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diff --git a/44097-8.txt b/44097-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 41f3497..0000000 --- a/44097-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7695 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, January -1899, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, January 1899 - Volume LIV, No. 3, January 1899 - -Author: Various - -Editor: William Jay Youmans - -Release Date: November 2, 2013 [EBook #44097] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, JAN 1899 *** - - - - -Produced by Judith Wirawan, Greg Bergquist, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by Biodiversity Heritage Library.) - - - - - - - - - - - Established by Edward L. Youmans - - APPLETONS' - POPULAR SCIENCE - MONTHLY - - EDITED BY - WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS - - VOL. LIV - - NOVEMBER, 1898, TO APRIL, 1899 - - NEW YORK - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - 1899 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1899, - BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. - - - - -VOL. LIV. ESTABLISHED BY EDWARD L. YOUMANS. No. 3. - -APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. - -JANUARY, 1899. - -_EDITED BY WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - I. The Evolution of Colonies. VI. Industrial Evolution. By - JAMES COLLIER 289 - - II. The Mind's Eye. By Prof. JOSEPH JASTROW. (Illustrated.) 299 - - III. Nature Study in the Philadelphia Normal School. By L. L. W. - WILSON, Ph. D. 313 - - IV. Principles of Taxation. XX. The Diffusion of Taxes. By the - Late Hon. DAVID A. WELLS 319 - - V. Our Florida Alligator. By I. W. BLAKE. (Illustrated.) 330 - - VI. The Racial Geography of Europe. The Jews. II. By Prof. - WILLIAM Z. RIPLEY. (Illustrated.) 338 - - VII. True Tales of Birds and Beasts. By DAVID STARR JORDAN 352 - - VIII. Glacial Geology in America. By Prof. DANIEL S. MARTIN 356 - - IX. Modern Studies of Earthquakes. By GEORG GERALAND 362 - - X. A Short History of Scientific Instruction. By Sir J. N. - LOCKYER 372 - - XI. Should Children under Ten learn to Read and Write? By Prof. - G. T. W. PATRICK 382 - - XII. Soils and Fertilizers. By CHARLES MINOR BLACKFORD, Jr., - M. D. 392 - - XIII. Sketch of Friedrich August Kekulé. (With Portrait.) 401 - - XIV. Editor's Table: A Voice from the Pulpit.--Lessons of - Anthropology.--An Example of Social Decadence.--The - Advance of Science 409 - - XV. Scientific Literature 415 - - XVI. Fragments of Science 425 - - - - - NEW YORK: - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, - 72 FIFTH AVENUE. - - SINGLE NUMBER, 50 CENTS. YEARLY SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00. - - COPYRIGHT, 1898, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. - - Entered at the Post Office at New York, and admitted for - transmission through the mails at second-class rates. - - - - -[Illustration: AUGUST VON KEKULÉ.] - - - - -APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. - -JANUARY, 1899. - - - - -THE EVOLUTION OF COLONIES. - -BY JAMES COLLIER. - - -VI.--INDUSTRIAL EVOLUTION. - -The earliest nomadic stage of mankind has left traces in many of the -colonies. The first age of French Canada, of New York, of great part -of North America, was one of hunters and trappers, and it has -continued in the Northwest till recent times. The first brief period -of Rhodesia was that of the big-game hunter. The Boers of the -Transvaal are still as much hunters as farmers. The American -backwoodsman who clears a patch, then sells his improvements to the -first newcomer, and, placing his wife and children and scanty -belongings on a cart, proceeds _da capo_ elsewhere, is a nomadic -pioneer. The stage is in one way or another perpetual, for the class -never quite dies out. The drunken English quarryman who, driven by a -demon of restlessness, continually goes "on tramp," and in his -wanderings covers on foot a space equal to twice the circumference of -the globe, is a demi-savage whose nomadism is only checked by the -"abhorred approaches of old age." If he emigrates, he repeats the old, -wild life as a pick-and-shovel man in Queensland or a quarryman in New -South Wales. The soberer colonial youth, who more luxuriously canters -from farm to farm in New Zealand on the back of a scrub, is a tamer -specimen who settles down when he marries. Nay, the "restless man" who -periodically applies for leave of absence from a colonial legislature -in order to travel in India, China, and Timbuctoo, is a still milder -but not less incorrigible example of the same indestructible type. - -The pastoral stage is all but universal. Wherever grass grows (and -there is wild grass almost everywhere) sheep can graze, and where -there are succulent twigs cattle will fatten on them. The South -American _estancias_ and the ranches of Colorado, the cattle runs of -Queensland and northern New Zealand, the sheep runs of Victoria and -New South Wales repeat and perpetuate this stage. The genesis of it -may even now be daily observed. A Manchester accountant who has never -before been astride a horse will in twelve months learn the mysteries -of cattle and sheep farming, then purchase a hundred acres or two from -the colonial Government, gradually clear it of timber, build of his -own trees, with no skilled assistance, a weatherboard cottage, and -take home a swiftly wooed wife to lead with him a rather desolate -existence in "the bush." Or (on a larger scale) a squatter,[1] who is -commonly a gentleman by birth and education, comes out from England -with inherited wealth, buys or leases from the Government a large -inland tract of grazing land, takes with him flocks and herds, -shepherds and stockmen, builds a bark or wooden manor house, and -settles down to the life of Abram on the plains of Mamre. In earlier -days, when the colony was in its infancy, he would not have had to -purchase or lease his "run." One country after another saw the golden -age of a would-be landed aristocracy. As Norman William parceled out -all England among his nobles and knights, rulers of conquered -countries were then mighty free with what did not belong to them. -Possessing the authority of a sovereign, Columbus made lavish grants -of land, and thus pacified his rebels. Charles II presented Carolina -to eight proprietors. Baronies of twelve thousand acres in South -Carolina, manors of twenty thousand acres in Maryland, were dwarfed by -territorial principalities of more than a million acres in New York. -The absolute governors of early Australia gave away wide tracts. When -land was not given it was taken, on Rob Roy's principle. During the -interregnum that followed the recall of the first Governor of New -South Wales, military robbers seized fifteen thousand acres, and under -subsequent administrations they continued their depredations. Land was -held on various tenures. The first American forms were varieties of -belated feudalism; of a hundred often strange and ridiculous emblems -of suzerainty perhaps a dozen repeated Old World customs.[2] Sir H. S. -Maine has proved that nearly all the feudal exactions that maddened a -whole people to mutiny in 1789 were then in force in England. How -shadowy they must have grown is shown by the fact that none of them -was transported to Botany Bay in that or later years. They were -atrophied portions of the British land system when Australia was -founded in 1788. For fully sixteen years the possession of lands -granted or seized was as absolute as the English law ever allows it to -be. Then the landholders, finding the large tracts already conceded -insufficient for the development of the pastoral industry, applied for -more, and themselves suggested in 1803 a plan of leasing crown lands -which in the following year was legalized as "the first charter of -squatterdom"; it was the beginning of a system that has brought under -pastoral occupancy territories as extensive as the largest European -countries. The land system formed part of or gave birth to a political -organization. A host of so-called _seigneurs_ imported into old Canada -as much of the _ancien régime_ as would bear the voyage. Manors in -Maryland reproduced the feudal courts-baron and courts-leet. The great -New York landowners, as inheriting both English and Dutch -institutions, presided in such courts and were at the same time -hereditary members of a powerful legislative order.[3] The courts were -dropped on the way out to Australia, but the political influence of -the English landed aristocracy inhered in their representatives at the -antipodes. As the Southern slavearchy, through its Washingtons and -Jeffersons, Clays and Calhouns, was for three quarters of a century -the driving force in American politics, the Australian squatterarchy -for one generation or more ruled the seven colonies with a sway that -waxed as the absolute power of the governor waned. It composed the -legislature, appointed the judges, controlled the executive, and if -the governor was refractory it sent him home. In both southern -countries social life reflected its tastes and was the measure of its -grandeur. It constituted "society," ran the races, gave the balls, and -kept open house; the surrounding villages lived in its sunshine. Why -could not this patriarchal state last, as it has lasted in Arabia for -thousands of years and in Europe for centuries? In the Southern States -it was brought to bankruptcy by the civil war. In Australia it -collapsed before two enemies as deadly--a succession of droughts and a -fall in the price of wool. The banker has his foot on the squatter's -neck. If one may judge from the published maps, three fourths of the -freehold land in the older colonies is in the hands of the money -lenders. The once lordly runholder, who would have excluded from his -table, or at least from his visiting circle, any one engaged in -commerce, is now the tenant of a mortgage company which began by using -him too well and ended by crushing him unmercifully. - -It is also brought to a close by the rise of the agricultural stage. -The colonial _latifundia_ gets broken up for the same economic reasons -as that of the mother country. Whenever from the increase of -population wheat-growing becomes more profitable than grazing, land -rises in value, and vast sheep walks are subdivided into -two-hundred-acre farms, which are put under the plow. The transition -may be retarded in some countries and altogether arrested in others. -Nasse has shown that, in consequence of the moisture of the climate, -there was in the sixteenth century a continual tendency in England to -revert from agriculture to pasture. The light rainfall, high -temperatures, and unfertilized soil will forever keep nine tenths of -Australia under grass. Most of the mountainous north and the -glacier-shaved portions of the south of New Zealand must be perpetual -cattle runs and sheep walks. A century or perhaps centuries will pass -before much of the light soil of Tasmania, hardly enriched by the -scanty foliage of the eucalyptus, is sufficiently fertilized by -grazing to grow corn. Rich alluvial or volcanic lands are put under -the plow, without passing through the pastoral stage, as soon as -markets are created by the advent of immigrants. There is a cry for -farm lands. Companies that have bought large estates break them up -into allotments. When they or other large landholders still resist -pressure, the radical colonial legislature accelerates their -deliberations by putting on the thumbscrew of a statute which -confiscates huge cantles of their land. Or the colonial Government, if -socialist-democratic, purchases extensive properties, which it breaks -up into farms and communistic village settlements. Over wide tracts -the agriculturist, great and small, takes the place of the -pastoralist. He holds his lands under a variety of tenures. New South -Wales, in its search for an ideal form, has flowered into fifteen -varieties. Other colonies are stumbling toward it more or less blindly -through a succession of annual statutes. Where land is abundant the -tenure will be easy. In North America nominal quitrents were general; -the system was long since introduced into South Africa, and it has -lately been imported into New Zealand in spite of all previous -experience to the effect that such rents can not be collected. Mr. -Eggleston remarks that in the United States the tendency was to "a -simple and direct ownership of the soil by the occupant." Since those -days Henry George has come and (alas!) gone. A craze for the -nationalization of the land buzzes in the bonnets of all who have no -land. There is an equal reluctance on the part of colonial -legislatures to grant waste lands as freeholds and on the part of -purchasers to accept them on any other terms. Hence the constant -effort to devise a tenure which shall reserve the rights of the colony -and yet not oppress the tenant. One legislature has blasphemed into -the "eternal lease," which would seem to be almost preferable to -absolute ownership in a country subject to earthquakes! But the -tenure in the early days is unimportant. With a virgin soil yielding -at first seventy and then regularly forty bushels to the acre, and -high prices ruling, the farmer can stand any tenure. Seen at market or -cattle show, his equine or bovine features and firm footing on mother -earth suggest a sense of solidity in the commonwealth to which he -belongs. He gives it its character. The legislature consists of his -representatives. Laws are passed in his interest. He controls the -executive. His sons fill the civil service. Judges sometimes come from -his ranks, and lawyers easily fall back into them. He supports the -churches and fills them. Small towns spring up in place of the -pastoral villages to supply his wants. As the period of the Golden -Fleece was the colonial age of gold, when Jason, the wool king, made a -fortune, received a baronetcy, and, returning to the mother country, -founded a county family and intermarried with the British aristocracy, -so the agricultural stage is the colonial age of silver, in money as -in morals. It lasted in England till well into the century, in Germany -till the other day, in France till now. It is, in the main, the stage -of contemporary colonies. What brings _it_ to an end? The soil gets -exhausted, prices fall, and a succession of wet seasons in New Zealand -or of dry seasons in Australia or South Africa sends the farmer into -the money market. Nearly every province of almost every colony gets -mortgaged up to the hilt. The foot of the land agent is on the neck of -the farmer, who becomes his tenant or serf--_adscriptus glebæ_ as much -as the Old English villeins who were the ancestors of the farmer, or -the Virginia villeins who repeated in the seventeenth century the Old -English status. But tenancy does not always arise out of bankrupt -proprietorship. A capitalist may drain an extensive marsh (like that -along the valley of the Shoalhaven River in New South Wales) and -divide the rich alluvial soil into hundreds of profitable dairy farms. -More inland marshes, like the Piako Swamp in New Zealand, have been so -completely drained as to make the soil too dry to carry wheat, and so -have swamped both capitalists and banker. Where the squatter owner -keeps the land in his own hands, he may lease an unbroken-up tract for -three or five years to a farmer who plows and fences it, takes off -crops, pays a light rent of from five to fifteen bushels per acre, and -leaves it in grass. On one tenure or another the whole colony -gradually comes into cultivation. - -The predominance of the agricultural interest is long threatened and -at length shaken by the rise of the industrial stage. It is partly -evolved from the pastoral and agricultural stages and partly -independent. Nor do these stages at once and necessarily give rise to -collective industry. In all young colonies where the population is -scanty and processes are simple there are no division and no -association of labor. The account that one of the best of American -historians gives of the Northwest Territory might be accepted as a -description of this primitive state, and realizes Fichte's ideal of a -_geschlossener Handelstaat_ (closed trade state). Shut in by -mountains, the people raised their own flax and sometimes grew their -own wool, which they spun and wove at home. They made their own -spinning wheels and looms, as they made their own furniture. They -tanned their own leather and cobbled rude shoes of it. Of Indian-corn -husks they spun ropes and manufactured horse collars and chair -bottoms. Barrels and beehives were formed of sawn hollow trees. They -extracted sugar from the maple and tea from the sassafras root. Their -boats were dug-out canoes. In colonies of later foundation this -self-sufficing stage, which repeats an earlier period in the mother -country than the time when the colony was given off, is dropped, -though there are traces of it everywhere to be found. Sheep countries -give birth to the woolen industry. New Zealand reduplicates the woolen -manufactures of England and, owing to protective duties, has attained -a deserved success. New South Wales, with finer wools, has not -succeeded, for no other apparent reason than that she refuses to -impose such duties. For it is to be observed that it is under -legislative protection--bounties, bonuses, drawbacks, export and -especially import duties--that almost every colonial industry has -grown up, as the industries of the mother country grew up. Sometimes -the profit in a particular undertaking is exactly equal to the amount -of the import duty, and it is seldom greater. By taking extravagant -advantage of the liberty long refused (as leave to manufacture was -long refused to the North American colonies), but at length conceded, -to impose import duties, an Australasian colony, misled as much by its -own splendid energy as by evil counselors (Carlyle among them), built -up a whole artificial system of industries which sank in ruinous -collapse when the boom had passed. Independent industries spring first -from the soil. Gold and silver mining lose their wild adventurous -character, and become regular industries, worked by companies with -extensive plants. The digging of gum in Auckland (bled from the -gigantic Kauri pine) is operated by merchants who keep the gum diggers -in a species of serfage. The discovery of coal makes native industries -possible or remunerative, but till iron has been found the system is -incomplete. All countries, and therefore all colonies, are late in -reaching this stage; the most advanced contemporary colonies have not -yet reached it. None the less have they followed England with swifter -steps, if with less momentum, into the modern age of iron--that -Brummagem epoch which has the creation of markets for its war cry, -state socialism for its gospel, Joseph of Birmingham for its prophet, -and the British Empire for its deity. - -The iron age is fitly inaugurated by the most degraded relationship -that man can bear to man--that of slavery. Only the oldest of modern -colonies imitate the mother countries in passing through this stage; -in those of later foundation a mere shadow of it remains, or it takes -other shapes. Colonists first enslave the natives of the country where -they settle. In the South American colonies, where they went to find -gold, they would work for no other purpose; they therefore needed the -natives to till the soil; they needed them also as carriers. For these -purposes they were used unscrupulously. They were distributed among -the Spaniards under a system of _repartimientos_ which repeated the -provisions of Greek and Roman slavery, and was itself reduplicated -three centuries later in the convict assignment system of New South -Wales. With such savage cruelty was it worked that, according to the -testimony of Columbus, six sevenths of the population of Hispaniola -died under it in a few years. The same form of slavery, but of a very -different character, prevailed in Africa down almost to our own times. -In the British colonies it was submerged in 1834, from causes exterior -to itself, by the humanitarian wave that wrecked the West Indies; in -the French colonies it was abolished by the revolutionary government -of 1848; in the Dutch colonies it possibly subsists to this day. -Theoretically abolished or not, the relationship between civilized -whites and savage blacks must be everywhere a modified form of -slavery; and a white colonization of the African tropics can only take -place under conditions indistinguishable from a limited slavery. In -colder or younger colonies, even if a more refined sentiment had -permitted it, there could be no question of enslaving the fierce red -Indians, the warlike Maoris, or the intractable Australian blacks. The -Indians rendered some services to the northern colonists. The Maoris -worked for the first immigrants into Canterbury, but as free laborers, -and the phase soon passed away as more valuable labor arrived. Blacks -were in the early years employed by the Australian settlers, but like -nearly all savages they were found incapable of continuous industry. -The next step is to import slaves. To lighten the oppression of the -Mexicans, negroes were introduced, as they had previously been into -Europe. There, and still more in the southern colonies of North -America, they were the chief pioneers. They cut down forests, cleared -the jungles, drained the swamps, and opened up the country. For the -best part of two hundred years the world's sugar, rice, cotton, -tobacco, and indigo were grown by negro labor. The effect on the negro -himself has been to raise him one grade in the scale of being. If, as -Mr. Galton believes, he is naturally two grades below the European, a -place in the "organization of labor" will have to be found for him -midway between the white workman and the slave. It is, indeed, being -found. As a farmer the negro has totally failed. "But he is a good -laborer under supervision. He is a success in the mines. He has found -acceptance in the iron furnaces and about the coke ovens. He is in -great demand in periods of railroad construction," and he is a Western -pioneer. Above born and bred slaves for life there is the status of -imported slaves for a term. For years Kanakas, hired or captured from -the Melanesian Islands of the Pacific, were used as slaves by the -sugar planters of Queensland, until the outcry in England put a stop -to an ill-conducted traffic. It has since been resumed under humaner -conditions, which make it as defensible as slavery can ever be. -Coolies from India are imported into Fiji and Hongkong practically as -free laborers. They are also employed on board the great liners that -ply between India, China, Australia, and England, much to the -discontent of the working class and to the great satisfaction of the -well-to-do, who thus gain cheaper passages and lower freights. The -radical opposition is no more likely to prevent this form of native -labor from spreading to all suitable environments than the -conservative opposition has prevented women from filling the -employments within their improved capacities. The ubiquitous Chinaman, -again, has imported himself into most colonies, and so long as he -takes a place that the white laborer refuses to occupy, he will -present the ugly problem of the coexistence of an indestructible alien -race with a civilized people whose type of civilization and his are -irreconcilable. - -European colonies have also known white slavery, as Greek and Roman -colonies knew it, and slavery of their own race and nation, as -European countries knew it. Its most degraded type has doubtless been -Spanish, English, and French convictism. The Australian-English is the -most familiar and the worst. The Australian convict was a slave for -life or a long term. Like the slave, he was at the mercy of his -master, excepting that corporal punishment could not be inflicted by -the master's hands. The lash was none the less kept going; in a single -year, in New South Wales, nearly three thousand floggings were -administered. The Roman _ergastula_ were pleasure bowers compared with -the convict hells of Parramatta, in New South Wales, and Port Arthur, -in Tasmania. Marcus Clarke's terrible fiction proves to be still more -terrible fact. Convicts were herded together like pigs; kindness was -rare, oppression general, and many fine men died inch by inch. Such -was the state of things even after the introduction of the assignment -system. According to that system, convicts were assigned as -agricultural laborers and shepherds to settlers who cried out for -them, as the American planters did for slaves. Craftsmen were allotted -to high officials in lieu of salary or to influential persons who -hired them to others (herein repeating English serfdom) or permitted -them to work for themselves, receiving a portion of their earnings -(herein repeating Greek slavery). Mechanics were employed on public -works, and hundreds of buildings were erected by convict masons, -bricklayers, and carpenters. Day laborers were employed on roads, and -hundreds of miles of solid highway are a durable monument to the -memory of the convict. They were the true pioneers of the country, -braving the dangers of the "bush," resisting the aborigines, clearing -and cultivating the land, and developing the resources of the -colonies. For themselves they did well and ill. Many reformed, and -after manumission, which was at first special and at length general, -became respectable citizens, dealers, and traders. Some grew to be -prosperous merchants, wealthy squatters, editors, legislators, and all -but ministers. Their sons are judges, legislators, solicitors, -Government officials, newspaper proprietors. After lasting for sixty -years the system of transportation was at length abolished in -consequence of the opposition of the working class, who objected to -competition, and of the respectable classes generally. The legislative -body and the large landowners were rather in favor of its perpetuity, -and there are still members of the old "slave-driving party" in -Tasmania who regret its discontinuance. - -The bond servants, who were common in New England and at first more -numerous than slaves in the Southern States, repeated the status of -the English serfs. Their origin was various. Crime, debt, sale by -parents, voluntary surrender, and kidnapping all contributed their -quota. The period of indentured service was at first from seven to ten -years, and was ultimately reduced to a fixed term of four years. They -were exchanged and sold like any other commodity. Their treatment -seems to have been often harsh. Like the Australian convicts, many of -them prospered. Leading families in the United States trace their -origin to bondmen. Not a few of the Southern overseers, free laborers, -and small farmers are believed to be descended from them. The vagabond -element in all the States, the "white trash" of the South, and the -criminal and pauper inhabitants of certain regions in the North are -also affiliated on the more degraded sections of the class.[4] - -The worst of modern inventions, it has been said, is the invention of -the workingman. The workingman, however, has a pedigree; he is the son -of the bondman or the serf, and the grandson of the slave, who would -have been still more discreditable "inventions" if they had not been -the outgrowth of their time and place. The servile character of the -workman long survived in European countries; it was not till the -beginning of this century that the last trades were emancipated in -England. While in North America and New South Wales the transition is -plainly traceable, all vestiges of it have disappeared in the younger -colonies. In these, almost from the first, the mechanic is master of -the situation. The carpenter who can put up a wooden cottage commands -regular work and high wages, while the preacher who builds him a house -not made with hands is starved. The anomaly is in perfect consistency -with the biological analogy; the brain is everywhere of late -development. As the colony grows, wages fall, and the position of -professional men becomes more tolerable, but, _en revanche_, the -workman acquires and at length almost monopolizes political power. The -premier and cabinet ministers are sometimes former peddlers, gold -diggers, coal miners, shepherds, etc. The legislative bodies consist -largely of labor representatives. Laws are passed in the interest of -labor. Not content with a share of political power out of all -proportion to their numbers or importance, the regimented trades, -under the command of unscrupulous leaders, deliver a pitched battle -against the employers, with the object of gaining practical possession -of the agencies of production and distribution. They are necessarily -defeated. The value of labor and the importance of the mechanic -decline with the application of machinery to all industrial processes. -Accumulated wealth, subsidizing inventions, acquires an increasing -ascendency. The industrial system is in no greater danger from the -onslaughts of labor than civilized countries from the invasion of -barbarians. - -Only the beginnings of the commercial epoch, or age of bronze, are to -be found in colonies. In production we witness the same supersession -of individual enterprise by the limited liability company. This is -also the case in distribution, where many obsolete Old World stages -are recapitulated. We may still see the long, slow bullock team, the -wearied pack horse (the fur trade in Canada was carried on by -"brigades of pack horses"), the hawker, purveyor of news and gossip. -We easily trace the evolution of the shop: at first a ship, then -landed, with everything inside--groceries, meat, bread, fruit, and -vegetables, clothes, crockery, ironmongery, stationery, and tobacco; -the butcher first hives off, then the baker, the grocer; in course of -time reintegration takes place, and shops are to be found in the -colonial cities which reduplicate Whiteley's in London, where -everything may again be had as in the beginning. The processes of -exchange likewise recapitulate the past. Barter is long universal, and -is still common in colonial villages. Even then a standard is needed. -In the Old English period the "currency" consisted of cattle, named by -a facetious writer "the current _kine_ of the realm." In Virginia and -Maryland tobacco was the circulating medium for a century and a half, -supplemented in Maryland with hemp and flax; taxes were paid in -tobacco, and rent in kind. In Illinois and Canada, skins and furs, -with wampum for small coin; in New England the latter singular -currency was used far into the eighteenth century. New South Wales has -the demerit of inventing the destructive medium of rum; wages were -paid in it or in wheat; meal or spirits were taken at the doors of -theaters. Store receipts for produce were given by the Government and -passed current, not without depreciation; military officers issued -bills for all sums up to one hundred pounds; private individuals, in -the lack of specie, gave promissory notes. Fixed prices were long -unknown; extortioners in the early days of all the colonies made a -profit of a thousand per cent; and in quite recent days usurious -attorneys exacted interest at the rate of a hundred per cent. - -Colonies sometimes anticipate the development of the mother country. -The communistic dreams of the forties in France and England were for a -brief while realized in old Virginia, as they are at this hour being -realized in the village settlements of South Australia; and the state -socialism rendered popular by the German victories of 1870 was perhaps -more thoroughly embodied in convict New South Wales than anywhere else -outside of Peru under the Incas, as it is now sweeping all of the -Australasian colonies onward to an unknown goal. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] In its primary American sense the word _squatter_ denotes the -backwoodsman described in the foregoing paragraph. In its secondary -Australian sense it means the large landholder now described. - -[2] See an instructive article by Mr. Edward Eggleston, Social -Conditions in the Colonies. Century Magazine, 1884, pp. 849, 850. - -[3] Eggleston, _op. cit._, p. 850. - -[4] Eggleston, _op. cit._, p. 858. - - - - -THE MIND'S EYE. - -BY JOSEPH JASTROW. - - HAMLET.--My father,--Methinks, I see my father. - - HORATIO.--O, where, my lord? - - HAMLET.--In my mind's eye, Horatio. - - -It is a commonplace taught from nursery to university that we see with -our eyes, hear with our ears, and feel with the fingers. This is the -truth, but not the whole truth. Indispensable as are the sense organs -in gaining an acquaintance with the world in which we live, yet they -alone do not determine how extensive or how accurate that acquaintance -shall be. There is a mind behind the eye and the ear and the finger -tips which guides them in gathering information, and gives value and -order to the exercise of the senses. This is particularly true of -vision, the most intellectual of all the senses, the one in which mere -acuteness of the sense organ counts least and the training in -observation counts most. The eagle's eye sees farther, but our eyes -tell us much more of what is seen. - -The eye is often compared to a photographic camera, with its eyelid -cap, its iris shutter, its lens, and its sensitive plate--the retina; -when properly adjusted for distance and light, the image is formed on -the retina as on the glass plate, and the picture is taken. So far the -comparison is helpful; but while the camera takes a picture whenever -and wherever the plate happens to be exposed, the complete act of -seeing requires some co-operation on the part of the mind. The retina -may be exposed a thousand times and take but few pictures; or perhaps -it is better to say that the pictures may be taken, but remain -undeveloped and evanescent. The pictures that are developed are -stacked up, like the negatives in the photographer's shop, in the -pigeonholes of our mental storerooms--some faded and blurred, some -poorly arranged or mislaid, some often referred to and fresh prints -made therefrom, and some quite neglected. - -In order to see, it is at once necessary that the retina be suitably -exposed toward the object to be seen, and that the mind be favorably -disposed to the assimilation of the impression. True seeing, -observing, is a double process, partly objective or outward--the thing -seen and the retina--and partly subjective or inward--the picture -mysteriously transferred to the mind's representative, the brain, and -there received and affiliated with other images. Illustrations of such -seeing "with the mind's eye" are not far to seek. Wherever the -beauties and conformations of natural scenery invite the eye of man -does he discover familiar forms and faces (Fig. 1); the forces of -Nature have rough-hewn the rocks, but the human eye detects and often -creates the resemblances. The stranger to whom such curiosities of -form are first pointed out often finds it difficult to discover the -resemblance, but once seen the face or form obtrudes itself in every -view and seems the most conspicuous feature in the outlook. The -flickering fire furnishes a fine background for the activity of the -mind's eye, and against this it projects the forms and fancies which -the leaping flames and the burning embers from time to time suggest. -Not all see these fire-pictures readily, for our mental eyes differ -more from one another than the physical ones, and perhaps no two -persons see the same picture in quite the same way. It is not quite -true, however, as many have held, that in waking hours we all have a -world in common, but in dreams each has a world of his own, for our -waking worlds are made different by the differences in what engages -our interest and our attention. It is true that our eyes when open are -opened very largely to the same views, but by no one observer are all -these views, though visible, really seen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.[5]--The man's face in the rocks is quite -distinct, and is usually readily found when it is known that there is -a face somewhere. (For this view from the Dalles of the St. Croix, -Minn., I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. W. H. Dudley, of Madison, -Wis.)] - -This characteristic of human vision often serves as a source of -amusement. The puzzle picture with its tantalizing face, or animal, or -what not, hidden in the trees, or fantastically constructed out of -heterogeneous elements that make up the composition, is to many quite -irresistible. We turn it about in all directions, wondering where the -hidden form can be, scanning every detail of the picture, until -suddenly a chance glimpse reveals it, plainly staring us in the face. -When several persons are engaged in this occupation, it is amusing to -observe how blind each is to what the others see; their physical eyes -see alike, but their mental eyes reflect their own individualities. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--In order to see the lion's head, hold the -dollar exactly inverted and the head will be discovered facing the -left, as above outlined. It is clearer on the dollar itself than in -this reproduction.] - -Thousands upon thousands of persons handle our silver dollar, but few -happen to observe the lion's head which lies concealed in the -representation of the familiar head of Liberty; frequently even a -careful examination fails to detect this hidden emblem of British -rule; but, as before, when once found, it is quite obvious (Fig. 2). -For similar reasons it is a great aid in looking for an object to know -what to look for; to be readily found, the object, though lost to -sight, should be to memory clear. Searching is a mental process -similar to the matching of a piece of fabric in texture or color, when -one has forgotten the sample and must rely upon the remembrance of its -appearance. If the recollection is clear and distinct, recognition -takes place when the judgment decides that what the physical eye sees -corresponds to the image in the mind's eye; with an indistinct mental -image the recognition becomes doubtful or faulty. The novice in the -use of the microscope experiences considerable difficulty in observing -the appearance which his instructor sees and describes, and this -because his conception of the object to be seen is lacking in -precision. Hence his training in the use of the microscope is -distinctly aided by consulting the illustrations in the text-book, for -they enable his mental eye to realize the pictures which it should -entertain. He may be altogether too much influenced by the pictures -thus suggested to his mental vision, and draw what is really not under -his microscope at all; much as the young arithmetician will manage to -obtain the answer which the book requires even at the cost of a resort -to very unmathematical processes. For training in correct and accurate -vision it is necessary to acquire an alert mental eye that observes -all that is objectively visible, but does not permit the subjective to -add to or modify what is really present. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Observe the appearance of these letters at a -distance of eight to twelve feet. An interesting method of testing the -activity of the mind's eye with these letters is described in the -text.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3_a_.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3_b_.] - -The importance of the mind's eye in ordinary vision is also well -illustrated in cases in which we see or seem to see what is not really -present, but what for one cause or another it is natural to suppose is -present. A very familiar instance of this process is the constant -overlooking of misprints--false letters, transposed letters, and -missing letters--unless these happen to be particularly striking. We -see only the general physiognomy of the word and the detailed features -are supplied from within; in this case it is the expected that -happens. Reading is done largely by the mental eye; and entire words, -obviously suggested by the context, are sometimes read in, when they -have been accidentally omitted. This is more apt to occur with the -irregular characters used in manuscript than in the more distinct -forms of the printed alphabet, and is particularly frequent in reading -over what one has himself written. In reading proof, however, we are -eager to detect misprints, and this change in attitude helps to make -them visible. It is difficult to illustrate this process -intentionally, because the knowledge that one's powers of observation -are about to be tested places one on one's guard, and thus suppresses -the natural activity of the mind's eye and draws unusual attention to -objective details. Let the reader at this point hold the page at some -distance off--say, eight or twelve feet--and draw an exact -reproduction of the letters shown in Fig. 3. Let him not read further -until this has been done, and _perhaps_ he may find that he has -introduced strokes which were not present in the original. If this is -not the case, let him try the test upon those who are ignorant of its -nature, and he will find that most persons will supply light lines to -complete the contours of the letters which in the original are -suggested but not really present; the original outline, Fig. 3_a_, -becomes something like Fig. 3_b_, and so on for the rest of the -letters. The physical eye sees the former, but the mental eye sees the -latter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--For description, see text.] - -I tried this experiment with a class of over thirty university -students of Psychology, and, although they were disposed to be quite -critical and suspected some kind of an illusion, only three or four -drew the letters correctly; all the rest filled in the imaginary light -contours; some even drew them as heavily as the real strokes. I -followed this by an experiment of a similar character. I placed upon -a table a figure (Fig. 4) made of light cardboard, fastened to blocks -of wood at the base so that the pieces would easily stand upright. The -middle piece, which is rectangular and high, was placed a little in -front of the rest of the figure. The students were asked to describe -precisely what they saw, and with one exception they all described, in -different words, a semicircular piece of cardboard with a rectangular -piece in front of it. In reality there was no half-circle of -cardboard, but only parts of two quarter-circles. The students, of -course, were well aware that their physical eyes could not see what -was behind the middle cardboard, but they inferred that the two side -pieces were parts of one continuous semicircle. This they saw, so far -as they saw it at all, with their mind's eye. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The black and white portions of this design -are precisely alike, but the effect of looking at the figure as a -pattern in black upon a white background, or as a pattern in white -upon a black background, is quite different, although the difference -is not easily described.] - -There is a further interesting class of illustrations in which a -single outward impression changes its character according as it is -viewed as representing one thing or another. In a general way we see -the same thing all the time, and the image on the retina does not -change. But as we shift the attention from one portion of the view to -another, or as we view it with a different mental conception of what -the figure represents, it assumes a different aspect, and to our -mental eye becomes quite a different thing. A slight but interesting -change takes place if we view Fig. 5 first with the conception that -the black is the pattern to be seen and the white the background, and -again try to see the white as the pattern against a black background. -I give a further illustration of such a change in Fig. 6. In our -first and natural view of this we focus the attention upon the black -lines and observe the familiar illusion, that the four vertical lines -seem far from parallel. That they are parallel can be verified by -measurement, or by covering up all of the diagram except the four main -lines. But if the white part of the diagram is conceived as the design -against a black background, then the design is no longer the same, and -with this change the illusion appears, and the four lines seem -parallel, as they really are. It may require a little effort to bring -about this change, but it is very marked when once realised. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--When this figure is viewed as a black pattern -on a white background, the four main vertical lines seem far from -parallel; when it is viewed as a white pattern on a black background -this illusion disappears (or nearly so), and the black lines as well -as the white ones seem parallel.] - -A curious optical effect which in part illustrates the change in -appearance under different aspects is reproduced in Fig. 7. In this -case the enchantment of distance is necessary to produce the -transformation. Viewed at the usual reading distance, we see nothing -but an irregular and meaningless assemblage of black and white -blotches. At a distance of fifteen to eighteen feet, however, a man's -head appears quite clearly. Also observe that after the head has once -been realized it becomes possible to obtain suggestions of it at -nearer distances. