
+
+      [29] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 122, note:--It seems that masks
+      were occasionally used as decoys.... Next to the otter the
+      most valuable animal in the estimation of the Kadiak men, is
+      the species of seal or sea-dog called by the Russians nerpa.
+      The easiest manner of taking it is to entice it toward the
+      shore. A fisherman, concealing the lower part of his body among
+      the rocks, puts on his head a wooden cap or rather casque
+      resembling the head of a seal and makes a noise like that
+      animal. The unsuspicious seal, imagining that he is about to
+      meet a partner of his own species, hastens to the spot and is
+      instantly killed. Compare note 57.
+
+      [30] Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 132:--Bering Strait Eskimo stuff
+      rudely the skin of the bird called ptarmigan, and mount it upon
+      a stick which holds the head outstretched, then imitate the
+      call of the bird, which is trapped in the net attached to the
+      decoy. Other decoys are made by molding soft snow into the form
+      of a bird; for the ptarmigan, brown moss is put around the neck
+      for plumage. The call then brought the real birds.
+
+      [31] Thus G. B. Grinnell, Story of the Indian, p. 61, in his
+      description of the primitive Indians' method of trapping
+      buffalo, says: "Some men went forth naked, others carried a
+      dress made of the entire skin of a buffalo, the head and horns
+      arranged like a buffalo head, while the rest of the skin hung
+      down over the wearer's back," etc. This "caller" went near to a
+      herd of buffalo, got them in pursuit of him, then led them into
+      the trap, a chute, or to a precipice, the fall from which often
+      proved fatal to the entire herd. Again, in Ethn. Rep. 1884-85,
+      p. 484, about Central Eskimo seal hunting, is stated: If a
+      hunter is close to an animal he imitates its movements. Some
+      utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal. "The sealskin
+      clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is
+      difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance."
+      And on p. 508, about deer hunting: In a plain the Central
+      Eskimos carry guns on their shoulders, two men going together,
+      so as to resemble the antlers of a deer. The men imitate their
+      grunting. If they lie on the ground at some distance they
+      greatly resemble the animals themselves. According to Ross the
+      "inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer,
+      the foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer's head
+      upon his own." Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 534:--"The old manner of
+      hunting antelope and deer: the hunter would disguise himself by
+      covering his head with the head and skin of an antelope, and so
+      be enabled to approach the game near enough to use his bow and
+      arrow. In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask themselves
+      with a wolfskin to enable them to approach buffalo." Ethn. Rep.
+      1901-02, p. 439;--Two of the party of hunters (Zuni) out after
+      deer "wear cotton shirts with sleeves to the elbow, the front
+      and back of the shirt being painted to represent as nearly
+      as possible the body of the deer; the hands and the arms to
+      the elbow and also the sleeves are colored to represent the
+      deer's forelegs. Each wears the skin of a deer's head over his
+      head.... In this dress the two huntsmen imitate as closely as
+      possible, even to the browsing, the game they would catch."
+
+      [32] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 352:--"Tradition says the Iroquois
+      derived the music and action of the Buffalo dance while on
+      an expedition against the Cherokee, from the bellowing and
+      the movements of a herd of buffalo which they heard for the
+      first time 'singing their favorite songs,' i. e. bellowing and
+      snorting." Also note 33.
+
+      [33] Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 266, gives a song to prevent
+      frostbite. The wolf's, deer's, fox's, opossum's feet it is held
+      never become frostbitten. After each verse of the song, the
+      singer imitates the cry and the action of the animal. The words
+      used are archaic in form and may be rendered "I become a real
+      wolf, etc." The song runs:
+
+      1. Tsun' wa' 'ya-ya' (repeated four times), wa+a! (prolonged
+      howl). The singer imitates a wolf pawing the ground with his
+      feet.
+
+      2. Tsun'-ka' wi-ye' (four times), sauh! sauh! sauh! sauh!
+      (imitating the call and jumping of a deer).
+
+      3. Tsun'-tsu' 'la-ya' (four times), gaih! gaih! gaih! gaih!
+      (imitates barking and scratching of a fox).
+
+      4. Tsun'-si'-kwa-ya' (four times), ki+(imitates cry of the
+      opossum when cornered, and throws his head back as that animal
+      does when feigning death).
+
+      [34] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323, about the Omaha Coyote dance
+      performed by warriors whenever it was thought necessary to keep
+      up their spirits, in which each had his robe about him and
+      imitated the actions of the coyote, trotting, glancing around,
+      etc. Page 348 describes the Omaha Buffalo dance, in which each
+      of four men used to put the skin of a buffalo over his head,
+      the horns standing up, and the hair of the buffalo head hanging
+      down below the chest of the wearer. The various movements of
+      the buffalo were imitated by the dancers. Pages 348-349, the
+      Omaha wolf dance, by the society of those who have supernatural
+      communication with wolves. The dancers wear wolfskins, and
+      dance in imitation of the actions of wolves. Similarly they
+      performed the grizzly bear dance, horse dance, etc.
+
+      [35] Notes 22, 34 and 37.
+
+      [36] See notes 34 and 37.
+
+Probably as long as animal form, partial or entire, was assumed merely
+for decoys and sport (early dancing),[37] for peaceful purposes
+therefore, such people having whole or partial animal shape were not
+regarded as harmful to man,[38] just as wise women began to pass
+for witches only when with their art they did evil.[39] A similar
+development can be traced in the case of masks.[40] It was some time
+before man could cope with food- and clothing-furnishing animals that
+were dangerous to life, though these are the ones he first studied;[41]
+and we cannot presuppose that he disguised to represent them until he
+could cope with them, since the original purpose of the disguise was
+to secure food and clothing. Thus far then we see whole or partial
+disguise as animals used to secure _food_ and _clothing_ when acting as
+decoys to lure animals; and in _dancing_.[42]
+
+      [37] Similarly in the use of masks (see note 57). See Wundt,
+      Voelkerpsychologie II. i. 412 fol., and in regard to this
+      Zeitschrift fuer deutsche Philologie, XXXVIII. 1906, ss.
+      558-568:--"Der maskierte mensch ist der ekstatische Mensch.
+      Mit dem anlegen der maske versetzt er sich in ekstase, fuehlt
+      er sich in fremde lebensvorgaenge ein, eignet er sich das wesen
+      an, mit dem er sich durch die maske identificiert." Fuer den
+      naiven menschen, wie fuer das kind, ist die maske durchaus
+      nicht blosser schein, sondern wirkender charakter. Der
+      augenblickstanz wurde zum zaubertanz. Die naturvoelker verwenden
+      ihre masken nur bei den feierlich-ernsten zaubertaenzen, nicht
+      zu ihrer burlesken mimik; die taenzer sind in Tiermasken, etc.
+
+      [38] Amongst American Indians for example a man transformed
+      into a bear and vice versa is usually regarded as benevolent
+      (Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 83). See, also, Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1097:--In Norse accounts also we find
+      transformation into a bear, for the bear was regarded as
+      rational and was esteemed.
+
+      [39] Note 84.
+
+      [40] See note 57a.
+
+      [41] Notes 27 and 42.
+
+      [42] The important consideration in the mind of primitive
+      man was whether certain things were harmful or useful. See
+      Behaghel, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 98:--"Die grossen Tiere
+      und die maechtigen Baeume, die Tiere und Pflanzen, die fuer
+      die _Ernaehrung_ and _Bekleidung_ des Menschen von Bedeutung
+      sind, die Tiere, die sein Leben _bedrohen_, sie haben viel
+      frueher sprachliche Bezeichnung gefunden, als der unscheinbare
+      Kaefer im Sande, als die kleine Blume des Waldes. So kommt es,
+      dass die Namen der groesseren Tiere, der grossen Waldbaeume,
+      der wichtigsten Getreidearten allen germanischer Staemmen
+      gemeinsam sind, einzelne sogar, wie _Wolf_, _Kuh_, _Ochse_,
+      _Birke_, _Buche_, _Erle_, _Gerste_ mit den Benennungen anderer
+      indogermanischer Voelker uebereinstimmen." Doubtless animals
+      occupied their attention sooner than plants. See Wundt,
+      Voelkerpsychologie, II. 412 fol., about the _maskentanz_:
+      "Ueberhaupt haben die Tiermotive weit frueher Beruecksichtigung
+      erfahren als die Pflanzenmotive." See note 95.