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--This is a highly enlarged reproduction taken -from a half-tone process print of Lord Kelvin. It appeared in the -Photographic Times.] - -A much larger class of ambiguous diagrams consists of those which -represent by simple outlines familiar geometrical forms or objects. We -cultivate such a use of our eyes, as indeed of all our faculties, as -will on the whole lead to the most profitable results. As a rule, the -particular impression is not so important as what it represents. Sense -impressions are simply the symbols or signs of things or ideas, and -the thing or the idea is more important than the sign. Accordingly, we -are accustomed to interpret lines, whenever we can, as the -representations of objects. We are well aware that the canvas or the -etching or the photograph before us is a flat surface in two -dimensions, but we see the picture as the representation of solid -objects in three dimensions. This is the illusion of pictorial art. So -strong is this tendency to view lines as the symbols of things that if -there is the slightest chance of so viewing them, we invariably do so; -for we have a great deal of experience with things that present their -contours as lines, and very little with mere lines or surfaces. If we -view outlines only, without shading or perspective or anything to -definitely suggest what is foreground and what background, it becomes -possible for the mind to supply these details and see foreground as -background, and _vice versa_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--This drawing may be viewed as the -representation of a book standing on its half-opened covers as seen -from the back of the book; or as the inside view of an open book -showing the pages.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--When this figure is viewed as an arrow, the -upper or feathered end seems flat; when the rest of the arrow is -covered, the feathered end may be made to project or recede like the -book cover in Fig. 8.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--The smaller square may be regarded as either -the nearer face of a projecting figure or as the more distant face of -a hollow figure.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--This represents an ordinary table-glass, the -bottom of the glass and the entire rear side, except the upper -portion, being seen through the transparent nearer side, and the rear -apparently projecting above the front. But it fluctuates in appearance -between this and a view of the glass in which the bottom is seen -directly, partly from underneath, the _whole_ of the rear side is seen -through the transparent front, and the front projects above the back.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--In this scroll the left half may at first -seem concave and the right convex, it then seems to roll or advance -like a wave, and the left seems convex and the right concave, as -though the trough of the wave had become the crest, and _vice versa_.] - -A good example to begin with is Fig. 8. These outlines will probably -suggest at first view a book, or better a book cover, seen with its -back toward you and its sides sloping away from you; but it may also -be viewed as a book opened out toward you and presenting to you an -inside view of its contents. Should the change not come readily, it -may be facilitated by thinking persistently of the appearance of an -open book in this position. The upper portion of Fig. 9 is practically -the same as Fig. 8, and if the rest of the figure be covered up, it -will change as did the book cover; when, however, the whole figure is -viewed as an arrow, a new conception enters, and the apparently solid -book cover becomes the _flat_ feathered part of the arrow. Look at the -next figure (Fig. 10), which represents in outline a truncated pyramid -with a square base. Is the smaller square nearer to you, and are the -sides of the pyramid sloping away from you toward the larger square in -the rear? Or are you looking into the hollow of a truncated pyramid -with the smaller square in the background? Or is it now one and now -the other, according as you decide to see it? Here (Fig. 13) is a -skeleton box which you may conceive as made of wires outlining the -sides. Now the front, or side nearest to me, seems directed downward -and to the left; again, it has shifted its position and is no longer -the front, and the side which appears to be the front seems directed -upward and to the right. The presence of the diagonal line makes the -change more striking: in one position it runs from the left-hand -_rear_ upper corner to the right-hand _front_ lower corner; while in -the other it connects the left-hand _front_ upper corner with the -right-hand _rear_ lower corner. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 13, 13_a_, and 13_b_.--The two methods of viewing -Fig. 13 are described in the text. Figs. 13_a_ and 13_b_ are added to -make clearer the two methods of viewing Fig. 13. The heavier lines -seem to represent the nearer surface. Fig. 13_a_ more naturally -suggests the nearer surface of the box in a position downward and to -the left, and Fig. 13_b_ makes the nearer side seem to be upward and -to the right. But in spite of the heavier outlines of the one surface, -it may be made to shift positions from foreground to background, -although not so readily as in Fig. 13.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Each member of this frieze represents a -relief ornament, applied upon the background, which in cross-section -would be an isosceles triangle with a large obtuse angle, or a space -of similar shape hollowed out of the solid wood or stone. In running -the eye along the pattern, it is interesting to observe how variously -the patterns fluctuate from one of these aspects to the other.] - -[Illustration: FIGS. 15, 15_a_, and 15_b_.--The two views of Fig. 15 -described in the text are brought out more clearly in Figs. 15_a_ and -15_b_. The shaded portion tends to be regarded as the nearer face. -Fig. 15_a_ is more apt to suggest the steps seen as we ascend them. -Fig. 15_b_ seems to represent the hollowed-out structure underneath -the steps. But even with the shading the dual interpretation is -possible, although less obvious.] - -Fig. 15 will probably seen at first glimpse to be the view of a flight -of steps which one is about to ascend from right to left. Imagine it, -however, to be a view of the under side of a series of steps; the view -representing the structure of overhanging solid masonwork seen from -underneath. At first it may be difficult to see it thus, because the -view of steps which we are about to mount is a more natural and -frequent experience than the other; but by staring at it with the -intention of seeing it differently the transition will come, and often -quite unexpectedly. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--This interesting figure (which is reproduced -with modifications from Scripture--The New Psychology) is subject in a -striking way to interchanges between foreground and background. Most -persons find it difficult to maintain for any considerable time either -aspect of the blocks (these aspects are described in the text); some -can change them at will, others must accept the changes as they happen -to come.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 17_a_.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 17_b_.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 17. - -FIGS. 17, 17_a_, and 17_b_.--How many blocks are there in this pile? -Six or seven? Note the change in arrangement of the blocks as they -change in number from six to seven. This change is illustrated in the -text. Figs. 17_a_ and 17_b_ show the two phases of a group of any -three of the blocks. The arrangement of a pyramid of six blocks seems -the more stable and is usually first suggested; but hold the page -inverted, and you will probably see the alternate arrangement (with, -however, the black surfaces still forming the tops). And once knowing -what to look for, you will very likely be able to see either -arrangement, whether the diagram be held inverted or not. This method -of viewing the figures upside down and in other positions is also -suggested to bring out the changes indicated in Figs. 13, 13_a_, -13_b_, and in Figs. 15, 15_a_, 15_b_.] - -The blocks in Fig. 16 are subject to a marked fluctuation. Now the -black surfaces represent the bottoms of the blocks, all pointing -downward and to the left, and now the black surfaces have changed and -have become the tops pointing upward and to the right. For some the -changes come at will; for others they seem to come unexpectedly, but -all are aided by anticipating mentally the nature of the -transformation. The effect here is quite striking, the blocks seeming -almost animated and moving through space. In Fig. 17 a similar -arrangement serves to create an illusion as to the real number of -blocks present. If viewed in one way--the black surface forming the -tops of the blocks--there seem to be six arranged as in Fig. 18; but -when the transformation has taken place and the black surfaces have -become the overhanging bottoms of the boxes, there are seven, arranged -as in Fig. 19. Somewhat different, but still belonging to the group of -ambiguous figures, is the ingenious conceit of the duck-rabbit shown -in Fig. 20. When it is a rabbit, the face looks to the right and a -pair of ears are conspicuous behind; when it is a duck, the face looks -to the left and the ears have been changed into the bill. Most -observers find it difficult to hold either interpretation steadily, -the fluctuations being frequent, and coming as a surprise. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Do you see a duck or a rabbit, or either? -(From Harper's Weekly, originally in Fliegende Blätter.)] - -All these diagrams serve to illustrate the principle that when the -objective features are ambiguous we see one thing or another according -to the impression that is in the mind's eye; what the objective -factors lack in definiteness the subjective ones supply, while -familiarity, prepossession, as well as other circumstances influence -the result. These illustrations show conclusively that seeing is not -wholly an objective matter depending upon what there is to be seen, -but is very considerably a subjective matter depending upon the eye -that sees. To the same observer a given arrangement of lines now -appears as the representation of one object and now of another; and -from the same objective experience, especially in instances that -demand a somewhat complicated exercise of the senses, different -observers derive very different impressions. - -Not only when the sense-impressions are ambiguous or defective, but -when they are vague--when the light is dim or the forms obscure--does -the mind's eye eke out the imperfections of physical vision. The vague -conformations of drapery and make-up that are identified and -recognized in spiritualistic _séances_ illustrate extreme instances of -this process. The whitewashed tree or post that momentarily startles -us in a dark country lane takes on the guise that expectancy gives it. -The mental predisposition here becomes the dominant factor, and the -timid see as ghosts what their more sturdy companions recognize as -whitewashed posts. Such experiences we ascribe to the action of -suggestion and the imagination--the cloud "that's almost in shape like -a camel," or "like a weasel," or "like a whale." But throughout our -visual experiences there runs this double strain, now mainly outward -and now mainly inward, from the simplest excitements of the retina up -to the realms where fancy soars freed from the confines of sense, and -the objective finds its occupation gone. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[5] In order to obtain the effects described in the various -illustrations it is necessary in several cases to regard the figures -for a considerable time and with close attention. The reader is -requested not to give up in case the first attempt to secure the -effect is not successful, but to continue the effort for a reasonable -period. Individuals differ considerably in the readiness with which -they obtain such effects; in some cases, such devices as holding the -diagrams inverted or at an angle or viewing them with the eyes half -closed are helpful. - - - - -NATURE STUDY IN THE PHILADELPHIA NORMAL SCHOOL. - -BY L. L. W. WILSON, PH. D. - - -When it was first proposed to me to write for the Popular Science -Monthly a brief account of the biological laboratories in the -Philadelphia Normal School, and of the Nature work carried on under my -direction in the School of Observation and Practice, I felt that I -could not do justice either to the place or the work; for, in my -judgment, the equipment of the laboratories and the work done in -connection with them are finer than anything else of the kind either -in this country or abroad--a statement which it seemed to me that I -could not make with becoming modesty. But, after all, it is not great -Babylon that I have built, but a Babylon builded for me, and to fail -to express my sense of its worth is to fail to do justice to Dr. W. P. -Wilson, formerly of the University of Pennsylvania, to whom their -inception was due; to Mr. Simon Gratz, president of the Board of -Education, who from the beginning appreciated their value, and without -whose aid they never would have taken visible form; to the principals -of the two schools, and, above all, to my five assistants, whose -knowledge, zeal, and hard work have contributed more than anything -else to the rapid building up of the work. - -THE LABORATORIES AND THEIR EQUIPMENT.--The rooms occupied by the -botanical and zoölogical departments of the normal school measure each -seventy by twenty feet. A small workroom for the teachers cuts off -about ten feet of this length from each room. In the middle of the -remaining space stands a demonstration table furnished with hot and -cold water. Each laboratory is lighted from the side by ten windows. -From them extend the tables for the students. These give plenty of -drawer space and closets for dissecting and compound microscopes. -Those in the zoölogical room are also provided with sinks. Each -student is furnished with the two microscopes, stage and eyepiece -micrometers, a drawing camera, a set of dissecting instruments, -glassware, note-books, text-books, and general literature. - -The walls opposite the windows are in both rooms lined with cases, in -which there is a fine synoptic series. - -In the botanical laboratory this systematic collection begins with -models of bacteria and ends with trees. In other cases, placed in the -adjoining corridor, are representatives, either in alcohol or by means -of models, of most of the orders of flowering plants, as well as a -series illustrating the history of the theory of cross-fertilization, -and the various devices by which it is accomplished; another, showing -the different methods of distribution of seeds and fruits; another, -of parasitic plants; and still another showing the various devices by -means of which plants catch animals. - -As an example of the graphic and thorough way in which these -illustrations are worked out, the pines may be cited. There are -fossils; fine specimens of pistillate and staminate flowers in -alcohol; cones; a drawing of the pollen; large models of the flowers; -models of the seeds, showing the embryo and the various stages of -germination; cross and longitudinal sections of the wood; drawings -showing its microscopic structure; pictures of adult trees; and -samples illustrating their economic importance. For the last, the -long-leaved pine of the South is used, and samples are exhibited of -the turpentine, crude and refined; tar and the oil of tar; resin; the -leaves; the same boiled in potash; the same hatcheled into wool; yarn, -bagging and rope made from the wool; and its timber split, sawn, and -dressed. - -The series illustrating the fertilization of flowers begins with a -large drawing, adapted by one of the students from Gibson, showing the -gradual evolution of the belief in cross-fertilization from 1682, when -Nehemiah Grew first declared that seed would not set unless pollen -reached the stigma, down to Darwin, who first demonstrated the -advantages of cross-fertilization and showed many of the devices of -plants by which this is accomplished. The special devices are then -illustrated with models and large drawings. First comes the dimorphic -primrose; then follows trimorphic _Lythrum_, to the beautiful model of -which is appended a copy of the letter in which Darwin wrote to Gray -of his discovery: - - "But I am almost stark, staring mad over Lythrum.... I - should rather like seed of Mitchella. But, oh, Lythrum! - - "Your utterly mad friend, - "C. DARWIN." - -Models of the cucumber, showing the process of its formation, and the -unisexual flowers complete this series. Supplementing this are models -and drawings of a large number of flowers, illustrating special -devices by which cross-fertilization is secured, such as the larkspur, -butter and eggs, orchids, iris, salvia, several composites, the -milkweed, and, most interesting of all, the Dutchman's pipe. This is a -flower that entices flies into its curved trumpet and keeps them there -until they become covered with the ripe pollen. Then the hairs wither, -the tube changes its position, the fly is permitted to leave, carrying -the pollen thus acquired to another flower with the same result. - -Pictures and small busts of many naturalists adorn both of the rooms. -Of these the most notable is an artist proof of Mercier's beautiful -etching of Darwin. Every available inch of wall space is thus -occupied, or else, in the botanical laboratory, has on it mounted -fungi, lichens, seaweeds, leaf cards, pictures of trees, grasses, and -other botanical objects. - -The windows are beautiful with hanging plants from side brackets -meeting the wealth of green on the sill. Here are found in one window -ferns, in another the century plant; in others still, specimens of -economic plants--cinnamon, olive, banana, camphor. On the tables are -magnificent specimens of palms, cycads, dracænas, and aspidistras, and -numerous aquaria filled with various water plants. Most of these -plants are four years old, and all of them are much handsomer than -when they first became the property of the laboratory. How much -intelligent and patient care this means only those who have attempted -to raise plants in city houses can know. - -The zoölogical laboratory is quite as beautiful as the botanical, for -it, too, has its plants and pictures. It is perhaps more interesting -because of its living elements. Think of a schoolroom in which are -represented alive types of animals as various as these: amoeba, -vorticella, hydra, worms, muscles, snails and slugs of various kinds, -crayfish, various insects, including a hive of Italian bees, goldfish, -minnows, dace, catfish, sunfish, eels, tadpoles, frogs, newts, -salamanders, snakes, alligators, turtles, pigeons, canaries, mice, -guinea-pigs, rabbits, squirrels, and a monkey! Imagine these living -animals supplemented by models of their related antediluvian forms, or -fossils, by carefully labeled dissections, by preparations and -pictures illustrating their development and mode of life; imagine in -addition to this books, pamphlets, magazines, and teachers further to -put you in touch with this wonderful world about us, and you will then -have some idea of the environment in which it is the great privilege -of our students to live for five hours each week. - -In addition to these laboratories there is a lecture room furnished -with an electric lantern. Here each week is given a lecture on general -topics, such as evolution and its problems, connected with the work of -the laboratories. - -THE COURSE OF STUDY PURSUED BY THE NORMAL STUDENTS.--Botany: In -general, the plants and the phenomena of the changing seasons are -studied as they occur in Nature. In the fall there are lessons on the -composites and other autumn flowers, on fruits, on the ferns, mosses, -fungi, and other cryptogams. In the winter months the students grow -various seeds at home, carefully drawing and studying every stage in -their development. Meanwhile, in the laboratory, they examine -microscopically and macroscopically the seeds themselves and the -various food supplies stored within. By experimentation they get -general ideas of plant physiology, beginning with the absorption of -water by seeds, the change of the food supply to soluble sugar, the -method of growth, the functions, the histology, and the modifications -of stem, root, and leaves. In the spring they study the buds and -trees, particularly the conifers, and the different orders of -flowering plants. - -The particular merit of the work is that it is so planned that each -laboratory lesson compels the students to reason. Having once thus -obtained their information, they are required to drill themselves out -of school hours until the facts become an integral part of their -knowledge. - -For the study of fruits, for example, they are given large trays, each -divided into sixteen compartments, plainly labeled with the name of -the seed or fruit within. Then, by means of questions, the students -are made to read for themselves the story which each fruit has to -tell, to compare it with the others, and to deduce from this -comparison certain general laws. - -After sufficient laboratory practice of this kind they are required to -read parts of Lubbock's Flower, Fruit, and Leaves, Kerner's Natural -History of Plants, Wallace's Tropical Nature, and Darwinism, etc. - -Finally, they are each given a type-written summary of the work, and -after a week's notice are required to pass a written examination. - -Zoölogy: The course begins in the fall with a rather thorough study of -the insects, partly because they are then so abundant, and partly -because a knowledge of them is particularly useful to the grade -teacher in the elementary schools. - -The locust is studied in detail. Tumblers and aquaria are utilized as -vivaria, so that there is abundant opportunity for the individual -study of living specimens. Freshly killed material is used for -dissection, so that students have no difficulty in making out the -internal anatomy, which is further elucidated with large, home-made -charts, each of which shows a single system, and serves for a text to -teach them the functions of the various organs as worked out by modern -physiologists. - -They then study, always with abundant material, the other insects -belonging to the same group. They are given two such insects, a bug, -and two beetles, and required to classify them, giving reasons for so -doing. While this work is going on they have visited the beehive in -small groups, sometimes seeing the queen and the drone, and always -having the opportunity to see the workers pursuing their various -occupations, and the eggs, larvæ, and pupæ in their different states -of development. Beautiful models of the bees and of the comb, together -with dry and alcoholic material, illustrate further this -metamorphosis, by contrast making clearer the exactly opposite -metamorphosis of the locust. - -At least one member of each of the other orders of insects is compared -with these two type forms, and, although only important points are -considered at all, yet from one to two hours of laboratory work are -devoted to each specimen. This leisurely method of work is pursued to -give the students the opportunity, at least, to think for themselves. -When the subject is finished they are then given a searching test. -This is never directly on their required reading, but planned to show -to them and to their teachers whether they have really assimilated -what they have seen and studied. - -After this the myriapods, the earthworm, and peripatus are studied, -because of their resemblance to the probable ancestors of insects. In -the meantime they have had a dozen or more fully illustrated lectures -on evolution, so that at the close of this series of lessons they are -expected to have gained a knowledge of the methods of studying -insects, whether living or otherwise, a working hypothesis for the -interpretation of facts so obtained, and a knowledge of one order, -which will serve admirably as a basis for comparison in much of their -future work. - -They then take up, more briefly, the relatives of the insects, the -spiders and crustaceans, following these with the higher -invertebrates, reaching the fish in April. This, for obvious reasons, -is their last dissection. But with living material, and the beautiful -preparations and stuffed specimens with which the laboratory is -filled, they get a very general idea of the reptiles, birds, and -mammals. This work is of necessity largely done by the students out of -school hours. For example, on a stand on one of the tables are placed -the various birds in season, with accompanying nests containing the -proper quota of eggs. Books and pamphlets relating to the subject are -placed near. Each student is given a syllabus which will enable her to -study these birds intelligently indoors and out, if she wishes to do -so. - -In the spring are taken up the orders of animals below the insect, and -for the last lesson a general survey of all the types studied gives -them the relationships of each to the other. - -THE COURSE OF STUDY PURSUED IN THE SCHOOL OF PRACTICE.--In addition to -the plants and animals about them, the children study the weather, -keeping a daily record of their observations, and summarizing their -results at the end of the month. In connection with the weather and -plants they study somewhat carefully the soil and, in this connection, -the common rocks and minerals of Philadelphia--gneiss, mica schist, -granite, sandstone, limestones, quartz, mica, and feldspar. - -As in the laboratories, so here the effort is made to teach the -children to reason, to read the story told by the individual plant, or -animal, or stone, or wind, or cloud. A special effort is made to teach -them to interpret everyday Nature as it lies around them. For this -reason frequent short excursions into the city streets are made. Those -who smile and think that there is not much of Nature to be found in a -city street are those who have never looked for it. Enough material -for study has been gathered in these excursions to make them a feature -of this work, even more than the longer ones which they take twice a -year into the country. - -Last year I made not less than eighty such short excursions, each time -with classes of about thirty-five. They were children of from seven to -fourteen years of age. Without their hats, taking with them -note-books, pencils, and knives, they passed with me to the street. -The passers-by stopped to gaze at us, some with expressions of -amusement, others of astonishment; approval sometimes, quite -frequently the reverse. But I never once saw on the part of the -children a consciousness of the mild sensation that they were -creating. They went for a definite purpose, which was always -accomplished. - -The children of the first and second years study nearly the same -objects. Those of the third and fourth years review this general work, -studying more thoroughly some one type. When they enter the fifth -year, they have considerable causal knowledge of the familiar plants -and animals, of the stones, and of the weather. But, what is more -precious to them, they are sufficiently trained to be able to look at -new objects with a truly "seeing eye." - -The course of study now requires general ideas of physiology, and, in -consequences, the greater portion of their time for science is devoted -to this subject. I am glad to be able to say, however, that it is not -"School Physiology" which they study, but the guinea-pig and The -Wandering Jew! - -In other words, I let them find out for themselves how and what the -guinea-pig eats; how and what he expires and inspires; how and why he -moves. Along with this they study also plant respiration, -transpiration, assimilation, and reproduction, comparing these -processes with those of animals, including themselves. - -The children's interest is aroused and their observation stimulated by -the constant presence in the room with them of a mother guinea-pig and -her child. Nevertheless, I have not hesitated to call in outside -materials to help them to understand the work. A series of lessons on -the lime carbonates, therefore, preceded the lessons on respiration; -an elephant's tooth, which I happened to have, helped to explain the -guinea-pig's molars; and a microscope and a frog's leg made real to -them the circulation of the blood. - -In spite of the time required for the physiology, the fifth-year -children have about thirty lessons on minerals; the sixth-year, the -same number on plants; and the seventh-year, on animals; and it would -be difficult to decide which of these subjects rouses their greatest -enthusiasm. - - - - -PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION.[6] - -BY THE LATE HON. DAVID A. WELLS. - - -XX.--THE LAW OF THE DIFFUSION OF TAXES. - -PART I. - -No attempt ought to be made to construct or formulate an economically -correct, equitable, and efficient system of taxation which does not -give full consideration to the method or extent to which taxes diffuse -themselves after their first incidence. On this subject there is a -great difference of opinion, which has occasioned, for more than a -century, a vast and never-ending discussion on the part of economic -writers. All of this, however, has resulted in no generally accepted -practical conclusions; has been truthfully characterized by a leading -French economist (M. Parieu) as marked in no small part by the -"simplicity of ignorance," and from a somewhat complete review -(recently published[7]) of the conflicting theories advanced by -participants one rises with a feeling of weariness and disgust. - -The majority of economists, legislators, and the public generally -incline to the opinion that taxes mainly rest where they are laid, and -are not shifted or diffused to an extent that requires any -recognition in the enactment of statutes for their assessment. Thus, -a tax commission of Massachusetts, as the result of their -investigations, arrived at the conclusion that "the tendency of taxes -is that they must be paid by the actual persons on whom they are -levied." But a little thought must, however, make clear that unless -the advancement of taxes and their final and actual payment are one -and the same thing, the Massachusetts statement is simply an evasion -of the main question at issue, and that its authors had no intelligent -conception of it. A better proposition, and one that may even be -regarded as an economic axiom, is that, regarding taxation as a -synonym for a force, as it really is, it follows the natural and -invariable law of all forces, and distributes itself in the line of -least resistance. It is also valuable as indicating the line of -inquiry most likely to lead to exact and practical conclusions. But -beyond this it lacks value, inasmuch as it fails to embody any -suggestions as to the best method of making the involved principle a -basis for any general system for correct taxation; inasmuch as "the -line of least resistance" is not a positive factor, and may be and -often is so arranged as to make levies on the part of the State under -the name of taxation subservient to private rather than public -interests. Under such circumstances the question naturally arises, -What is the best method for determining, at least, the approximative -truth in respect to this vexed subject? A manifestly correct answer -would be: _first_, to avoid at the outset all theoretic assumptions as -a basis for reasoning; _second_, to obtain and marshal all the facts -and conditions incident to the inquiry or deducible from experience; -_third_, recognize the interdependence of all such facts and -conclusions; _fourth_, be practical in the highest degree in accepting -things as they are, and dealing with them as they are found; and on -such a basis attention is next asked to the following line of -investigations. - -It is essential at the outset to correct reasoning that the -distinction between _taxation_ and _spoliation_ be kept clearly in -view. That only is entitled to be called a tax law which levies -uniformly upon all the subjects of taxation; which does not of itself -exempt any part of the property of _the same_ class which is selected -to bear the primary burden of taxation, or by its imperfections to any -extent permits such exemptions. All levies or assessments made by the -State on the persons, property, or business of its citizens that do -not conform to such conditions are spoliations, concerning which -nothing but irregularity can be predicated; nothing positive -concerning their diffusion can be asserted; and the most complete -collection of experiences in respect to them can not be properly -dignified as "a science." And it may be properly claimed that from a -nonrecognition or lack of appreciation of the broad distinction -between taxation and spoliation, the disagreement among economists -respecting the diffusion of taxes has mainly originated. - -With this premise, let us next consider what facts and experiences are -pertinent to this subject, and available to assist in reaching sound -conclusions; proceeding very carefully and cautiously in so doing, -inasmuch as territory is to be entered upon that has not been -generally or thoroughly explored. - -The facts and experiences of first importance in such inquiry are that -the examination of the tax rolls in any State, city, or municipality -of the United States will show that surprisingly small numbers of -persons primarily pay or advance any kind of taxes. It is not probable -that more than one tenth of the adult population or about one -twentieth of the entire population of the United States ever come in -contact officially with a tax assessor or tax collector. It is also -estimated that less than two per cent of the total population of the -United States advance the entire customs and internal revenue of the -Federal Government. - -In the investigations made in 1871, by a commission created by the -Legislature of the State of New York to revise its laws relative to -the assessment and collection of taxes, it was found that in the city -of New York, out of a population of over one million in the above -year, only 8,920 names, or less than one per cent of this great -multitude of people, had "any household furniture, money, goods, -chattels, debts due from solvent debtors, whether on account of -contract, note, bond, or mortgage, or any public stocks, or stocks in -moneyed corporations, or in general any personal property of which the -assessors could take cognizance for taxation"; and further, that not -over _four_ per cent, or, say, forty thousand persons out of the -million, were subject to any primary tax in respect to the ownership -of any property whatever, real or personal; while only a few years -subsequent, or in 1875, the regular tax commissioners of New York -estimated that of the property defined and described by the laws of -the State as personal property, an amount approximating two thousand -million dollars in value was held in New York city alone. Later -investigations show that this state of things has continued. Thus, in -1895, out of a population of about two million, it was estimated that -only seventy-nine thousand, or not over four per cent of the -inhabitants of the city, were subject to primary taxation, and that -one half the whole amount collected in that year was paid by less than -a thousand persons. In the city of Boston, where the tax laws are -executed in the most arbitrary manner, the ratio of population -directly assessed is somewhat greater, but aside from the poll tax, -which is a per capita and not a property tax, only 7.27 per cent of -residents paid a property tax in 1895 out of a population of 494,205. -In one of the smaller cities of Massachusetts, where persons and -property are capable of more thorough supervision than larger numbers -and areas--namely, the city of Springfield, with a population of about -fifty thousand--the report of its tax officials shows that for the -year 1894-'95 the number of persons and corporations assessed on -property (mainly real estate) was 7,745, or one for every 6.4 of its -citizens, while 10,560 other citizens were assessed for a poll tax of -two dollars only. Of the total amount of taxes assessed--namely, -$735,948--the above number, 10,560, paid only $21,120; and this is the -experience generally throughout the United States, as it will be in -every country under a free popular government, where arbitrary -inquisitions and arrests of persons and seizures of property are not -allowed, and where a soldier does not practically stand behind every -tax assessor and collector. - -The time (1871) when the personal investigations above referred to -were made was when the masses of the city of New York were moved with -indignation at the misuse and private appropriation by a few officials -(Tweed and his associates) of the municipal revenues raised by -taxation, under cover of instituting public improvements, and which -finally led to their prosecution, imprisonment, or self-imposed exile; -and the questions which naturally suggested themselves were: If only -some forty thousand of the million in New York city paid the taxes, -what interest had the other nine hundred and sixty thousand who never -saw the face of a tax assessor or collector in opposing corruption? -What, in an honest administration of the city government and in a -reduction of taxes? Must it not be for the interest of the many that -the expenditures of the State shall always be as large as possible? -Must they not be benefited by exorbitant taxes on the owners of -property, and a distribution of the money collected, even if stolen by -corruptionists, but spent by them lavishly on enterprises that will -furnish new opportunities for employment or amusement for the masses? -Clearly, so far as any personal experience growing out of any _direct_ -assessment and levy was concerned, ninety-six per cent of the -population of the city had no more cause of personal grievance by -reason of the unlawful taking of money from the city treasury than -they would have had at the taking of an equivalent amount from the -municipal treasuries of London, Paris, or any other city. - -The answer to these questions is to be found in the fact, as John -Adams once remarked, that "if the Creator had given man a reason that -is fallible, he has also impressed upon him an instinct that is sure." -And this instinct teaches the masses everywhere, though they have -never read a book on political economy, or heard any one discourse -learnedly on the principles of taxation, that if taxes are increased, -either by a lawful or unlawful expenditure of public money, they can -not in any possible way avoid paying some portion of its increase; or, -in other words, that increased taxes meant increased cost of living, -through increased rents, increased price of fuel, clothing, and -provisions, and possibly diminished opportunity to labor through such -increased cost of the products of labor as would limit and restrict -markets or consumption. In short, that taxes inevitably fall upon them -through the increased price of all they consume, even if they pay -nothing to the tax collector directly. A large proportion of the -masses of the city of New York in 1871-'72, who paid no taxes -directly, accordingly and spontaneously joined hands with the -comparatively few of their fellow-citizens who did pay in resisting -extravagance and corruption.[8] - -We are thus led up and forced to the recognition of two propositions, -or rather principles, in respect to taxation that can not be -invalidated. The _first_ is, that it is not necessary that a tax -assessor or collector should personally assess and levy upon every -citizen of a State or community in order that all should be compelled -to contribute of his property for the support of such State or -community; _second_, that there is an inexorable law by which every -man must bear a portion of the burden of public expenditures, even -though the official assessors take no direct cognizance of him -whatever. - -The following incident may here be cited as instructive: In one of the -recent official hearings before a legislative committee of one of the -States, a strenuous advocate of the popular doctrine that there was -and could be no such thing as equality in taxation except by rigidly -taxing everybody directly for all his property, of every description, -both real and personal, and that to not tax immediately and directly -was, in at least a great degree, to exempt from taxation, expressed -himself as entirely opposed to any system of restricting assessments -to a comparatively few things, on the ground that it would be a -recognition in the United States of a system which in Great Britain -had ground down the masses into poverty. He, however, obtained some -new light on the subject of nondiffusion by being reminded that if the -masses of England had been grievously oppressed by taxation, it had -been under a system of many years' standing, which never in any way -brings the tax collector in direct contact with nineteen twentieths of -the entire population; the customs taxes of Great Britain being -practically levied on only four articles--spirits, tea, coffee, and -tobacco; and the inland revenue also on practically four--spirits, -beer, legacies and successions, and stamps (on deeds, insurance -policies, bills of exchange, receipts, drafts, etc.). Generalizing, -then, on the basis of so broad a fact, how illogical and unscientific -was the assumption that whatever persons, property, or business are -not taxed directly are exempt from taxation!--and yet the practical -exemplification of such a system, in the case of England, was a most -efficient instrumentality for grinding the masses of her people down -to poverty. - -On the other hand, to generalize from the experience of an individual -or a class in place of that of a nation or community, let us take the -case of a person who passes all the year _in transitu_--moving -backward and forward, for example, in a boat on the line of the Erie -Canal, or between the head waters of the Mississippi and its mouth; a -citizen of no one State, a resident in no one town, and buying all -that he eats, drinks, and wears wherever he can buy cheapest. Does -this man escape taxation because he has no permanent _situs_ -(residence as a citizen), and is unknown by any assessor? If he does, -then his occupation is more profitable to the extent of the taxes he -avoids than is that of the individual who, following analogous -occupations, resides permanently in one location, and pays taxes -regularly; or else some notable, easily discernible cause, as undue -competition to obtain situations, will account for his exemption. - -Let us next consider how practical experience definitely indicates the -line of least resistance, in conformity with which those contributions -of property or service which the State requires its citizens to make -for its support, and are worthy of designation as taxes, diffuse -themselves. Let us take first that form of indirect taxation which is -known as customs, or taxes on imports, one from which the Federal -Government of the United States has derived in recent years more than -half of its revenue, and Great Britain more than one fourth of its -total receipts from all forms of imperial taxes. That all such taxes -as a rule diffuse themselves, and ultimately fall upon and are paid by -final consumers, is capable of demonstration by a great variety of -evidence. Every remission of customs duties on the imports into any -country of its staple articles of consumption is followed by a -reduction of cost approximately equal to such reduction, and a -consequent increase in consumption. On the other hand, nothing is -better settled than that an increase in customs taxes on imported -articles as a rule increases prices and tends to reduce consumption. -When Great Britain, in 1863, reduced her taxes (duties) on her imports -of tea from 1_s._ 5_d._ to 1_s._ per pound, her importation of tea -increased from 114,000,000 pounds in 1862 to 139,000,000 in 1866, and -her per capita consumption during the same period from 2.70 pounds to -3.42 pounds; and again, when the duty was further reduced in 1865 from -1_s._ to 6_d._ per pound, the annual importations increased from -139,000,000 in 1866 to 209,000,000 in 1881, and the per capita -consumption from 3.42 pounds to 4.58. - -When by the act of October, 1890, the tax was removed from the imports -of crude sugars into the United States, the price of the same went -down almost immediately to an equal extent in all American markets; -while the consumption of sugar in the country increased from an -average of about fifty-four pounds per capita in 1890 to more than -sixty-seven pounds in 1892. A like result has attended a similar -experience in respect to this in other countries, and especially in -Great Britain. Thus, the aggregate consumption of sugar by the British -people in 1844 was returned at 237,143 tons. A reduction of taxes on -its importation in 1864 increased its domestic use to 528,919 tons; a -reduction of fifty per cent on existing rates in 1870 made it 695,029 -tons; another reduction of fifty per cent in 1873 carried up -consumption to 779,000 tons; and when, in 1874, all taxes on the -imports of sugar were abolished, the annual domestic consumption -increased in little more than a year's period to 930,000 tons. On the -other hand, when by the tariff act of 1890 an additional tax of half a -cent per pound was imposed on the import of tin plate into the United -States, tin plate went up to an equal extent in price all over the -country; and so also on pearl buttons, linen goods, and other articles -of foreign production on the importations of which the tariff taxes -were largely increased. By the tariff act of 1890, also, eggs, which -could formerly be imported into the United States free of duty, were -made subject to a tax of five cents per dozen. Since then the price of -eggs imported from Canada into districts of the United States within -the same sphere of territorial competition has been increased to the -American consumers to almost exactly the extent of the import tax to -which they are subjected. Thus, when the price of eggs was ten and a -half cents per dozen in Toronto, they were sixteen cents in Buffalo -and sixteen and a half to seventeen cents in New York. Such a result -would be unaccountable if the Canadian farmers paid the duty on eggs -sent by them to the United States. - -It is interesting to here ask attention to the opinions entertained -and expressed by those whose situation and experience have qualified -them to speak with authority: "The duty constitutes the price of the -whole mass of the article in the market. It is substantially paid on -the article of domestic manufacture, as well as that of foreign -production" (John Quincy Adams). "I said it, and I stand by it, that -as a general rule the duties paid on imports operate as a tax upon the -consumer" (John Sherman). Mr. Blaine, in his Twenty Years in -Congress, says, speaking of the increase of duties on imports by the -tariff act of July 14, 1862, that it "shut out still more conclusively -all competition from foreign fabrics. The increased cost was charged -to the consumer." Mr. McKinley, in 1890, in a report introducing a -bill for revision of the tariff of the United States, in the direction -of increased rates of duties on imports, said it was not the intent of -the bill "to further cut down prices," that the people were "already -suffering from low prices," and would not be satisfied "with -legislation which will result in lower prices." In an elaborate -opinion given by the New York Court of Appeals in 1851 (see vol. iv, -New York Reports), in which there was no suspicion of any issue of -free trade or protection, the courts, in carefully considering the -relative powers of the legislature and the judiciary in respect to -taxation, assumed the proposition that "_all duties on imported goods -are taxes on the class of consumers_" to be in the nature of a -self-evident truth or economic axiom. - -Henry Clay, in a celebrated speech in the United States House of -Representatives in 1833, in advocacy of a protective tariff policy, -candidly admitted that "in general it may be taken as a rule that the -duty upon an article forms a portion of its price." But he -subsequently qualified such admission by claiming that it does not -follow that any consequent enhancement of its price is a tax on -consumers, inasmuch as "directly or indirectly, in one form or -another, all consumers of protected articles, enhanced in price," will -get an equivalent. But this may be equally affirmed of all necessary -and equitable taxation, and does not in any way antagonize the theory -that the final incidence of the class of taxes under consideration -falls on consumption. - -But, notwithstanding these conclusions and the incontrovertible -evidence by which they are supported, not a few persons occupying -places of great legislative influence, and no small part of the -general public, hold to the view that taxes on imports are really in -the nature of premiums paid by foreigners for the privilege of selling -their goods in the markets of the importing country, and do not fall -on its people who consume them. That means that if the foreigner has a -yard of cloth, or other commodity, which he sells at home for one -dollar, and the United States imposes a tariff of fifty cents on it, -he will then sell it for export to America at fifty cents. There is no -instance mentioned in history where this has ever been done, but -history unfortunately is rarely taken into account by the public in -the discussion of these questions. In this connection the following -historical incident is interesting and instructive: In 1782 an attempt -by the Congress of the Confederation of the several American States to -provide a system of revenue to defray the general expenses of the -Confederation by duties on imports, which then was not permissible, -was blocked by the refusal of the State of Rhode Island to concur in -it, the Legislature of that State unanimously rejecting the measure -for three reasons--one of which was that it would bear hardest on the -few commercial States, particularly Rhode Island, which in virtue of -their relations with foreign commerce monopolize imports, and lightest -on the agricultural States, that directly imported little or nothing. -Congress appointed Alexander Hamilton to draft a reply to Rhode -Island, and in his answer he relied mainly on what he regarded as an -incontrovertible fact, that duties on imports would not prove a charge -on an importing State, but on the final consumers of imports, wherever -they may be located. - -If the theory and assumption so confidently and generally asserted are -to be accepted as correct, that the foreigner pays the protective -taxes which a country levies on its imports, and that they do not fall -upon or are not paid by its people who consume them, then it must -follow that to the extent that a country taxes its imports it lives at -the expense of foreign nations; and that, as Great Britain is the -country with which the United States has the largest foreign trade, it -must pay the largest share of the customs taxes of the United States, -or a good share of its annual revenue from all sources. Attention is -further asked to the exact practical application of this theory. Thus, -the United States in 1895 imported $36,438,196 worth of woolen -manufactures, on which it assessed and collected duties (taxes) to the -amount of $20,698,264, or 56.80 per cent of the value of such imports. -Certainly this was a pretty heavy tax on foreign nations in respect to -the sales of only one class of these commodities; but it represented -but a tithe of what the tariff taxes of the United States, if paid by -foreigners, cost them. Thus they had to sell their woolens to the -people of the latter country at less than half their value in order to -compensate for the 56.8 per cent tax. But a nation engaged in foreign -trade can not as a rule have two prices for the product of its -industries; or one price for what it sells at home and another and -different price for what it sells to foreigners. So the fifty-six per -cent deducted from the cost of the woolens sold by foreigners to the -United States necessarily had to be deducted not only from so much of -their product consumed at home, but also from what they sent for sale -to all foreign countries. A further practical application of this -theory is worthy of consideration. As Great Britain imposes no -protective duties or taxes on its imports, it evidently can not -collect anything from other nations by the system of taxation under -consideration. On the other hand, the aggregate value of its exports -sent to foreign nations during the year 1892 was $1,135,000,000, and -if these several nations taxed this value at the average rate which -the United States imposed in 1894 on all its dutiable imports--namely, -fifty per cent--Great Britain obviously had to pay some $557,000,000 -in that year for the support of foreign governments; and while this -has been the experience of Great Britain for more than forty years of -this century, she has as a nation been increasing in wealth during -this whole period. - -Some of the recent official experiences of the Government of the -United States that are pertinent to the topic under consideration are -sufficiently curious to make them worthy of an economic record. In a -speech introducing a bill into the United States House of -Representatives, which subsequently resulted in the tariff act of -1890, the then chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means laid down -the following proposition: "The Government ought not to buy abroad -what it can buy at home. Nor should it be exempted from the laws it -imposes upon its citizens." - -This would seem to warrant the characterization of a discovery that -the United States had some reliable and important source of revenue -independent of taxation,[9] and that, by compelling the application of -a part of this income to the payment of taxes to itself, the -Government is placed upon an equality with the citizens. A legitimate -criticism on this proposition is that the idea that all the income of -the Treasury is derived from the people, and that to transfer portions -of this income from one official recipient to another can have hardly -any other result than an additional cost of bookkeeping, seems never -to have entered the mind of the speaker. - -Again, the United States tariff act of 1883 contained in its free list -a provision for the admittance of "articles imported for the use of -the United States, provided that the price of the same did not include -the duty" imposed on such importations. Under the tariff act of 1890 -this provision was stricken out of the statute, with the result that -when the Government imported any articles for its own use which were -subject to duties (as, for example, materials to be used in the -National Bureau of Printing and Engraving), it was obliged, in virtue -of its nonexemption from the laws which it imposed on its own -citizens, to pay such duties itself. But as the Government has no -authority to expend money for any purpose without the authority of -Congress, the latter body accordingly authorized the Federal Treasury -to appropriate money from its tax receipts and make payments with the -same to the customhouse, which the customhouse was to immediately pay -back into the Treasury. Just what process was gone through with to -effect such a result the public was not informed, but probably the -collector of customs drew his warrant on the Treasury, had the amount -credited to his account, and then recredited to the Treasury. But, be -this as it may, it is clear that the Government, under the conditions -above stated, paid the tax on its imports; that the tax may be -regarded in the light of a penalty on the Government for importing -articles for its own use; and that the action of Congress in -authorizing the Treasury to appropriate money for the payment of such -taxes was a recognition or admission by that body that a tax upon -imports neither puts anything _in_ nor takes anything _from_ the -pocket of the foreigner. Does it not, moreover, invest with a degree -of comicality a law enacted by the Congress of the United States for -the purpose of taxing foreign importers, which necessitated the -enactment by it of another law appropriating money to enable the -United States to pay customs taxes every time on everything that it -may import for its own use?[10] Finally, if the foreigner and not our -citizens pays our customs taxes on imports, what is the object of -placing by specific statutes any article on the free list? Why not let -him continue to pay millions of taxes for us, as, for example, on -sugar? - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[6] It is fortunate that Mr. Wells had practically completed his -essays on taxation before death put an end to his activity. The -manuscript of two chapters was found among his papers--one on the Best -Methods of Taxation, and the other on the Law of the Diffusion of -Taxes, begun in this number. The first manuscript has some pages -missing, and it has been thought best to postpone its publication, in -the hope that the missing pages may be found. It is evident that the -last touches were yet to be put upon the chapter on the diffusion of -taxes--a chapter that was to sum up the theory of taxation developed -by the writer. So much of that summary is contained in it as to make -the meaning of Mr. Wells unmistakable, and its publication is further -amply justified by the number of practical illustrations and happy -application of theory to fact, in the selection and explanation of -which the author excelled. The entire series, which has been running -in the Popular Science Monthly for more than three years, will now be -collected in a volume--a worthy memorial to one whose powers of -popular exposition of abstract problems placed him among the first of -economists in the United States. - -[7] On the Shifting and Incidence of Taxation, by Prof. Edwin R. -Seligman, 1892. - -[8] The assertion would not be warranted that the masses of New York -were wholly unanimous in condemning Tweed, for a portion of them were -undoubtedly well content with the situation. He had curried favor with -the very poor and ignorant by distributing coal and flour, and making -ostentatious presents of money; and these "charities" are remembered -to this day in the poorer parts of New York city, and Tweed is -esteemed by many as the victim of injustice, and a man who suffered -because he was the friend of the people. - -[9] Of the net ordinary receipts of the Federal Government -($385,819,000) in 1893, only about $12,000,000 was derived from -sources that could not be regarded as taxes, and were mainly receipts -from the sales and surveys of public and Indian lands ($4,120,000) and -of other Government property. - -[10] In 1897 the merchant tailors of the United States, who ought to -know something about the incidence of a custom tax on imported -clothing, united in a petition to Congress asking that Americans -returning from Europe be permitted to introduce only two suits of -foreign-made clothes free of duty; and in support of their request -they comment as follows on a ruling of the Treasury in respect to this -matter: "Under this ruling it was possible to enter free of duty vast -quantities of foreign-made garments which had never been actually in -use, and which were so imported solely because there exists a relative -difference of at least fifty per cent in values between the cost of -made-up garments in the United States and Europe, thus saving to the -purchaser of garments abroad one half of their actual value upon -arrival within the United States duty free." But if the foreigner who -made and sold the goods in question was liable to pay the duty on -dutiable clothing, and attended to his duty, there would be no profit -to the returning tourist in importing clothing free of duty. It is -further evident also that American tailors agree in opinion with -Alexander Hamilton that the consumers of imported articles pay the -customs taxes. - -The records of the commercial relations between the United States and -Canada are exceedingly instructive on this matter. They all show that -for the products which the Canadian sends to the United States, and on -which somebody pays the duty, he receives exactly the same price as -for those products which he sends to England, on which nobody pays any -duty. This experience is exactly the same as that of the farmers of -the Northwestern States of the Federal Union, who usually get the same -price for their wheat furnished to a Minnesota flour mill, or for -shipment to free-trade England, as to countries like France and -Germany, where heavy duties are assessed upon its import. The term -"usually" is employed, for producers in the United States and Canada -alike do not always get as large a price for the articles they export -as for the same articles they sell to their fellow-countrymen. Again, -if it be true, as the advocates of extreme protection assert, that the -foreign exporter and not the consumer pays the duties on goods sent by -him for sale in this country, how does it happen that it is not true -concerning the farm produce and live stock exported from Canada? And -why should American farmers be exempt from this rule in sending their -grain to Europe? Has anybody ever known of England buying American -products any cheaper in New York than France or Germany, and is it not -also true that the French or German or Italian consumer usually pays -at least the amount of the duty levied by his Government more for -American products than his English competitor has, whose imports are -subjected to no duty? During the period from 1854 to 1866 there was, -under the reciprocity treaty, practically free trade between Canada -and the United States in live stock, wool, barley, rye, peas, oats, -and other farm products, while subsequent to 1866, when the -reciprocity treaty had been repealed, duties were imposed on all these -articles on their import from Canada into the United States. During -the first period Canadian horses, for example, sold under free trade -for shipment to the United States at from sixty-five to eighty-five -dollars each, while during the years next subsequent to 1866 the value -of the Canadian horses imported into the United States was returned at -from ninety-two to one hundred and four dollars each; thus showing -that the United States tariff did not force the Canadian horse -breeders to lower their prices in order to compensate American -purchasers for the duties exacted. And as regards the other products -mentioned, the official data show that in no case did the imposition -of duties under the United States tariff reduce the prices paid by -American purchasers to the Canadian farmers for their products. These -are very commonplace, very familiar, and very convincing facts which -ought to silence all this talk about the foreign exporter or anybody -else but the consumer paying the duty; but it is not at all probable -that they will. - - - - -OUR FLORIDA ALLIGATOR. - -BY I. W. BLAKE. - - -An alligator is not an attractive creature. He has not a single virtue -that can be named. He is cowardly, treacherous, hideous. He is neither -graceful nor even respectable in appearance. He is not even amusing or -grotesque in his ungainliness, for as a brute--a brute unqualified--he -is always so intensely real, that one shrinks from him with loathing; -and a laugh at his expense while in his presence would seem curiously -out of place. - -His personality, too, is strong. Once catch the steadfast gaze of a -free, adult alligator's wicked eyes, with their odd vertical pupils -fixed full upon your own, and the significance of the expression "evil -eye," and the mysteries of snake-charming, hypnotism, and hoodooism -will be readily understood, for his brutish, merciless, unflinching -stare is simply blood-chilling. - -Zoölogically the alligator belongs to the genus _Crocodilus_, and he -has all the hideousness of that family, lacking somewhat its -bloodthirstiness, although the American alligator is carnivorous by -nature, and occasionally cannibalistic. Strictly speaking, however, -the true alligator is much less dangerous than his relatives of the -Old World, and he is correspondingly less courageous. - -One would suppose the saurians, or crocodilians, from their general -appearance to be huge lizards, but the resemblance is superficial. The -whole internal structure differs widely, and, subdivided into -gavials, crocodiles, and alligators, they form a family by themselves -which is widespread, extending into considerable areas of the -temperate regions. - -All crocodilians are great, ungainly reptiles, having broad, depressed -bodies, short legs, and long, powerful, and wonderfully flexible tails -which are compressed--that is, flattened sideways. Upon the upper -surface of the tail lie two jagged or saw-toothed crests, which unite -near the middle of the appendage, continuing in a single row to the -extremity. - -All have thick necks and bodies protected by regular transverse rows -of long, horny plates or shields, which are elevated in the center -into keel-shaped ridges, forming an armor that is quite bullet-proof. -The throat, the under side of the neck, and belly are not thus -protected, and it is at these places, as well as at the eyes, and also -just behind the ears, that the hunter directs his aim. - -The principal points of difference between a gavial and a crocodile -are these: the former has very long, slender jaws, set with -twenty-seven teeth in each side of the upper jaw and with twenty-five -teeth in the under, while at the extremity of the snout there are two -holes, through which pass upward the lower large front teeth, but all -the remaining teeth are free, and slant well outward; whereas a -crocodile has a head that is triangular, the snout being the apex; a -narrow muzzle, and canine teeth in the lower jaw, which pass freely -upward in the notches in the side of the upper jaw. - -An alligator has a broad, flat muzzle, and the canine teeth of the -lower jaw fit into sockets in the under surface of the upper jaw. It -is strictly an American form of the family. Its feet being much less -webbed, its habits are also less perfectly aquatic, and, preferring -still or stagnant fresh-water courses or swamps, it is rarely found in -tide-water streams. - -The crocodile, on the contrary, is commonly found in swift-running, -fresh and salt water rivers. He is a sagacious brute, and ferocious, -often attacking human beings without provocation; but the alligator, -as a rule, is not disposed to fight, although in South America, where -it goes by the name of _caiman_ or _cayman_, it grows to an enormous -size, and is said to be fully as dangerous as the crocodile. There is -also a variety of the family--that is, a true crocodile--found in -Florida, but it is very rare, and smaller than its Asiatic relative. - -The mouths of all these reptiles, which are large and extend beyond -the ears, present a formidable array of sharp, conical teeth of -different sizes, set far apart in the crocodile and the alligator, -some being enlarged into tusks. All are implanted in separate sockets, -and form a single row upon each jaw. When a tooth is shed or broken, -a new one promptly comes up beneath the hollow base of the old one; -and in this way, all ready for the need, sometimes three or four -waiting teeth, packed together like a nest of thimbles, may be seen in -the jaw of a dead alligator. - -[Illustration: YOUNG PET ALLIGATOR. From photograph by E. L. Russell, -Palm Beach.] - -The alligator is at best an awkward brute. Slow and ungainly upon -land--although even there his powerful tail can, when necessary, -assist the scuffling paws to an astonishing extent if the creature is -in haste--he shows to better advantage in the water. There he turns -his clumsy body with wonderful dexterity and swiftness, when, at the -sight of a swimming muskrat or a wading dog, he instantly changes from -what has resembled a drifting log idly floating upon the calm surface -of the swamp, into a thing of life--fierce and horrible. - -The general food of an alligator is fish, turtles, and frogs, with an -occasional heedless dog or fowl. A number of adult alligators will -quickly deplenish a small, clear-water lake of its finny inhabitants, -which statement to would-be Florida fishermen will readily account for -the lack in many localities. There is also a curious belief in the -South that the creature has an especial liking for a "darkey steak," -and for this reason he is feared by the negroes. That he becomes -carnivorous to a dangerous extent when pressed by hunger, there is no -doubt, for, the supply of fish exhausted, he must look for larger -game. - -Partially concealed by rubbish, or floating idly close to the -bank--always only a short distance from his retreat--he so closely -resembles an old and weather-worn log that no suspicion is aroused. -Presently a razorback comes down the narrow trail that meanders -through the scrub and passes close to the reptile. Let it pass between -the alligator and the water--that is, between the creature and his -_cave_--and the end has come. An alligator seldom misses, and one -spring, leap, or plunge, or whatever the swift, clumsy movement may be -called, and the wretched animal is seized and held fast, either by the -nose or leg, as a rule. Then the struggle begins, for the razorback -loves its life, despised pig of the Florida flatwoods though it is. - -Alligators drown their prey. Their own nostrils and throats are so -arranged that they themselves can sink to the bottom without danger of -suffocation, although their mouths, or rather their jaws, may be -widely stretched with the body of their victim. Indeed, they can -reascend to the surface to breathe without releasing the prize; and, -as this power is so closely connected with their method of killing the -larger animals, a description of the latter, repulsive though it is, -may not be out of place. - -The teeth of an alligator are better adapted for crushing and -crunching than for biting. Therefore, for him to eat a struggling -animal would be difficult. Instinct teaches him that it must first be -killed. - -To dispose of a dog or a chicken is a small matter, for when the -alligator meets it upon the bank one strong, far-reaching sweep of the -powerful tail tosses it far out upon the lake. The alligator simply -follows, grasps the half-stunned creature in his jaws, and disappears -beneath the surface, where he remains until all is quiet. With a -larger animal, however, he proceeds differently, for the reason that a -yearling, a colt, or a razorback is not so easily handled. First, -therefore, a description of an alligator's cave must be given, since -it is to this grewsome retreat that the hideous brute takes his booty. - -Selecting some spot where the water is deep--usually beneath some -overhanging bank--an alligator excavates what is called a "cave." Any -one, standing upon the border of a lake or swamp in Florida, may, all -unconsciously, be directly over one of these places. He makes it -sufficiently large to accommodate one or more of his kind, by dragging -out the mud and roots with the strong claws or nails that arm his fore -paws or legs. These "caves" serve in winter for hibernation, and at -other times for the purpose that will be explained. - -Once in the water, then--to return to the unhappy razorback--the -alligator does not rely wholly upon his teeth and jaws to hold the -desperate animal. He can not yet sink, for the victim is too strong. -It must first be drowned, and a furious struggle for the mastery then -begins. - -By degrees the brute finally succeeds in dragging the animal out into -water sufficiently deep to suit his purpose, and then he clasps it -firmly with his paws, precisely like the hugging of a bear. He then -begins to roll over and over. Now beneath the surface, now out, he -turns and turns, first the alligator uppermost, then his prey, -alternately, until the poor animal is drowned literally by inches. -Before long the razorback weakens, his struggles lessen, and then the -alligator sinks to the bottom, and when all motion has ceased he -deposits the body in his cave, well pleased with the prospect of a -full larder for some time to come. - -One might naturally ask just here whether or not this scene would be -the same were a human being the victim. The reply would be--precisely. - -The alligator undoubtedly prefers his food in a partly decomposed -condition, although it is an undecided point whether this preference -arises from a natural taste, or for the reason that food in that state -is softer and more easily torn apart. Whichever may be the case, -Nature unasked supplies the remedy, and the alligator takes advantage -of her assistance, and deposits his victim in his hiding place, -confident that at the proper time it will rise to the surface in the -condition best adapted to his needs. - -Although by nature the alligator is amphibious, he passes the greater -part of his time upon land during the breeding season. At such times, -also, he migrates from one clear-water lake or swamp to another, -should he not find a mate in his own locality, and he may not -infrequently be met in his overland journeyings. Alligators are not -strictly gregarious, although large numbers are found in the same body -of water; while, on the contrary, there will often be but one or two -that will haunt a certain tract for a long period. - -During this season the bull alligator is very noisy, and his deep -bellowing may be heard for a long distance. To state that this noise -causes the ground to vibrate may seem an exaggeration, but the fact -may easily be proved by visiting a swamp where the reptiles have -congregated. The water in the vicinity will plainly show the jarring -of the ground. - -This bellow is a thundering, rumbling sound; and when it is combined -with the startling hisses, blowings, sighs, and deep-breathed snorts -which the creature can produce at will, no one will be likely to -dispute that his collection of diabolical noises is quite complete. - -During the period of incubation the female alligator is a devoted -mother. She does not desert her nest from the time that the eggs are -laid until they are hatched--lying concealed in the scrub close -by--and she is naturally, at this time, most dangerous to approach, -although her vigilance does not always save a portion of her unhatched -progeny from the numerous enemies that have a fondness for alligator -omelet. - -[Illustration: GROUP OF CAPTIVE ALLIGATORS. From photograph by O. P. -Hareus, Jacksonville.] - -The nest is a large, well-rounded heap or mound, composed of sand and -rubbish, which she drags and pushes together with her claws. -Throughout this mound she deposits her eggs, from forty to seventy and -over. These eggs resemble those of a goose, only that they are larger; -they have a thick, tough shell, and are of about the same size at both -ends. In about sixty days, the heat of the sun, combined with the -warmth and moisture generated by the fermentation of the rubbish, -completes the process of incubation, and the little ones begin to come -forth. - -Forcing their way through the sand, they hurry down the sloping sides -of the mound, straightway seeking the water by instinct. While these -baby 'gators are thus kicking and flinging off their shell overcoats -as they emerge from their incubator, perfect little duplicates of -their mother--only that they are rather pretty in their clean, glossy, -black or dark-brown skins, which have orange-colored stripes that -completely ring their miniature tails and bodies--she wanders -anxiously about, probably wondering how many of her family will -succeed in running the very uncertain gantlet of life. - -For, eaten while in the egg stage by birds and animals, and swallowed -by open-mouthed, expectant fishes, and by other alligators--often led, -if the truth must be told, by the interesting father himself--as soon -as they reach the water, the early days of an alligator are full of -trouble. That enough escape to prevent extinction, however, goes -almost without saying. - -Alligators are hunted for their teeth, which find a ready market when -made up into pretty ornaments; and of late years extensively for their -hides, which make a very handsome leather. For this purpose the older -specimens are not valuable, their hides being too gnarled, knotty, and -moss-grown to tan well. After ten or fifteen years the hide coarsens. -It is always the skin from the under side of the body and head which -is used, that from the back being so heavily armored with tough, horny -plates and shields as to be practically useless. The flesh for food -finds but few admirers. Like the eggs, it is permeated by a strong, -musky flavor, too rank to find appreciation from a refined palate; but -in some places the steaks from the reptile are eaten by the negroes -and pronounced good. - -To successfully hunt the alligator requires experience, for quick work -is necessary, the brute disappearing at the least suspicion of danger. -Hunting by "jack" is the usual method pursued, for the light seems to -charm the creature, so that he may be more easily detained until a -properly directed bullet speedily puts an end to his existence. - -A professional alligator hunter, or a "'gator man," as he is called, -leads a life full of adventure, but his business is upon the wane, -since the fad for alligator leather is being pushed aside to make way -for something later and more novel. Nevertheless, a description of his -outfit may not be uninteresting. - -A most important adjunct to this outfit is the man who usually -accompanies the 'gator man upon his expeditions. He might properly be -called the silent partner, for his duty is to instantly and silently -obey the different hand signals, meaning "To the right," "To the -left," "Stop," "Back," "Hurry," "Forward," "Spurt," "Slow," given by -the hunter, while standing erect in the bow of the boat, when out with -the "jack." Indeed, upon his alertness depends much of the success or -failure of the night's work. - -The other tools used by the 'gator man are a light, strong boat, a -pair of light oars and a broad-bladed paddle with a four-foot handle, -neatly coiled rope, a jack lamp furnished with a powerful reflector, -an axe, a long, keen-bladed hunting knife, two guns (twelve-bore -breech-loaders, for a heavy charge at one delivery is absolutely -necessary), bags of ammunition, some strong chains, rawhide rope, and -a 'gator pole. This last-mentioned "tool" is a stout pole about ten -feet long, armed with a heavy hook of quarter-inch iron, bearing a -barbed shank of two inches or more, and it is used for hauling the -dead alligators from the bottom, for the creatures sink as soon as -killed. - -The brilliant rays from the "jack" reveal a curious and a grewsome -sight when thrown upon a bank or island upon which a group of the -creatures have congregated. The shining waters of the swamp, so still -and black at that hour of midnight; the hideous tangle of huge gray -forms, as a dozen or more alligators, fairly intoxicated by the gleam -of the mysterious light, steadfastly watch its incomprehensible -presence. Gazing intently, their evil eyes blood-red in the glare from -the powerful reflector, some lie motionless, others roar and hiss and -snort with thrilling fierceness as the mystery deepens, incessantly -arching their bodies, then alternately depressing them to the ground. -Still others, crawling from beneath their companions, scuffle angrily -to the front, and stand with jaws partly open--now and then slowly -inflating their lungs, until their throats and sides puff out like -bellows. Yet, strange to say, instinct seems to warn the mother -alligator, for there she may be seen quietly creeping away with her -young. - -Then, the loud reports from the guns, and the mystery is dispelled! -The island is deserted, and the work of raising the successfully shot -saurians begins. - - * * * * * - - Boards of rural engineering, syndicates of specialists - organized in several of the countries of northern Europe to - look after drainage and irrigation, have rendered great - services to the populations of the country districts. With - their aid 591 villages in Alsace-Lorraine were provided with - water between 1881 and 1895, and 516 communes in Baden have - been benefited by their assistance. The expense of the - improvement has not exceeded $6.61 (33 francs) per - inhabitant. The Agricultural Bureau in Prussia has in the - past five years drawn the plans and directed the work of 554 - hydraulic syndicates, covering a total surface of more than - 600,000 acres. A numerous body of these agricultural - engineers is formed every year in Germany, 517 students - having pursued the course of the section of rural - engineering in 1893 in the agronomical institutes of Bonn - and Berlin alone. - - It is generally accepted that the spider is a solitary - animal, that will tolerate no companions, even the male - being in danger of being devoured by his female. But a - spider--the _Stregodyphus gregarius_--is described as living - in the Transvaal in communities, including males and - females, young and old. The nests are sometimes voluminous - and have partitions and numerous passages running through - them. The spiders usually escape observation by wrapping - themselves in dry leaves that hang from stems. - - - - -THE RACIAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE. - -A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY. - -(_Lowell Institute Lectures, 1896._) - -BY WILLIAM Z. RIPLEY, PH. D., - -ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF -TECHNOLOGY; LECTURER IN ANTHROPO-GEOGRAPHY AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. - - -SUPPLEMENT.--THE JEWS (_continued_). - -Tradition has long divided the Jewish people into two distinct -branches: the Sephardim, or southern, and the Ashkenazim, or north, -European. Mediæval legend among the Jews themselves traced the descent -of the first from the tribe of Judah; the second, from that of -Benjamin. The Sephardim are mainly the remnants of the former Spanish -and Portuguese Jews. They constitute in their own eyes an aristocracy -of the nation. They are found primarily to-day in Africa; in the -Balkan states, where they are known as Spagnuoli; less purely in -France and Italy. A small colony in London and Amsterdam still holds -itself aloof from all communion and intercourse with its brethren. The -Ashkenazim branch is numerically far more important, for the German, -Russian, and Polish Jews comprise over nine tenths of the people, as -we have already seen in our preceding article. - -Early observers all describe these two branches of the Jews as very -different in appearance. Vogt, in his Lectures on Man, assumes the -Polish type to be descended from Hindu sources, while the Spanish -alone he held to be truly Semitic. Weisbach[11] gives us the best -description of the Sephardim Jew as to-day found at Constantinople. He -is slender in habit, he says; almost without exception the head is -"exquisitely" elongated and narrow, the face a long oval; the nose -hooked and prominent, but thin and finely chiseled; hair and eyes -generally dark, sometimes, however, tending to a reddish blond. This -rufous tendency in the Oriental Jew is emphasized by many observers. -Dr. Beddoe[12] found red hair as frequent in the Orient as in Saxon -England, although later results do not fully bear it out.[13] This -description of a reddish Oriental type corresponds certainly to the -early representations of the Saviour; it is the type, in features, -perhaps, rather than hair, painted by Rembrandt--the Sephardim in -Amsterdam being familiar to him, and appealing to the artist in -preference to the Ashkenazim type. This latter is said to be -characterized by heavier features in every way. The mouth, it is -alleged, is more apt to be large, the nose thickish at the end, less -often clearly Jewish, perhaps. The lips are full and sensual, offering -an especial contrast to the thin lips of the Sephardim. The complexion -is swarthy oftentimes, the hair and eyes very constantly dark, without -the rufous tendency which appears in the other branch. The face is at -the same time fuller, the breadth corresponding to a relatively short -and round head. - -Does this contrast of the traditional Sephardim and Ashkenazim facial -types correspond to the anthropometric criteria by means of which we -have analyzed the various populations of Europe? And, first of all, is -there the difference of head form between the two which our -descriptions imply?[14] And, if so, which represents the primitive -Semitic type of Palestine? The question is a crucial one. It involves -the whole matter of the original physical derivation of the people, -and the rival claims to purity of descent of the two branches of the -nation. In preceding papers we have learned that western Asia is quite -uniformly characterized by an exceeding broad-headedness, the cephalic -index--that is to say, the breadth of the head in percentage of the -length from front to back--often rising to 86. This is especially -marked in Asia Minor, where some of the broadest and shortest crania -in the world are to be found. The Armenians, for example, are so -peculiar in this respect that their heads appear almost deformed, so -flattened are they at the back. A head of the description appears in -the case of our Jew from Ferghanah on our second portrait page, 344. -On the other hand, the peoples of African or negroid derivation form a -radical contrast, their heads being quite long and narrow, with -indices ranging from 75 to 78. This is the type of the living Arab -to-day. Its peculiarity appears in the prominence of the occipital -region in our Arab and other African portraits. Scientific research -upon these Arabs has invariably yielded harmonious results. From the -Canary Islands,[15] all across northern Africa,[16] to central Arabia -itself,[17] the cephalic indices of the nomadic Arabs agree closely. -They denote a head form closely allied to that of the long-headed -Iberian races, typified in the modern Spaniards, south Italians, and -Greeks. It was the head form of the ancient Phoenicians and Egyptians -also, as has recently been proved beyond all question.[18] Thus does -the European Mediterranean type shade off in head form, as in -complexion also, into the primitive anthropological type of the negro. -The situation being thus clearly defined, it should be relatively easy -to trace our modern Jews, if, indeed, as has so long been assumed, -they have remained a pure and undefiled race during the course of -their incessant migrations. We should be able to trace their origin if -they possess any distinctive head form, either to the one continent or -the other, with comparative certainty. - - -------------------------+--------------------+----------+------------ - AUTHORITY. | Place. | Number. | Cephalic - | | | Index. - -------------------------+--------------------+----------+------------ - Lombroso, 1894 a |Turin, Italy. | 112 | 82.0 - Weisbach, '77 |Balkan states. | 19 | 82.2 - Majer and Kopernicki, '77|Galicia. | 316 | 83.6 - Blechmann, '82 |W. Russia. | 100 | 83.2 - Stieda, '83 (Dybowski) |Minsk, Russia. | 67 | 82.2 - Ikof, '84 |Russia. | 120 | 83.2 - Ikof, '84 |Constantinople. |17 crania | 74.5 - Ikof, '84 |Crimea. |30 crania | 83.3 - | | (Karaim).| - Majer and Kopernicki,'85 |Galicia. | 100 | 81.7 - Jacobs, '90 |England. | 363 | 80.0 - Jacobs, '90 |England (Sephardim).| 51 | - Talko-Hyrncewicz, '92 |Lithuania. | 713 | - Chantre, '95 |Caucasia. | 34 | 85.0 - Weissenberg, '95 |South Russia. | 100 | 82.5 - Weissenberg, '95 |South Russia. |50 women. | 82.4 - Glück, '96 |Bosnia (Spagnuoli). | 55 | 80.1 - Livi, '96 |Italy. | 34 | 81.6 - Elkind, '97 |Poland. | 325 |{Men, 81.9 - | | |{Women, 82.9 - Deniker, '98 |Daghestan. | 19 | 87.0 - -------------------------+--------------------+----------+------------ - -During the last quarter of a century about twenty-five hundred Jews -have submitted their heads to scientific measurement. These have -naturally for the most part been taken from the Great Russian and -Polish branch; a few observers, as Lombroso, Ikof, Jacobs, Glück, and -Livi, have taken observations upon a more or less limited number from -southern Europe. For purposes of comparison we have reproduced in our -footnote a summary of all the results obtained thus far. Inspection of -the table shows a surprising uniformity. Ikof's limited series of -Spagnuoli from Constantinople, and that of the Jews from Caucasia and -Daghestan, are the only ones whose cephalic index lies outside the -limits of 80 to 83. In other words, the Jews, wherever found in -Europe, betray a remarkable similarity in head form, the crania being -considerably broader than among the peoples of Teutonic descent. As we -know, the extremes of head form in Europe, measured by the cephalic -index, extend from 74 to 89; we thus observe that the Jews take a -place rather high in the European series. They are about like the -northern French and southern Germans. More important still, they seem -to be generally very closely akin in head form to the people among -whom they reside. Thus, in Russia and Poland scarcely an appreciable -difference exists in this respect between Jews and Christians. The -same is true in Turin, while in the direction of Asia our Jews are as -bullet-headed as even the most typical Armenians and Caucasians round -about them. - -[Illustration: ARAB. Index, 76. - -MUSSULMAN, TUNIS. Index, 75. - -JEW, TUNIS. Index, 75. - -AFRICAN SEMITIC TYPES.] - -This surprising similarity of head form between the Jews of North and -South Europe bears hard upon the long-accepted theory that the -Sephardim is dolichocephalic, thereby remaining true to the original -Semitic type borne to-day by the Arabs. It has quite universally been -accepted that the two branches of the Jews differed most materially in -head form. From the facial dissimilarity of the two a correlative -difference in head form was a gratuitous inference. Dr. Beddoe -observes that in Turkey the Spagnuoli "seemed" to him to be more -dolichocephalic. A few years later Barnard Davis (1867) "suspected" a -diversity, but had only three Italian skulls to judge from, so that -his testimony counts for little. Then Weisbach (1877) referred to the -"exquisitely" long heads of the Spagnuoli, but his data show a -different result. Ikof, with his small series of crania from -Constantinople, is the only observer who got a result which accords in -any degree with what we know of the head form of the modern Semitic -peoples. On the other hand, Glück in Bosnia and Livi in Italy find no -other sign of long-headedness than a slight drop in index of a point -or two. Jacobs, in England, whose methods, as Topinard has observed, -are radically defective, gives no averages for his Sephardim, but they -appear to include about eleven per cent less pure long-headed types -than even their Ashkenazim brethren in London. This, it will be noted, -is the exact opposite of what might normally be expected. This tedious -summary forces us inevitably to the conclusion that, while a -long-headed type of Sephardim Jews may exist, the law is very far from -being satisfactorily established. - -Thus, from a study of our primary characteristic--the proportions of -the head--we find our modern Jews endowed with a relatively much -broader head than that of the average Englishman, for example: while -the best living representative of the Semitic race, the Arab, has a -head which is even longer and narrower than our own type. It is, in -short, one of the longest known, being in every way distinctly -African. The only modern Jews who even approach this type would seem -to be those who actually reside to-day in Africa, as in the case of -our two portrait types from that region. Two possible explanations are -open to us: either the great body of the Jews in Europe -to-day--certainly all the Ashkenazim, who form upward of ninety per -cent of the nation, and quite probably the Sephardim also, except -possibly those in Africa--have departed widely from the parental type -in Palestine; or else the original Semitic type was broad-headed, and, -by inference, distinctly Asiatic in derivation; in which case it is -the modern Arab which has deviated from its original pattern. Ikof is -the only authority who boldly faces this dilemma, and chooses the -Asiatic hypothesis with his eyes open.