+
+Fourthly, primitive man would put on an animal's skin or dress when
+out as _forager_ (or robber) or _spy_, for the purpose of avoiding
+detection by the enemy. The Pawnee Indians for example,[43] were called
+by neighboring tribes _wolves_, probably not out of contempt, since it
+may be doubted that an Indian feels contempt for a wolf any more than
+he does for a fox, a rabbit, or an elk, but because of their adroitness
+as scouts, warriors and stealers of horses; or, as the Pawnees think,
+because of their great endurance, their skill in imitating wolves so
+as to escape detection by the enemy by day or night; or, according to
+some neighboring tribes, because they prowl like wolves[44], "have the
+endurance of wolves, can travel all day and dance all night, can make
+long journeys, living on the carcasses they find on their way, or on
+no food at all." ... And further, "The Pawnees, when they went on the
+warpath, were always prepared to simulate wolves.... Wolves on the
+prairie were too common[45] to excite remark, and at night they would
+approach close to the Indian camps." ... The Pawnee starting off on the
+warpath usually carried a robe made of wolf skins, or in later times a
+white blanket or a white sheet; and, at _night_, wrapping himself in
+this, and getting down on his hands and knees, he walked or trotted
+here and there like a wolf, having thus transformed himself into a
+common object of the landscape. This disguise was employed by _day_ as
+well, for reconnoissance.... While the party remained hidden in some
+ravine or hollow, one Indian would put his robe over him and gallop to
+the top of the hill on all fours, and would sit there on his haunches
+looking all over the country, and anyone at a distance who saw him,
+would take him for a wolf. It was acknowledged on all hands that the
+Pawnees could imitate wolves best. "An Indian going into an enemy's
+country is often called a wolf,[46] and the sign for a scout is made up
+of the signs _wolf_ and _look_."[47] Should any scout detect danger, as
+at _night_ when on duty near an encampment, he must give the cry of the
+coyote.[48]
+
+      [43] G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, N. Y.,
+      Scribners, 1893, p. 245, fol.
+
+      [44] Jacob Grimm, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, s. 233: Ein
+      sabinischer stamm hiesz Hirpi (lat. _hirpus_ bedeutet _wolf_ in
+      sabinischer oskischer Mundart), weil den einwandernden ein wolf
+      fuehrer geworden war, oder nach andrer sage sie woelfe gejagt
+      hatten und gleich woelfen raubten, d. h. im sinn des deutschen
+      ausdrucks friedlos waren.
+
+      [45] The werewolf story could arise only where the animal,
+      wolf, tiger or lion, etc., was common; and likewise the
+      werewolf tales gradually died out when the animals became rare
+      or extinct. See note 11.
+
+      [46] Grinnell, p. 245.
+
+      [47] The Watusi of East Africa distinctly describe all wild
+      beasts save their own totem-animals as _enemy-scouts_ (Encyc.
+      Brit. under Lycanthropy).
+
+      [48] Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 323. See also Grinnell, Story of
+      the indian, p. 208: The wolf was believed, in the animals'
+      council, to be able to give the Indian the power to creep right
+      into the midst of the enemy's camp without being seen.
+
+The idea of the harmfulness to other men of a man in animal form or
+dress became deeply seated now, when men in animal disguise began to
+act not only as decoys for animals dangerous to life, but also as
+scouts (robbers[49]--and later as possessors of supernatural power,
+when growth of culture brought with it growth of supernaturalism[50]);
+when people began to associate, for example, the wolf's form with a
+lurking enemy.[51]
+
+      [49] See note 53.
+
+      [50] See note 57-b.
+
+      [51] So originally the germanic god _Logi_ was not an evil
+      god. _Logi_ meant the natural force of fire; _Loki_ meant the
+      same, but the burly giant has been made a sly, seducing villain
+      (Grimm, Teut. Myth. I. 241). A son of Loki, Fenrisulfr, appears
+      in wolf's shape among the gods. Perhaps association with the
+      wolf is in part responsible for the transformation of Logi
+      (Loki) from a good to an evil god.
+
+All uncivilized tribes of the world are continually on the defensive,
+like our American Indian; they all no doubt on occasion have sent out
+scouts who, like our American Indians, to avoid detection, assumed the
+disguise of the animal most common to the special locality in question,
+just as to-day they are known to disguise in animal skins for purposes
+of plunder or revenge.[52][53]
+
+      [52] Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy:--In modern savage life we
+      find beastform of chiefs or spirits, medicine men, some hunt in
+      beast form for the community; others are said to assume beast
+      form in order to avenge themselves justly on enemies; others
+      for love of bloodshed and cannibalism. See also note 58.
+
+      [53] No doubt some of these men disguised as wolves won
+      considerable fame through their skill and bravery, as we should
+      judge from such proper names as _Rudolf_, which means really
+      _Ruhmwolf_, _Ruhm_ related to Gothic _hropeigs_ "victorious,"
+      Sanskrit _kir_ "to praise"; or _Adolf_ from _Adalolf_, which
+      means _Edelwolf_, originally, therefore, _Edelraeuber_, for
+      _wolf_ meant originally about the same as _robber_ (Kluge).
+      So _robber_ or _wolf_ was originally a highly respectable
+      appellation, at a time when men lived from robbery and the
+      chase, either as searobbers, or mountain robbers, etc. (about
+      this early profession see Hirt, Die Indogermanen, 1905, p. 268
+      fol.), and the profession was not looked on as a disgrace (see
+      appellation "wolves" applied to Pawnees, p. 12.). Later we find
+      such names as _Wulfila_ "little wolf." Many Indian names are
+      those of animals, such as Good Fox, Good Bear, Walking Bear,
+      Conquering Bear, Rushing Bear, Stumbling Bear, Brave Bear, Bear
+      Rib, Smoking Bear, Biting Bear, Bear-Looks-Back, Cloud Bear,
+      Mad Bear, Mad Wolf, Lone Wolf, Lean Wolf, Wolf-Ear, Wolf-Robe,
+      etc. See Ethn. Rep. 1882-83, p. 169: The names of Indians very
+      often refer to some animal, predicating some attribute or
+      position of that animal. For discussion of names, see note 111.
+
+The kind of animal makes no difference, the underlying principle is
+the same; namely, the transformation of a living human being into an
+animal. The origin of the belief in such a transformation, as stated
+above[54] was the simple putting on of an animal skin by early man. The
+object of putting on animal skins was,
+
+      [54] Ante p. 6.
+
+(1) To gain food. For this purpose the motions and cries of animals
+were imitated (origin of dancing and singing),[55] artificial decoys
+(like decoy ducks to-day)[56] and finally even masks were used.[57]
+
+      [55] See (3) below.
+
+      [56] See ante p. 8.
+
+      [57] See note 4 and also Ethn. Rep. 1881-82, p. 73 fol. (see
+      note 37):--The use of masks is worldwide. The origin and
+      development of the use of masks is very much the same as
+      the origin and development of the werewolf as given in the
+      preceding pages. The wolfrobe and the mask, both originally
+      useful devices, degenerated in unscrupulous hands into
+      instruments for personal aggrandizement and gain. The use of
+      the mask is described in the above report as follows:
+
+      a). It was used as a shield or protection for the face, for
+      defense against physical violence, human or otherwise. It
+      was therefore first used merely as a mechanical resistance
+      to the opposing force; then secondly, still in the lowest
+      grade of culture, it was used to inspire terror, to gain a
+      moral influence over the opposing agent by hideousness or by
+      symbolizing superhuman agencies. Now individual variations
+      arose--devices for example derived or conventionalized from
+      some predatory, shrewd or mysterious animal.