[19] Which, we leave it to the -reader to decide, would be the more likely to vary--the wandering Jew, -ever driven from place to place by constant persecution, and -constantly exposed to the vicissitudes of life in densely populated -cities, the natural habitat of the people, as we have said; or the -equally nomadic Arab, who, however, seems to be invariable in type, -whether in Algeria, Morocco, the Canary Islands, or Arabia Felix -itself? There can be but one answer, it seems to us. The original -Semitic stock must have been in origin strongly dolichocephalic--that -is to say, African as the Arabs are to-day; from which it follows, -naturally, that about nine tenths of the living Jews are as widely -different in head form from the parent stock to-day as they well could -be. The boasted purity of descent of the Jews is, then, a myth. Renan -(1883) is right, after all, in his assertion that the ethnographic -significance of the word Jew, for the Russian and Danubian branch at -least, long ago ceased to exist. Or, as Lombroso observes, the modern -Jews are physically more Aryan than Semitic, after all. They have -unconsciously taken on to a large extent the physical traits of the -people among whom their lot has been thrown. In Algiers they have -remained long-headed like their neighbors, for, even if they -intermarried, no tendency to deviation in head form would be provoked. -If, on the other hand, they settled in Piedmont, Austria, or Russia, -with their moderately round-headed populations, they became in time -assimilated to the type of these neighbors as well. - -Nothing is simpler than to substantiate the argument of a constant -intercourse and intermixture of Jews with the Christians about them -all through history, from the original exodus of the forty thousand -(?) from Jerusalem after the destruction of the second temple. At this -time the Jewish nation as a political entity ceased to exist. An -important consideration to be borne in mind in this connection, as -Neubauer suggests very aptly, is that opposition to mixed marriages -was primarily a prejudice of religion and not of race. It was -dissipated on the conversion of the Gentile to Judaism. In fact, in -the early days of Judaism marriage with a nonbeliever was not -invalid at all, as it afterward became, according to the Jewish -code. Thus Josephus, speaking of the Jews at Antioch, mentions that -they made many converts, receiving them into their community. An -extraordinary number of conversions to Judaism undoubtedly took place -during the second century after Christ. As to the extent of -intermarriage which ensued during the middle ages discussion is still -rife. Renan, Neubauer, and others interpret the various rigid -prohibitions against intermarriage of Jews with Christians--as, for -example, at the church councils of 538, 589, at Toledo, and of 743 at -Rome--to mean the prevalent danger of such practices becoming general; -while Jacobs, Andree, and others are inclined to place a lower -estimate upon their importance. Two wholesale conversions are known to -have taken place: the classical one of the Khozars, in South Russia, -during the reign of Charlemagne, and that of the Falashas, who were -neighboring Arab tribes in Yemen. Jacobs has ably shown, however, the -relatively slight importance of these. It is probable that the -greatest amount of infusion of Christian blood must have taken place, -in any event, not so much through such striking conversions, as -insidiously through clandestine or irregular marriages. - -[Illustration: FERGHANAH, TURKESTAN. - -HÉRAULT, FRANCE. - -ELIZABETHGRAD, RUSSIA. - -SPAGNUOLI, BOSNIA. - -ELIZABETHGRAD, RUSSIA. - -JEWISH TYPES.] - -We find, for example, much prohibitive legislation against the -employment of Christian servants by Jews. This was directed against -the danger of conversion to Judaism, by the master, with consequent -intermarriage. It is not likely that these prohibitions were of much -avail, for, despite stringent laws in Hungary, for example, we find -the archbishop of that country reporting in 1229 that many Jews were -illegally living with Christian wives, and that conversions by -thousands were taking place. In any case, no protection for slaves was -ever afforded. The confinement of the Jews strictly to the Ghettos -during the later centuries would naturally discourage such -intermixture of blood, as also the increasing popular hatred between -Jew and Christian; but, on the other hand, the greater degree of -tolerance enjoyed by the Israelites even during this present century -would be competent speedily to produce great results. Jacobs has -strenuously, although perhaps somewhat inconclusively, argued in favor -of a substantial purity of the Jews by means of a number of other -data--such as, for example, by a study of the relative frequency of -Jewish names, by the supposed relative infecundity of mixed marriages, -and the like. Experience and the facts of everyday observation, on the -other hand, tend to confirm us in the belief that racially no purity -of descent is to be supposed for an instant. Consider the evidence of -names, for example. We may admit a considerable purity, perhaps, to -the Cohns and Cohens, legitimate descendants of the Cohanim, the sons -of Aaron, early priests of the temple. Their marital relations were -safeguarded against infusion of foreign blood in every possible way. -The name is, perhaps, in its various forms, the most frequent among -Jews to-day. But how shall we account for the equally pure Jewish -names in origin, such as Davis, Harris, Phillips, and Hart? How did -they ever stray so far from their original ethnic and religious -significance, unless the marital bars were lowered to a large degree? -Some of them certainly claim a foremost position numerically in our -Christian English directories. We have an interesting case of -indefinite Jewish delimitation in our portraits. The middle portrait -at page 341 is certainly a Jewish type. Dr. Bertholon writes me that -all who saw it immediately asserted it to be a Jew. Yet the man was a -professed Mussulman, in fact, even though his face was against him. - -There is, as we have sought to prove, no single uniform type of head -peculiar to the Jewish people which may be regarded as in any sense -racially hereditary. Is this true also of the face? Our first -statement encounters no popular disapproval, for most of us never, -perhaps, happened to think of this head form as characteristic. But -the face, the features! Is this another case of science running -counter to popular belief? - -The first characteristic to impress itself upon the layman is that the -Jew is generally a brunette. All scientific observers corroborate this -impression, agreeing in that the dark hair and eyes of this people -really constitute a distinct racial trait. About two thirds of the -Ashkenazim branch in Galicia and Russia, where the general population -is relatively quite blond, is of the brunette type, this being -especially marked in the darker color of the hair. For example, Majer -and Kopernicki,[20] in Galicia, found dark hair to be about twice as -frequent as the light. Elkind,[21] in Warsaw, finds about three fifths -of the men dark. In Bosnia, Glück's observations on the Sephardim type -gave him only two light-haired men out of fifty-five. In Germany and -Austria[22] this brunette tendency is likewise strongly emphasized. -Pure brunette types are twice as frequent in the latter country, and -three times as frequent in Germany, among Jewish as among Christian -school children. Facts also seem to bear out the theory, to which we -have already alluded, that the Oriental Jews betray a slightly greater -blond tendency, thus inclining to rufous. In Germany also the blond -tendency becomes appreciably more frequent in Alsace-Lorraine, a -former center of gravity of the nation, as the map in our previous -article has shown. This comparative blondness of the Alsatian Jew is -not new, for in 1861 the origin of these same blondes was matter of -controversy. Broca believed them to be of northern derivation, while -Pruner Bey traced them from a blondish Eastern source. The English -Jews seem also to be slightly lighter than their continental brethren, -even despite their presumably greater proportion of Sephardim, who are -supposed to be peculiarly dark. As to the relative red blondness of -the Oriental Jew, the early observations of Dr. Beddoe, and those of -Langerhans (1873) as to the blue eyes and red-brown hair of the Druses -of Lebanon, do not seem to be borne out; or, as Jacobs puts it, the -"argument may be dismissed with costs." Certainly the living Semites -are dark enough in type, and the evidence of the sacred books bears -out the same theory of an original dark type. Thus "black" and "hair" -are commonly synonymous in the early Semitic languages. In any case, -whatever the color in the past, we have seen that science corroborates -the popular impression that the Jews as a people are distinctively of -a brunette type. This constitutes one of the principal traits by which -they may be almost invariably identified. It is not without interest -to notice that this brunetteness is more accentuated, oftentimes, -among the women, who are, the world over, persistent conservators of -the primitive physical characteristics of a people.[23] - -Secondly, as to the nose. Popularly the humped or hook nose -constitutes the most distinctive feature of the Jewish face. -Observations among the Jews, in their most populous centers, do not, -however, bear out the theory. Thus Majer and Kopernicki (1885), in -their extended series, found only nine per cent of the hooked type--no -greater frequency than among the Poles; a fact which Weissenberg -confirms as to the relative scarcity of the convex nose in profile -among his South Russian Jews. He agrees, however, that the nose is -often large, thick, and prominent. Weisbach (1877) measured the facial -features of nineteen Jews, and found the largest noses in a long -series of people from all over the earth; exceeded in length, in fact, -by the Patagonians alone. The hooked nose is, indeed, sometimes -frequent outside the Jewish people. Olechnowicz found, for example, -over a third of the noses of the gentry in southeast Poland to be of -this hooked variety. Running the eye over our carefully chosen series -of portraits, selected for us as typical from four quarters -of Europe--Algeria, Russia, Bosnia, and the confines of -Asia--representing the African, Balkan Spagnuoli, and Russian -Ashkenazim varieties, visual impression will also confirm our -deduction. The Jewish nose is not so often truly convex in profile. -Nevertheless, it must be confessed that it gives a hooked impression. -This seems to be due to a peculiar "tucking up of the wings," as Dr. -Beddoe expresses it. Herein lies the real distinctive quality about -it, rather than in any convexity of outline. In fact, it often -renders a nose concave in profile, immediately recognizable as Jewish. -Jacobs[24] has ingeniously described this "nostrility," as he calls -it, by the following diagrams: Write, he says, a figure 6 with a long -tail (Fig. 1); now remove the turn of the twist, and much of the -Jewishness disappears; and it vanishes entirely when we draw the lower -continuation horizontally, as in Fig. 3. Behold the transformation! -The Jew has turned Roman beyond a doubt. What have we proved, then? -That there is in reality such a phenomenon as a Jewish nose, even -though it be differently constituted from our first assumption. A -moment's inspection of our series of portraits will convince the -skeptic that this trait, next to the prevalent dark hair and eyes and -the swarthy skin, is the most distinctive among the chosen people. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 1._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 2._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 3._] - -Another characteristic of the Jewish physiognomy is the eyes. The -eyebrows, seemingly thick because of their darkness, appear to be -nearer together than usual, arching smoothly into the lines of the -nose. The lids are rather full, the eyes large, dark, and brilliant. A -general impression of heaviness is apt to be given. In favorable cases -this imparts a dreamy, melancholy, or thoughtful expression to the -countenance; in others it degenerates into a blinking, drowsy type; -or, again, with eyes half closed, it may suggest suppressed cunning. -The particular adjective to be applied to this expression varies -greatly according to the personal equation of the observer. Quite -persistent also is a fullness of the lips, often amounting in the -lower one almost to a pout. The chin in many cases is certainly rather -pointed and receding, Jacobs to the contrary notwithstanding. A -feature of my own observation, perhaps not fully justified, is a -peculiar separation of the teeth, which seem to stand well apart from -one another. But a truce to speculations. Entering into greater -detail, the flat contradictions of different observers show that they -are vainly generalizing from an all too narrow base of observations. -Even the fancied differences in feature between the two great branches -of the Hebrew people seem to us to be of doubtful existence. Our -portraits do not bear it out. It seems rather that the two -descriptions of the Ashkenazim and Sephardim types which we have -quoted denote rather the distinction between the faces of those of the -upper and the lower classes. Enough for us to know that there is a -something Jewish in these faces which we instantly detect. We -recognize it in Rembrandt's Hermitage, or in Munkaczy's Christ before -Pilate. Not invariable are these traits. Not even to the Jew himself -are they always a sure criterion. Weissenberg gives an interesting -example of this.[25] To a friend, a Jew in Elizabethgrad, he submitted -two hundred and fifty photographs of Russian Jews and Christians in -undistinctive costume. Seventy per cent of the Jews were rightly -chosen, while but ten per cent of the Russians were wrongly classed as -Jews. Of what concern is it whether this characterization be entirely -featural, or in part a matter of expression? The first would be a -matter of direct heredity, the second hypothesis partakes more of the -nature of a characteristic acquired from the social environment. Some -one--Jacobs, I think--speaks of it as the "expression of the Ghetto." -It certainly appears in the remarkable series of composite Jewish -portraits published in his monograph. It would not be surprising to -find this true. Continued hardship, persecution, a desperate struggle -against an inexorable human environment as well as natural one, could -not but write its lines upon the face. The impression of a dreary past -is deep sunk in the bodily proportions, as we have seen. Why not in -the face as well? - -We are now prepared, in conclusion, to deal with what is perhaps the -most interesting phase of our discussion. It is certainly, if true, of -profound sociological importance. We have in these pages spoken at -length of the head form--primary index of race; we have shown that -there are Jews and Jews in this respect. Yet which was the real Jew it -was not for us to decide, for the ninety-and-nine were broad-headed, -while the Semite in the East is still, as ever, a long-headed member -of the Africanoid races. This discouraged our hopes of proving the -existence of a Jewish cephalic type as the result of purity of -descent. It may indeed be affirmed with certainty that the Jews are by -hereditary descent from early times no purer than most of their -European neighbors. Then we discovered evidence that in this head form -the Jews were often closely akin to the people among whom they lived. -In long-headed Africa they were dolichocephalic. In brachycephalic -Piedmont, though supposedly of Sephardim descent, they were quite like -the Italians of Turin. And all over Slavic Europe no distinction in -head form between Jew and Christian existed. In the Caucasus also they -approximate closely the cranial characteristics of their neighbors. -Hypnotic suggestion was not needed to find a connection here, -especially since all history bore us out in our assumption of a large -degree of intermixture of Gentile blood. Close upon this disproval of -purity of type by descent came evidence of a distinct uniformity of -facial type. Even so impartial an observer as Weissenberg--certainly -not prejudiced in favor of cephalic invariability--confesses this -featural unity. - -How shall we solve this enigma of ethnic purity, and yet impurity, of -type? In this very apparent contradiction lies the grain of comfort -for our sociological hypothesis. The Jew is radically mixed in the -line of _racial descent_; he is, on the other hand, the legitimate -heir to all Judaism as a matter of _choice_. It is for us a case of -purely artificial selection, operative as ever only in those physical -traits which appeal to the senses. It is precisely analogous to our -example of the Basques in France and Spain. What we have said of them -will apply with equal force here. Both Jews and Basques possessed in a -high degree a "consciousness of kind"; they were keenly sensible of -their social individuality. The Basques primarily owed theirs to -geographical isolation and a peculiar language; that of the Jews was -derived from the circumstances of social isolation, dependent upon the -dictates of religion. Another case in point occurs to us in this -connection. Chantre,[26] in a recent notable work, has shown the -remarkable uniformity in physical type among the Armenians. They are -so peculiar in head form that we in America recognize them at once by -their foreshortened and sugar-loaf skulls, almost devoid of occiput. -They too, like the Jews, have long been socially isolated in their -religion. Thus in all these cases, Basques, Armenians, and Jews, we -have a potent selective force at work. So far as in their power lay, -the individuality of all these people was encouraged and perpetuated -as one of their dearest possessions. It affected every detail of their -lives. Why should it not also react upon their ideal of physical -beauty? and why not influence their sexual preferences, as well as to -determine their choice in marriage? Its results became thus -accentuated through heredity. But all this would be accomplished, be -it especially noted, only in so far as the physical traits were -consciously or unconsciously impressed upon them by the facts of -observation. There arises at once the difference between artificial -selection in the matter of the head form and that concerning the -facial features. One is an unsuspected possession of individuality, -the other is matter of common notice and, it may be, of report. What -Jew or Christian, till he became anthropologist, ever stopped to -consider the shape of his head, any more than the addition of a number -of cubits to his stature? Who has not, on the other hand, early -acquired a distinct concept of a Jewish face and of a distinctly -Jewish type? Could such a potent fact escape observation for a moment? - -We are confirmed in our belief in the potency of an artificial -selection, such as we have described, to perpetuate or to evolve a -Jewish facial type by reason of another observation. The women among -the Jews, as Jacobs[27] notes, in confirmation of our own belief, -betray far more constantly than the men the outward characteristics -peculiar to the people. We have already cited Weissenberg's testimony -that brunetteness is twice as prevalent among Russian Jewesses as -among the men. Of course this may be a matter of anabolism, pure and -simple. This would be perhaps a competent explanation of the -phenomenon for physiologists like Geddes and Thompson. For us this -other cause may be more directly responsible. Artificial selection in -a social group, wherein the active choice of mates falls to the share -of the male, would seem to tend in the direction of an accentuated -type in that more passive sex on which the selective influence -directly plays. At all events, observations from widely scattered -sources verify the law that the facial individuality of a people is -more often than otherwise expressed most clearly in the women. Thus, -for example, the women betray the Mongol type more constantly than the -men among the Asiatic tribes of eastern Russia.[28] On the other hand, -Mainof, best of authority, confirms the same tendency among those of -Finnic descent.[29] The _Setti Communi_ in northern Italy still -preserve their German language as evidence of a historic Teutonic -descent. They seem to have lost their identity entirely in respect of -the head form,[30] but Ranke[31] states that among the women the -German facial type constantly reappears. This, I confess, is not -altogether easy to understand, unless the Lombards, of whom these -colonies are supposedly the remnants, brought their native women with -them across the Alps. Perhaps, however, not bringing their women, a -new Teutonic resemblance has been evolved out of whole cloth. A better -example than this is offered among the Hamitic peoples of Africa north -of the Sahara. These peoples, from Abyssinia to Morocco, really belong -to the white races of Europe. Among nearly all their tribes the -negroid traits are far more accentuated among the women, according to -Sergi.[32] It is not necessary to cite more specific testimony. The -law occupies a respected place among anthropologists. That the Jews -confirm it, would seem to strengthen our hypothesis at every point. - -Our final conclusion, then, is this: It is paradoxical, yet true, we -affirm. The Jews are not a race, but only a people, after all. In -their faces we read its confirmation, while in respect of their other -traits we are convinced that such individuality as they possess--by no -means inconsiderable--is of their own making from one generation to -the next, rather than as a product of an unprecedented purity of -physical descent. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[11] 1877, p. 214. - -[12] 1861 b, pp. 227 and 331. - -[13] Glück, 1896 a. Jacobs, 1890, p. 82, did not find a trace of it in -the Sephardim congregation in London. See Andree, 1878, in this -connection. - -[14] The cephalic index by which we measure the head-form is merely -the breadth of the head in percentage of its length from front to -back. The index rises as the head becomes relatively more broad. - -[15] Verneau, 1881 a, p. 500. - -[16] Pruner Bey, 65 b; Gillebert d'Hercourt, 1868, p. 9; and -especially Collignon, 1887 a, pp. 326-339; Bertholon, 1892, p. 41; -also Collignon, 1896 b. - -[17] Eliséev, 1883. - -[18] Bertholon, 1892, p. 43; Sergi, 1897 a, chapter i, and even more -recently Fouquet, 1896 and 1897, on the basis of De Morgan's -discoveries. - -[19] Compare Brinton, 1890 a, p. 132, and 1890 b, for interesting -linguistic data on the Semites. - -[20] 1877, pp. 88-90; 1885, p. 84. - -[21] Centralblatt für Anthropologie, vol. iii, p. 66. - -[22] Virchow, 1886 b, p. 364; Schimmer, 1884, p. xxiii. - -[23] Weissenberg, 1895, p. 567, finds brunettes twice as frequent -among the south Russian Jewesses as among the men. - -[24] 1886 a, p. xxxii. - -[25] 1895, p. 563. - -[26] Recherches anthropologiques dans l'Asie Occidentale (Archives du -Museum d'histoire naturelle, Lyons, vol. vi, 1895). - -[27] 1886 a, p. xxviii. - -[28] Sommier, 1887, reprint, p. 116. Cf. Zograf, 1896, p. 50, on -crania from the sixteenth century in Moscow. - -[29] Congrès int. des sciences géographiques, Paris, 1875, p. 268. - -[30] Livi, 1896 a, pp. 137 and 146. - -[31] Beiträge zur Anth. Bayerns, vol. ii, 1879, p. 75. - -[32] Africa, Antropologia della stirpe Camitica, Torino, 1897, p. 263. - - - - -TRUE TALES OF BIRDS AND BEASTS. - -BY DAVID STARR JORDAN. - - -I.--SEÑOR ALCATRAZ. - -He was just a bird when he was born, and a very ugly bird at that. For -he had big splay feet, with all the toes turned forward and joined -together in one broad web, and his wings were thick and clumsy, and -underneath his long bill there was a big red sack that he could fill -with fishes, and when it was full he could hardly walk or fly, so -large the sack was and so great was his appetite. - -But he kept the sack well filled and he emptied it out every day into -his stomach, and so he grew very soon to be a large bird, as big as a -turkey, though not as fat, and each day uglier than ever. - -But one morning, when he was walking out on the sand flat of the -Astillero at Mazatlan, Mexico, where he lived, he saw a big fish which -had been left by the falling tide in a little pool of water. It was a -blue-colored fish with a big bony head, and no scales, and a sleek, -slippery skin. He did not know that it was a _bagre_, but he thought -that all fishes were good to eat, so he opened his mouth and slipped -the fish, tail first, down into his pouch. It went all right for a -while, but when the fish woke up and knew he was being swallowed, he -straightened out both of his arms, and there he was. For the bagre is -a kind of catfish, and each arm is a long, stiff, sharp bone, or -spine, with a saw edge the whole length of it. And all the bagre has -to do is just to put this arm out straight and twist it at the -shoulder and then it is set, and no animal can bend or break it. And -it pierced right through the skin of the bird's sack, and the bird -could not swallow it, nor make it go up nor down, and the bagre held -on tight, for he knew that if he let go once he would be swallowed, -and that would be the last of him. - -So the bird tried everything he could think of, and the fish held on, -and they kept it up all day. In the afternoon a little boy came out on -the sands. His name was Inocente, and he was the son of Ygnacio, the -fisherman of Mazatlan. And Inocente took a club of mangrove and ran up -to the struggling bird and struck it on the wing with the club. The -blow broke the wing, and the bird lay down to die, for with a broken -wing and a fish that would not go up nor down, there was no hope for -him. - -When Inocente saw what kind of a fish it was, he knew just what to do. -He reached down into the bird's sack and took hold of the fish's -spines. He gave each one a twist so that it rolled over in its socket, -the upper part toward the fish's head, and then they were not stiff -any more, but lay flat against the side of the fish, just as they -ought to lie. Then the fish knew that it had found a master, and lay -perfectly still. So the bird gave a great gulp, and out the bagre went -on the sand, and when the tide came up it swam away, and took care -never to go again where a bird could get hold of it. And the bird with -the broken wing had learned something about fishes, too. But he could -not fly away, so he waited to see what the boy was going to do. - -The boy took the bird into his boat and brought him home. And old -Ygnacio put a splint on his wing and covered it with salve, and by and -by it healed. But the bone was set crooked, and the bird could not fly -very well. So the boys called the bird Señor Alcatraz, which is the -Spanish for Mr. Pelican, and Señor Alcatraz and all the boys and dogs -and goats became good friends, and all ran about on the streets -together. And when the boys would shout and the dogs bark, all Señor -Alcatraz could do was to squawk and hiss and open his big mouth and -show the inside of his red fish sack. - -And when the boys would go fishing on the wharf, Alcatraz would go, -too, and he would stow away the fishes in his pouch as fast as the -boys could catch them. But if they caught a bagre fish, he would turn -his head the other way and then run away home just as fast as his -splay feet would take him. - -And when the men drew the net on the beach Alcatraz would splash -around inside the net, catching whatever he could, and having a great -deal of fun in his clumsy pelican fashion. Then he would run along the -street with the boys, squawking and flapping his wings and thinking -that he was just like the rest of them. And if you ever go to -Mazatlan, ask for Dr. Rogers, and he will show you the way to -Ygnacio's cabin on the street they call Libertad. And there in the -front yard, in a general scramble of dogs, goats, and little Indian -boys, you will see Señor Alcatraz romping and squabbling like the best -of them. And you will know which he is by the broken wing and the red -sack under his throat. But if you say "Bagre" to him, he will run -under the doorstep and hide his face till you go away. - - -II.--THE LITTLE BLUE FOX. - -Once there was a little blue fox, and his name was Eichkao, and he was -a thief. So he built his house down deep among the rocks under the -moss on the Mist Island, and his little fox children used to stay down -among the rocks. There they would gurgle, gurgle, gurgle, whenever -they heard anybody walking over their heads. Eichkao and his fox wife -used to run all round over the rocks to find something for them to -eat, and whenever Eichkao saw anybody coming he would go clin-n-n-g, -cling-g-g, and his voice was high and sharp, just like the voice of a -buzz saw. - -One day he walked out on the rocks over the water and began to talk to -the black sea parrot, whose name is Epatka, and who sits erect on his -carelessly built nest with one egg in it, and wears a great big bill -made of red sealing wax. He has a long white quill pen stuck over each -ear, and over his face is a white mask, so that nobody can know what -kind of a face he has, and all you can see behind the mask is a pair -of little foolish twinkling white glass eyes. What the two said to -each other I don't know, but they did not talk very long, for in a few -minutes when I came back to his house among the rocks Eichkao was -gone, and there lay out on the bank a bill made of red sealing wax, a -white mask, and two little white quill pens. There were a few bones -and claws and some feathers, but they did not seem to belong to -anything in particular, and the little foxes in the rocks went gurgle, -gurgle, gurgle. - -One day I lay down on the moss out by the old fox walk on the Mist -Island, and Eichkao saw me there and thought I was some new kind of -walrus which might be good to eat, and would feed all the little foxes -for a month. So he ran around me in a circle, and then he ran around -again, then again and again, always making the circle smaller, until -finally the circle was so narrow that I could reach him with my hand. -As he went around and around, all the time he looked at me with his -cold, gray, selfish eye, and not one of all the beasts has an eye as -cruel-cold as his. When he thought that he was near enough, he gave a -snap with his jaws, and tried to bite out a morsel to take home to the -little foxes; but all I offered him was a piece of rubber boot. And -when I turned around to look at him he was running away as fast as he -could, calling klin-n-g-g, klin-n-g, klin-n-g, like a scared buzz saw -all the time as he went out of sight. And I think that he is running -yet, while the little foxes still go gurgle, gurgle under the rocks. - - -III.-HOW THE RED FOX WENT HUNTING. - -(_With acknowledgment to Mr. A. C. Bassett, of Menlo Park, -California._) - -Once on a time there was a great tall rabbit, the kind the miners call -a "narrow-gauge mule"; but he was not a mule at all, and his real name -was "Jack Rabbit." His home was in Montana, and he lived by the river -they call the Silver Bow. He could run faster than any of the other -beasts, and he went lickety-clip, lickety-clip, bounding over the tops -of the sagebrush, for he had no brush of his own to carry. - -And there was a red fox who lived on the Silver Bow, too, and he went -hunting because he wanted rabbit for dinner. But while he could run -very fast he could not bound over the tops of the sagebrush, for his -own brush, which he always carried with him because he was so proud of -it, would catch on the thorns of the other kinds of brush and so would -keep him back. - -So he sent for his cousin, the coyote, to come and help him. Now, the -coyote lived out in the country by Emigrant Mountain. He was not proud -at all, for he hadn't much of a brush, and nobody flattered him for -his beauty. But for all that the coyote could run very fast, as he had -Indian blood in him. The only trouble was that his hind feet ran -faster than his fore feet. So he had to stop every little while and -run sidewise to unkink himself and give his fore feet a chance to -catch up. - -When the coyote came up the rabbit was bounding along through the -bushes, going around in a great circle so that he always came back to -the same place, for that is the way of the rabbit-folk. So the fox lay -low and hid his brush in the sage, and the coyote followed the rabbit -around the circle. And he just kept up with the rabbit all the way, -for the rabbit wasn't scared, and didn't run very fast. And when they -had gone once around the circle the rabbit passed the hidden fox. Then -the fox got up and chased him, and was only a few feet behind. And the -coyote stopped and ran sidewise for a while to unkink himself, and -then he lay down in the bushes and waited for the rabbit to come back. -The rabbit was much scared when he saw the fox close behind him, so he -ran and bounded very fast, and the fox kept falling behind because he -had his long brush to carry. But he kept at it just the same, and when -the rabbit came around the circle to where he started there was the -coyote waiting for him. The rabbit had to make a great jump to get -over the coyote's head. Then they went around again and the coyote -kept close behind all the way, and the rabbit began to get tired. When -the coyote's hind legs got tangled up then the fox was rested, and he -took up the chase; and so they kept on, each one taking his turn, -except the rabbit, who had to keep his own turn all the time. - -When the race was over there was nobody there to see how they divided -up what they caught. But I saw the coyote the next day, and he looked -so very empty that I think that the red fox must have taken all the -rabbit meat for himself. Most likely he left his cousin just the ears -for his part, with a rabbit's foot to carry in his pocket for good -luck. - - - - -GLACIAL GEOLOGY IN AMERICA. - -BY PROF. DANIEL S. MARTIN. - - -Under this title the vice-president of Section E (Geology) of the -American Association--Prof. Herman L. Fairchild, of the University of -Rochester, New York--gave an admirable _résumé_ of the whole history, -progress, and scope of the study of ice phenomena in North America, as -the opening address before the section at the recent Boston meeting. -Apart from the interest of the subject in itself considered, this -address was a model of what such addresses should be. While strictly -scientific, without the least attempt at rhetorical effect, it was at -the same time so clear, so well arranged and so simple in language, -that any intelligent auditor could enjoy it and grasp it, and carry -away a distinct impression of the gradual development and present -status of this great department of geological study. Professor -Fairchild's choice of his subject was happy also in its fitness to the -occasion, as covering almost exactly the half century of the life of -the association, though going back indeed a few years further, into -the period of the earlier society which developed into the association -in 1848. - -The great body of phenomena comprised under the term "drift," and the -smoothed and scratched surfaces of rock, etc., had been by no means -unnoticed by the early students of American geology, but they were -attributed to violent and widespread water action, and were spoken of -in general as "diluvial" formations. When the agency of ice began to -be recognized, it was regarded as that of floating and stranding -bergs; and this view for a long time contended with the theory of -glacial action, even when the latter had been adopted and advocated by -eminent students of the subject. - -The first allusion to drifting ice as the agent of transportation of -bowlders, etc., appears to have been made as early as 1825, by one -Peter Dobson, of Connecticut, in a letter to Prof. Benjamin Silliman, -of Yale College. Sir Roderick Murchison, who became the great champion -of this view, credits Mr. Dobson's letter with giving him the first -suggestion of it. Twelve years later, in 1837, T. A. Conrad made the -earliest reference to land ice as the cause of our drift phenomena; he -does this in very striking words when read in the light of the studies -and determinations of later years, although of course imperfectly and -vaguely. - -Meanwhile, however, Agassiz and others had been working among the -glaciers of the Alps, and their views as to a great period of former -extension, in Europe and the British Isles, were finding some -acceptance abroad. In this country, Prof. Edward Hitchcock, in his -address as retiring president of the Association of American -Geologists, in 1841, gave a broad and careful review of the drift -phenomena in eastern North America, and referred to the work of -Agassiz, Buckland, and Lyell with great interest, as having given him -"a new geological sense" in observing these phenomena, and said, with -prophetic foresight, "Henceforth, glacial action must form an -important chapter in geology." - -But the time was not ripe for the understanding and acceptance of the -glacial theory as a later generation has come to know it. The studies -of Agassiz and his _confrères_ had been among glaciers upon mountain -slopes, and hence, while many of the drift phenomena were strikingly -accounted for, others were not and could not be. So it came to pass -that, while Professor Hitchcock and others in this country were -strongly impressed, they were not satisfied, and held for years an -uncertain position. The glacial indications conformed in some aspects -to the theory, but not in others; the striæ and groovings, instead of -following valleys, all had a general trend to the southward, and the -bowlders were carried across great depressions and deposited upon -heights. How could these conditions be due to glaciers? Could ice flow -uphill, or move long distances over level areas? These and other -phenomena, such as the peculiar distribution of drift material, in -"drumlin" ridges and the like, had no explanation. Hence, -notwithstanding President Hitchcock's utterances above quoted, and his -similar Postscript on the subject of drift and moraines, appended in -the same year to his volume on the Geology of Massachusetts, we find -him in 1843, when again addressing the Association of Geologists, -adopting a modified tone, dwelling upon these points of difficulty, -and seeking a compromise view, which he called "glacio-aqueous." The -great influence also of Murchison and Lyell had been thrown into the -scale in favor of the iceberg theory, and this fact doubtless had much -to do with the slow development of true conceptions. Lyell visited -America in 1842, and was present at the American Geologists' meeting, -advocating the floating-ice doctrine, to which most of our observers -already leaned; and so the views of Agassiz and the glacial school had -to wait for a decade before they found general acceptance or even -audience. - -This, we may note in passing, is but one marked instance out of many -in the history of science, wherein the personal influence of eminent -leaders has obstructed and retarded the advance of true knowledge. The -whole recognition of the Cambrian system, as pre-Silurian and -distinct, was suppressed and prevented for many years by Murchison's -intense opposition to the views of Sedgwick. Similar facts might be -cited in this country, did we care to mention names. Science can not -claim, as is sometimes asserted, that it possesses or imparts any -entire exemption from the influence of authority, and bestows complete -independence from the tendency to "swear to the words of a master." - -Of the New York geologists, Vanuxem alone, in his Geology of the Third -District, 1842, inclined to the glacial theory; the others--Emmons, -Mather, and Hall--advocated floating ice, the latter urging as a chief -objection the absence of any great northern highlands from which -glaciers could extend southward. Prof. Henry D. Rogers advocated De la -Beche's view, of great catastrophic waves or _débacles_ of water and -ice, produced by sudden uplifts of the floor of a circumpolar ocean, -and sweeping southward with tremendous power over the middle -latitudes. These views were presented by him in 1844, at the -Washington meeting of the geologists, and are to us a most curious -illustration of the old "cataclysmic" phase of geological conceptions. - -Two years later Agassiz came to America, and at once set about -studying the ice evidences here, first in the White Mountains and then -around the Great Lakes. At the first meeting of the American -Association, in 1848, he presented his views as to the identity of our -phenomena with those studied by himself, Desor, and Guyot abroad. His -views were not very warmly received, however, and he did not attempt -their public presentation again for some years, turning his attention -more to the field of zoölogy. In 1850, in a work on Lake Superior, he -refers somewhat sharply to the prejudice that seemed to prevail in -relation to this subject. - -From this time, however, the aqueous theories began to be less -strongly presented; and a new generation of geologists was coming on, -largely under the training of Guyot and Agassiz, and more open to -their observed results. C. B. Adams, in 1850, presented a view nearly -akin to that adopted by Dana a few years later, of an elevation of the -high northern latitudes, resulting in a southward-moving glacial -sheet, and a subsequent depression connected with its retreat, to -account for the stratified deposits. Professor Dana accepted this -doctrine in his presidential address before the association in 1855, -adding the "Terrace period" of partial re-elevation. From this time he -became the leader of the American glacialists, and his great Manual, -issued in 1862, carried these views into all the colleges of the -country. - -In 1857 Prof. Edward Hitchcock published an important treatise on -Surface Geology, particularly of the Connecticut Valley, in the -Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. In this paper he noted the -distinction, so important and now so familiar, between local striæ and -those with the general southward course of the "drift." Two years -later his son, Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, extended this distinction -widely over New England. In 1863 the report of progress of the -Geological Survey of Canada gave an extended review of the surface -geology, by Prof. Robert Bell, in which he fully adopted the glacial -theory. Meantime, also, Professor Ramsay, in England, had abandoned -the iceberg doctrine for that of glaciers. - -In 1866 and 1867 important papers appeared by Charles Whittlesey, and -one by Edward Hungerford; this last, read before the association, -adopted the general views of Agassiz, with some important limitations -now generally received. In the same year the revised edition of Dana's -Manual gave yet fuller statement and wider diffusion to the generally -accepted views as held to-day. - -Professor Fairchild sums up this historical sketch as comprising four -periods--viz., prior to 1841, undisputed reign of diluvial hypotheses; -1841 to 1848, suggestion and discussion of glacial hypotheses; 1849 to -1866, gradual acceptance of the latter view; from 1867 onward, -development of glacial geology. - -From this point, the address was occupied with consideration of the -various aspects of the subject as studied and wrought out during the -past twenty years by numerous observers. These are grouped under four -main heads, each with various subdivisions--viz., (1) the ice sheet, -as to its area, its thickness, its centers of dispersion, its -migration of centers, etc.; (2) the ice period, as to its cause, its -divisions, its duration, its distance in time; (3) the interpretation -of special phenomena, such as moraines, drumlins, eskers, "kettles," -and the like, valley drift, terraces, loess, etc.; and (4) existing -glaciers, as discovered on our high mountains of the far West, and as -studied in closer relation to the ancient phenomena in the great ice -cap of Greenland and the immense glacier development in Alaska. - -It is impossible to go into a detailed review of the numerous points -of interest covered in this discussion. Suffice it to say that one who -heard or who reads it finds an admirably clear and condensed account -of all the problems and phenomena that have been and that are now -encountered in the study of glacial geology on this continent, and of -their gradual interpretation and solution by the combined labors of -many students. The progress of knowledge over this wide field, -advancing step by step, amid conflicting views and perplexing -conditions, is beautifully shown, and leaves a very striking -impression on the mind, of the difficulties and the successes of -scientific research. Nor is Professor Fairchild disposed to claim too -much or assert too strongly. He recognizes that, with all that has -been met and mastered, there are still questions unsolved, and laurels -to be won by others. - -Among the facts brought out, a few may be briefly alluded to. The -early abandonment of Agassiz's original view of a vast extension of -the polar snow caps, and the recognition of separate centers of -continental glaciation, now distinctly determined as three in -number--a western, a central, and an eastern--the former being the -earliest, and the others following in succession; the recognition by -the Western geologists of the twofold character of the Glacial epoch, -as also determined in western Europe, but less markedly traceable in -our Eastern States, though now generally admitted; in close relation -to this the determination of the line of the great terminal moraine, -traced by successive observers from the Atlantic seaboard to -Minnesota, and the subsequent recognition of an older, eroded, and -fragmentary morainal "fringe," marking the line of the earlier ice -sheet, somewhat beyond the later. With regard to the actual distance -of the last glacial retreat, as expressed in years, Professor -Fairchild is both cautious and frank. He notes the general consensus -of recent observers toward a much shorter