+
+      b). With growth of culture came growth of supernaturalism, and
+      the mask came to be used in religious performances, as a part
+      of the religious paraphernalia, like the shirts or girdles of
+      the shamans. Ethn. Rep. 1896-97, I. 395:--"When worn in any
+      ceremonial, ... the wearer is believed to become mysteriously
+      and unconsciously imbued with the spirit of the being which his
+      mask represents."
+
+      c). Finally the element of humor enters in, and the mask is
+      used for public amusements and games; by secret societies; as
+      protection against recognition on festive occasions, etc., like
+      the animal skins worn in dances.
+
+(2) To secure clothing in cold climes by trapping or decoying animals,
+as in (1) above.
+
+(3) The imitation when decoying, of the motions of animals led to
+dancing, and in the dances and various ceremonies the faces and bodies
+of the participants were painted in imitation of the colors of birds
+and animals, the motions of animals imitated and animal disguises
+used.[58]
+
+      [58] Notes 32, 34, 33, ante p. 11.
+
+(4) Scouts disguised themselves as animals when out foraging, as well
+as for warfare,[59][60] therefore for booty, and self-defense. Either
+they wore the entire skin, or probably later just a part of it as a
+fetich, like the left hind foot of a rabbit, worn as a charm by many of
+our colored people to-day.[61]
+
+      [59] See p. 13.
+
+      [60] Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 503:--Account of "a cloak or mantle
+      made from the skin of a deer, and covered with various mystic
+      paintings. It was made and used by the Apaches as a mantle
+      of invisibility, that is, a charmed covering for spies which
+      would enable them to pass with impunity through the country,
+      and even through the camp of their enemies. In this instance
+      the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn." The
+      Apache have a similar fetich or charm. The symbols drawn were
+      the raincloud, serpent lightning, raindrops and the cross of
+      the winds of the four cardinal points. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p.
+      515:--Among the Hidatsa (Sioux) fetiches are especially the
+      skins of the wolf. "When they go to war, they always wear the
+      stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the tail hanging down
+      the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through which the
+      warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf's head
+      hangs down upon his breast." Finally the magic robes or shirts
+      and girdles came to be a part of the regular paraphernalia of
+      the shamans, or practisers of magic. In the folklore of all
+      countries we find numerous notices of holy girdles.
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. (Cherokee) 393: "Some warriors had
+      medicine to change their shape as they pleased, so that they
+      could escape from their enemies." Page 501: Such stories might
+      be paralleled in any tribe.
+
+      [61] See further development in note 64.
+
+(5) For purposes of revenge,[62],[63] personal or other. For some other
+personal motive of advantage or gain, to inspire terror in the opposing
+agent by hideousness.
+
+      [62] Note 52.
+
+      [63] As an example of the motive of vengeance, or pure
+      brutality, we cite from Andree, p. 69:--People in the interior
+      of Africa who understand magic, transform themselves into lions
+      and go about killing people. See also below, note 65, where the
+      wolf-man of Abyssinia kills his enemy and sucks his blood, and
+      also kills other wolf-men it meets, the question being one of
+      the survival of the fittest, that is the strongest. All this
+      takes place at _night_, which reminds us of our Pawnee Indian
+      starting out at night in his wolf's robe, and trotting up to
+      the hostile village to ascertain where his enemies' horses
+      are tied, so as to steal them when all are asleep (Grinnell's
+      Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, p. 246, and pp. 70-73).
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 461:--"To recover stolen or lost
+      property, especially ponies, is one of the principal tasks
+      imposed upon the so-called medicine-men" (shamans).
+
+(6) To inspire terror in the opposing agent by symbolizing superhuman
+agencies.[64] So now would arise first a belief in superhuman power or
+attributes,[65] and then,
+
+      [64] As superstition waxed strong, no doubt the wolf robe was
+      put on not merely to make the wearer look just like a common
+      object of the landscape, but also because the wearer of the
+      disguise was supposed to take on the characteristics of the
+      animal he represented (swiftness, boldness, etc.), as in the
+      case of masks (see note 57), and finally the wearer of such
+      a robe was believed to actually become transformed, like the
+      wearers of the werewolf shirt, for example in Germany. Wolves
+      were regarded as good hunters who never fail, Ethn. Rep.
+      1897-98, I. 280, also p. 264:--The wolf is revered by the
+      Cherokee as hunter and watchdog of Kanati; therefore we can
+      understand how the wolf disguise, as conferring the quality of
+      unerring huntsmanship, might be in especial favor amongst those
+      who gained their food from the chase. Similarly the singing of
+      songs imitating the cries of certain animals was supposed to
+      confer a characteristic of the animal in question (see note 33).
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 394:--To gain animal characteristics a
+      wizard attached crow and owl plumes to his head that he might
+      have the eyes of the crow to see quickly the approach of man,
+      and the eyes of the owl to travel by night. He flapped his
+      arms, ... A Zuni man hearing a cry like an owl, yet human,
+      looked about him and found a man whom he recognized as a Zuni.
+      "Aha!" said he, "why have you those plumes upon your head? Aha,
+      you are a sorcerer," etc.
+
+      An example of the transforming power of the _robe_ we find in
+      Bulletin 26, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington,
+      1901, Kathlamet texts, p. 156 fol.:--A woman ate of some of the
+      fat of a bitch, gave birth to five male dogs and one female
+      dog. When they grew older, she discovered one day that they
+      could transform themselves into real children. While they were
+      down at the beach, she entered the house, and now she saw the
+      dog _blankets_. She took them and burnt them. Then the children
+      retained their human form (like Sigmund and Sinfjoetli in the
+      Voelsungasaga). Page 58 fol., is the Myth of the Elk, according
+      to which an old man transformed himself into an elk by putting
+      on an elkskin.
+
+      W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, 1895, p.
+      100, writes, "Die Faehigkeit von Leuten, die sich verwandeln
+      koennen, heisst 'sich zu haeuten, die Huelle zu wechseln'.
+      Das Umwerfen eines aeusserlichen Gewandes kann den Wechsel
+      der Gestalt hervorbringen, wie Freyjas Federgewand, die
+      Schwan- und Kraehenhemden der Valkyrjen, Odins Adlergewand.
+      Die Wolfsgewaender (ulfahamir) wenn angelegt, verwandeln
+      den Menschen zum Wolfe". See also Meissner, Ritter Tiodel,
+      Zeitschrift fuer deutsches altertum, XLVII. 261.
+
+      [65] Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 392:--The owner of fine beads fears
+      that some witch, prompted by jealousy, will strike him with
+      disease.
+
+      As another example of the pretended assumption of superhuman
+      powers to gain influence over others, we may cite the instances
+      given by Andree, p. 68 fol., according to which Livingston met
+      in Africa a native said to have power to transform himself
+      into a lion. As lion he would stay for days and months in the
+      _forest_, in a sacred hut, to which however his wife carried
+      beer and food for him, so we may judge that at least this lion
+      did not cause much devastation amongst the wild beasts. He was
+      able to reassume human form by means of a certain medicine
+      brought him by his wife. Again Andree, p. 69:--In Banana,
+      Africa, the members of a certain family transform themselves in
+      the _dark_ of the _forest_ into leopards. They throw down those
+      they meet in the forest, but dare not injure them nor drink
+      their blood, lest they remain leopards. (See note 83.)
+
+      The motive of personal gain is exemplified by our American
+      Indians, who put on a wolf's mantle to steal, or to recover
+      stolen animals (Grinnell, Pawnee hero stories, p. 247, also the
+      story of robbery entitled Wolves in the night, p. 70 fol.).
+      Similarly in Abyssinia, Andree, p. 69, where the lowest caste
+      of laborers are believed to have power to transform themselves
+      into hyenas or other animals, as such, plundering graves. They
+      employ naturally various artifices to help along their cause,
+      since it yields such returns. They are reported to act like
+      other folk by day, at _night_ though to assume the ways of
+      wolves, kill their enemies and suck their blood, roaming about
+      with other wolves till morning. They are supposed to gain their
+      supernatural powers by a secret beverage made from herbs. They
+      are not likely to be discovered to be only sham animals, since
+      their roaming and plundering is done in the _night_; in the
+      daytime they of course conceal the animal skins (see Andree, p.