period than was formerly -supposed--from five to ten or perhaps fifteen thousand years. At the -same time, there are many elements of uncertainty involved, and the -problem is by no means settled. The Niagara gorge, so long looked upon -as a possible chronometer, grows more complicated as it is further -studied; the rate of erosion has evidently varied much with the volume -of water carried by the river; and this, in turn, has varied with the -changes of level, and consequently of drainage routes, in the basin of -the Great Lakes. There have been times when only the Erie waters -flowed through the Niagara outlet, the upper lake drainage passing -eastward independently, until a gradual northern rise of the land, -which is proved to be still going on, turned the entire drainage into -the present St. Clair route from Lake Huron into Lake Erie, and so -through Niagara. - -This point leads us to digress for a moment from the address under -consideration to allude to a very interesting department of study that -is now growing into prominence--to wit, the restoration of pre-glacial -geography and hydrography, and the genesis of our existing river and -lake systems throughout the northern part of the country. The -discussions and results in regard to Niagara and the Great Lakes are -somewhat familiar, but the work on the rivers and smaller lakes is not -so widely known. Professor Fairchild himself has done much in relation -to the "central lakes" of New York State; and one very interesting -paper of this kind on The Development of the Ohio River was read -before the section by Prof. William G. Light, of Granville, Ohio, -besides many papers by others on similar topics. - -The work done within a few years upon the glaciers of Arctic America -has proved peculiarly fruitful in results. Here, again, the whole -subject is reviewed historically, and the name and work of each -observer are impartially noted. Much of the difficulty encountered by -the glacial theory arose, as we have seen, from the fact that only -mountain glaciers had been studied, so that many of the phenomena -produced by continental ice could not be explained. Professor -Fairchild says, as to this aspect: "More has been learned of the -structure, behavior, and work of our ancient ice sheets by the study -of the Alaskan glaciers during the last ten years, and especially by -the study of the Greenland ice cap during the last four years, than by -all the study of the Alpine glaciers for the seventy years since they -have been observed." Prominent among those who have worked in this -field are the names of Professors Chamberlain and Salisbury in -Greenland, and Professors H. F. Reid and I. C. Russell in Alaska; -other important contributors are Prof. W. P. Blake, the pioneer -geologist in Alaska, 1867; Dall and Baker, who discovered and named -the Malaspina Glacier in 1874; and John Muir, 1878, for whom the Muir -Glacier was named; Wright, Baldwin, Schwatka, Libbey, and others, and -Barton and Tarr in Greenland. - -Professor Russell, in 1891, recognized and named a type of glacier -that was before unknown. In his studies on the Malaspina he found a -condition that does not occur, so far as yet observed, anywhere else -than on the northwest coast of America; this is where a number of -mountain glaciers debouch upon a low, flat coast plain, and unite to -form a great sluggishly moving sheet of ice. This particular -development he called the Piedmont type. - -In closing his address, Professor Fairchild remarks that the word -"theory," as applied to the glacial origin of the drift and its -phenomena, may and should now be abandoned. The subject has passed -beyond the stage of theory, and is as well understood and as clearly -established as the volcanic origin of the cone of Vesuvius or the -sedimentary origin of stratified rocks. - - * * * * * - - In the center of the artificial platforms or platform - mounds, characteristic of many of the ancient Peruvian - towns, Mr. Bandelier has observed features that recall - forcibly the New Mexican Indian custom of giving to each - inanimate object its heart. In some instances, says Mr. F. - W. Hodge, in his paper, round columns formed a kind of an - interior niche; in others, a small chamber contained urns or - jars with maize meal. A remarkable and very significant - feature was observed by the explorer in a partly ruined - mound at Chanchan. The core of this structure when opened - showed two well-preserved altars of adobe. In such interior - apartments, figurines of metal, clay, or wood are almost - invariably found; and the materially valuable finds made in - Peruvian ruins in earlier times came from the "heart" of one - or the other of the artificial elevations described. - - - - -MODERN STUDIES OF EARTHQUAKES. - -BY GEORG GERALAND. - - -The investigation of earthquakes, seismology, has become in the -present day an independent subject of scientific interest. In lands -where earthquakes are frequent, as in Italy and Japan, seismic -observations have been officially systematized over the whole country, -with central and branch stations at which the work is never still. A -net of seismic observations of all nations is being more and more -closely woven over the whole earth, and there are yearly and monthly -collations of observations of even the slightest shocks. Seismic -literature is, therefore, nearly inexhaustible, and theory and praxis -are in constant vogue; in short, seismics has grown to be a separate -branch of science, and to demand independent treatment, calling for -the energy and labor of many students. What gives it so great -importance? What is the condition of our present knowledge and its -history? What will be reached in the future through the competition of -the nations? These questions possess a high scientific as well as -culture-historical interest. We here attempt to answer them. - -The first really scientific description of an earthquake--that of -Lisbon--with its far-reaching accompanying phenomena, was the work of -the greatest contemporary thinker, Kant, and it is not too much to say -that his paper opened a new epoch in the knowledge of earthquakes. -That terrible event and the extreme terror which it caused everywhere -were followed in 1783 by the likewise extremely destructive earthquake -of Calabria. The attention of the people was thus directed to this -mysterious mighty activity of the earth, and was kept especially -lively in Italy, the country of Europe most subject to earthquakes. -The newly rising science of geology therefore found in the last third -of the last century in these phenomena a problem of prominent -importance. Geologists were the first to apply themselves to seismic -studies, as the most widely current explanation of the phenomena is -still a geological one. The scientific interest of the question -prevailed over the practical. More attentive observation was given to -earthquakes, the accounts of them scattered through the ancient -chronicles were collated, and the already very numerous seismic notes -of great earthquake manifestations--such as those by Hoff, Perry, -Mallet, Volger, Fuchs, etc.--constituted a very important factor in -the study. One of the earliest results of the inquiry was to show that -directly perceptible earthquakes are not perceptible everywhere; that -they are most common on the great upfoldings of the earth's crust on -the mountain chains, such as the Andes, Alps, and Himalayas; and that, -further, they are connected with the shores of the Pacific, the -Antilles, and the Mediterranean, and with places also where great -breaches and various disturbances are evident; that they are at home -likewise in volcanoes; and that they are most frequent in the northern -hemisphere, and when the earth is nearest to the sun. The descriptions -of powerful shocks furnish us evidence of a double movement of the -earth's crust--an alternate up-and-down vibration and an often very -marked wave motion. The destruction which earthquake shocks and waves -inflict on buildings, and the remarkably rapid and wide spread of the -tremblings over the surface of the earth, have been very diligently -inquired into; and when, in 1856, Naples and Calabria were visited by -a great earthquake, an English investigator, Robert Mallet, made a -full study of it, and believed that by comparing the direction of the -rents in walls and buildings, which were assumed to correspond with -that of the tremblings, he could identify the focus of the shocks in -the earth's interior, and the course of the wave movement over its -surface--a view which has long prevailed in seismology. Still more -important was the work of the geologist Karl von Seebach, of -Göttingen, on the great earthquake in central Germany, which kept the -northern part of the plains of the upper Rhine, around Mayence, -Grossgerau, and Darmstadt, disturbed for several years after 1869. Von -Seebach's chief effort was to obtain the most exact data possible as -to the time of the beginning of the shocks from as many places as -possible, from which he might deduce the spot where the shocks began -and were strongest, the epicenter which lay directly over the point in -the earth's interior where the movement originated. From them he also -deduced a series of localities where the shocks were simultaneous and -of equal intensity, which could be connected by certain nearly -circular lines called _homoseists_. As the distance of these from the -epicenter increases, the undulations take place later and are weaker, -and facts may be thus furnished from the velocity of propagation of -the shocks can be computed. The observations are also important -because von Seebach undertook through a simple mathematical -calculation to determine from them the situation of the forces of the -subterranean point where the undulations originated. - -With these investigations, the process of annihilating time and space -by steam and the applications of electricity was also going on. By the -effect of this great event, the conditions of earthquake investigation -were revolutionized. A comparative study of the phenomena, fundamental -and essential to a science of seismology, on the basis of material -furnished from all the regions of the earth, was rendered possible. An -earthquake service was organized in Japan, by J. Milne, of England; -one had already been organized for a considerable time in Italy, and -the results obtained at the two places of observation so widely -separated corresponded. Japanese, Indian, and American earthquakes -could be simultaneously studied in Italy, Russia, Germany, and -England; and thus a new, hitherto undeveloped field was gained, the -scope of which has already extended far beyond its merely geological -aspect. - -This could have happened only through another advance that has been -made in our century, which has first rendered a real seismology, a -scientific knowledge of the seismic conditions of the earth, possible -through the immense development of technics, by which a system of -instrumental observation of earthquakes was established. Only through -this could the acquisitions of recent times be utilized. While -formerly observations were macroscopic and touched only earthquakes -that could be directly felt, they now cover essentially microscopic -tremors of the earth's crust, of less than a thousandth of a -millimetre, that are wholly imperceptible to human senses; and we can -read them, enlarged at our pleasure, on our photographically -registering seismometers. We already had instruments which correctly -indicated the time of the beginning and possibly the direction of a -shock; but we needed and have invented new instruments--various sorts -of horizontal and vertical pendulums--for the observation and -representation of the whole course of the movement. The vertical -indicating instruments are much used in Italy, and the horizontal ones -almost exclusively in England, Japan, and Germany. The horizontal -pendulum was invented in Germany in 1832 by Hengler, adapted to -scientific use by Professor Zöllner, of Leipsic, and afterward applied -in that form by English, German, and other observers. The most -complete shape and the one best adapted to extremely delicate seismic -observations was given to it by the late German astronomer and -geographer Dr. Ernst von Rebeur Paschnitz, of Merseburg. Having -undergone a few small changes, fixed in a threefold combination it -serves as our most sensitive and accurate seismometer. Its movements -and its very exact time markings are photographically represented. The -pendulum box is only forty centimetres in diameter. In consequence of -its convenience and cheapness, its self-action and its serviceability, -it is becoming adopted more and more generally as an international -instrument. - -Microseismic investigation and its wide extension over the earth have -raised seismology another step during the last twenty years, so that -it may be said that really exact seismic research began with it. -Modern seismology has confirmed many of the older results, such as the -localization of earthquakes on the shores of the Pacific, the -Mediterranean and in the mountain chains of the earth, and also the -importance of homoseists and the epicenter. It has, on the other hand, -greatly modified the former estimates of the velocity of propagation -of the shocks. It has cast much doubt on speculations as to the -seasons in which earthquakes are more or less frequent; and it has -demonstrated the inadequacy of former methods of determining the -central focus. It has furthermore brought us much that is new. First -is the momentous fact that the earth's crust is never at rest; that it -undergoes a multitude of very diversified movements besides those of -the earthquake. Thus a periodical swelling, a flood wave, is produced -by the attraction of the moon; and other heavings are induced by the -daily and annual course of the sun's heat. But such movements and -other similar ones do not come within the scope of this article. - -Real earthquakes, or movements that originate in the depths of the -earth, also appear in very different forms. First are the directly -perceptible shocks, from the powerful ones that create great -disturbances to the merely local ones often hardly remarked. Of the -immediate workings of these shocks, microscopic instruments have -taught us nothing essentially new. But very many macroscopic -movements, often continuing for several hours, but which are not felt, -have been revealed, that have been shown in many instances to be -distant effects of other strong earthquakes; effects which are -sometimes propagated over the whole surface of the earth. There is, -furthermore, another series of movements, only partly explained as -yet, of a peculiar sort: first, small, quickly passing disturbances, -which appear in the photographic reproductions of the curves as larger -or smaller knots, and which are regarded with great probability as -distant effects of minor seismic movements most likely imperceptible -anywhere. They can not be local earthquakes, for they give entirely -different curves. There also appear, with considerable regularity, at -certain seasons of the year, very slow movements of the ground, called -pulsations; and finally the multitude of vibrations called tremors, -which assume various forms. Sometimes they come as forerunners, -accompaniments, or followers in close association with those great -disturbances that originate in distant earthquakes; sometimes as -shocks of minute intensity in separate groups, which it has not yet -been possible to account for; and in other cases they are traced to -the shaking of the ground by the wind. It is hardly necessary to -observe that the seismic apparatus should be most carefully guarded -against disturbance by the movements of trade, wagons, etc., so that -the problem shall not be complicated by them. - -The theory of the nature of earthquake shocks, their transmission and -their velocity, has been set in a new light by the labors of Augustus -Smith, of Stuttgart. From some calculations of their velocity made by -G. von Nebeur, it is found that the earthquake of April 17, 1889, in -Tokio, Japan, was perceived in Potsdam, Prussia, nine thousand -kilometres distant, in thirteen minutes; that of October 27, 1894, in -Santiago, Chili, in Rome, eleven thousand five hundred kilometres -distant, in seventeen minutes, and in Charkow, Russia, two thousand -kilometres from Rome, between one and two minutes later. It reached -Tokio at the same time, after a transit of seventeen thousand four -hundred kilometres. - -Still another task of modern seismology is the investigation of -earthquakes at sea, or seismic movements of the bottom of the ocean, -and the manner in which they are propagated through the water, of -which a very fine cartographic representation has been published by -Dr. C. Rudolph, of Strasburg. - -The question of the origin of earthquakes stands in constant -connection with this external development of seismology. It is -significant and remarkable that the answers to it, though they may be -given differently from different scientific points of view, are always -consistent in one fact, that earthquakes are a phenomenon of the whole -earth. Some of the investigators seek to explain them, aside from -those that occur in volcanic regions, as a part of the great changes -in the earth's crust which have taken place during the last geological -epoch, and are still, perhaps, taking place; others find their seat -and cause in the unstable condition of the interior of the earth, -beneath its solid and red-hot envelope. The former explanation, the -older and heretofore the prevalent one, is called the tectonic theory, -because it is based, leaving out volcanic earthquakes, on the -structure of the earth's crust; the second, which is gaining ground, -and requires no separate explanation for volcanic earthquakes, may be -called, reviving an expression used by L. Fr. Naumann, of Leipsic, the -Plutonic theory, because it goes down into the unexplored depths of -the earth. If seismic manifestations depend upon the action of the -whole earth, a single explanatory principle, as is always the case -with great natural phenomena, is not sufficient, and tectonic as well -as Plutonic earthquakes must be recognized, and the reverse. - -The tectonic theory is of geological origin, and properly supplanted -the older Plutonic theory of Humboldt, which was only an unverified -supposition. As a whole it was first worked out by Otto Volger in -1858, after various similar hypotheses had been set forth by other -investigators. He was confirmed by the independent researches of -Rudolf Hoernes, Edouard Suess, and most of the German, French, and -English seismologists. - -Their theory supposes that there are large hollow spaces in the crust -of the earth, into which immense falls of material take place, and -that these are the cause of a part of the earthquakes; that the crust -of the earth is often and variously disturbed in consequence of the -constant contraction dependent upon the cooling of the globe. It is -broken up into separate masses which in their turn are dislocated -horizontally or vertically; is lifted up and folded into immense -mountain ranges, the arches of which, breaking, may again suffer -dislocation. Thus continuous action in movement of masses and foldings -is constantly going on in the earth. Edouard Suess, the distinguished -Austrian geologist, has indeed constituted a special earthquake type -to correspond with this type of mountain formation. Since, in -consequence of this condition, tension is present everywhere in the -crust of the earth, it may come to pass that it shall be relieved by a -distant earthquake, and another earthquake, which may be called a -relay or transmission earthquake, be produced thereby. Hence we have, -besides the volcanic, the landfall, the tectonic (in the strict -sense), and the transmission earthquakes. The sources of earthquake -force lie, then, according to this theory, in the incompleteness of -the earth's crust, the effects of gravity, and the earth's loss of -heat. - -And is the supposition not very probable? Do we not see similar -processes going on over the whole earth, in the shape of earthquakes, -landslides, fissures, subsidences of land, and the like? And as the -Alps were lifted up, and the plain of the Rhine was depressed between -the Vosges and the Black Forest, may not mightier dislocations, -breaches, and destruction occur? Why may not the processes which took -place in the earlier epochs of the earth's history and were so -powerful in the more recent Tertiary be still going on? All this seems -so plausible that, with a few exceptions, the theory has been almost -universally agreed in. - -I briefly mention here Falb's theory, which, accepting the earlier -views, ascribes earthquakes to periodical swellings of the fiery fluid -interior of the earth, only because of the effect it has had on the -public in connection with some wholly unscientific predictions. More -worthy of consideration is the theory of Daubrée, the late -distinguished master of French and especially Alsatian geology, who -did not attribute the similar phenomena of volcanic and nonvolcanic -earthquakes to different causes, but maintained that all earthquakes -were produced by superheated steam issuing from surface waters. But -this theory needs no refutation. There are, however, some serious -objections to the tectonic theory of earthquakes, plausible as it may -seem. In order to weigh them as we ought, we must as briefly as -possible construct a picture of the constitution of the earth's -interior. - -The average distance from the earth's surface to its center is -sixty-three hundred and seventy kilometres. The temperature of the -earth increases with the depth, at the rate, on a moderate estimate, -of about one degree centigrade for every forty metres. Hence, at a -depth of one thousand kilometres we would have a temperature of -25,000° C.; even if we call it only 15,000°, we should expect to find -there only gases, and those in a simple state, for with that heat all -the compound gases would be dissociated. The zone of fluidity for all -rocks lies at a depth of about one hundred kilometres, where the -temperature is 2,500° C. While the crust of the earth is between 2.5 -and three times as heavy as distilled water at 4° C., its specific -gravity rises toward the center of the earth to more than eleven, or -about fourfold. Iron has a specific gravity of 7.8, or about threefold -that of the crust of the earth; but the specific gravity of the earth -at the greatest depth is considerably higher than this. Hence must -arise an enormous pressure, steadily increasing toward the center, -where, according to the English geophysicist, the Rev. Osmond Fisher, -it reaches about three million atmospheres to the English square inch. -It results from these conditions that with the enormous pressure and -heat, and specific gravity, the interior of the earth consists of -dissociated gases compressed to great rigidity, which exert an immense -counter-pressure--for their tendency is always to expand. They pass -out continuously into a zone of fluid matter, and this again is held -by the pressure of the interior gases in a like compact condition. -Thus a very high pressure still prevails in the lower parts of the -solid crust of the earth, which is so high that even the most solid -rocks there are in a latent plastic condition--that is, they behave -toward different forces like plastic clay, and like it can be deformed -without breaking. Rents, slides, caves, and clefts are out of the -question there; things of that kind can exist only in the upper -strata. - -This fact constitutes a very strong objection to the tectonic theory -of earthquakes, and thus the very depths of the earth speak against -it. We have already mentioned that K. von Seebach estimated the depth -of the earthquake focus from the movements of the waves, and found it -not very great. But his estimates, as Prof. August Schmidt has shown, -rest upon physically incorrect premises; according to Schmidt's more -correct calculation, the center of the Charleston earthquake of 1886 -lay at a depth of one hundred and twenty kilometres, where there can -be no question of tectonic movements, because general fluidity is -reached at one hundred kilometres. Further, the earthquake at Lisbon, -if the tectonic theory is valid, might, taking the character of the -region into consideration, have been occasioned by a slide. But how -large must the plunging mass, how deep the plunge or slide have been -to produce such shocks as destroyed Lisbon and shook Europe to beyond -Bohemia! Where can we find room in the closely compressed interior of -the earth for such irruptions? Even if such a sudden sinking had left -no trace in the interior, it should have left its marks on the -surface. Mr. John Milne counts up not less than 8,331 considerable -earthquake shocks in Japan between 1885 and 1892; Julius Schmidt, -former director of the observatory in Athens, enumerated three hundred -severe and dangerous and fifty thousand light shocks for Phocis alone -between 1870 and 1873, of which not a trace of land changes or -depressions can be perceived, aside from superficial avalanches (on -Parnassus, for example) and subsidence of meadows and other spongy -soil, like the famous depression of the Molo at Lisbon. - -All this speaks so emphatically against the tectonic origin of -earthquakes that it can not be considered as a general cause. Even the -mighty disturbances and shocks of the times when such ranges as the -Alps and Himalayas were lifted up can prove nothing for the present -time; for the conditions, the mechanical work and acting forces, of -the earth were quite different, and the latter much greater and more -acute than in our time, as the number and magnitude of the volcanoes -of those ages show, before which ours are almost as nothing. We have -no adequate comprehension of the way that mechanical work was done. A -depression like that of the plain of the Rhine could certainly not -have taken place without severe earthquakes; but we do not know how -they may have come to pass, for we have nothing analogous to them. The -upper strata of the earth's crust are broken up, fissured, and -cavernous; hence purely local minor earthquakes may undoubtedly be -produced by cavings-in, landslides, and settlings of small extent. But -this explanation, in view of the nature of the crust, is not possible -for strong earthquakes, even in the upper layers, which send their -waves far over the land; their origin must be, almost of necessity, in -the greater deeps beneath the crust, far down where the immense gas -globe of the interior is constantly forcing its way into the fluid -band, and this into the solid stone; in those zones of changing -conditions a mighty movement must be incessantly prevailing. The -pressure upon the gases of the interior diminishes here, and the -excessive temperature as well. This can not take place without -changes. Temperature and pressure now fall, now rise again, but -continue very high through it all. The dissociated gases unite and -separate again, and most violent explosions are infallibly produced -thereby. Water exists in the interior in immense masses, and that not -solely in consequence of percolation from the surface. Vapor at very -high pressure separates into its elements--hydrogen and oxygen--the -reunion of which ensues with violent explosions, similar to our gas -explosions, which must be very numerous in the interior of the earth, -and accompanied with great development of force. The principal effect -of such explosions is, of course, against the cooler and more weakly -resisting sides, and therefore not toward the interior but toward the -crust and the weakest parts of it, toward the rupture lines of the -zones of disturbance, the synclinals. Such attacks, striking the -earth's crust from within, occasion most earthquakes, especially -violent, destructive, deep-seated outbursts like those of Lisbon and -Charleston. The relation of the seismic and the volcanic phenomena is -clearly to be seen. - -One series of seismic phenomena remains to be explained--the lighter -undulations, the tremors, and the remarkable irregularity of the -movements of the ground. The indications of the vertical pendulum -apparatus which represent these movements form an inextricable tangle -of lines running over and crossing one another. The late Japanese -professor of seismology, Sekiya, prepared an enlarged model of the -tracings of the seismic movements of a point of the earth's surface, -which has been much copied. It represents an extremely confusing -vibration of the lines. - -Now we have to confront a very important fact which adds much to the -difficulty of seismic research. We never feel and observe the -earthquake shocks themselves, never directly in their simplicity or -multiplicity, but only the wave movements that are sent out from them -in the elastic crust of the earth. These, however multifold their -origin, proceed in an immense spherical wave which moves in more or -less numerous repetitions through the earth's interior. It is this -shaking of the earth by the spherical waves that our instruments -represent as earthquakes. We can not include as the earth's crust the -surface of the earth on which we live, and which consists of loose -materials disintegrated by weathering, breaking, and numerous causes, -but the solid crust, often lying at a considerable distance beneath -us, which bears these materials, and from which the spherical waves -emerge. As the waves of the sea, beating upon the coast, are turned, -split up, divided, thrown up, etc., in their surging, so surge, too, -the seismic waves upon the disintegrated surface of shingle, pebbles, -broken rocks, sand, and earth, in clefts and gorges. We thus never -observe the original spherical waves, but only their fragmentary -derivative forms, their resolution into numerous single waves which -come to us diverted into the most various directions. It is thus most -plainly shown that Mallet's effort to determine the center and origin -of the earthquake from the direction of the shock was futile. We can -only draw scientific conclusions respecting the time of beginning, the -duration, and force of the movement. It is thus evident that many of -the tremors (not all, by any means) originate in this division; that a -fixed point of the earth's surface must describe a very complicated -path in so intricate a wave movement; that the division is less marked -on firm ground than on loose; that the former, in consequence of the -more evenly protracted movement, is less dangerous than the latter; -and that multiplied waves interfere, overlay, weaken, or strengthen -one another just as water waves do. Thus are explained the earthquake -bridges or spots which always remain unmoved through repeated -earthquakes, either because they are firmer, or because the progress -of the waves is arrested at them by interference. - -The sounds, too, which so frequently accompany earthquakes are -likewise simply results of this division of the waves and their escape -into the air, for we perceive wave motions in the air as sound. The -admirable delicacy of our sense of hearing is here manifested, for -seismic movements are not rarely perceptible, or heard, as air waves, -which we can not perceive as movements of the ground. Earthquake -thunder is caused, like storm thunder, by shocks to the air, of which -we hear the nearest and latest first, and the farthest and earliest -last. The different tone shades of the earthquake sound depend upon -their various sources, as from small, sharp fragments, clinking, -rattling, and humming; from sand and earth, dull rumbling; from trees, -whistling, etc. The echo in ravines not rarely operates to add -strength to them. Earthquake sounds that seem to come out of the air -from above are caused by earthquake waves reaching us by way of trees, -houses, etc.; the different directions and degrees of force which they -seem to indicate in different houses or in different rooms of the same -house are explainable by the different elasticity conditions of the -houses and rooms. But not the most insignificant conclusion can be -drawn from these sounds concerning the nature and causes of -earthquakes. It is important to emphasize this fact, for errors have -often originated in conclusions drawn from such things.--_Translated -for the Popular Science Monthly from the Deutsche Rundschau._ - - * * * * * - - Examples of a race of curiously protectively colored mice - which inhabit the sandy island, the North Bull, in the Bay - of Dublin, were exhibited by Dr. H. Lyster Jameson in the - Zoölogical Section of the British Association. A - considerable percentage of them were distinctly lighter hued - than the ancestral type of house mouse, though every - possible gradation occurred between the typical house mouse - and the palest examples. The speaker regarded the marked - predominance of sand-colored specimens as due to the action - of natural selection. The hawks and owls which frequent the - island, and are the only enemies the mice have to compete - against, most easily capture the darkest examples, or those - that contrast most strongly with the color of the sand. Thus - a protectively colored race is becoming established. The - island came into existence only about a hundred years ago. - Consequently it is possible to fix a time limit within which - the sandy-colored race has been evolved. Its evolution also, - as Professor Poulton observed in his comment on Dr. - Jameson's paper, gives additional evidence to that afforded - by the shore crabs described by Professor Weldon in his - presidential address to the section, that the transmutation - of species is not necessarily so slow as to be - indiscernible. - - - - -A SHORT HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION[33] - -BY J. NORMAN LOCKYER, K. C. B., F. R. S. - - -The two addresses by my colleagues, Professors Judd and -Roberts-Austen, have drawn attention to the general history of our -college and the details of one part of our organization. I propose to -deal with another part, the consideration of which is of very great -importance at the present time, for we are in one of those educational -movements which spring up from time to time and mold the progress of -civilization. The question of a teaching university in the largest -city in the world, secondary education, and so-called technical -education are now occupying men's minds. - -At the beginning it is imperative that I should call your attention to -the fact that the stern necessities of the human race have been the -origin of all branches of science and learning; that all so-called -educational movements have been based upon the actual requirements of -the time. There has never been an educational movement for learning's -sake; but of course there have always been studies and students apart -from any of those general movements to which I am calling attention; -still we have to come down to the times of Louis Quatorze before the -study of the useless, the _même inutile_, was recognized as a matter -of national concern. - -It is perhaps the more necessary to insist upon stern necessity as -being the origin of learning, because it is so difficult for us now to -put ourselves in the place of those early representatives of our race -that had to face the problems of life among conditionings of which -they were profoundly ignorant: when night meant death; when there was -no certainty that the sun would rise on the morrow; when the growth of -a plant from seed was unrecognized; when a yearly return of seasons -might as well be a miracle as a proof of a settled order of phenomena; -when, finally, neither cause nor effect had been traced in the -operations of Nature. - -It is doubtless in consequence of this difficulty that some of the -early races have been credited by some authors with a special love of -abstract science, of science for its own sake; so that this, and not -stern necessity, was the motive of their inquiries. Thus we have been -told that the Chaldeans differed from the other early races in having -a predilection for astronomy, another determining factor being that -the vast plains in that country provided them with a perfect horizon. - -The first historic glimpses of the study of astronomy we find among -the peoples occupying the Nile Valley and Chaldea, say 6000 B. C. - -But this study had to do with the fixing of the length of the year, -and the determination of those times in it in which the various -agricultural operations had to be performed. These were related -strictly to the rise of the Nile in one country and of the Euphrates -in the other. All human activity was, in fact, tied up with the -movements of the sun, moon, and stars. These, then, became the gods of -those early peoples, and the astronomers, the seers, were the first -priests; revered by the people because as interpreters of the -celestial powers they were the custodians of the knowledge which was -the most necessary for the purposes of life. - -Eudemus of Rhodes, one of the principal pupils of Aristotle, in his -History of Geometry, attributes the origin of geometry to the -Egyptians, "who were obliged to invent it in order to restore the -landmarks which had been destroyed by the inundation of the Nile," and -observes "that it is by no means strange that the invention of the -sciences should have originated in practical needs."[34] The new -geometry was brought from Egypt to Greece by Thales three hundred -years before Aristotle was born. - -When to astronomy and geometry we add the elements of medicine and -surgery, which it is known were familiar to the ancient Egyptians, it -will be conceded that we are, in those early times, face to face with -the cultivation of the most useful branches of science. - -Now, although the evidence is increasing day by day that Greek science -was Egyptian in its origin, there is no doubt that its cultivation in -Greece was more extended, and that it was largely developed there. One -of the most useful and prolific writers on philosophy and science who -has ever lived, Aristotle, was born in the fourth century B. C. From -him, it may be said, dates a general conception of science based on -_observation_ as differing from experiment. If you wish to get an idea -of the science of those times, read his writings on Physics and on the -Classification of Animals. All sought in Aristotle the basis of -knowledge, but they only read his philosophy; Dante calls him the -"master of those who know."[35] - -Why was Aristotle so careful to treat science as well as philosophy, -with which his master, Plato, had dealt almost exclusively? - -The answer to this question is of great interest to our present -subject. The late Lord Playfair[36] in a pregnant passage suggests the -reason, and the later history of Europe shows, I think, that he is -right. - -"We find that just as early nations became rich and prosperous, so -did philosophy arise among them, and it declined with the decadence of -material prosperity. In those splendid days of Greece when Plato, -Aristotle, and Zeno were the representatives of great schools of -thought, which still exercise their influence on mankind, _Greece was -a great manufacturing and mercantile community_; Corinth was the seat -of the manufacture of hardware; Athens that of jewelry, shipbuilding, -and pottery. The rich men of Greece and all its free citizens were -actively engaged in trade and commerce. The learned class were the -sons of those citizens, and were in possession of their accumulated -experience derived through industry and foreign relations. Thales was -an oil merchant; Aristotle inherited wealth from his father, who was a -physician, but, spending it, is believed to have supported himself as -a druggist till Philip appointed him tutor to Alexander. Plato's -wealth was largely derived from commerce, and his master, Socrates, is -said to have been a sculptor. Zeno, too, was a traveling merchant. -Archimedes is perhaps an exception, for he is said to have been -closely related to a prince; but if so, he is the only princely -discoverer of science on record." - -In ancient Greece we see the flood of the first great intellectual -tide. Alas! it never touched the shores of western Europe, but it -undoubtedly reached to Rome, and there must have been very much more -observational science taught in the Roman studia than we generally -imagine, otherwise how account for Pliny, the vast public works, their -civilizing influence carried over sea and land from beyond -Bab-el-Mandeb to Scotland? In some directions their applications of -science are as yet unsurpassed. - -With the fall of the Roman Empire both science and philosophy -disappeared for a while. The first wave had come and gone; its last -feebler ripples seem to have been represented at this time by the -gradual change of the Roman secular studia wherever they existed into -clerical schools, the more important of which were in time attached to -the chief cathedrals and monasteries; and it is not difficult to -understand why the secular (or scientific) instruction was gradually -replaced by one more fitted for the training of priests. - -It is not to be wondered at that the ceaseless strife in the center of -Europe had driven what little learning there was to the western and -southern extremities, where the turmoil was less--I refer to Britain -and South Italy--while the exiled Nestorians carried Hellenic science -and philosophy out of Europe altogether to Mesopotamia and Arabia. - -The next wave--it was but a small one--had its origin in our own -country. In the eighth century England was at its greatest height, -relatively, in educational matters, chiefly owing to the labors of two -men. Beda, generally called the Venerable Bede, the most eminent -writer of his age, was born near Monkwearmouth in 673, and passed his -life in the monastery there. He not only wrote the history of our -island and nation, but treatises on the nature of things, astronomy, -chronology, arithmetic, medicine, philosophy, grammar, rhetoric, -poetry, music, basing his work on that of Pliny. He died in 735, in -which year his great follower was born in Yorkshire. I refer to -Alcuin. He was educated at the Cathedral School at York under -Archbishop Egbert, and, having imbibed everything he could learn from -the writings of Bede and others, was soon recognized as one of the -greatest scholars of the time. On returning from Rome, whither he had -been sent by Eaubald to receive the pallium, he met Karl the Great, -King of the Franks and Lombards, who eventually induced him to take up -his residence at his court, to become his instructor in the sciences. -Karl (or Charlemagne) then was the greatest figure in the world, and -although as King of the Franks and Lombards, and subsequently Emperor -of the Holy Roman Empire, his court was generally at Aachen, he was -constantly traveling throughout his dominions. He was induced, in -consequence of Alcuin's influence, not only to have a school always -about him on his journeys, but to establish, or foster, such schools -wherever he went. Hence it has been affirmed that "France is indebted -to Alcuin for all the polite learning it boasted of in that and the -following ages." The universities of Paris, Tours, Fulden, Soissons, -and others were not actually founded in his day, but the monastic and -cathedral schools out of which they eventually sprang were -strengthened, and indeed a considerable scheme of education for -priests was established--that is, an education free from all sciences, -and in which philosophy alone was considered. - -Karl the Great died in 814, and after his death the eastward traveling -wave, thus started by Bede and Alcuin, slightly but very gradually -increased in height. Two centuries later, however, the conditions were -changed. We find ourselves in presence of interference phenomena, for -then there was a meeting with another wave traveling westward, and -this meeting was the origin of the European universities. The wave now -manifested traveling westerly, spread outward from Arab centers first -and finally from Constantinople, when its vast stores of Greek lore -were opened by the conquest of the city. - -The first wavelet justified Eudemus's generalization that "the -invention of the sciences originated in practical needs," and that -knowledge for its own sake was not the determining factor. The year -had been determined, stone circles erected almost everywhere, and -fires signaled from them, giving notice of the longest and shortest -days, so that agriculture was provided for, even away from churches -and the festivals of the Church. The original user of geometry was not -required away from the valleys of the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates, and -therefore it is now medicine and surgery that come to the front for -the alleviation of human ills. In the eleventh century we find -Salerno, soon to be famed throughout Europe as the great medical -school, forming itself into the first university. And medicine did not -exhaust all the science taught, for Adelard listened there to a -lecture on "the nature of things," the cause of magnetic attraction -being one of the "things" in question. - -This teaching at Salerno preceded by many years the study of the law -at Bologna and of theology at Paris. - -The full flood came from the disturbance of the Arab wave center by -the crusades, about the beginning of the twelfth century. After the -Pope had declared the "Holy War," William of Malmesbury tells us "the -most distant islands and savage countries were inspired with this -ardent passion. The Welshman left his hunting, the Scotchman his -fellowship with vermin, the Dane his drinking party, the Norwegian his -raw fish." Report has it that in 1096 no less than six millions were -in motion along many roads to Palestine. This, no doubt, is an -exaggeration, but it reflects the excitement of the time, and prepares -us for what happened when the crusaders returned. As Green puts -it:[37] "The western nations, including our own, 'were quickened with -a new life and throbbing with a new energy.' ... A new fervor of study -sprang up in the West from its contact with the more cultured East. -Travelers like Adelard, of Bath, brought back the first rudiments of -physical and mathematical science from the schools of Cordova or -Bagdad.... The long mental inactivity of feudal Europe broke up like -ice before a summer's sun. Wandering teachers, such as Lanfranc or -Anselm, crossed sea and land to spread the new power of knowledge. The -same spirit of restlessness, of inquiry, of impatience with the older -traditions of mankind, either local or intellectual, that drove half -Christendom to the tomb of its Lord, crowded the roads with thousands -of young scholars hurrying to the chosen seats where teachers were -gathered together." - -_Studium generale_ was the term first applied to a large educational -center where there was a guild of masters, and whither students -flocked from all parts. At the beginning of the thirteenth century the -three principal studia were Paris, Bologna, and Salerno, where -theology and arts, law and medicine, and medicine almost by itself, -were taught respectively; these eventually developed into the first -universities.