+      72).
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 68:--Among the Chaldeans, Egyptians and
+      Greeks, the success of magic depended upon the ignorance of the
+      masses and the comparative learning of the few who practised
+      it. Among the American Indians the medicine-man and the more
+      expert sorceress have little learning above that of the body of
+      the tribe, and their success depends entirely upon their own
+      belief in being supernaturally gifted, and upon the faith and
+      fear of their followers.
+
+      The Iroquois believed in people who could assume a partly
+      animal shape. See Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 79:--"An
+      old blind wolf with a powerful medicine cured a man, and made
+      his head and hands look like those of a wolf. The rest of his
+      body was not changed. He was called a man-wolf."
+
+(7) Witchcraft.[66] It is very easy to see why it was usually the
+so-called medicine-men (more correctly Shamans), who claimed such
+transformation power, because they received remuneration from their
+patients.[67]
+
+      [66] Ethn. Rep. 1880-81, p. 73:--Witches could and did assume
+      animal shapes. For example a dog seen by a man which had fire
+      streaming from its mouth and nostrils. It was _night_. The man
+      shot at it, and the next morning tracked it by the marks of
+      blood from its wound. At a bridge a woman's tracks took the
+      place of the dog's, and finally he found the woman. She had
+      died from the effect of the shot. Page 73: Likewise a hog, when
+      pursued, disappeared at a small creek, and finally reappeared
+      as an old man, who said it was he, whom they had been chasing.
+      So they, the pursuers, knew he was a witch. Page 74: A Canadian
+      Indian one _evening_ pursued a white bull with fire streaming
+      from its nostrils. He had never seen a white bull on the
+      reservation before. "As it passed in front of a house it was
+      transformed into a man with a _large white blanket_, who was
+      ever afterward known as a witch."
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 395:--A man going out at _night_ noticed
+      a queer-looking burro. Upon his return home he was told that a
+      large cat had entered the house. He went out again, discovered
+      a man wrapped in a blanket, but not in the Zuni fashion, his
+      head was sunk low in the blanket. He knew this creature to be a
+      wizard.
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 458:--That the medicine man (Shaman)
+      has the faculty of transforming himself into a coyote and
+      other animals at pleasure and then resuming the human form, is
+      as implicitly believed in by the American Indians as it was
+      by our own forefathers in Europe. And page 459: The Abipones
+      of Paraguay credit their medicine-men with power to put on
+      the form of a tiger. The medicine-men of Honduras claimed the
+      power of turning themselves into lions and tigers. Also the
+      Shamans of the Nicaraguans possessed similar power. Hertz,
+      p. 133 fol.:--"In der christlichen Zeit wurde der heidnische
+      Cultus Teufelsanbetung und hier entstand mit dem Hexenglauben
+      die Vorstellung von Menschen, die sich mit Hilfe des Satans aus
+      reiner Mordlust zu Woelfen verwandeln. So wurde der Werwolf das
+      Bild des tierisch Daemonischen in der Menschennatur."
+
+      [67] Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 467:--The medicine-men of the
+      Apache are paid at the time they are consulted, the priest
+      beforehand among the Eskimo. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 187: "The
+      magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount
+      of the patient's worldly wealth." Page 416:--Sioux sorcerers
+      prepared love-potions for those who bought them. Ethn. Rep.
+      1901-2, p. 568:--"The shaman, like the theurgist is usually
+      paid after each visit with calico, cotton, or food, according
+      to the wealth of the family, since it is always understood
+      that these doctors expect proper compensation for their
+      services." Page 387:--"The Zuni doctor is paid according to his
+      reputation." Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 284: "In early
+      days if a man remained sick for three or four weeks, all his
+      possessions went to pay doctors' fees."
+
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 462 fol.--The American Indian's theory
+      of disease is the theory of the Chaldean, the Assyrian,
+      the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman--all bodily disorders are
+      attributed to the maleficence of spirits (that is of animal
+      spirits, ghosts or witches), who must be expelled or placated.
+      Gibberish was believed to be more potential in magic than was
+      language which the practitioner or his dupes could comprehend.
+      Page 468:--The medicine-men are accused of administering
+      poisons to their enemies. Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 416:--Sioux
+      sorcerers were thought to cause the death of those persons
+      who had incurred their displeasure. Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p.
+      581:--"When an Apache or other medicine-man is in full regalia
+      he ceases to be a man, but becomes, or tries to make his
+      followers believe that he has become, the power he represents."
+      The Mexican priests masked and disguised, and dressed in the
+      skins of the women offered up in sacrifice.
+
+      So the shaman practiced sorcery, medicine and was a priest.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1887-88, p. 594:--The Indian doctor relied far more
+      on magic than on natural remedies. Dreams, beating of the
+      drum, songs, magic feasts and dances, and howling were his
+      ordinary methods of cure. Grinnell, Story of the indian, p. 210
+      fol.:--They have "firm confidence in dreams." "Their belief in
+      a future life is in part founded on dreams," etc.
+
+(8) Finally dreams[68] and exaggerated reports gave rise to fabulous
+stories.[69]
+
+      [68] Note 67, close.
+
+      [69] An example of fabulous invention for pure personal gain
+      occurs Andree, p. 77: If the Greenlanders catch too many seal
+      at one place, the latter will take a terrible revenge. Assuming
+      human form, they attack their enemy in the _night_ at his
+      home. This is the transformation of an animal into a man, but
+      the inventor of the story was no doubt looking towards his
+      own gain. It is the same old fight for seal protection which
+      in another form is still going on to-day. Andree, p. 72. In
+      Siam stories are told of people who by magic formulae become
+      tigers and roam about at _night_ in search of booty. One of the
+      man-tigers was actually a priest.
+
+We have discussed (1), (2), and (3);[70] for an example under (4) we
+have cited the practices of American Indians.[71] It is probable that
+about now (at the stage indicated in (4) above), what is known as the
+real werewolf superstition (that of a frenzied, rabid manwolf) began
+to fully develop. The man in wolf-skin was already a lurking thief
+or enemy, or a destroyer of human life. To advance from this stage
+to the werewolf frenzy, our primitive man must have seen about him
+some exhibition of such a frenzy, and some reason for connecting this
+frenzy particularly with, say the wolf. He did see insane persons,
+and the connecting link would be the crazy or mad wolf (or dog, as
+the transformation was usually into a wolf or dog,[72]) for persons
+bitten by it usually went mad too.[73] The ensuing frenzy, with the
+consternation it occasioned, soon appealed to certain primitive minds
+as a good means of terrorizing others. Of these mad ones some no doubt
+actually had the malady; others honestly believed they had it and got
+into a frenzy accordingly; others purposely worked themselves up into a
+frenzy in order to impose on the uninitiated.[74] Later, in the Middle
+Ages, when the nature of the real disease came to be better understood,
+the werewolf superstition had become too firmly fixed to be easily
+uprooted.
+
+      [70] Ante pp. 7, 8, 9.
+
+      [71] Ante p. 12 fol.
+
+      [72] See notes 19 and 74.
+
+      [73] Grinnell, Blackfoot lodge tales, p. 283: "It is said that
+      wolves, which in former days were extremely numerous, sometimes
+      went crazy, and bit every animal they met with, sometimes even
+      coming into camps and biting dogs, horses and people. Persons
+      bitten by a mad wolf generally went mad, too. They trembled and
+      their limbs jerked, they made their jaws work and foamed at the
+      mouth, often trying to bite other people. When any one acted in
+      this way, his relatives tied him hand and foot with ropes, and,
+      having killed a buffalo, they rolled him up in the green hide,
+      built a fire on and around him, leaving him in the fire until
+      the hide began to dry and burn. Then they pulled him out and
+      removed the buffalo hide, and he was cured. This was the cure
+      for a mad wolf's bite."