[38] - -English scholars gathered in thousands at Paris round the chairs of -William of Champeaux or Abélard, where they took their place as one of -the "nations" of which the great middle-age university of Paris was -composed. - -We have only to do with the arts faculty of this university. We find -that the subject-matter of the liberal education of the middle age -there dealt with varied very little from that taught in the schools of -ancient Rome. - -The so-called "artiens," students of the arts faculty, which was the -glory of the university and the one most numerously attended, studied -the seven arts of the trivium and quadrivium--that is, grammar, -rhetoric, dialectic and arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy.[39] - -This at first looks well for scientific study, but the mathematics -taught had much to do with magic; arithmetic dealt with epacts, golden -numbers, and the like. There was no algebra, and no mechanics. -Astronomy dealt with the system of the seven heavens. - -Science, indeed, was the last thing to be considered in the -theological and legal studia, and it would appear that it was kept -alive more in the medical schools than in the arts faculties. -Aristotle's writings on physics, biology, and astronomy were not known -till about 1230, and then in the shape of Arab-Latin translations. -Still, it must not be forgotten that Dante learned some of his -astronomy, at all events, at Paris. - -Oxford was an offshoot of Paris, and therefore a theological studium, -in all probability founded about 1167,[40] and Cambridge came later. - -Not till the Reformation (sixteenth century) do we see any sign of a -new educational wave, and then we find the two which have had the -greatest influence upon the history of the world--one of them -depending upon the Reformation itself, the other depending upon the -birth of experimental inquiry. - -Before the Reformation the universities were priestly institutions, -and derived their authority from the Popes. - -The universities were for the few; the education of the people, except -in the various crafts, was unprovided for. - -The idea of a general education in secular subjects at the expense of -the state or of communities is coeval with the Reformation. In -Germany, even before the time of Luther, it was undreamed of, or -rather, perhaps, one should say, the question was decided in the -negative. In his day, however, his zeal first made itself heard in -favor of education, as many are now making themselves heard in favor -of a better education, and in 1524 he addressed a letter to the -councils of all the towns in Germany, begging them to vote money not -merely for roads, dikes, guns, and the like, but for schoolmasters, so -that all children might be taught; and he states his opinion that if -it be the duty of a state to compel the able-bodied to carry arms, it -is _a fortiori_ its duty to compel its subjects to send their children -to school, and to provide schools for those who without such aid would -remain uninstructed. - -Here we have the germ of Germany's position at the present day, not -only in scientific instruction but in everything which that -instruction brings with it. - -With the Reformation this idea spread to France. In 1560 we find the -States-General of Orleans suggesting to Francis II a "levée d'une -contribution sur les bénéfices ecclésiastiques pour raisonablement -stipendier des pédagogues et gens lettrés, en toutes villes et -villages, pour l'instruction de la pauvre jeunesse du plat pays, et -soient tenus les pères et mères, à peine d'amende, à envoyer les dits -enfants à l'école, et à ce faire soient contraints par les segnieurs -et les juges ordinaires." - -Two years after this suggestion, however, the religious wars broke -out; the material interests of the clerical party had predominated, -the new spirit was crushed under the iron heel of priestcraft, and the -French, in consequence, had to wait for three centuries and a -revolution before they could get comparatively free. - -In the universities, or at all events alongside them, we find next the -introduction not so much yet of science as we now know it, with its -experimental side, as of the scientific spirit. - -The history of the Collége de France, founded in 1531 by Francis I, is -of extreme interest. In the fifteenth century the studies were chiefly -literary, and except in the case of a few minds they were confined -merely to scholastic subtleties, taught (I have it on the authority of -the Statistique de l'Enseignement Supérieur) in barbarous Latin. This -was the result of the teaching of the faculties; but even then, -outside the faculties, which were immutable, a small number of -distinguished men still occupied themselves in a less rigid way in -investigation; but still these studies were chiefly literary. Among -those men may be mentioned Danès, Postel, Dole, Guillaume Budé, -Lefèvre d'Étaples, and others, who edited with notes and commentaries -Greek and Latin authors whom the university scarcely knew by name. -Hence the renaissance of the sixteenth century, which gave birth to -the Collége de France, the function of which, at the commencement, was -to teach those things which were not in the ordinary curriculum of the -faculties. It was called the Collége des Deux Langues, the languages -being Hebrew and Greek. It then became the Collége des Trois Langues, -when the king, notwithstanding the opposition of the university, -created in 1534 a chair of Latin. There was another objection made by -the university to the new creation: from the commencement the courses -were free; and this feeling was not decreased by the fact that around -the celebrated masters of the Trois Langues a crowd of students was -soon congregated. - -The idea in the mind of Francis I in creating this Royal College may -be gathered from the following edict, dated in 1545: "François, etc., -savoir faisons à tous présents et à venir que Nous, considérant que le -sçavoir des langues, qui est un des dons du Saint-Esprit, fait -ouverture et donne le moyen de plus entière connaissance et plus -parfaite intelligence de toutes bonnes, honnêtes, saintes et -salutaires sciences.... Avons fait faire pleinement entendre à ceux -qui, y voudraient vacquer, les trois langues principales, Hébraïque, -Grecque, et Latine, _et les Livres esquels les bonnes sciences_ sont -le mieux et le plus profondément traitées. A laquelle fin, et en -suivant le décret du concile de Vienne, nous avons piéça ordonné et -establi en nôtre bonne ville de Paris, un bonne nombre de personnages -de sçavoir excellent, qui lisent et enseignent publiquement et -ordinairement les dites langues et sciences, maintenant -florissantautant ou plus qu'elles ne firent de bien longtemps ... -auxquels nos lecteurs avons donné honnêtes gages et salaires, et iceux -fait pourvoir de plusieurs beaux bénéfices pour les entretenir et -donner occasion de mieux et plus continuellement entendre au fait de -leur charge, ... etc." - -The Statistique, which I am following in this account, thus sums up -the founder's intention: "Le Collége Royal avait pour mission de -propager les nouvelles connaissances, les nouvelles découvertes. Il -n'enseignait pas la science faite, il la faisait." - -It was on account of this more than on account of anything else that -it found its greatest enemy in the university. The founding of this -new college, and the great excitement its success occasioned in Paris, -were, there can be little doubt, among the factors which induced -Gresham to found his college in London in 1574. - -These two institutions played a great part in their time. Gresham -College, it is true, was subsequently strangled, but not before its -influence had been such as to permit the Royal Society to rise -phoenixlike from its ashes; for it is on record that the first step in -the forming of this society was taken after a lecture on astronomy by -Sir Christopher Wren at the college. All connected with them felt in -time the stupendous change of thought in the century which saw the -birth of Bacon, Galileo, Gilbert, Hervey, Tycho Brahe, Descartes, and -many others that might be named; and of these, it is well to remark, -Gilbert,[41] Hervey, and Galileo were educated in medical schools -abroad. - -Bacon was not only the first to lay down _regulæ philosophandi_, but -he insisted upon the far-reaching results of research, not forgetting -to point out that "_lucifera experimenta, non fructifera -quærenda_,"[42] as a caution to the investigator, though he had no -doubt as to the revolution to be brought about by the ultimate -application of the results of physical inquiry. - -As early as 1560 the Academia Secretorum Naturæ was founded at Naples, -followed by the Lincei in 1609, the Royal Society in 1645, the Cimento -in 1657, and the Paris Academy in 1666. - -From that time the world may be said to have belonged to science, now -no longer based merely on observation but on experiment. But, alas! -how slowly has it percolated into our universities. - -The first organized endeavor to teach science in schools was naturally -made in Germany (Prussia), where, in 1747 (nearly a century and a half -ago), Realschulen were first started; they were taken over by the -Government in 1832, and completely reorganized in 1859, this step -being demanded by the growth of industry and the spread of the modern -spirit. Eleven hours a week were given to natural science in these -schools forty years ago. - -TEACHING THE TEACHERS.--Until the year 1762 the Jesuits had the -education of France almost entirely in their hands, and when, -therefore, their expulsion was decreed in that year, it was only a -necessary step to create an institution to teach the future teachers -of France. Here, then, we had the École Normale in theory; but it was -a long time before this theory was carried into practice, and very -probably it would never have been had not Rolland d'Erceville made it -his duty for more than twenty years, by numerous publications, among -which is especially to be mentioned his Plan d'Education, printed in -1783, to point out not merely the utility but the absolute necessity -for some institution of the kind. As generally happens in such cases, -this exertion was not lost, for in 1794 it was decreed that an École -Normale should be opened at Paris, "ou seront appelés de toutes les -parties de la République, des citoyens déjà instruits dans les -sciences utiles, pour apprendre, sous les professeurs les plus habiles -dans tous les genres, l'art d'enseigner." - -To follow these courses in the art of teaching, one potential -schoolmaster was to be sent to Paris by every district containing -twenty thousand inhabitants. Fourteen or fifteen hundred young men -therefore arrived in Paris, and in 1795 the courses of the school were -opened first of all in the amphitheater of the Museum of Natural -History. The professors were chosen from among the most celebrated men -of France, the sciences being represented by Lagrange, Laplace, Haüry, -Monge, Daubenton, and Berthollet. - -While there was this enormous progress abroad, represented especially -by the teaching of science in Germany and the teaching of the teachers -in France, things slumbered and slept in Britain. We had our coal and -our iron, our material capital, and no one troubled about our mental -capital, least of all the universities, which had become, according to -Matthew Arnold (who was not likely to overstate matters), mere _hauts -lycées_, and "had lost the very idea of a real university";[43] and -since our political leaders generally came from the universities, -little more was to be expected from them. - -Many who have attempted to deal with the history of education have -failed to give sufficient prominence to the tremendous difference -there must necessarily have been in scientific requirements before and -after the introduction of steam power. - -It is to the discredit of our country that we, who gave the perfected -steam engine, the iron ship, and the locomotive to the world, should -have been the last to feel the next wave of intellectual progress. - -All we did at the beginning of the century was to found mechanics' -institutions. They knew better in Prussia, "a bleeding and lacerated -mass";[44] after Jena (1806), King Frederick William III and his -councilors, disciples of Kant, founded the University of Berlin, "to -supply the loss of territory by intellectual effort." Among the -universal poverty money was found for the Universities of Königsberg -and Breslau, and Bonn was founded in 1818. As a result of this policy, -carried on persistently and continuously by successive ministers, -aided by wise councilors, many of them the products of this policy, -such a state of things was brought about that not many years ago M. -Ferdinand Lot, one of the most distinguished educationists of France, -accorded to Germany "a supremacy in science comparable to the -supremacy of England at sea." - -But this position has not been obtained merely by founding new -universities. To Germany we owe the perfecting of the methods of -teaching science. - -I have shown that it was in Germany that we find the first organized -science teaching in schools. About the year 1825 that country made -another tremendous stride. Liebig demonstrated that science teaching, -to be of value, whether in the school or the university, must consist -to a greater or less extent in practical work, and the more the -better; that book work was next to useless. - -Liebig, when appointed to Giessen, smarting still under the -difficulties he had had in learning chemistry without proper -appliances, induced the Darmstadt Government to build a chemical -laboratory in which the students could receive a thorough practical -training. - -It will have been gathered from this reference to Liebig's system of -teaching chemistry that still another branch of applied science had -been created, which has since had a stupendous effect upon industry; -and while Liebig was working at Giessen, another important industry -was being created in England. I refer to the electric telegraph and -all its developments, foreshadowed by Galileo in his reference to the -"sympathy of magnetic needles." - -Not only then in chemistry, but in all branches of science which can -be applied to the wants of man, the teaching must be practical--that -is, the student must experiment and observe for himself, and he must -himself seek new truths. - -It was at last recognized that a student could no more learn science -effectively by seeing some one else perform an experiment than he -could learn to draw effectively by seeing some one else make a sketch. -Hence in the German universities the doctor's degree is based upon a -research. - -Liebig's was the _fons et origo_ of all our laboratories--mechanical, -metallurgical, chemical, physical, geological, astronomical, and -biological.--_Nature._ - -[_To be continued._] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[33] An address delivered at the Royal College of Science on October -6, 1898. - -[34] Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid, p. 2. Allman. - -[35] Inferno, canto iv, p. 130 _et seq._ - -[36] Subjects of Social Welfare, p. 206. - -[37] History of the English People, vol. i, p. 198. - -[38] See Histoire de l'Université de Paris. Crévier, 1791, _passim_. - -[39] Enumerated in the following middle-age Latin verse: - - "Lingua, tropus, ratio, numerus, tonus, angulus, astra." - -[40] Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, by Rashdall, vol. ii, -p. 344. - -[41] William Gilbert, of Colchester, on the Magnet. Mittelag, p. x. - -[42] Novum Organum, vol. 1, p. 70. Fowler's edition, p. 255. - -[43] Schools and Universities on the Continent, p. 291. - -[44] University Education in England, France, and Germany, by Sir -Rowland Blennerhassett, p. 25. - - - - -SHOULD CHILDREN UNDER TEN LEARN TO READ AND WRITE? - -BY PROF. G. T. W. PATRICK. - - -There are certain propositions about education so evidently true that -probably no parent or teacher would question them. For instance, the -best school is one in which the course of study is progressively -adapted to the mental development of the children. Again, certain -subjects are adapted to children of certain ages or stages of -development, and others are not. One would not recommend the study of -logic or of the calculus to the average child of ten, nor would the -teaching of English be wisely deferred until the age of fifteen. -Finally, if the courses of study in our present school system shall be -found to be arranged without regard to the order of mental -development, they will sooner or later be modified in accordance with -it. - -Now the educational system in practice in the two or three hundred -thousand public schools in the United States is a somewhat definite -one, with a somewhat fixed order of studies through the different -years or grades. In a majority of the States children are admitted to -the schools at the age of six; in more than one third of the States -children of five are admitted. In a general way we may say that during -the first four years of school life the principal subjects occupying -the time of the children are reading, writing, and arithmetic. To be -more exact, we may cite, for instance, the city schools of -Chicago.[45] Exclusive of recesses and opening exercises, there are in -these schools thirteen hundred and fifty minutes of school work per -week. Of this time, in the first and second grades, six hundred and -seventy-five minutes are devoted to reading, seventy-five minutes to -writing, and two hundred and twenty-five minutes to mathematics. -Seventy-two per cent of the total time is therefore consumed by these -subjects. In the third grade the proportion is the same; in the fourth -grade it is somewhat more than fifty per cent. I have mentioned the -Chicago schools because this is one of those school systems where a -liberal introduction of other subjects, such as Nature study, physical -culture, singing, and oral English, has somewhat lessened the time -given to reading, writing, and arithmetic. Other cities, with few -exceptions, will be found to give more rather than less time to these -subjects. In the country schools, and indeed in a vast number of town -and city schools, practically all the time during these early years is -given to reading, writing, and arithmetic. - -We must conclude, therefore, if our educational system is a rational -one, that reading, writing, and arithmetic are the subjects peculiarly -adapted to the mind of the child between the ages of five and ten. It -is worth while to inquire from the standpoint of child psychology -whether this be true. It should be observed, in the first place, that -the manner in which our educational system has grown up is no -guarantee that it rests upon a psychological basis. Our schools are -exceedingly conservative. Any innovations or radical changes are -resisted by the parents of the children even more strenuously than by -school boards, superintendents, and teachers. Notwithstanding numerous -and important minor improvements, the school system as a whole remains -unchanged. Our children of seven and eight years are learning to read -and write because our grandfathers were so doing at that age. - -We can not here discuss the origin of our present school curriculum, -but, as explaining the prominence given to reading, writing, and -arithmetic, it is worthy of notice that originally the elementary -school existed to teach just these three subjects. The primitive -schoolmaster was not superior to the parents of the child, usually not -their equal, in anything except his knowledge of "letters." So the -child was sent to school for a short time to learn letters. It was not -at all the function of the school to _educate_ the child in all that -was necessary to fit him for the duties of life. Afterward, as the -scope of the school was enlarged, other subjects were added, and these -were put _after_ the original ones, and the schoolmaster, furthermore, -came rather to take the place of an educator than a mere teacher of -letters. It is conceivable, therefore, that the present accepted order -of studies in our elementary schools rests upon an accidental rather -than upon a psychological basis. It is true that modern educators have -expressly considered the subject of the order and correlation of -studies, as, for instance, in the case of the Committee of Fifteen, -and that, while recommending minor changes in the school curriculum, -they have not usually thought of questioning the position so long held -by reading, writing, and arithmetic. In the report of the committee -just referred to we find this expression: "The conclusion is reached -that learning to read and write should be the leading study of the -pupil in his first four years of school." But, again, it was not the -function of this committee to suggest sweeping changes, nor to raise -the inquiry whether the system itself rests upon a psychological -basis. Even if it did not rest upon such a basis, expressions like the -above would not be unnatural on the part of committees appointed by -bodies representing the system as a whole. - -We may not, then, conclude _a priori_ that our system of primary -education is a sound one. There have indeed been other wholly -different systems giving excellent results in their time, as, for -instance, that of the ancient Greeks, where music and gymnastics, not -reading, writing, and arithmetic, were the principal subjects -occupying the time of the pupils. - -Much attention has recently been given to the subjects of the -physiology and psychology of children. These studies have been -systematic, painstaking, and exact. It seems, indeed, to many people -improbable that anything very new or very remarkable should just at -this time be found out about children, and there have not been wanting -either prominent educators or psychologists who have given public -expression to warnings against the new "child study." But this, again, -is not conclusive, for students of history may recall that every -advance in science has met just such opposition--for instance, -bacteriology, organic evolution, chemistry, and astronomy. -Furthermore, when we reflect that scientific advance in this century -has ever been, and inevitably, from the simple to the complex, and, -further, that the brain of the child is the most complex thing in the -whole range of natural history which science will ever have to -attempt, it is not difficult to understand that scientific knowledge -of it with its pedagogical implications has not belonged, at any rate, -to the past. It will belong to the future, having, perhaps, its -beginnings in the present. An educational system which has not -reckoned with an accurate knowledge of the brain of the child may by -accident be a correct one, but until such reckoning is made we can not -be sure. - -Our increasing knowledge of the child's mind, his muscular and nervous -system, and his special senses, points indubitably to the conclusion -that reading and writing are subjects which do not belong to the early -years of school life, but to a later period, and that other subjects -now studied later are better adapted to this early stage of -development. What is thus indicated of reading and writing may be -affirmed also of drawing and arithmetic. The reasons leading to this -conclusion can be only very briefly summarized here. - -As regards reading, writing, and drawing, they involve, in the first -place, a high degree of motor specialization, which is not only -unnatural but dangerous for young children. Studies in motor ability -have shown that the order of muscular development is from the larger -and coarser to the finer and more delicate muscles. The movements of -the child are the large, free movements of the body, legs, and arms, -such as he exhibits in spontaneous play. The movements requiring fine -co-ordination, such as those of the fingers and the eyes, are the -movements of maturer life. If we reverse this order and compel the -child to hold his body, legs, and arms still, while he engages the -delicate muscles of the eyes and fingers with minute written or -printed symbols, we induce a nervous overtension, and incur the evils -incident to all violation of natural order. The increasing frequency -of nervous disorders among school children, particularly in the older -countries, is probably due in part to these circumstances. If we -consider the brain of the child of seven or eight years, our -conclusions are strengthened that he should not be engaged in reading -and writing. At this age the brain has attained almost its full -weight, and is therefore large in proportion to the body. Its -development is, however, very incomplete, particularly as regards its -associative elements--that is, the so-called association fibers and -apperception centers. Such a brain constantly produces and must expend -a large amount of nervous energy, which can not be used -centrally--that is, psychologically speaking--in comparison, analysis, -thought, reflection. It must flow out through the motor channels, -becoming muscular movement. The healthy child is therefore incessantly -active in waking hours, the action being of the vigorous kind -involving the larger members. Hence we can understand that, of all the -ways in which a young child may receive instruction, the method -through the printed book is pre-eminently the one ill fitted to him. - -The evil of this method is aggravated by the fact that, before the -child can receive instruction through the book, a long time--several -years, in fact--is spent in the confining task of learning to read. It -comes about, therefore, that the child, at the very age when he should -be leading a free and expansive life, is obliged to fix his eyes upon -the narrow page of a book and decipher small printed symbols, in -themselves devoid of life and interest. With respect to writing and -learning to write the case is worse. A considerable amount of motor -specialization is involved in forming letters upon the blackboard, but -when the pencil and pen are used it becomes of an extreme kind. In the -whole life history of the man there are no movements requiring finer -co-ordination than those of writing with pencil or pen, yet our school -system requires these of the child of six or seven years, makes them, -indeed, a prominent part of elementary school life. In addition to the -motor specialization of reading and writing is the physical -confinement in the narrow seat and desk which is necessarily connected -with them. The child of six or seven has not reached the age when such -confinement is natural or safe. - -The injuries which I have mentioned relate to the nervous system as a -whole. There are other injuries resulting from the reading habit in -young children which concern the eyes directly. So much has been said -and written lately about the increase of myopia and other defects of -the eye among school children, that I shall merely refer to this -subject here. Upon entering school, children are practically free from -these defects. Upon leaving school, a strikingly large percentage are -suffering from them, more, however, as yet, in European countries than -in America. The causes are many, but it is scarcely doubted that the -chief cause is found in bending over finely printed books and maps, -and fine writing, pencil work, and drawing. If pencils, pens, paper, -and books could be kept away from children until they are at least ten -years of age, and their instruction come directly from objects and -from the voice of the teacher, this evil could be greatly lessened. - -If the above reasons for not teaching reading and writing to young -children were the only ones, the objections could to a certain extent -be overcome. Writing might, for instance, be practiced only on the -blackboard with large free-hand movements, and letters could be taught -from large forms upon charts. But we have to consider the questions -whether reading and writing are in themselves branches of instruction -which belong to the early years of school life, whether they may not -be acquired at a great disadvantage at this period, and whether more -time is not spent upon them than is necessary. It is a well-known -fact that a child's powers, whether physical or mental, ripen in a -certain rather definite order. There is, for instance, a certain time -in the life of the infant when the motor mechanism of the legs ripens, -before which the child can not be taught to walk, while after that -time he can not be kept from walking. Again, at the age of seven, for -instance, there is a mental readiness for some things and an -unreadiness for others. The brain is then very impressionable and -retentive, and a store of useful material, both motor and sensory, may -be permanently acquired with great economy of effort. The imagination -is active, and the child loves to listen to narration, whether -historical or mythical, which plays without effort of his will upon -his relatively small store of memory images. The powers of analysis, -comparison, and abstraction are little developed, and the child has -only a limited ability to detect mathematical or logical relations. -The power of voluntary attention is slight, and can be exerted for -only a short time. All this may be stated physiologically by saying -that the brain activity is sensory and motor, but not central. The -sensory and motor mechanism has ripened, but not the associative. The -brain is hardly more than a receiving, recording, and reacting -apparatus. It would be inaccurate, however, to express this -psychologically by saying that perception, memory, and will are the -mental powers that have ripened at the age of seven. This would be -true only if by perception we mean not apperception, which involves a -considerable development of associative readiness, but mere passive -apprehension through the senses, and if by memory we mean not -recollection, but mere retentiveness for that which interests, and if -by will we mean not volition, but only spontaneous movement and -readiness to form habits of action, including a large number of -instinctive movement psychoses, such as imitation, play, and language -in its spoken form. - -Following out, then, somewhat as above, the psychology of the child, -what kind of education would be particularly adapted to his stage of -development? We ask not what _can_ the child be taught, but what -studies are for him most natural and therefore most economical. In the -first place, from the development of the senses and the perceptive -power above described, we infer that the child is ready to acquire a -knowledge of the world of objects around him through the senses of -sight, hearing, touch, temperature, taste, and smell. His education -will have to do with real things and their qualities, rather than with -symbols which stand for things. If we wish a general term for this -branch of instruction, we may call it natural science, or, to -distinguish it from science in its more mature form as the study of -laws and causes, we may call it natural history, or, more briefly, -Nature study. Although the appropriateness and economy of this study -for young children has been known and proclaimed for more than a -century, it is still in practice the study of later years, while young -children study _letters_. - -In the second place, from the development of the retentive powers of -the child we infer that he is qualified to gain acquaintance not only -with the real world around him, but with the real world of the past. -We may call this history. History is now studied later by means of -text-books. It may be studied with far greater economy during earlier -years by means of direct narration by parent or teacher. It is -wonderful how eagerly a child will listen to historical narration, and -how easily he will retain it. This method of teaching history forms a -striking contrast to the perfunctory manner in which it is often -studied in the upper school grades, with the text-book "lesson," -"recitation," and the "final examination." Upon the minds of many -young people the study of history has a deadening effect when the -history epoch is passed and the mathematical epoch has arrived. It has -already been proposed, at a conference of educators lately held in -Chicago, to extend the study of history downward into the lower -grades, a proposition fully sanctioned by psychological pedagogy. In -what I have here said about history for young people I refer not to -the philosophy of history, which comes much later in the life of the -student, but to history as a mere record of facts and events, the kind -of history which is now studied in the grammar and high schools, the -kind which many educators who would make all children philosophers are -now saying should not be studied at all. - -In the third place, what studies correspond to the development of the -will in the child from five to ten? It is the habit-forming epoch. It -is the time when a large and useful store of motor memory images may -be acquired, and when permanent reflex tracts may be formed in the -spinal cord and lower brain centers. This is the time to teach the -child to do easily and habitually a large number of useful things. If -we use the term in its broadest sense, we may call this branch of -instruction morals, but it will also include, besides habits of -conduct, various bodily activities, certain manual dexterities, and -correct habits of speech, expression, and singing. But here some -restrictions must be observed. The habit-forming period begins at -birth and continues far beyond the age of ten, and the period from -five to ten is not the time for the formation of all habits. The order -of muscular development must be observed, and all dexterities -involving finely co-ordinated movements of the fingers, or strain of -the eyes, should be deferred beyond this period, or at most begun only -in the latter part of it; such, for instance, as writing, drawing, -modeling, sewing, knitting, playing upon musical instruments, and -minute mechanical work, as well, of course, as the plaiting, pricking, -stitching, weaving, and other finger work still practiced in some -kindergartens and primary schools. - -We have thus seen that there are certain branches of instruction for -which the mind of the child from five to ten has ripened, and which -may therefore be taught most economically and safely during this -period. Concerning the teaching of language I shall speak presently, -but thus far we have found that from the psychological standpoint -there are at any rate three subjects which are strikingly adapted to -this period, namely, natural science, history, and morals, using these -terms with the latitude and restriction already explained. Certain -branches of Nature study and one branch of what we have called -morals--namely, manual training--have in recent years been introduced -into our best elementary city schools, and in a few schools history is -taught systematically in the lower grades by means of stories. They -have not, however, crowded out reading, writing, and arithmetic so -much as crowded into them. But if we consider the great mass of -schools in city, town, and country throughout the land, the subjects -which practically complete the elementary school curriculum--reading, -writing, arithmetic, and geography--are, with the exception of the -latter, found to be subjects which do not naturally belong to this -period at all. Mathematics in every form is a subject conspicuously -ill fitted to the child mind. It deals not with real things, but with -abstractions. When referred to concrete objects, it concerns not the -objects themselves, but their relations to each other. It involves -comparison, analysis, abstraction. It calls for a fuller development -of the association tracts and fibers of the cerebral hemispheres. The -grotesque "number forms" which so many children have, and which -originate in this period, are evidence of the necessity which the -child feels of giving some kind of bodily shape to these abstractions -which he is compelled to study. Under mathematics I do not of course -include the mere mentioning or learning a number series, such as in -the process called "counting," or the committing to memory of a -multiplication table. Furthermore, in this and in all discussions of -this kind it must be remembered that there are exceptional children in -whom the mathematical faculty, or musical faculty, or literary -faculty, develops much earlier than with the average child. If -possible, they should have instruction suited to their peculiarities. -But it is evident that, so long as children are educated in "schools," -there must be a general plan of education, and that it can not be -based upon exceptional children. - -What we learn from physiology and psychology about the ripening of the -child's mind is confirmed by the theory of the "culture epochs." I can -not discuss here the doctrine of "recapitulation," with its great -truths and its minor exceptions, but it is well known that in a -general way the development of the child, both physical and mental, is -an epitome of the development of the race. If we compare the physical -and mental activities of the modern civilized man with those of the -more primitive member of the race, we may learn what forms of physical -and mental activity are natural in the different periods of child -life. Some of the things which are characteristic of the modern as -contrasted with the primitive man are sedentary habits, manual -dexterities requiring finely co-ordinated movements both of the eyes -and fingers, increasing devotion to written language and books as -contrasted with spoken language, the lessened dependence upon the -memory, the increasing subjectivity of mental life as contrasted with -the purely objective life of the savage, and the increased importance -of reflection, deliberation, and reasoning, with decrease of impulsive -and habitual action. These things, then, we should expect to belong to -the later period of child life, and studied which involve these -activities will not be economically pursued in the elementary school -grades. These laws are wholly overlooked in our traditional school -curriculum. In practice we are saying to the young child: "Man is a -sedentary, reading, writing, thinking, reasoning being, possessing the -power of voluntary attention. I am to educate you to be a man. -Therefore you must learn to sit still, to read, write, think, reason, -and give attention to your work." The child of six or eight years is -therefore given a book or pen, and put into a closely fitting seat and -left to give attention to his work. This is precisely as if the mother -should say to the infant at the beginning of the period of creeping: -"You are a man, not a brute. Men go upright, not on all fours. You -must walk, not creep." - -I wish to call especial attention to the fact that it is only late in -the history of the race that language has passed to its written form. -Man is indeed now a reading and writing animal, but only recently has -he become so. It is only since the invention of printing and the wide -dissemination of books, magazines, and newspapers that reading has -become a real determining factor in the life of the people. Even now -the human organism is engaged in adapting itself to the new strain -brought upon the eyes and fingers in reading and writing. We can -understand, therefore, that it will demand a considerable maturity in -the child before he is ready for that which has developed so late in -the history of the race. The language of the child, like that of the -primitive man, is the language of the ear and tongue. The child is a -talking and hearing animal. He is ear-minded. There has been in the -history of civilization a steady development toward the preponderating -use of the higher senses, culminating with the eye. The average adult -civilized man is now strongly eye-minded, but it is necessary to go -back only to the time of the ancient Greeks to find a decided -relative ear-mindedness. Few laboratory researches have been made upon -the relative rapidity of development of the special senses in -children, but such as have been made tend to confirm the indications -of the "culture epochs" theory, and to show that the auditory centers -develop earlier than the visual. - -More and more attention is given in our elementary schools to the -subject of language--more, as some think, than the relative importance -of the subject warrants; but without discussing this question, it is -indubitably shown by child psychology that it is the spoken language -which belongs to the elementary school. The ear is the natural medium -of instruction for young children, and all the second-hand knowledge -which it is necessary that the child should receive should come to him -in this way. It should come from the living words of the living -teacher or parent, not through the cold medium of the printed book. In -the elementary school, then, the child may be instructed in language -as it relates to the ear and the tongue, and this is the real -language. He may be taught to speak accurately and elegantly, and he -may be taught to listen and remember. He may study in this way the -best literature of his mother tongue, and get a living sympathetic -knowledge of it, such as can never come through the indirect medium of -the book. Indeed, this language study need not be limited to the -mother tongue. There is no age when a child may with so great economy -of effort gain a lasting knowledge of a foreign language as when he is -from seven to eleven years old. - -When the spoken language has been mastered in this way, and when the -child has arrived at the reading and writing age, language in its -written form may be acquired in a very short time, and that which now -fills so many weary years of school life will sink into the position -of comparative insignificance in which it rightfully belongs. Reading -and writing have usurped altogether too much time. In the schools of -to-day there is a worship of the reading book, spelling book, copy -book, and dictionary not rightfully due them. By dropping the study of -letters from the lower grades much needed time may be found for other -timely and important subjects, such as Nature study, morals, history, -oral language, singing, physical training, and play. - -One of the greatest goods which would follow the banishing of the book -from the primary and elementary schools would be the cultivation of -better mental habits. Children suffer lasting injury by being left -with a book in their seats and directed to "study" at an age when the -power of voluntary attention has not developed. They then acquire -habits of listlessness and mind-wandering afterward difficult to -overcome. They read over many times that which does not hold their -attention and is not remembered. Lax habits of study are thus -acquired, with the serious incidental result of weakening the -retentive power which depends so much upon interest and concentration. -With the substitution of the oral for the book method, reliance upon -the memory during the memory period will permanently strengthen the -child's power of retention. - -The period between the ages of five and ten years is an important one -in the child's life. It is the time when the "let-alone" plan of -education is of most value, for the reason that nearly all our -educational devices beyond the kindergarten are more or less attempts -to make men and women out of children. If the child at this age must -be put into the harness of an educational system, his course of study -will not be impoverished by the omission of reading and writing. To -teach him to speak and to listen, to observe and to remember, to know -something of the world around him, and instinctively to do the right -thing, will furnish more than enough material for the most ambitious -elementary school curriculum. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[45] See the article on Courses of Study in the Elementary Schools of -the United States, by T. R. Crosswell, Pedagogical Seminary, April, -1897. - - - - -SOILS AND FERTILIZERS.[46] - -BY CHARLES MINOR BLACKFORD, JR., M. D. - - -The word "soil" is used in several arts and sciences to denote the -material from which something derives nourishment. The meat broths and -jellies on which bacteria are grown are soils for them, as the earth -of a field is a soil for the ordinary farm crops; but in general we -mean by soils the various mixtures of mineral and organic substances -that make up the surface of the earth. - -The object of this paper is to show as briefly as possible the way it -was formed, of what it is composed, the manner in which it nourishes -plants, and the rules that should guide us in replenishing its -nutritious matter when exhausted. So broad a field can be but lightly -touched, and the effort will be to give only hints from which rules -for specific cases may be deduced. - -When a sample of ordinary fertile soil is analyzed, it is found to -consist of a number of minerals, of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus -in various combinations, water, and certain other ingredients -dependent on the locality. Among the minerals the most important are -potassium, sodium, lime, iron, and silicon, and the history of these -is of the greatest interest. - -Scientific students are generally agreed that the surface of the earth -is but a shell inclosing a liquid, or at all events a highly heated -interior. Originally the whole mass was fluid, but the surface has -cooled more rapidly than the interior, and so a firm crust has been -formed. As the central mass cooled, it contracted, and the crust -became wrinkled and folded, as does the skin of an apple as its pulp -dries, and, by this folding, great ridges were thrown up in some -places and vast depressions formed in others. When the crust became -cool enough for water to remain on it, most of the depressions were -filled by it, and the "dry land appeared," not only on the crests of -the ridges, but on the elevated plateaus about them, and thus oceans -and continents were formed. - -Had one of us seen the earth at that time he would have been loath to -select it as a residence. Rugged, rocky ranges of precipitous -mountains surrounded by stretches of naked rock made the landscape. -Dense clouds from the tepid oceans dashed against the icy peaks, and -torrents of water rushed back to the sea. Where the slopes permitted, -the glaciers spread over wide areas, for no vegetation checked the -rapid radiation of heat, and night brought bitter cold. The crust -waved and fluctuated over the liquid interior as does thin ice under a -daring skater, and as it fell the sea rushed over the land, only to -flow elsewhere as the depressed area rose again. The freezing and -thawing and the effects of wind and water in time produced a change. -The rocks were riven and broken to powder, their nearly vertical -slopes became less steep, and instead of bare rock the earth showed -dreary morasses and stretches of sand. - -Over these marshes vegetation began to thrive. In the sea there lived -then, as now, a teeming population, animal, vegetable, and living -beings that can with difficulty be assigned to either of these -classes. Each of them, however, contained carbon, and many had built -lime, phosphorus, nitrogen, and other valuable substances into their -bodies. Where food was abundant these grew in vast numbers, and though -many are infinitely small singly, their aggregate mass is enormous. -Among the tiny organisms is one called the _Globigerina_, a being so -small as to require a microscope to study it, but in the past, as now, -growing in great numbers in the sea. The animal is soft and jellylike, -but it forms an outside skeleton of shell of carbonate of calcium or -chalk, a structure that protects it living, but entombs it dead. When -death comes, the little _Globigerina_ sinks to the bottom, and its -tiny shell helps to cover the sea floor. - -In the days of long ago these lived as now, and when some convulsion -of Nature lifted the bottom of prehistoric seas, the _Globigerina_ -ooze was lifted as well, and thus the "limestone" formed. In our land -a bed of this kind extends from Alabama to Newfoundland; thence, as -the "telegraphic plateau," it passes under the Atlantic, rising into -the chalk downs and cliffs of England; then, again dipping under the -sea, it passes through Europe, and finally furnishes the marble -quarries of Greece. Heat, water, and chemical action give a ceaseless -variety to the forms of the limestone, but wherever found it shows the -former seat of an ocean. - -As soon as the "ooze" was lifted from below the sea it began to -change. Some has been exposed to heat and has crystallized into -marble, but for our purposes the most interesting changes have been -wrought by water. Chalk, limestone, and marble--for these are -chemically the same--are almost insoluble in pure water. But water is -rarely pure; it dissolves many things, and among them the -carbonic-oxide gas that every fire, every animal, every decaying scrap -of wood is pouring into the atmosphere. The rain, charged with this -gas, dissolves the limestone, but when the gas escapes the lime falls, -as you know happens when "hard" water is boiled, for the heat drives -off the gas. By this solution, however, the lime is scattered widely -through the soil, and is rarely lacking in untilled earth. - -Besides lime, phosphorus is necessary in a good soil. This is widely -spread in Nature, but its great reservoir is the ocean, that boundless -mine of wealth. Many marine animals have the power of building it into -their tissues, and the shells of oysters and other mollusks, the bones -of nearly all animals, terrestrial and marine, and parts of other -organisms, are composed of phosphates to a greater or less degree. In -the ceaseless changes of level the primal oyster beds and coral reefs -are raised to the surface or far above it, and the slow action of time -begins to tear down the deposits and spread them wide-cast. Since that -far-off time "in the beginning" no new matter has been put on earth -save the small amounts of the meteorites, and the economy of Nature -can allow not one atom to lie in idleness, but calls on each one to -play its part ceaselessly, "without haste and without rest." A certain -amount of a substance is disseminated through the earth; by rains it -is washed into the streams, and thence to the sea. Here plants or -animals eagerly await it, and by means of them it is again restored to -the land, to begin again its endless round. - -The metals most necessary for plant life are potassium, sodium, and -iron; indeed, the very name of the first shows its importance. If the -ashes which contain all the mineral constituents of plants be put in a -vessel and water poured on them, a solution of lye will percolate -through the mass. The word lye is an abbreviation for alkali, and when -chemistry became sufficiently advanced, a metal was discovered in this -lye to which the name potassium--i. e., potash-metal--was given. If -seaweeds be burned and leeched in the same way we can obtain from the -lye another metal, sodium, that is much like potassium, and that is -one of the most widely spread substances on earth as its chloride, or -common salt. - -Potassium and sodium enter into the composition of many rocks, and as -these become eroded by weather they are scattered through the soil, -whence their salts are extracted by rootlets and enter into the -formation of vegetable tissue. - -Behind these stands iron. The green coloring matter of plants is a -very complex substance known as chlorophyll, the duty of which is to -take carbonic oxide from the air, utilize the carbon, and restore the -oxygen. Iron enters into the composition of chlorophyll, and to it is -due the brown color of dead leaves. This metal is well-nigh universal, -all the reds and browns in soils and rocks being made by it, and so it -is rarely lacking anywhere. - -So much for the metals in soils; but, important as they are, plants -can not live on them alone. Among the nonmetallic bodies phosphorus -stands high among essentials, and for it we are indebted to the sea -and the interior of the earth. Many living creatures extract -phosphorus from the sea water--combine it chiefly with lime, and use -the phosphate for making skeletons or shells, as the case may be. -After the death of the possessors the bones or shells sink to the -bottom, as do the _Globigerina_, and in time are either lifted up, as -were the limestones, and form "phosphate beds" like those of Georgia -and Florida, or are dredged up and ground into powder with bones of -land animals. - -Much of the matter forced up from the interior of the earth contains -phosphorus; indeed, it is the bane of Southern iron ores; but though -iron masters dread it, farmers welcome it, as the rains and frosts -crumble the phosphatic rocks and add them to the mass of _débris_ that -forms our soil. - -Now let us take a test tube and put into it lime, potash, soda, iron, -silicon, or sand, and phosphorus, add to it a grain of corn, and watch -results. Under suitable conditions of warmth and moisture the grain -will sprout, but when the store of food laid up in it is exhausted our -little plant will die. It is obvious that something else is needed for -a soil, and analysis shows that it is nitrogen, the gas that forms -nearly four fifths of our atmosphere--a gas useless, as such, to -animals, but essential to plants. Nitrogen is abundant in Nature. -Besides being nearly four fifths of the air, it forms twenty-two per -cent of nitric acid, forty-five per cent of saltpeter or niter, -eighty-two per cent of ammonia, and about twenty-five per cent of sal -ammoniac. Plants can not use nitrogen in its pure form, but one or -another of these forms will be found in the soil, whence it may be -extracted. - -Now we have the chief articles of plant food, and it is necessary to -know how they are to be used. A plant usually consists of two parts, -one that appears above ground, bearing branches, twigs, and leaves, -and another that remains below ground. It is this latter that concerns -us now, and it is worth study. This lower part consists of a number of -twigs called rhizomes, from which proceed a vast number of fine, -threadlike rootlets, and these are the mouths of the plant, through -which it draws nourishment from the earth about it. - -Before any living thing can use nourishment from without, it must be -dissolved, and this solution requires much preparation at times. Men, -and other animals with a wide range of food stuffs, effect this by the -secretions of the digestive organs; but most plants have no digestive -apparatus, strictly speaking, and were they supplied with an abundance -of the foods they most need, they would starve unless the food were in -a suitable state for absorption. - -The way in which Nature effects this solution is the key to many of -her secrets, and it has been understood only within the past few -years. If we have a piece of meat freshly taken from an animal we find -it firm, coherent, and almost odorless. If it be put into a warm, -moist chamber for a few days a great change comes over it, and it -becomes soft, offensive in odor, and liable to fall to pieces. We say -that it is rotten or putrid. If a bit of it be put under a microscope, -it is seen to be teeming with bacteria, and these are responsible for -the decay. Now, if a specimen of earth be examined, we find that it -contains bacteria, that attack all kinds of organic matter, tearing it -to pieces to get their food, and making many different things out of -what is left. There is one sort of ferment that grows in apple juice -and splits the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, forming "hard -cider," and if the fermentation stops at this point the well-known -drink results. However, there is another ferment called "mother of -vinegar" that may get in, and, if so, a different kind of fermentation -is started that forms acetic acid instead of alcohol; or the bacteria -of decomposition may come in and the whole go back to its elements. - -There is a wonderful provision of Nature shown in these stages. The -bacteria--the organisms that produce decay--can not live in a strong -sugar solution, but the ferments, like common yeast, can live in it, -and they split the sugar into alcohol, carbonic oxide, and other -things. In these another set can live, and when the first have died of -starvation or from the alcohol they form, the second set step in and -turn the weak alcohol into acetic acid. Acetic acid is a preserving -agent, as our sour pickles show, but if it is not too strong there are -some organisms that can live in it, and the whole process ends in -decay. Now, it should be noticed that each of these organisms paves -the way for the next by converting an unsuitable food stuff into a -suitable one. - -This familiar example indicates the lines on which Nature works. It is -the same everywhere, and shows the advantage of specialization, of -allowing some one with peculiar facilities for performing an act to do -that exclusively, that others may profit by his skill. So long as each -man sought and killed his food, cooked his meals, made his own -clothing, weapons, and implements--in a word, lived alone--advance was -impossible. It was only when he who was most skillful with the needle -made garments for the hunter in exchange for a haunch of venison, that -the hunter could practice marksmanship, and the tailor design a new -cut for the mantle with which the warrior might dazzle the daughter of -the arrow maker. It is the same in Nature. Some organisms possess -powers of elaborating certain materials of which others are quick to -avail themselves. Plants can manufacture starch, an article needed by -animals, but of which their own capacity, so far as producing it is -concerned, is very limited, and thus animals find it advantageous to -avail themselves of these stores instead of taxing their own -resources. Similarly, plants need the organic matters of the animal -bodies, and wise agriculture supplies carbon, nitrogen, and other -articles of food in the shape of animal and vegetable refuse. But this -matter requires digestion; it must be made soluble before it can be -absorbed, and but few plants can effect this solution unaided. The -"Venus's flytrap," the sundew, the wonderful "carrion plant," and -others, are equipped with elaborate apparatus by which they are -enabled to capture, kill, and literally digest the insects that supply -them with nitrogeneous food, but these are exceptional cases. Nature -usually employs other agents. - -The action of bacteria in causing decay has been said to be in general -similar to fermentation--that it is effected by the bacteria in -seeking their food. If oxygen be abundant, putrefaction occurs; if it -be scant or absent, then fermentation takes place, for the tiny -organisms require oxygen, and, if the air fails them, they pull to -pieces the organic matters near them to obtain it. In doing this they -get the nitrogen into such shape that the plants can use it, and thus -digest their food for them. All organic matter contains carbon, -hydrogen, and oxygen as a general rule, and to these are often united -phosphorus, sulphur, nitrogen, and others, making very complex -arrangements, veritable houses of cards, in fact, only held together -by the strange power of life. When a leaf falls or a bird dies, some -of these combinations are broken, and then the bacteria and other -lowly organisms have full sway, for living matter is impregnable to -all save a few of them. As oxygen or something else is taken out of -the complex molecules, the compound falls to pieces, but as in the -kaleidoscope the bits of colored glass tumble into endless varieties -of symmetrical figures, so do the atoms fall into new combinations. If -the keystone of an arch be removed, the stones fall apart; but atoms, -unlike bricks or stones, can not stand alone as a rule; they must be -united to something, and so, as soon as old associations are -dissolved, new ones are formed. These new ones are those needed by -plants, and thus is plant food digested. - -The term "plant food" has been frequently used, and should now be -distinctly explained, for merely stating the chemical elements is not -describing the food. When a physician tells a nurse to feed a patient -he does not order so much carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and the like, -but specifies a soup, certain vegetables, and so on, detailing every -particular; and the same should be done for vegetable invalids. - -In medical practice a condition is recognized that is called scurvy. -It is not exactly starvation, but is produced by lack of some food -materials usually supplied by fresh vegetables. If scurvy appears at -sea, no amount of meat, bread, cakes, or pastry will stop it; -vegetables, and they only, will stay it. Sometimes a similar condition -prevails among crops: some ingredient in a soil is lacking, and the -others may be supplied indefinitely without giving the desired relief. -To this may be attributed much of the fault found with fertilizers; -for if the soil does not need a particular compound it is useless to -apply it, and an excellent fertilizer is often blamed for not -producing a crop on land already overstocked with it and crying for -something else. - -Let us suppose a field on which cotton has been grown for many -successive years until it has become exhausted. Analysis shows that a -crop yielding one hundred pounds of lint to the acre removes from the -soil: - - Nitrogen 20.71 pounds; - Phosphoric acid 8.17 " - Potash 13.06 " - Lime 12.60 " - Magnesia 4.75 " - ----- - Total 59.29 " - -The weight of the whole crop from which these figures were taken was -eight hundred and forty-seven pounds, so that cotton exhausts land -less than any staple crop, if the roots, stems, leaves, etc., be -turned under and only the lint and seed be removed. Of these the lint -(one hundred pounds) takes 1.17 pound from the soil, and the seed -13.89 pounds, making 15.06 pounds net loss.[47] But ignoring returns -that may be made in the shape of cotton-seed meal, etc., and lime, -with which our soils are abundantly supplied, we see that nitrogen, -phosphoric acid, and potash have been removed. Suppose the owner puts -bone meal on his exhausted land: the phosphoric acid in the bone will -supply one need, and an improvement results. On the strength of this, -bone meal will be loaded into the soil again, and let us suppose the -deficit not yet made up, the crop again shows improvement. Now, -phosphoric acid abounds in the soil, though the deficiency in nitrogen -and potash has become steadily greater; so, when the customary bone -meal is applied, the crop falls back, because the plants are starving -for potash and nitrogen. They are like scurvy-smitten sailors, but -many thoughtless farmers would attribute the decline to the maker of -the bone meal, and say that its quality was not so high as -formerly--an opinion similar to that of a sea captain who would -ascribe to the poor quality of salt beef an outbreak of scurvy on his -vessel. - -As crops of any description extract potash, nitrogen, and phosphoric -acid from soils, the question how they are to be replaced is an -important matter, and its answer may be most readily found by studying -Nature's methods. In parts of the Old World there are fields that are -fertile in the extreme after thousands of years of tillage, and it is -apparent that mere cultivation does not prove injurious. The tropical -forests have something growing wherever a plant can find foothold--a -population in which the struggle for food is secondary to that for -light and air, and yet the soil supporting this vegetation is -marvelously rich. Every leaf that falls remains where it fell until in -the warm, moist, half-lighted forest it becomes a little heap of mold. -The bacteria of decomposition require warmth and moisture for their -life; light is deleterious to them, but they thrive in the dense shade -of the jungle. The tangled web of roots, weeds, and vines retains the -rainfall, retarding evaporation, and preventing both droughts and -freshets. Receiving dead and broken leaves, boughs, and other -vegetable products, and spared the washing of violent torrents, the -forest is inestimably fertile. - -On a smaller scale this goes on universally. The annual weeds, -deciduous leaves, and such matter, fall prey to molds and bacteria, by -which they are made soluble. Snows and rains bear the products into -the soil, and there other bacteria, clustering around the roots, form -the acids needed to complete solution. Every one knows that -"well-rotted" manure is better than that which is fresh, and many -wonder at this, but the reason is apparent. In feeding delicate -patients, physicians often prescribe predigested foods or the -digestive ferments to aid enfeebled assimilation; and similarly the -manures that have been thoroughly acted on by bacteria, or containing -those capable of producing the matters that plants need, are of most -value for nourishing vegetation. - -In producing an article of any sort, the cheapness and ease with which -it can be made is largely dependent on the shape in which the raw -material reaches the factory. If a foundry can procure iron that needs -only to be melted and cast, the owner can fill his orders more -readily than would be possible if he had to reduce the metal from the -ore; and Nature uses this principle over and over again. The -importance of nitrogen to plants and its abundance in Nature have been -mentioned, but it has also been said that plants can not use it -directly, as most animals do with oxygen. The tiny bacteria intervene, -and this they do in two ways: first, by causing decay of animal or -vegetable matter containing nitrogen, and by this decay producing -substances that plants can absorb; and, secondly, by producing little -nodules or "tubercles" on the rootlets, through which the plant can -take up nitrogen.[48] Now, when a plant is sated with nitrogen, it -ceases to form these tubercles, and their formation is a sure sign -that the plant is craving this article of food. When it is supplied, -and its own life is ended, these form reservoirs from which other -plants may be supplied, as new castings may be made from broken -wheels. The great value of "green manuring" depends on the store of -available nitrogen so laid up, but it is open to failure in one -direction. The liability of fermentation to go to the acid stage from -contamination with acid-forming ferments has been mentioned, an -accident the possibility of which is impressed on us from time to time -by sour bread; and similarly the organic matter turned under may -undergo acid fermentation, rendering the ground "sour" and unfit for -cultivation. - -The limits of this paper forbid the consideration of special -fertilizers, but from the general principles laid down the rules for -any special case may be deduced. A soil should contain a sufficient -amount of potash, soda, lime, iron, and a few other minerals; -phosphoric acid, nitrogen, organic matter, and, for some special -crops, some other ingredients may be needed. When the soil needs -renewing, there are two ways of accomplishing it. One way is to guess -at what is needed; to buy fertilizers at high prices, without -inquiring whether the soil needs the substances in that particular -brand or not. Though very common, this is not a good plan. It is as -though a physician were to give a patient any drug that was -convenient, without inquiring into the disorder or the needs of the -system, and it is followed by much the same result. That acid -phosphate gave Farmer A a good crop, is no reason that Farmer B's land -is also deficient in phosphorus. The same reasoning would teach that a -heart stimulant that rouses a patient from shock would benefit one in -danger of apoplexy, where the least increase in heart force might be -fatal. A physician using such reasoning as the basis of his practice -would not be considered a master of his art; and were he to attribute -the fatal outcome of his logic to the poor quality of his stimulant, -he would display criminal ignorance of drugs as well as disease; yet -it is very common to see farmers put guano on a soil begging for -potash, and then heap execration on the head of the dealer who sold -the guano when the crop failed. To revert to a simile used above, a -captain must not blame the salt pork for scurvy. - -The other way to buy and use fertilizers is to ascertain what a -certain crop needs; then find out whether these be in the soil, and to -what extent. With these data the deficiency may be made good without -the wasteful cost of the former method. State and Federal Departments -of Agriculture furnish their aid freely and gladly, and already the -signs are seen of the day when agriculture will take its place among -the semiexact sciences, and the present haphazard methods will become -obsolete. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[46] An address delivered before the Richmond County (Georgia) -Agricultural Society, on February 19, 1898. - -[47] United States Department of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin, No. -48. - -[48] Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and for Feeding. E. W. -Allen, Ph. D. United States Department of Agriculture. Farmers' -Bulletin, No. 16. - - - - -SKETCH OF AUGUST KEKULÉ. - - -"This news," said Herr H. Landrelt, president, announcing Kekulé's -death in the German Chemical Society at Berlin, "will be received with -sorrow not only by our society but by the whole chemical world. -Science has again lost one of its greatest representatives, one of -those extremely rare spirits who were called upon to found a new epoch -in it and push it mightily forward." - -FRIEDRICH AUGUST KEKULÉ was born at Darmstadt, September 7, 1829, and -died, after a long illness, at Bonn, July 13, 1896. He was originally -destined by his father for the profession of an architect; and some -houses, he told his students in a festival address, still existed (in -1892) in Darmstadt of which he drew the plans when, a youth, he was -attending the gymnasium. The leading events of his life were very -tersely told by himself in an address responding to an ovation from -the students of the University of Bonn on the twenty-fifth anniversary -of his professorship there; a translation of which, from the -_Kölnische Zeitung_, was published by Mr. J. E. Martin in Nature, June -30, 1892. - -At Giessen, he said, where he went to study architecture, he attended -Liebig's lectures, and was thereby attracted to chemistry. But his -relatives would not at first hear of his changing his profession, and -he was given a half-year's grace to think over it. He spent his time -in the Polytechnicum at Darmstadt. His first teacher in chemistry at -Darmstadt was Moldenhauer, the inventor of lucifer matches. His -leisure time was spent in modeling in plaster and at the lathe. He was -then permitted to return to Giessen. "I attended," he said, "the -lectures, first of Will and then of Liebig. Liebig was at work on a -new edition of his letters on Chemistry, for which many experiments -had to be carried out. I had to make estimations of ash, of albumen, -to investigate gluten in plants, etc. The names of the young chemists -who helped Liebig were mentioned in the book, among them mine. The -proposal was then made to me, just at the time Liebig intended to make -me his assistant, that I should go for a year abroad, either to -Berlin, which was at that time to Giessen a foreign land, or to Paris. -'Go,' said Liebig, 'to Paris; there your views will be widened; you -will learn a new language; you will get acquainted with the life of a -great city; but you will not learn chemistry there.' In that, however, -Liebig was wrong. I attended lectures by Frémy, Wurtz, Pouillet, -Regnault; by Marchandis on physiology, and by Payen on technology. One -day, as I was sauntering along the streets, my eyes encountered a -large poster with the words _Leçons de philosophie chimique par -Charles Gerhardt, ex-professeur de Montpellier_. Gerhardt had resigned -his professorship at Montpellier, and was teaching philosophy and -chemistry as _privat docent_ in Paris. That attracted me, and I -entered my name on the list. Some days later I received a card from -Gerhardt; he had seen my name in Liebig's Letters on Chemistry. On my -calling upon him he received me with great kindness, and made me the -offer, which I could not accept, that I should become his assistant. -My visit took place at noon, and I did not leave his house till -midnight, after a long talk on chemistry. These discussions continued -between us at least twice a week for over a year. Then I received the -offer of the post of assistant to von Plauter, at the Castle of -Reichenau, near Chur, which I accepted, contrary to Liebig's wish, who -recommended me as assistant to Fehling, at Stuttgart. So I went to -Switzerland, where I had leisure to digest what I had learned in Paris -during my intercourse with Gerhardt. Then I received an invitation -from Stenhouse, in London, to become his assistant, an invitation I -was loath to accept, since I regarded him, if I may be allowed the -expression, as a _Schmierchemiker_. By chance, however, Bunsen came to -Chur on a visit to his brother-in-law, at whose house I first met him. -I consulted Bunsen as to Stenhouse's offer, and he advised me by all -means to accept it. I should learn a new language, but I should not -learn chemistry. So I came to London, where as Stenhouse's assistant I -did not learn much. By means of a friend, however, I became acquainted -with Williamson. The latter had just published his ether theory, and -was at work on the polybasic acids (in particular on the action of -PCl_{5} on H_{2}SO_{4}). Chemistry was at one of its turning points. -The theory of polybasic radicals was being evolved. With Williamson -was also associated Odling. Williamson insisted on plain, simple -formulæ, without commas, without the buckles of Kolbe or the brackets -of Gerhardt. It was a capital school to encourage independent -thought. The wish was expressed that I should stay in England and -become a technologist, but I was too much attached to home. I wished -to teach in a German university. But where? In order to get acquainted -with the circumstances at several universities, I became a traveling -student. In this capacity I came, among other universities, to Bonn. -Here there was no chemist of eminence, and hence there were no -prospects. Nowhere did there seem so much promise and so great a -future as at Heidelberg. I could ask no help of Bunsen. 'I can do -nothing for you,' he said, 'at least not openly. I will not stand in -your way, but more I can not promise.' I fitted up a small private -laboratory in the principal street of Heidelberg at the house of a -corn merchant--Gross, by name--a single room with an adjoining -kitchen. I took a few pupils, among whom was Baeyer. In our little -kitchen I finished my work on fulminate of silver, while Baeyer -carried out the researches, which subsequently became famous, on -cacodyl. That the walls were coated thick with arsenious acid, and -that silver fulminate is explosive, we took no thought about. After -two years and a half I received a call to Ghent as ordinary professor. -There I stayed nine years, and had to lecture in French. With me to -Ghent came Baeyer. Through the kindness of the then Prime Minister of -Belgium, Rogier, I obtained the means to establish a small laboratory. -I had there with me a number of students, among whom I may name -Baeyer, Hübner, Ladenburg, Wichelhaus, Linnemann, Radzizewski. There -was not so much a systematic course of instruction as a free and -pleasant academic intercourse. After nine years' work I received the -call to Bonn." Professor Kekulé concluded his address with some -account of his work at Bonn, and of the great attention he had always -received from his pupils. For a full account of Kekulé's scientific -career and achievements, we are indebted to the memorial address made -by President Landelt to the German Chemical Society on the occasion of -his death, of which we translate the more important passages from the -_Berichte_: - -"The works which Kekulé has left behind him belong, as we all know, to -the bases of all chemistry. His teachings have so passed into our -flesh and blood that it seems almost superfluous to remind a circle of -professional chemists of them. I shall be able to present only in the -most general outlines this evening the immense influence which the -dead master has exercised upon science; a complete view of all his -labors is a subject for a biography, which we must wait for. - -"Kekulé's scientific work began in 1854, with the discovery of -thiacetic acid, by which he at once separated from the old school of -chemistry that was still prevailing, and, founding a new one, -revealed himself as an adherent of the new doctrine of types. After -his habilitation at Heidelberg, which followed in 1856, came the essay -on fulminating mercury, in which the view so important for the future -was expressed, that to the three typical combinations of -chlorhydrogen, water, and ammonia, hitherto recognized, might be added -a fourth, marsh gas. In the next essay, on binary combinations and the -theory of polyatomic radicals, he put forward the conception of mixed -types, and first reached the knowledge of various atomicity or valency -of the radicals. These researches were continued, and there appeared -shortly afterward, in the spring of 1858, the two great treatises -which have since exercised so powerful an influence on chemistry--that -on the constitution and metamorphoses of chemical combinations, and -that on the chemical nature of carbon. In these theses Kekulé passed -from the valency of the radicals to that of the elements themselves, -and showed that the composition of all those compounds that contain -one atom of carbon lead to the conclusion that that element is -quadrivalent; and that, further, the relations of combination of a -complex of carbon atoms are explainable if we suppose that the latter -are mutually bound by a certain number of their four unities of -attraction. This idea was suggested very carefully, and the words -which the author added at the end of his essay read very curiously -to-day: 'Finally, I think I ought still to insist that I attach only -little value to speculations of this sort. Since one delving in -chemistry must once in a while, in the lack of exact scientific -principles, content himself with probabilities and temporary -hypotheses, it seems proper to communicate these conceptions, because, -as it appears to me, they furnish a simple and fairly general -expression for the newest discoveries, and because, therefore, the use -of them may assist in the discovery of new facts.' How diffident the -words sound, and how far have the expectations been exceeded! We all -know that the theory of valency is to-day the leading guide through -all our science; and, although another investigator had a share in its -origination, no one disputes that its main foundation and its eminent -value in organic chemistry are primarily due to Kekulé's idea of the -quadrivalency of carbon. - -"After he was called to the University of Ghent, in 1858, Kekulé -exhibited an indefatigable activity. He began the great series of -investigations of the organic acids which, beginning with succinic -acid, malic acid, and tartaric acid, and extending afterward to many -others, have given complete conclusions as to the nature of these -bodies. Contemporaneously, in 1860, appeared the first number of the -_Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie_, which was soon followed by other -numbers, so that the whole first volume was completed in 1861. All his -fellow-chemists who are acquainted with the events of that period -will remember the enthusiasm with which the work was received. For the -first time, in place of the former system of organic chemistry based -on the old radicals of Berzelius, a system of treatment appeared which -in the dress of the theory of types had the doctrine of valency as its -foundation, and exposed the construction as well as the isomeric -relations of the numerous carbon compounds with wonderful clearness. -The work, the first two published volumes of which contained the -substances designated by Kekulé as the fatty compounds, is still -recognized as the prototype of many text-books that followed it. - -"In 1855 Kekulé put forth the second of his great theories. First in -the Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Paris, and afterward in fuller -form in Liebig's _Annalen_, appeared the essay, Researches among the -Aromatic Compounds, in which he showed that the substances so -designated all contain six or more atoms of carbon, and that they -could be described as derivatives of the simplest of them, benzene. He -proposed two hypotheses to explain the constitution of this substance, -one of which, the only one afterward pursued, supposed that the six -carbon atoms are associated in a ring, and alternately linked by one -and two valencies. By replacing the hydrogen atoms corresponding to -each carbon atom by other elements or radicals one could arrive at the -knowledge of the constitution of a large number of aromatic bodies -which now figure as benzol derivatives. These considerations led, -however, to another question--namely, whether or not the supplied -places of the six hydrogen atoms are chemically equivalent. The -question of space relations in chemistry first came up in connection -with this investigation, and Kekulé at once endeavored to solve it. -All these ideas were, however, expressed at first with reserve, and -this essay closes with the words, 'I place no more value on these -views than they are worth, and I believe that much labor must still be -applied before such speculations can be regarded as anything else than -more or less elegant hypotheses; but I believe, too, that at least -experimental speculations of this kind must be used in chemistry.' - -"In this case, again, Kekulé's modest expectations have been -surpassed. The wonderful results that have accrued from the benzol -theory are patent to all of us. We know that it was the instigation to -the carrying out of an innumerable multitude of researches which are -still pursued with undiminished industry. Rarely has a thought -exercised so fructifying and forwarding an influence on chemistry, and -so redounded to the advantage of both pure science and art. -Thankfulness for this gift, as you know, prompted our society to honor -the author of the benzol theory and the twenty-fifth year of the -announcement of it by a public festival; and the Kekulé celebration, -which took place in this house on the 11th of March, 1890, is -memorable to all for the brilliant and witty speech with which the -master responded to the many addresses made to him. It is preserved in -our reports (_Berichte_ 23, 1892), and the repeated reading of it -always affords rich enjoyment." - -Kekulé assumed his last position, as professor at the University of -Bonn, in the fall of 1867. He there devoted his attention for a period -to the erection of a new institute building, but it was not long -before numerous works began again to appear--some of them by himself -alone, like the important investigation of the condensation products -of aldehyde; and others in co-operation with his many students. The -continuation of his _Lehrbuch_ was taken in hand at the same time. In -1867 he gratified his fellow-chemists by the publication of the first -volume of his Chemistry of the Benzol Derivatives. This was followed -from 1880 to 1887 by single numbers, prepared with the help of -co-workers, of the second and third volumes. - -Prof. F. R. Japp, in the Kekulé memorial lecture before the Chemical -Society of London, speaking of Kekulé's residence in that city, -September, 1897, said that he always acknowledged the influence which -Liebig and Odling and Williamson, with whom he became acquainted in -London, exercised on the formation of his opinions. Kekulé's theories, -Professor Japp said, were based on Gerhardt's type theory; on -Williamson's theory of polyvalent radicals, which by their power of -linking together other radicals render possible the existence of -multiple types; and Odling's theory of mixed types, which was a -deduction from Williamson's theory. Less consciously, perhaps, his -opinions were influenced by E. Frankland's theory of the valency of -elementary atoms, and by Kolbe's speculation on the constitution of -organic compounds. Kekulé gathered together the various ideas which he -found scattered throughout the writings of his predecessors, added to -them, and welded the whole into the consistent system which forms our -present theory of chemical structure. In 1857, in the course of a -memoir on the constitution of fulminic acid, he gave a tabular -arrangement of compounds formulated on the type of marsh gas, this -being the earliest statement, though put forward only in an imperfect -form, of the tetravalency of carbon. In the same year he published an -important theoretical paper On the So-called Conjugated Compounds and -the Theory of Polyatomic Radicals, which contains a complete system of -multiple types and mixed types. In 1858 the celebrated paper, On the -Constitution and Metamorphoses of Chemical Compounds, and on the -Chemical Nature of Carbon, appeared. It embodies the fully developed -doctrine of the tetravalency of carbon, together with Kekulé's views -on the linking of atoms and on the valency of such chains of atoms, -the foundation on which our modern system of constitutional chemistry -rests. In 1865 Kekulé put forward his well-known benzene -theory--pronounced by Professor Japp the crowning achievement, in his -hands, of the doctrine of the linking of atoms, and the most brilliant -piece of scientific prediction to be found in the whole range of -organic chemistry. The conception of closed chains, or cycloids, which -he thus introduced, has shown itself to be capable of boundless -expansion. - -Kekulé's students all speak admiringly of his qualities as a teacher. -The memorialist of the German Chemical Society said: "All of us who -have attended his lectures or heard him in other places will ever -remember what a teacher Kekulé was. With incomparable lucidity and -sometimes with the happiest humor, he could go playfully through the -theme he was considering, masterfully presenting it in new and often -surprising aspects. The charm of his personality affected all who came -in contact with him; it was the geniality which shone out of his whole -being, and involuntarily commanded admiration. Numerous pupils flocked -to him, and many of those who to-day fill chairs of chemistry in -Germany and other countries have made his name highly honored." - -Professor Thorpe, of London, who spent a little time in Kekulé's -laboratory, describes him as having been one of the very best -expositors, with the single possible exception of Kirchhoff, to whom -it had been his lot to listen. As a laboratory teacher he was -excellent. He was a most severe judge of work, striving to exact the -same high manipulative finish, the same neatness and order, which he -invariably bestowed on everything he did, and he was absolutely -intolerant of anything slovenly or "sloppy." "But it was as a lecturer -that he was seen at his best. He was singularly luminous as a thinker, -a close and accurate reasoner, with a remarkable power of concentrated -expression.... His language was apt and well chosen, and his delivery -easy and natural"; and his whole address showed that every detail had -been carefully considered. - -At a distance of thirty years, Professor Dewar said, at the London -memorial meeting, that to look back and call to mind the presence and -personality of the great chemist as he knew him was indeed a pleasure. -He was a man of noble mien, handsome, dignified, and yet of a homely -and kindly disposition. He was a severe critic, having a haughty -contempt for the accidental and bizarre in scientific work. His -originality and suggestiveness seemed endless, so that he had no need -to commit trespass or to follow just in the wake of other people's -ideas. "Everything that passed through the Kekulé alembic was indeed -transmuted into pure gold. His precision of thought and diction -rendered his papers profoundly suggestive to other workers." - -"The last years of the master's life," his German eulogist says, "were -often troubled by illness, but there were not wanting bright days -which the love of his students and colleagues prepared for him." Such -a one was the celebration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of his -professorship at Bonn, June 1, 1892, in which the students and -officers participated with cordial unanimity. The ceremony began in -the morning with an enthusiastic ovation by the students. The chemical -theater was decorated with plants; the benzene hexagon was figured on -the blackboard with garlands of flowers, in the midst of which the -letters A. K. were wrought in a monogram of roses. Alfred Helle, one -of the chemical students, delivered a felicitous address, in which he -congratulated his fellow-students on being privileged to sit at the -feet of the greatest of living chemists, after which three cheers were -given to the professor. Kekulé responded to the offering in an address -giving some of the details of his life, from which we have already -quoted. Kekulé's personal staff and the officers of the university -then presented their congratulations. - -In the evening the students honored him with a torchlight procession, -it being the third time he had received this, the most conspicuous -honor which is bestowed by German students. The first occasion was in -1875, when he declined the professorship at Munich; the second was in -1878, when he was rector of the university, and was given in -celebration of the restoration of unity among the students, after a -long period of disunion. Among the torchbearers on that occasion was -the present Emperor of Germany. - -During the later period of his life Kekulé was comparatively sterile. -Those who knew him, however, Professor Thorpe says, "would be the -first to affirm that this seeming apathy sprang from no natural -indifference. There is no doubt that he suffered, even in the early -period of middle life, from the intense stress and strain of his -mental labors prior to the Ghent period. He too surely exemplified the -sad truth of Liebig's saying that he who would become a great chemist -must pay for his pre-eminence by the sacrifice of his health. There is -reason to know that it was the consciousness of failing power which -prevented him from finishing much to which he had put his hand, and -that his fastidiousness and his sense of 'finish,' amounting almost to -hypercriticism, restrained him from publishing much which he realized -fell short of his ideal." - -The last time Kekulé's name was brought before the public was on the -occasion of the renewal of the ancient title of nobility of his -family, as August Kekulé von Stradowitz. - - - - -Editor's Table. - - -_A VOICE FROM THE PULPIT._ - -We called attention last month to a weak attack on the doctrine of -evolution by a certain Mr. A. J. Smith, Superintendent of Public -Schools in the city of St. Paul. The only thing which gave any -consequence to the deliverance in question was that it was addressed -to a large gathering of public-school teachers, who might possibly -have been unduly influenced in their appreciation of it by the -speaker's official position. We are glad now to learn that, very -shortly after the publication of Superintendent Smith's address, an -excellent statement of the true relation of the doctrine of evolution -to education was made in one of the city pulpits by the Rev. S. G. -Smith, who did not boast, as the superintendent had done, of having -made an exhaustive study of the subject, but who, nevertheless, showed -that he had a grasp of it which the other altogether lacked. The Rev. -Mr. Smith's discourse would have merited attention wherever it might -have been delivered; but, considered as a pulpit utterance, it seems -to us to possess a special and very encouraging significance. We need -hardly say that the pulpit has not always been friendly to broad -scientific views, but in this case it has spoken with a candor, a -breadth, and an intelligence which the lecture platform can not do -more than equal, and which it would certainly be too much to look for -in all our colleges. - -"The law of evolution," said the reverend gentleman, "is as universal -in its application as the law of gravitation. It holds that in every -realm the simple tends to become complex, and that the complex is more -stable than the simple. Motion and matter have a history in which the -simple and the indefinite take on variety of organization and -definiteness of adaptation." This is a statement in which the author -of the Synthetic Philosophy would probably have very little change to -suggest. Mr. Smith does not, like so many who discuss the subject in a -superficial manner, confound evolution with Darwinism. Darwinism, he -recognizes, may, in its particular explanations as to the origin of -species and the descent of life, be in error; but evolution is -universal in its scope, and can only fail if it can be shown that the -fundamental postulates on which it rests, such as the instability of -the homogeneous, the continuity of motion, the law of rhythm, etc., -are not to be depended on. Must a person have made the circle of the -sciences and comprehended all knowledge before he can reasonably -profess a belief in evolution? No, says Mr. Smith; when the -foundations of a doctrine have been clearly laid, when they have been -tested by many different investigators from many different points of -view, and when these, almost without exception, affirm that the -doctrine is not only in harmony with, but lends a new and deeper -significance to, the several orders of fact with which they are -individually concerned, any person of ordinary intelligence is -justified in considering that doctrine as satisfactorily proved and -giving it his personal adhesion. - -What chiefly excited the ire of Superintendent A. J. Smith was the -contention of evolutionists that the modern child reflects the earlier -stages of human development. He asked his audience if they really -thought the children of to-day were young savages, and quoted Emerson -and Longfellow as authorities on the question. The Rev. S. G. Smith -takes up the point and expresses himself as follows: "When it is -stated that the child has many points of contact with primitive man, -it is not meant that the child is a savage, but that 'in its -immaturity' we can learn much respecting it from the study of child -races. The child has neither the virtues nor the vices of the savage, -but he has many of the mental characteristics. Embryology does not -teach that in prenatal life the child passes into the form of every -animal in a menagerie, but that its life passes through the stages -that mark the great subdivisions of all life. Nor do the comparisons -of the child with primitive man imply that he must pass through all -the activities of savage races, but that the development of his -faculties, the tendencies of his desires, the state of his ignorance, -all illustrate the history of the development of the race. Primitive -man may be understood by a study of the child, and, conversely, the -child may be illustrated by primitive man." - -It must be borne in mind that the child is in constant contact with -its elders, that it is subject to the restraints which they impose, -and that it lives more or less in an atmosphere of affection and care. -There is excellent reason, therefore, why it should not resemble -primitive man in all points. Its daily life is really controlled and -guided by a higher power. In some cases there is even too much control -and guidance; the conditions are made too artificial, and the -development of the child's nature suffers in consequence. When the age -of manhood or womanhood is reached there is something lacking, -precisely because enough scope was not left for the primitive or, as -we may very properly say, the "savage" instincts of childhood. A great -French writer, Joseph de Maistre, quotes a popular saying to the -effect that "spoilt children always turn out well."