+
+      [74] Sometimes the professionals even became possessed of a
+      monomania themselves, as in witchcraft. Andree goes into this
+      widespread disease or delusion (of the first century till
+      late in the middle ages), p. 76 fol.: "The sick" ones would
+      prowl about burial places _at night_, imagining themselves
+      to be _wolves_ or _dogs_, and go about barking and howling.
+      In the middle ages such people would even kill children and
+      grown people. When they came to themselves again, or were
+      cured, they claimed to know nothing of what had happened.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 491: Amongst the Shamans feats of
+      jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing the best
+      of spiritualistic seances are recounted. Page 207: The use of
+      robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals,
+      painted with shamanistic devices, is mentioned. Page 235: The
+      speaker terms himself a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar power.
+
+We have discussed (5), (6), (7), and (8) in the notes.[75] As further
+examples of the development into fabulous story,[76] we may cite any of
+those stories in which the wild werewolf, or animal-man is represented
+as roaming the land, howling, robbing, and tearing to pieces men
+and beasts, until he resumes his human form. Thus an early scout in
+animal garb would be obliged to live on food he found on his way, and
+later fabulous report would represent him as himself when in disguise
+possessing the attributes of the animal he represented, and tearing to
+pieces man and beast. For such an account see Andree,[77] concerning
+what eyewitnesses reported of the wild reveling over corpses of the
+hyena-men of Africa. Naturally the uninitiated savage who witnessed
+such a sight would become insane, or at least would spread abroad
+such a report as would enhance the influence of the hyena-men far and
+wide. Some savages, as in Africa,[78] came to regard any animal that
+robbed them of children, goats or other animals, as a witch in animal
+form;[79] just as the American Indians ascribe to evil spirits death,
+sickness and other misfortunes.
+
+      [75] Notes 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69.
+
+      [76] See (8) above.
+
+      [77] Page 71.
+
+      [78] Andree, p. 69.
+
+      [79] Ethn. Rep. 1889-90, p. 263. gives the following story of
+      the origin of the wolf: "_The wolf_ was a poor woman, who had
+      so many children that she could not find enough for them to
+      eat. They became so gaunt and hungry that they were changed
+      into wolves, constantly roaming over the land seeking food."
+
+We can see how at first the man in animal disguise or an animal robe
+would go quietly to work, like the Pawnee scout;[80] how though, as
+soon as the element of magic enters in, he would try to keep up the
+illusion. At this stage, when the original defensive measure had become
+tainted with superstition, men would go about in the night time howling
+and holding their vile revels.[81] Andree,[82] narrates how a soldier
+in Northeast Africa shot at a hyena, followed the traces of blood and
+came to the straw hut of a man who was widely famed as a magician. No
+hyena was to be seen, only the man himself with a fresh wound. Soon
+he died, however the soldier did not survive him long. Doubtless one
+of the magician class was responsible for the death of the soldier,
+just as we to-day put to death the man who so violates our laws, as to
+become a menace to our society, or as formerly kings killed those who
+stood in their way; or as religious sects murder those who dissent
+from their faith. These magicians, supposed to be men who could assume
+animal form, as a matter of fact do often form a class, are greatly
+feared by other natives, often dwell with their disciples in caves and
+at _night_ come forth to plunder and kill.[83] It is to their interest
+to counterfeit well, for if suspected of being malevolent, they were
+put to death or outlawed, like criminals to-day.[84] Their frenzies
+were, as said above, in some cases genuine delusions; in other cases
+they offered, as one may readily imagine, excellent opportunities for
+personal gain or vengeance.[85]
+
+      [80] Ante p. 12 fol.
+
+      [81] Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 152: It is impossible to imagine
+      the horrible howlings, and strange contortions that these
+      jugglers (shamans) or conjurers make of their bodies, when they
+      are disposing themselves to conjure.
+
+      [82] Page 71.
+
+      [83] Andree, p. 70, gives an account of the chief magician
+      (Abyssinia), who demands as yearly tribute of his subordinate
+      animal-men the teeth of the persons whom they have killed
+      during the year, with which he decorates his palace. See also
+      pp. 72, 75, etc.: Ethn. Rep. 1885-86, p. 151, about sorcery
+      among American Indians: Societies existed. The purposes of
+      the society are twofold; 1. To preserve the traditions of
+      Indian genesis and cosmogony, etc. 2. To give a certain class
+      of ambitious men and women sufficient influence through
+      their acknowledged power of exorcism and necromancy to lead
+      a comfortable life at the expense of the credulous. Page
+      162: "Each tribe has its medicine men and women, an order of
+      priesthood consulted and employed in all times of sickness. It
+      is to their interest to lead these credulous people to believe
+      that they can at pleasure hold intercourse with the munedoos,"
+      etc. Sometimes one family constitutes the class. See note 65;
+      Andree, p. 69.
+
+      [84] Grimm, Teut. Myth. III. 1104: To higher antiquity witches
+      were priestesses, physicians, fabulous _night_-wives, never
+      as yet persecuted. Maidens might turn into swans, heroes into
+      werewolves, and lose nothing in popular estimation. The abuse
+      of a spell was punished. A wise woman, healing sickness and
+      charming wounds, begins to pass for a witch only when with
+      her art she does evil. In course of time, when the Devil's
+      complicity with every kind of sorcery came to be assumed, the
+      guilt of criminality fell upon all personal relations with him.
+      Ethn. Rep. 1901-2, p. 393: "Though the witch may be regarded as
+      all powerful, none but the poor and unfortunate are condemned.
+      Few others are even brought to trial--their prominence prevents
+      public accusation." This again reminds us some of our customs;
+      namely, that of overlooking the transgressions of the rich and
+      powerful. See note 91, and for outlaws note 112.
+
+      [85] Such artificial frenzies had a serious effect upon the
+      body, and more particularly the eyes, so that many shamans
+      (Siberia, America, etc.) become blind.
+
+Only by instilling in their fellows a firm belief in this superstition
+and maintaining the sham, could the perpetrators of the outrages hope
+to escape punishment for their depredations, could they hope to plunder
+and steal with impunity.[86] So they prowled usually under the cloak
+of _night_ or of the dark of the forest,[87] howled and acted like
+the animals they represented, hid the animal skin or blanket, if they
+used one,[88] in the daytime where they thought no one could find
+it, whereas the animal skin which was worn for defence, was put on
+either by day or night,[89] and one story recounts the swallowing of
+a whole goat, the man bellowing fearfully like a tiger while he did
+it.[90] Some of the transformed men claimed they could regain human
+form only by means of a certain medicine or by rubbing. The imposters
+were the criminal class of society that is still with us to-day,[91]
+no longer in werewolf form, but after all wolves in human dress, each
+maintaining his trade by deception and countless artifices, just as did
+the werewolf of old. Not unlike these shams are those of the American
+negro, who in church, when "shouting," that is, when stirred up by
+religious fervor, inflicts blows on his enemy who happens to be in the
+church, of course with impunity; for he is supposed to be under some
+outside control, and when the spell has passed off, like some of the
+delusionists mentioned,[92] claims not to know what he (or generally
+she) has done. Similar also are the negro voudoo ceremonies, those of
+the fire-eaters, or any other sham.
+
+      [86] Encyc. Brit., XV. under Lycanthropy: In Prussia, Livonia
+      and Lithuania, according to two bishops, werewolves were in
+      the 16th century far more destructive than "true and natural
+      wolves." They were asserted to have formed "an accursed
+      college" of those "desirous of innovations contrary to the
+      divine law." Also see note 90.
+
+      [87] See ante p. 13, and notes 64, 65, 66, 69, 84, 102, 110.
+
+      [88] Note 22 close, and note 102.
+
+      [89] See ante p. 13.
+
+      [90] Andree, p. 72. This same tiger-man in Asia killed a
+      woman, whose husband set out in pursuit, followed him to his
+      house, got hold of him later in his man shape and killed him.
+      Feats similar to some performed by him are cited in Ethn. Rep.
+      1887-88, p. 470: The medicine-men of the Pawnee swallowed
+      arrows and knives, and also performed the trick of apparently
+      killing a man and bringing him back to life, like the Zuni.
+
+      [91] Grimm, Rechtsalterthuemer, II. 566: Hexen waren fast alle
+      aus der aermsten und niedrigsten Volksklasse (see note 84).
+      Literary Digest, March 9, 1907, p. 378, article on Spiritualism
+      and Spirituality: "Many, very many, spiritualists seem to care
+      for communion with spirits only that they may more surely keep
+      physically well, and earn their bread and butter and clothing
+      the easier." Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: The absurdity of
+      the superstition would have much sooner appeared, but for the
+      theory that a werewolf when wounded resumed human shape; in
+      every case where one accused of being a werewolf was taken, he
+      was certain to be wounded, and thus the difficulty of his not
+      being found in beast form was satisfactorily disposed of.
+
+      [92] Notes 57 and 67.
+
+The wolf disguise, or transformation into a werewolf was that most
+often assumed for example in Germanic lands.[93] The term _wolf_
+became synonymous with _robber_, and later (when the robber became an
+outlaw,[94]) with _outlaw_, the robber and outlaw alike being called
+wolf and not some other animal (i. e., only the wolf-man surviving to
+any extent) firstly, because the wolf was plentiful; and secondly,
+because as civilization advanced, there came a time when the wolf was
+practically the only one of the larger undomesticated animals that
+survived.[95] We can notice this in our own United States, for example
+in eastern Kansas, where at night coyotes and even wolves are sometimes
+heard howling out on the prairie near woodlands, or in the pastures
+adjoining farms, where they not infrequently kill smaller animals, and
+dig up buried ones.[96] In Prussia also it is the wolf that survives
+to-day. American Indians, and other savages however do not restrict the
+transformations to the wolf,[97] because other wild animals, are, or
+were till recently, abundant amongst them. As civilization advances,
+one by one the animal myths disappear with the animals that gave rise
+to them (like that connected with the mastodon);[98] or else stories of
+such domestic animals as the pig, white bull, dog superseded them.[99]
+When this stage was reached, as time went on and means of successfully
+coping with the brute creation became perfected, the animals were shorn
+of many of their terrors, and finally such stories as Aesop's fables
+would arise.[100] This however was psychologically a long step in
+advance of our were-wolf believing peoples of an earlier period.
+
+      [93] Notes 9 and 19.
+
+      [94] Note 112.
+
+      [95] See note 11, also Ethn. Rep. 1897-98, I. 263: "The deer,
+      which is still common in the mountains, was the principal
+      dependence of the Cherokee hunter, and is consequently
+      prominent in myth, folklore, and ceremonial." see note 42.
+      Page 264: "The largest gens (clan) in the tribe bears the name
+      of 'wolf people.'" Page 420: The Cherokee have always been an
+      agricultural people, and their old country has a luxuriant
+      flora, therefore the vegetable kingdom holds a far more
+      important place in the mythology and ceremonial of the tribe
+      than it does among the Indians of the treeless plains and arid
+      sage deserts of the West.
+
+      [96] The St. Louis "Westliche Post" for January 9, 1908,
+      furnishes another example: A tame wolf which for the past
+      two years has been a pet in a farmer's family at Marshfield,
+      Wisconsin, escaped and attacked a chicken. The farmer's
+      daughter called to the wolf, but it had become wild from the
+      taste of blood, attacked her, and bit her on both arms and one
+      leg. It held so fast that the young lady could not be released
+      until she had nearly choked the wolf with its collar.
+
+      Also the following clipping from the same paper, January 13,
+      1908, shows the prevalence of wolves to-day in even quite
+      populous districts: "Wolf-Plage. Aus dem noerdlichen Wisconsin
+      wird gemeldet, dass Woelfe in diesem Jahre zahlreicher sind
+      denn je, und dass sie, durch Hunger getrieben, sich nahe
+      an die Ortschaften wagen, und Hausthiere und auch Menschen
+      angreifen. Zwei grosse Woelfe griffen in dieser Woche das Pferd
+      der Frau Branchard an; das Pferd scheute und jagte in den Wald,
+      wo es durch Arbeiter angehalten wurde, welche die Bestien
+      verscheuchten."
+
+      [97] Note 11.
+
+      [98] Note 20.
+
+      [99] Note 109.
+
+      [100] Note 24.
+
+Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf
+superstition went through various stages of development. The motives
+for assuming wolf's dress (or animal skins or robes), at first were
+purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to secure food by
+acting as decoys; then it was used for personal advantage or gain by
+foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for purposes of vengeance;[101]
+later from a desire for power over others; and finally men (the
+professional and the superstitious) began to concoct fabulous stories
+which were handed down as tradition or myth, according to the psychic
+level of the narrator and hearer.[102]
+
+      [101] Close of note 102.
+
+      [102] John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives
+      the origin and development of the werewolf as follows: From
+      the conception of wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to
+      the conception of corporeal werewolves.... Christianity did
+      not fail to impart a new and fearful character to the belief
+      in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as a species of
+      witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the
+      Devil. It was often necessary to kill one's enemies, and at
+      that time some even killed for love of it (like the Berserker);
+      often a sort of homicidal madness, during which they would
+      array themselves in the skins of wolves or bears and sally
+      forth by _night_ to crack the backbones, smash the skulls and
+      sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary
+      travelers or loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an
+      invention of excited imagination. So people attributed a wolf's
+      nature to the maniac or idiot with cannibal appetites, then
+      the myth-forming process assigned to the unfortunate wretch
+      a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. Worship
+      of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of
+      transformation of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The
+      storm-wind was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead
+      men's souls or as the howling of wolf-like monsters (called by
+      Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness and cannibalism,
+      accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted as due
+      to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf
+      superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on
+      a wolf's skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence
+      of the fact alleged of Berserkers haunting the woods by
+      _night_, clothed in hides of wolves or bears. A permanent cure
+      was effected by burning the werewolf's sack, unless the Devil
+      furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, to become
+      incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the
+      outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is
+      the night-wind--a kind of leader of departed souls, howling
+      in the wintry blasts. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:--The
+      Berserkir of Iceland dressed in the skins of bears and wolves,
+      and further on: "Beastform is in mythology proper far oftener
+      assumed for malignant than for benignant ends."
+
+The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful werewolf
+is the disguising as some common animal by members of savage races
+when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to escape detection by the
+enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land in search of food. As stated
+above,[103] later fabulous report would represent them as possessing
+in their disguise the attributes of the animal they impersonated,[104]
+and finally even of actually taking on animal form, either wholly or
+in part,[105] for longer or shorter periods of time. Some of the North
+American Indian transformation stories represent men as having only
+the head, hands and feet of a wolf.[106] The transformation into a
+werewolf in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made
+of wolf-skin.[107] This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic
+werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising
+the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent a person
+as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other article of
+apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.[108] The stories especially in Europe
+were of the _were-wolf_ rather than _were-bear_ or other animal,
+because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild animals.[109] It
+was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, which crystallized
+into the household werewolf or transformation tales.[110]
+
+      [103] Ante p. 22.
+
+      [104] Note 57.
+
+      [105] Close note 65.
+
+      [106] Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737.
+
+      [107] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our
+      oldest native notions make the assumption of wolf-shape
+      depend on arraying oneself in a wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as
+      transformation into a swan does on putting on the swan-shirt
+      or swan-ring. Page 1095: "The transformation need not be for a
+      magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured
+      into, a wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the
+      appearance, he acquires also the fierceness and howling of the
+      wolf; roaming the _woods_, he rends to pieces everything that
+      comes in his way." This is like the belief of the American
+      Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued with the spirit
+      of the being which his mask represents (note 57); or that the
+      shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers
+      believe that he has become, the power he represents (note 67).
+
+      [108] Thus some American Indian stories represent men
+      transformed into wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or
+      piece of decayed wood when pursued. And mantles of invisibility
+      are mentioned in note 60.
+
+      [109] See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: "Unter den grossen
+      Raubtieren treten uns Baer und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen.
+      Der Wolf ist freilich ueberall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der
+      Baer ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier," etc. Encyc. Brit, under
+      Lycanthropy: "In England by the 17th century the werewolf had
+      long been extinct. Only small creatures, the cat, hare, weasel,
+      etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to transform himself
+      into." See note 11.
+
+      [110] Amongst the American Indians, where various larger
+      animals were common, the designation "wolf-people" (see the
+      sign-language of the plains) was bestowed especially on the
+      Pawnees, because, as we have seen, they best imitated wolves.
+      In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the wolf alone was
+      universally common, the designation "wolf-people" (or if we
+      choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one
+      locality or people, but was bestowed in general on those who
+      assumed the manner of wolves, and because of their crimes
+      became outcasts like the wolves. They best imitate wolves, and
+      no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as wolves
+      (see note 102), and for this reason the _warg_ or outlaw came
+      to be called a _wolf_ (see close of note 112). Thus Golther,
+      Mythologie, p. 102, says: "Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder
+      getoetet, so findet man einen wunden oder toten Menschen." The
+      werewolves, as we have seen (ante p. 25), keep to the _woods_
+      and the _dark_, of course in many cases to avoid detection.
+      Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: "They say that
+      witches love the _night_ and lurk in _shadows and darkness_.
+      Witches are believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts."
+      Sigmund and Sinfjoetli dwelt as wolves in the _woods_. Also the
+      progenitor of the Myramenn in Iceland at _night_ could leave
+      his house in wolf's form. Another Norwegian account reports
+      how earlier many people were able to take on wolf's form, then
+      dwelt in _grove_ and _woods_, where they tore people to pieces,
+      etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note 113.
+
+      [111] Names. See note 31. The development in the case of names
+      was perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note 57), and of
+      the werewolf superstition itself (ante p. 15, fol.); namely, a)
+      protection against outside agencies was sought; b) growth of
+      supernaturalism; c) element of humor.
+
+      a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: "Children are often
+      named _wolf_, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their
+      supernatural foes" (for similar assumption of characteristics
+      or the nature of animals for personal advantage see note 33).
+      See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1139: "The escort of
+      _wolf_ or _raven_ augured victory;" and in the note: "A name
+      of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O. H. G.
+      _Wolf-hraban_ (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly
+      promised victory. Old names are no product of pure chance.
+      Servian mothers name a son they have longed for, _Vuk_,
+      _Wolf_: then the witches can't eat him up. O. H. G. _Wolfbizo_
+      was a lucky name, i. e., one bitten by the wolf and thereby
+      protected," like our modern curing of like by like in medicine.
+
+      b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development
+      mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about
+      the conferring of secret names, since one could harm a person
+      by his name alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning
+      his name: "Wenn man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g'rennt." Again
+      in XXI. 313 fol.: It was dangerous to name _bear_ or _wolf_
+      in regions infested by these animals, so people, out of fear,
+      avoided calling the name of such animals; called the bear for
+      example _honey-eater_, etc.
+
+      c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his
+      fear of them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and
+      humor enter in, and such names arise as are mentioned in note
+      53; and such stories as that of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a
+      wolf.
+
+      [112] Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic
+      Mythology, III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws
+      who have fled to the woods. A notable instance is that of
+      Sigmund and Sinfjoetli in the Voelsungasaga. In regard to this W.
+      Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, Leipzig 1895,
+      p. 102, says: "Die Sage mag auf einem alten Misverstaendniss
+      beruhen. _Warg_, _Wolf_ hiess der Geaechtete in der germanischen
+      Rechtssprache. _Warg_ wurde woertlich als _Wolf_ verstanden,
+      und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte." Golther again, p.
+      424:--"Gefesselt wurde Loki als Aechter in den Wald getrieben,
+      er wurde "_Warg_", d. h. _Wolf_. _Woelfe_ heissen die friedlosen
+      Waldgaenger." As to _warg_, Schade in his altdeutsches
+      Woerterbuch defines it as a raeuberisch wuergendes wuetendes Wesen,
+      Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise,
+      geaechteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetaeter; _warg_ ist
+      Benennung des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und
+      vertragbruechiger Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden
+      durch Mord gebrochen und landfluechtig geworden, oder nun im
+      wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere haust und wie der Wolf
+      ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche auf Island
+      Bezeichnung einer gewalttaetigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm,
+      Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American
+      Indians relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67
+      fol.: An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself
+      without the protection of his clan, is not defended in case he
+      is injured by another. When the sentence of outlawry has been
+      declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the duty of
+      the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the
+      council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty
+      of any member of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill
+      him like an animal. Page 60 fol.: "The chief of the Wolf gens
+      is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe" (see also Ethn.
+      Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the _woods_ and the
+      _dark_. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal
+      skins, and to terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves.
+      Since therefore so many outlaws lived, dressed (note 22 close)
+      and acted like wolves, to all intents and purposes became
+      wolves, _wolf_ and outlaw became synonymous terms.
+
+      [113] The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night
+      in Germany is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people
+      believed that werewolves, etc., entered houses at night. In
+      place of the earlier harmful werewolf is now the "harmful"
+      night air.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+  ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche.
+        Stuttgart, 1878.
+
+  BEHAGHEL, OTTO. Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902.
+
+  BRAUNE, WILHELM. Althochdeutsches lesebuch. Halle, 1907.
+
+  BROCKHAUS, F. A. Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol.
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Bulletin 26. Washington, 1901.
+
+  DILTHEY, WILHELM. Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906.
+
+  EDDA. Die lieder der aelteren edda. Paderborn, 1876.
+
+  ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. New York, 1883, etc.
+
+  ERMAN, ADOLF. Reise um die erde durch Nordasien. Berlin, 1833.
+
+  FISKE, JOHN. Myths and myth-makers. Boston, 1892.
+
+  FREYTAG, GUSTAV. Bilder aus neuer zeit. Leipzig, 1904.
+
+  GOLTHER, W. Handbuch der germanischen mythologie. Leipzig, 1895.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Geschichte der deutschen sprache. Leipzig, 1878.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Rechtsaltertuemer. 4te auf. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1899.
+
+  GRIMM, JAKOB. Teutonic mythology. Translation by J. S. Stallybrass,
+        London, 1882.
+
+  GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD. Blackfoot lodge tales. New York, 1892.
+
+  GRINNELL, G. B. Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales. New York, 1893.
+
+  GRINNELL, G. B. Story of the Indian. New York, 1895.
+
+  HERTZ, W. Der werwolf. Stuttgart, 1862.
+
+  HIRT, H. Die indogermanen. Strassburg, 1905 fol.
+
+  INDOGERMANISCHE FORSCHUNGEN. Vols. XVI, XXI. Strassburg, 1904, 1907.
+
+  KLUGE, F. Etymologisches woerterbuch der deutschen sprache.
+        Strassburg, 1905.
+
+  LEMCKE, K. Aesthetik in gemeinverstaendlichen vortraegen. Leipzig,
+        1890.
+
+  LEUBUSCHER, R. Ueber die wehrwoelfe und thierverwandlungen im
+        mittelalter. Berlin, 1850.
+
+  LITERARY DIGEST. New York and London, March 9, 1907.
+
+  MEYERS. Kleines konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1899-1900.
+
+  PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen philologie. Strassburg, 1900.
+
+  SCHADE, O. Altdeutsches woerterbuch. Halle, 1872 fol.
+
+  SCHRADER, O. Reallexikon der indogermanischen altertumskunde.
+        Strassburg, 1901.
+
+  VOeLSUNGASAGA. Ranisch, Berlin, 1891.
+
+  WESTLICHE POST. St. Louis.
+
+  WUNDT, W. Voelkerpsychologie. Vol. II. Leipzig, 1905.
+
+  ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR DEUTSCHES ALTERTUM. Vol. XLVII. Berlin, 1903-1904.
+
+  ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR DEUTSCHE PHILOLOGIE. Vol. XXXVIII. Halle, 1906.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.]
+
+
+  Abipones, _9, 66._
+
+  Abyssinia, _9._
+
+  Africa, 5, 23; _9, 47, 65._
+
+  Alligator, _9._
+
+  America, 5; _9, 85._
+
+  American Indians, 5, 14, 21, 23, 27; _9, 27, 66, 110._
+
+  Anglo-Saxons, _9._
+
+  Animals, _42._
+
+  Animal fable, _15._
+
+  Arabia, _9._
+
+  Arawaks, _9._
+
+  Arcadia, _9, 15._
+
+  Asia, 5; _9, 12, 16._
+
+  Assyrians, _15._
+
+
+  Bear, 5; _9, 15, 16, 38, 102, 109, 111._
+
+  Belgium, _12._
+
+  Benignant, _4, 38._
+
+  Berserkr, 1; _102._
+
+  Bird, 5.
+
+  Bison, _12, 27, 31, 32, 73, 74._
+
+  Bohemia, _9._
+
+  Borneo, _9._
+
+  Bretons, _9._
+
+  Bulgaria, _9._
+
+  Burchard von Worms, _9._
+
+  Burmah, _12._
+
+
+  Celebrations, _21._
+
+  Ceylon, _12._
+
+  Charms, 10, 16.
+
+  Clothing, 8, 9, 11, 16, 28.
+
+  Coyote, 13.
+
+
+  Dancing, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16; _32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 57._
+
+  Dante, _24._
+
+  Death, _22._
+
+  Decoy, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 28; _29, 30, 31._
+
+  Denmark, _9._
+
+  Dog, 5, 21, 27; _19, 64, 73, 74._
+
+  Dreams, 21; _67._
+
+
+  Edda, _15._
+
+  Enemy, 8, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29; _48, 60, 65, 102, 111._
+
+  English, _9, 109._
+
+  Eskimo, _30, 31, 67._
+
+  Europe, 5, 7; _9, 12, 16, 110._
+
+
+  Fenrisulfr, _9, 51._
+
+  Finns, _5._
+
+  Fish, _5._
+
+  Fisherman, _29._
+
+  Food, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 28, 29; _27, 29._
+
+  Forest, 25; _22, 65, 102, 107, 110, 112._
+
+  Fox, 5, 12; _9, 15, 21._
+
+  French, _9, 12._
+
+
+  Germany, 2, 4, 5; _9, 22._
+
+  Greece, 1, 7; _9, 15, 22._
+
+  Greenland, _12, 69._
+
+
+  Harmful, 1, 11, 13; _42, 51._
+
+  Herds, _9, 12, 20._
+
+  Herodotus, 1; _15._
+
+  Hindoos, _9._
+
+  Homer, _24._
+
+  Hunter, 7, 8; _15, 31, 52, 53, 64, 95._
+
+  Hyena, 5, 23; _9._
+
+
+  Iceland, _9, 110._
+
+  India, 5; _9, 12._
+
+  Indogermanic, 7; _9, 20, 42._
+
+  Insanity, 21, 22, 24; _24, 73, 85, 102._
+
+  Iranians, _9._
+
+  Ireland, _9._
+
+  Italians, _9._
+
+
+  Jackal, _12._
+
+  Jaguar, _9._
+
+  Japan, _9._
+
+
+  Kadiak, _29._
+
+  Kelts, 7; _9._
+
+  Knut, _9._
+
+
+  Lapps, 5.
+
+  Leopard, 5; _9, 65._
+
+  Leubuscher, 6; _9, 20._
+
+  Lion, 5; _9, 45, 65._
+
+  Lithuanians, _9._
+
+  Loki, 14; _9, 112._
+
+  Lycanthropy, 2; _9, 19, 20, 22, 74, 102._
+
+  Lykaon, _9, 15._
+
+
+  Magic, 23, 24; _22, 37, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 84, 107._
+
+  Malignant, 24; _4, 84, 102, 109, 113._
+
+  Mask, 8, 11, 15; _29, 37, 42, 57, 64, 67, 107, 111._
+
+  Mastodon, _20._
+
+  Medicinemen (Shamans), 20; _52, 63, 66, 67, 74, 81, 83, 85, 90,
+    107._
+
+  Mexico, _12, 67._
+
+  Middle Ages, 22; _9, 74, 102._
+
+  Murder, 24; _20, 22, 52, 102, 112._
+
+  Myths, 7, 27; _24, 95, 102._
+
+
+  Names, _42, 53, 109, 111._
+
+  Netherlands, _9._
+
+  Neurians, 1; _15._
+
+  Night, 1, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25; _63, 65, 66, 69, 74, 84, 102, 110,
+    112, 113._
+
+  North America, _12._
+
+  Norway, _9._
+
+
+  Odin, _15._
+
+  Island Oesel, _9._
+
+  Otter, _29._
+
+  Outlaw, 24, 26; _84, 110, 112._
+
+  Owl, 5, 30; _64._
+
+
+  Pawnees, 12, 13, 23; _110._
+
+  Persia, _9._
+
+  Plants, _42, 95._
+
+  Poles, _9, 14._
+
+  Portuguese, _9._
+
+  Posen, _14._
+
+  Priests, _22, 67, 69, 83._
+
+  Professionals, 22, 23, 24, 25; _74, 81, 83, 86._
+
+  Provencal, _9._
+
+  Prussia, _14._
+
+
+  Reindeer, 5.
+
+  Religion, _22, 24, 57._
+
+  Revenge, 14, 17, 24, 28; _52, 69._
+
+  Robber, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28; _15, 20, 44, 53, 65,
+    112._
+
+  Romans, 7; _9, 27._
+
+  Russia, 2; _9, 12, 16._
+
+
+  Scandinavia, _9._
+
+  Scout, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 29; _47, 48, 60._
+
+  Scythians, _6._
+
+  Seal, _29, 31, 69._
+
+  Serpent, 5; _9._
+
+  Servia, _9._
+
+  Shepherds, _15, 20._
+
+  Siam, _12, 69._
+
+  Sinfjoetli, _15, 64, 110._
+
+  Song, 9, 10, 15; _33, 64._
+
+  Skins (or dress) of animals, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22,
+    23, 25, 28, 29, 30; _21, 22, 31, 34, 52, 53, 57, 60, 63, 64,
+    65, 66, 67, 74, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112._
+
+  South America, 5; _12._
+
+  Speech (animals), 7.
+
+  Stories, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29; _9, 27, 60, 69, 102, 111._
+
+  Supernaturalism, 10, 17, 18; _57, 65, 102, 111._
+
+  Superstition, 1, 4, 5, 14, 23; _20, 64._
+
+  Sweden, _9._
+
+
+  Tiger, 5; _9, 45, 69, 90._
+
+  Totemism, 2; _47, 102._
+
+  Transformation, 5, 15, 21; _9, 11, 19, 22, 52, 64, 65, 66, 69,
+    107._
+
+  Traps, 8; _31._
+
+  Tschechs, _9._
+
+  Turkey, 5; _108._
+
+
+  Volhynia, 2; _9, 16._
+
+  Voelsungasaga, _15, 112._
+
+
+  Wales, _9._
+
+  Warfare, 12, 13, 16; _60._
+
+  Weapons, 7, 8, 9.
+
+  Werewolf, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30; _9, 15, 20, 22, 45,
+    64, 84, 86, 91, 102, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113._
+
+  Wiener Hundesegen, _15._
+
+  Witches, 11, 19, 23; _65, 66, 67, 74, 83, 84, 91, 102, 109, 110,
+    111._
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note
+
+
+Words in italics were surrounded with _underscores_, and small capitals
+changed to all capitals.
+
+Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were
+added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they
+were referred to in other notes. The notes were moved to directly after
+the paragraph with the corresponding anchor.
+
+In note 32 "Tsun'-si'-kwa-ya'" and "ki+" were in the original
+written with a breve on the i, this has been changed to a plain i.
+"Voelsungasaga" and "Sinfjoetli" were in the original mostly written with
+a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader's
+convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common
+spelling with oe.
+
+Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. In note
+12 "and" was changed to "und" (seltener in Frankreich und Belgien).
+
+Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and
+missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent
+spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the Werewolf Superstition, by
+Caroline Taylor Stewart
+
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