[49] So far as -there is any truth in it, the explanation is that the spoilt child is -one that has a great deal of its own way, and is left to work out the -savage and so acquire a sounder foundation for its future life. In how -many of us are there not chained savages that might have made their -escape in earlier years if they had only been allowed! It is a -dangerous thing to try to make little angels of children. - -The Rev. Mr. Smith is quite right in what he says as to the -predominance of the imagination in children, this being another strong -point of resemblance to primitive man. "The beginnings of history and -institutions," he truly says, "can only be understood when we remember -that races in their early development do not have clearly marked -activities of imagination, reason, and memory. They mix the three. So -legends, myths, and heroics are earnest efforts of the undeveloped -mind to make objective the truth, and are not clumsy lies at all." -Applying this to the child, the conclusion is that "he must be fed -through his imagination or he will not grow." A very imaginative child -is apt to be accused of falsehood, when he simply fails to distinguish -between things imagined and things remembered. Neither the child nor -the savage can concentrate his attention, and to force either to do so -beyond a certain very limited measure is simply to injure and deform -such natural powers as he possesses. The amount of mischief which a -dogmatic and over-logical teacher, wholly ignorant of the psychology -of the child, can do is beyond all calculation. - -It is needless, however, to pursue the parallel further, though the -Rev. Mr. Smith very properly carries it into the region of morals, -where it is no less close than in that of intellectual action. There -is another interesting aspect of evolution which the reverend -gentleman glances at, and that is its bearing on general courses of -study. History and literature, considered as departments of research, -it has largely transformed by substituting for conventional categories -and abstract notions the perception of a genetic process pervading all -the works of the human spirit and linking them into an organic unity. -In conclusion, we may observe that, if Superintendent A. J. Smith had -not made some foolish remarks in a rather ostentatious manner, it is -probable the Rev. S. G. Smith would not have delivered the excellent -discourse on which we have commented, and which we feel sure will far -outweigh in general effect the performance which called it forth. The -conclusions to be drawn are the pleasing ones that good may sometimes -come out of evil, and that a free pulpit is admirably adapted to guard -the interests of liberty and common sense. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[49] "Les enfans gâtés réussissent toujours." - - -_LESSONS OF ANTHROPOLOGY._ - -The address delivered at the last meeting of the British Association -by the president of the Anthropological Section contained nothing that -was strikingly novel--it is not every year that striking novelties can -be announced--but it dealt in an interesting manner with several -phases of a most important subject. The speaker, Professor Brabrook, -took the position that the order of the universe is expressed in -continuity, not cataclysm, and that this principle will be found -illustrated in every branch of anthropological research, in direct -proportion to the completeness of the data obtained. He admitted the -vastness of the gap which still separates the remains of palaeolithic -from those of neolithic man, but expressed the belief that further -explorations would bring intermediate relics to light. To quote the -speaker's words: "The evidence we want relates to events which took -place at so great a distance of time that we may well wait patiently -for it, assured that somewhere or other these missing links must have -existed, and probably are still to be found." - -Reference was made to the labors which are now being usefully expended -in gathering what is called the folklore of various communities, and -to the result which continually appears with fuller evidence, namely, -that the tendency of mankind everywhere is to develop like fancies and -ideas at a like stage of intellectual development. Full of detail as -these stories are, they are found to contain but a few primitive -ideas; and it seems not improbable that to a large extent they are -essentially Nature myths. Mr. Brabrook happily quotes Lord Bacon's -description of such narratives as "sacred relics, gentle whispers and -the breath of better times." The "better times" are a part of the -general system of myth; but who will deny that there is a special -charm in these early documents of our race? "Let one of our literary -exquisites," said a thoughtful French writer, "try to write a fairy -tale which shall neither be a pretentious apologue nor a tiresome and -transparent allegory, and he will soon feel that mere cleverness does -not suffice to create these marvelous narratives, and will conceive a -just admiration for those who constructed them, that is to say, -everybody and nobody." - -The progress of anthropology, according to the president of the -section, seems more and more to confirm the theory adopted by Fustel -de Coulanges in France and Spencer in England, that the belief in -spirits lies at the basis of all religious systems. We thus see, to -use his words, "that the group of theories and practices which -constitute the great province of man's emotions and mental operations -expressed in the term 'religion' has passed through the same stages, -and produced itself in the same way, from rude early beginnings, as -every other mental exertion." Mr. Brabrook mentions a work lately -published by "a distinguished missionary of the Evangelical Society of -Paris," the Rev. Mr. Coillard, in which an account is given of the -superstitions prevailing among the natives of the upper Zambesi. The -reverend gentleman tells of their belief in witchcraft, and gives a -story of a young woman who was condemned to penal labor on suspicion -of having bewitched, or tried to bewitch, another young woman who had -taken her husband from her; the evidence of the crime being found in a -dead mouse, which had been discovered in the second young woman's -chamber. The missionary says: "She was made a convict. A few years ago -she would have been burned alive. Ah, my friends, paganism is an -odious and a cruel thing!" On which the president of the -Anthropological Section observes: "Ah, Mr. Coillard, is it many years -ago that she would have been burned alive or drowned in Christian -England or Christian America? Surely the odiousness and the cruelty -are not special to paganism any more than to Christianity." This is -much to the point. If witchcraft is no longer a recognized crime in -England or America, it is not because these lands are Christian, but -because science is mixed with their Christianity. Even missionaries -ought to know this. - -A great many different sciences are grouped under the name -"anthropology," but they all have their rallying point in man, whose -nature and history they seek to explore. The fact is that all sciences -should have the same rallying point; and we trust that the greater -interest which is visibly being taken year by year in anthropological -studies will tend to humanize in a beneficial degree the whole circle -of human knowledge. - - -_AN EXAMPLE OF SOCIAL DECADENCE._ - -That the incessant encroachment of the Government upon the rights of -the individual will produce social decadence is a truth that most -Americans have yet to learn. With a light heart they are constantly -approving scheme after scheme for social regeneration that involves -some restriction upon freedom, or an increase of taxation, or both. It -is not perhaps singular that the history of similar schemes in the -past should possess no lesson for them. When President Eliot, of -Harvard University, says that the experience of the Italian republics -has no value for us, it is not to be expected that persons with less -capacity to interpret the records of other times should attach little -or no importance to them. But they ought not most certainly to -maintain the same attitude toward the experience of the nations of -to-day. It is to blind their eyes to what does not rest upon hearsay -or upon dubious documents--to what admits of the clearest -demonstration at the hands of living witnesses. - -For this reason we urge upon all students of social science the study -of the condition of the inhabitants of the black-earth region of -Russia. In that field, one of the largest and most fruitful in the -world for investigation, they will find the amplest evidence of the -frightful havoc wrought by the abridgment of individual freedom and -the seizure of private property in the form of taxes for public -purposes. If it be said that Russia is an autocracy, and can not -therefore furnish instruction to a democracy like the United States, -the answer is easy, if not obvious. Despotism, like gravitation, is -the same all over the world. It makes no difference in the long run -whether a law abridging freedom issues from the palace of a czar or -from the legislative halls of a popular assembly. The individual -objecting to it is obliged to regulate his life, not in accordance -with his own notions, but in accordance with the notions of some one -else. It makes no difference, either, whether taxation is imposed by -an imperial edict or by a legislative vote. The citizens that have to -bear it against their will contribute money for purposes that some one -else only approves of. The only difference between Russia and the -United States is that this kind of despotism has been carried to much -greater lengths in one country than in the other. If, therefore, we -can find out what the effect has been in Russia, we will be able to -predict what the effect will be in the United States. - -As every person familiar with Russia knows, the black-earth region is -one of the richest and most productive in the world. It ought to be -inhabited by one of the wealthiest and happiest of peoples. Yet such -is not the case. According to Count Tolstoi, who contributed recently -a letter to the London Times on the subject, the inhabitants are among -the poorest and most miserable in the world. They are in a state of -chronic starvation. They are obliged to content themselves with nearly -a third less food than is sufficient to maintain normal health. The -physical effect of this insufficiency of food is a decrease in -vitality, a diminished stature, and a check to the growth of -population. It is proved, first, by the failure of the peasants of the -region to meet the requirements for military service, and, second, by -the statistics of population, which show that the increase of births -over deaths has fallen from the maximum reached twenty years ago to -zero. - -But the mental effects of the destitution wrought by the robberies of -the Government are more distressing even than the physical. It gives -birth to a stolidity and despair that tend to paralyze all effort -toward betterment. The people subjected to it come to feel that there -is no use of making any struggle beyond the maintenance of mere -existence. Whatever they get in excess of this requirement will be -taken from them. "A peasant," says Tolstoi, illustrating this fact, -"feels that his position as an agriculturalist is bad, but he believes -that it can not be improved; and, consequently, adapting himself to -this hopeless position, he no longer fights against it, but lives and -acts only in so far as he is stirred by the instinct of -self-preservation. Moreover, the very wretchedness of his condition -increases still more his depression of spirit. The lower the economic -condition of a population sinks, like a weight on a lever, the more -difficult it becomes to raise it again; the peasants feel this, and, -as it were, throw away the helve after the hatchet. 'Why should we -trouble ourselves?' they say. 'We sha'n't get fat. If we can only keep -alive.'" - -The fruits of this mental state are as palpable as those of the lack -of food. They are to be found in every direction. In manners, habits, -and customs the peasants are hopelessly conservative. They belong, not -to the nineteenth century, but to the ninth. Instead of adopting new -and improved methods of agriculture, they cling to those of the -subjects of Rurik. They use the old plow, distribute tillage in three -crops, and divide their fields into long, narrow strips. So slowly do -they toil with primitive implements and debilitated animals, and so -indifferent are they to what they are doing, that it takes them a day -to do the work that a well-fed and alert peasant would do in half the -time. A more deplorable sign of demoralization is the prevalence of -family discord and loss of interest in a higher life. The aggressions -of the state have stimulated selfishness, bad temper, and incipient -rebellion. The children disobey their parents, the younger brothers -reject the primacy of the older, and money earned elsewhere is kept -from the family treasury. With the decadence of family life there is a -decadence of religious life. Although the peasants are nominally -orthodox, they care nothing for religion. Even the clergy confirm the -fact that they are becoming more and more indifferent to the church. -What they seek is not to penetrate the mysteries of life, but to -obliterate consciousness of them. "Under these circumstances," says -Tolstoi, alluding to the economic and mental decadence, "the craving -for forgetfulness is natural, and accordingly spirits and tobacco are -being consumed in ever greater and greater quantities." He adds that -"even quite young boys drink and smoke." - -Since the loss of freedom due to the seizure of property is the same -in the last analysis as that due to an abridgment of the right to -think and act, the evils of ecclesiastical and bureaucratic despotism -do not differ from those of excessive taxation. Nevertheless, they -receive separate attention at the hands of Tolstoi. As a proof of the -blight of a church that the peasants have no part in directing, he -points to the profound and beneficent change wrought the moment they -fall in with a sect of dissenters. "Their spirits at once rise," he -says, "and at the same time the foundation of their material -prosperity is laid." A blight of the same kind can be traced to the -attempt of the state to play the paternal rôle. "Nominally," says -Tolstoi again, "there exist for the peasants special laws with regard -to the possession and division of land, to inheritance, and to all the -duties connected with it, but in reality there is a kind of -hodge-podge of regulations, explanation, customary laws, decrees of -courts of cassation, and so on, which naturally makes the peasants -feel their absolute dependence on the will of innumerable officials." -Knowing that they are powerless to resist the Government, which is -constantly flogging them for disobedience or stupidity, they comply as -best they can with the thousand rules and regulations made for them. -Seldom do they think of acting upon their own responsibility. Thus -they lose the power of private initiative. What the impoverishment of -taxation has not done to ruin them is left to ecclesiastical and -bureaucratic despotism to complete. - -It is curious to note that Tolstoi's remedy for these evils is the one -that Herbert Spencer himself might have suggested. With one stroke he -dismisses the prescriptions that the social reformer in the United -States as well as in Russia attaches so much importance to. It is not, -in his opinion, "the ministry of agriculture, with all its -contrivances," that will reclaim the peasants, nor is it "exhibitions -nor schools for rural economy," nor that "unfailing" remedy "for all -evils," i. e., parish schools. The thing they need is freedom. "It is -necessary," says Tolstoi, "to give them religious liberty, to subject -them to common instead of special laws--the will of rural officials; -it is necessary to give them liberty of education, liberty of reading, -liberty of moving about, and, above all, to remove the power to -torture brutally by flogging grown-up people simply because they -belong to the peasant class." But to give them such freedom means to -deliver them not only from excessive taxation but from vexatious rules -and regulations. It is to apply to them the same remedy that must be -applied in the United States to save the American people, now so -heavily taxed and so oppressed by countless laws, from the same social -decadence that afflicts Russia. - - -_THE ADVANCE OF SCIENCE._ - -The paper by Sir J. Norman Lockyer, which we publish in this number, -recounts in an interesting manner the steps by which science gained a -place for itself in the educational systems of the world. To us, in -the latter years of the nineteenth century, it is apt to seem strange -that the recognition of science as an essential element in all -education should have come so late in the world's history; but -reflection shows that it could not well have been otherwise. To view -and examine any subject scientifically involves not only a deliberate -and prolonged mental effort, but the holding in check of some of the -most active propensities of the human mind, such as imagination and -what Bagehot has called "the emotion of belief." In a certain sense -imagination is the precursor of science; but, in the early stages of -human development the precursor is mistaken for the true teacher. The -lesson that there is no royal road to truth, nothing but a highway on -which much wearisome plodding must be done, is one which human nature -in general does not take to kindly. Even in the present day how many -there are who chafe at the restraints which Science imposes on belief, -whose disposition is to break her bonds asunder and have none of her -reproof! When we think, indeed, of what the intellectual condition of -the world is to-day, with the wonders which science has wrought -raising their testimony on every hand, it is hardly surprising that, a -couple of centuries ago, it was difficult to get any systematic -provision made for the teaching of science. However, that battle has -been fought and won, and Science has long since definitely entered on -her career of beneficent conquest. Systems founded on imagination, or -on merely abstract reasoning, come and go, wax and wane; but the -empire of science once set up can never be subverted. We must hope -that some day it will rule in the realm of morals as now it does in -that of material things. Not till then will its perfect work be done. - - - - -Scientific Literature. - - -SPECIAL BOOKS. - -Prof. _Dean C. Worcester_, of the University of Michigan, spent eleven -months, beginning in September, 1887, in the Philippine Islands in -connection with the second scientific expedition of Dr. J. B. Steere. -He went there again, with an expedition of which he was chief, in -July, 1890, and spent two years and eight months. His object in both -expeditions was the study of birds. In the course of them he visited -twenty-two islands. The first expedition was unofficial and was -regarded suspiciously by the authorities of the islands; the second -was armed with a special permission from the Spanish Minister of the -Colonies and enjoyed every advantage. The scientific results of both -were reported to the United States National Museum, and the -collections were deposited in its cabinet. The general results, the -story of the adventures of the members of the expedition, with their -observations on the geographical features of the islands, their -peoples, and the social conditions prevailing there, are given in a -popular style in the volume before us.[50] The account is preceded by -a short sketch of the history of the islands, as an aid to the better -comprehension of their present condition and the reasons for it. Of -the natives, who form the bulk of the 8,000,000 of the population of -the islands, there are more than eighty distinct tribes, each with its -own peculiarities, scattered over hundreds of islands. The more -important of these islands may be reached by lines of mail and -merchant steamers, which afford tolerably frequent communication -between them. The difficulties begin when one attempts to make his way -into the interior of the large and less explored of them, or desires -to reach ports at which vessels do not call. Roads are scarce and to a -large extent impracticable, while enemies and dangers are many, and -such boats as one can find off the regular routes are precarious. As -to climate, if one is well, able to live as he pleases, and most -scrupulously observes all sanitary rules, keeping the most healthy -spots, he may escape disease; but if he steps a little aside at any -point he is in danger. It is very doubtful, in the author's judgment, -if many successive generations of European or American children could -be reared there. Evidences of the action of earthquakes and volcanoes -are seen almost everywhere, and elevation and subsidence are going on -with great rapidity at the present time. Hence it is not safe to build -substantial houses in Manila. The soil is astonishingly fertile: -fruits--in about fifty varieties--are the chief luxury; the value of -the forest products is enormous; the mineral wealth is great, but has -never been developed. Professor Worcester speaks of five millions of -civilized natives of the Philippines. They belong for the most part to -three tribes: the Tagalogs, Ilocanos, and Visayans. Without drawing -fine distinctions between these, they are regarded as showing -sufficient homogeneity to be treated as a class. They have their bad -qualities and their good, which are reviewed with an apparent -inclination on the part of the author to like them, and the conclusion -that, having learned something of their power, they will now be likely -to take a hand in shaping their own future. There are also barbarians, -of whom the Moros of Sulu are a type--bloodthirsty and faithless, and -as careless of human life as one would be of weeds in a field; and -savages of all degrees, down to the lowest. The government is various, -according to the particular governor and the people he has to deal -with, but all of the Spanish or Moro type. The clergy are the dominant -class; and of these the friars or brethren of the orders exert an evil -influence, while the Jesuits are believed to be a distinctive power -for good. Much can be said in favor of the insurgents' demand that the -friars be expelled from the colony and their places taken by secular -clergymen not belonging to any order. Professor Worcester has made a -very lively, interesting, and instructive book, which is marred, -however, by occasional evidences that, while begun with serious -purpose, it has been hurried to meet a passing demand, and by the too -frequent intrusion of trivialities and slang. - - * * * * * - -We are often surprised at manifestations of individuality and -intelligence in domestic animals and pets, and are accustomed to -attribute extraordinary qualities to the beasts in which we perceive -them; as if each animal could not have its peculiar traits and talents -as well as each man. We hardly imagine that there are any special -differences in wild animals, and that idiosyncrasies of character and -diversities of gifts and powers of adaptation may run through the -whole animal kingdom. A closer acquaintance with Nature would teach us -better. Certain stories and myths of savages show that they had a fair -appreciation of the individual peculiarities of animals, and farmers' -boys, who live in natural surroundings, know something of these -things. The subject is now presented to us in a fairly clear light by -Mr. _Ernest Seton Thompson_, as illustrated in the careers of a number -of typical specimens of animals and birds whose characters and acts, -as they came under his observation, are related in _Wild Animals I -have Known_.[51] The stories, he avers, are true; the animals in the -book are all real characters. They lived the lives he has depicted, -and showed the stamp of heroism and personality more strongly by far -than it has been in the power of his pen to tell. Among them was Lobo, -the wolf, of the Corrumpaw Cattle Range, New Mexico, the leader of a -gang, who exhibited some of the qualities of an able general, and was -a beast of influence, powerful, vigilant, crafty, and the terror of -the settlement; and who was only trapped when grief for the loss of a -female companion deprived him of the wit by which he had escaped all -previous efforts to take him. Silverspot, the crow, was the leader of -a large band. He had his calls, which the other crows obeyed, and was -always to be seen at the head of his company in their incursions into -the fields, and guiding them in their journeys northward and -southward. Raggylug, the rabbit, is acknowledged to be a composite, -embodying in one the ways of several rabbits, their nesting habits and -ways of concealment and devices to baffle pursuers. Bingo, the dog, -had associates as well as enemies among the wolves, and different -characters by day and by night. In a similar way to these, the traits -of the fox, the pacing mustang, other dogs than Bingo, and the -partridge are portrayed. In all the stories the real personality of -the individual and his view of life are the author's theme, rather -than the ways of the race in general, as viewed by a casual and -hostile human eye. The moral is suggested by the lives and emphasized -by Mr. Thompson, that "we and the beasts are kin. Man has nothing that -the animals have not at least a vestige of; the animals have nothing -that man does not at least in some degree share. Since, then, the -animals are creatures with wants and feelings differing only in degree -from our own, they surely have their rights." It would be hard to -speak too well of the graphic expressiveness of the illustrations. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[50] The Philippine Islands and their People. A Record of Personal -Observation and Experiences, with a Short Summary of the More -Important Facts in the History of the Archipelago. By Dean C. -Worcester. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 529. Price, $4. - -[51] Wild Animals I have Known, and 200 Drawings. By Ernest Seton -Thompson. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 358. Price, $2. - - -GENERAL NOTICES. - -"An unscientific account of a scientific expedition" is what Mrs. -Mabel Loomis Todd happily styles the story of the Amherst Eclipse -Expedition, told in _Corona_ and _Coronet_[52]--"Corona" being what -the expedition went to see, and "Coronet" the vessel that took it to -the observing station. Professor Todd was the astronomer of the party, -and Mrs. Todd, who has published a work on astronomy, was his -companion. She believes that certain aspects of the trip, covering as -it did more than ten thousand miles of sailing for the party, and at -least forty-five thousand miles of deep-sea voyaging for the Coronet, -were worthy of narration. The astronomical purposes of the expedition, -the objects it sought to obtain, the scientific bearings of the -observations, and the methods, are intelligibly set forth in the -introduction to the book. The rest is devoted mostly to narrative, the -social aspects of the voyage, and the incidents. A short sojourn was -made at the Sandwich Islands, where the more interesting objects were -visited. Mrs. Todd was with Kate Field when she died there, and gives -an account of her last hours. A voyage of four weeks carried the party -to Yokohama, whence some of the members went to the capital and other -interesting points in Japan, while the rest were preparing the -observing station at Esashi, eleven hundred miles north of -Yokohama--"a village on the shores of the Sea of Okotsk, among the -hairy Ainu," in a region so remote that the native steamers had only -recently begun to go there at all. Besides the account of the -observations, descriptions are given of such Japanese experiences as -life in Kioto, cormorant fishing, yachting in the Inland Sea, the -tidal wave, and observations among the Ainu, with a visit on the way -home to an Arizona copper mine. - -The late Prof. _James D. Dana_ had begun a revision of his _Text-Book -of Geology_ a short time before his death. Prof. William North Rice -was requested by his family to complete the revision, and the result -is the present volume.[53] It was intended in the original plan of -revision to preserve as far as possible the distinctive -characteristics of the book. It was to be brought down to date as -regards its facts, but was still to express the well-known opinions of -its author, with the general plan of arrangement kept unchanged. It -soon became evident, however, that more and greater changes than had -been contemplated would be required. The zoölogical and botanical -classifications would have to be modified; the theory of evolution -must have more recognition than it had received, especially as -Professor Dana himself had adopted some of its features before his -death; and the treatment of metamorphism was believed to require -considerable modification. In the present edition the bearing of -various events in geological history upon the theory of evolution is -pointed out in the appropriate places, and the general bearing of -paleontology upon evolution is discussed in the concluding chapter. -All these changes seem to be in the line of continuing the usefulness -of Professor Dana's most excellent and standard work, and of keeping -his name before students as that of "one of the greatest of geologists -and one of the noblest of men." - -A true son of Nature is Mr. _F. Schuyler Mathews_, and he shows -himself at his best in his _Familiar Life in Field and Forest_.[54] -"There are few things," he says, "more gratifying to the lover of -Nature than these momentary glimpses of wild life which he obtains -while passing through the field or forest. Wild animals do not confine -themselves exclusively to the wilderness; quite frequently they -venture upon the highway, and we are apt to regard the meeting of one -of them there as a rare and fortunate occurrence. The daisy and the -wild rose appear in their accustomed places on the return of summer, -and the song sparrow sings in the same tree he frequented the year -before; but the wood-chuck, the raccoon, and the deer are not so often -found exactly where we think they belong. To seek an interview with -such folk is like taking a chance in a lottery; there are numerous -blanks and but few prizes. But because wild life is not in constant -evidence, like the wild flower, is no proof that it is uncommon. To -those who keep in touch with Nature, it becomes a very familiar thing, -and to live a while where the wild creatures make their homes is to -cross their paths continually." Mr. Mathews is in touch with Nature. -He does not exactly know where to find the wild and shy, for they do -not come at call, but he can put himself where he will meet them if -they come around--and "one can never tell at what moment some -surprising demonstration of wild life will occur at one's very -doorstep." In this book Mr. Mathews records some of his meetings, at -home and in his daily walks, offering as his excuse for the record, -that he has lived long enough among wild animals to "respect their -rights of life, and speak a good word for them when occasion offers." - -The _Short Manual of Analytical Chemistry_,[55] prepared by Mr. John -Muter, follows the course of instruction given in the South London -School of Pharmacy. Encouraged by the continued favor which the book -has received in Great Britain, the author offers a special edition of -it to American students, a concise and low-priced manual, designed to -introduce them to the chief developments of analytical chemistry from -the simplest operations upward. It includes many organic questions -generally overlooked in initiatory books. By working through it the -author claims the student may expect to become familiar with a great -variety of processes, and to be in a position to use with satisfaction -the more exhaustive treatises dealing with any special branch he may -desire to follow. In preparing it for American students, the -directions, wherever the British methods differ from the American, -have been modified to agree with the latter. The processes given -include the qualitative analysis, all the general operations and those -relating to detection of the metals, of acid radicals and their -separation, of unknown salts, of alkaloids and certain organic bodies -used in medicine--with a general sketch of toxicological procedure; -and in quantitative analysis, directions on weighing, measuring, and -specific gravity; gravimetric analysis of metals and acids, ultimate -organic analysis, special processes for the analysis of air, water, -and food; analysis of drugs, urine, and calculi; and analysis of -gases, polarization, spectrum analysis, etc. - -The pure geometry of position is mainly distinguished, according to -Professor Reye's definition,[56] from the geometry of ancient times -and from analytical geometry, in that it makes no use of the idea of -measurement. Nothing is said in it "about the bisection of segments of -straight lines, about right angles and perpendiculars, about ratios -and proportions, about the computation of areas, and just as little -about trigonometric ratios and the algebraic equations of curved -lines, since all these subjects of the older geometry assume -measurement.... We shall be concerned as little with isosceles and -equilateral triangles as with right-angled triangles; the rectangle, -the regular polygon, and the circle are likewise excluded from our -investigations, except in the case of these applications to metric -geometry. We shall treat of the center, the axes, and the foci of -so-called curves of the second order, or conic sections, only as -incidental to the general theory; but, on the other hand, shall become -acquainted with many properties of these curves, more general and more -important than those to which most text-books upon analytical geometry -are restricted." Of all the other branches of geometry, the -descriptive is the most helpful in facilitating the study of the -geometry of position; and perspective or central projection plays an -important part in it. It stands in a certain antithetical relation to -analytical geometry on account of its method, which is synthetic, and -whence it is sometimes known as synthetic geometry. Since metric -relations are not considered in it, its theorems and problems are very -general and comprehensive. As presented in von Standt's complete work, -it is regarded by the author as an excellent aid to the exercise and -development of the imagination; and the important graphical methods -with which Professor Culmann has enriched the science of engineering -in his work on graphical statistics, being based for the most part -upon it, a knowledge of it has become important for students of that -science. In the present work, the outgrowth of his lectures, Professor -Reye has attempted to supply the want of a text-book which shall offer -to the student the necessary material in a concise form. - -Prof. _Cyrus Thomas_ brings the qualification which a lifetime devoted -to study of the subject develops, to the preparation of an -_Introduction to the Study of North American Archæology_.[57] He is -known to all students in this branch as a careful, judicious -investigator whose work in the field has been supplemented by valuable -contributions to its literature. In this volume he presents a brief -summary of the progress that has been made in the investigation of -American antiquities--which has been recently great indeed, and well -calls for a new synopsis. His chief object has been to present the -data and arrange them so as to afford the student some means of -bringing his facts and materials into harmony, and of utilizing them. -He presents the theories that have been advanced, and mentions -opposing views; regarding it, he says, as important to the progress of -the student to know which of the questions that arise have been -answered, and which hypotheses have been eliminated from the class of -possibilities. The materials for the study and the methods are first -explained. The relics of ancient men and the mounds are then described -as under three divisions--the Arctic, the Atlantic, and the Pacific. -Local as well as regional characteristics and differences are pointed -out; as in the mounds as a whole, the special class of animal mounds, -the pueblos, the cliff dwellings, and the Mexican and Central American -monuments, the peculiar features of each are pointed out, and their -territorial limits are defined. All these various kinds of works are -ascribed to substantially the same people, who are supposed to have -come down from somewhere in the north or northwest (the extreme -northwest Pacific coast), although the different immigrations may -perhaps have arrived by various routes. The people were the present -Indians or their ancestors; the time of the immigration was not -extremely remote; and the "mound-building habit" is shown to have -persisted and been practiced till since the advent of the Europeans. - -In entitling his book _The Art of Taxidermy_,[58] the chief of the -Department of Taxidermy in the American Museum of Natural History -evidently intends to use the word art in the high sense of a fine art; -for he speaks of the enormous strides toward perfection which it has -made from the former "trade of most inartistically upholstering a -skin"--stuffing it, we used to call it--and of its study having been -taken up of late years by a number of men of genius and education. It -is largely owing to the exertions of these men that the taxidermy of -the present day is so far in advance of what it was a decade since. -The proverb says that art is long, and accordingly Mr. Rowley takes -for the motto of his book a sentence from Thoreau, that "into a -perfect work time does not enter." To the possible objection that some -of his methods seem to involve considerable time and expense, the -author replies in substance that if the work is not worth this, it is -hardly worth while to take it up at all. If it is a proper work, and -one has the proper degree of energy and enthusiasm, let him give the -specimen all the time it demands. In preparing his treatise, the -author has aimed to eliminate all extraneous matter, and to give -mainly the results of his own experience, coupled with that of other -taxidermists with whom he has come in contact. He begins with -instructions about collecting tools and materials, and casting, and -treats further of the preparation of birds, of mammals, and of fish, -reptiles, and crustaceans; the cleansing and mounting of skeletons, -and the reproduction of foliage for groups. The appendix contains -addresses of reliable firms from whom tools and materials used in -taxidermy may be purchased. - -The preparation of this book on _The Storage Battery_ was suggested to -Mr. Treadwell[59] by his finding a lack in working on these machines -of any compact data concerning their construction, and the paucity of -reliable discharge curves; and he concluded that a book containing -such data and curves, with rules for the handling and maintenance of -cells, would be valuable to all interested in storage batteries as -well as to the student and manufacturer. Among the points specially -mentioned by the author are the lists of American and foreign patents -given as footnotes for the various types, not complete but noticing -the principal patents for each cell; the chapter on the chemistry of -secondary batteries, which gives the latest and most generally -accepted theory concerning the chemical reactions taking place in an -accumulator, and which has been approved by Dr. Sewal Matheson; and, -in the appendix, tables of data comprising figures of all the -batteries, methods for the measurement of the E. M. F. and internal -resistance of a storage battery; and data from which the theoretical -and practical capacity of an accumulator may be determined. - -The _Natural Advanced Geography_[60] is a successful application of -modern methods to the teaching of this science, and presents it with -the interest undiminished which really appertains to it. While in the -elementary book of this, the "natural" series, the pupil starts from -his own home and is introduced to the study of man in relation to his -environment, in the present work the fact is developed that -environment itself is the chief factor in the various activities and -economies of man. One of the salient features of the presentation of -the subject, marked throughout the work, and one that commands high -praise, is the arrangement of the facts into such order that their -correlation may be perceived and the unity of Nature recognized. The -isolated, barren, curt, unrelated statements that made the study of -many of the old geographies hard and tedious are conspicuously absent, -and the subject, studied in orderly sequence, "unfolds itself -naturally and logically, each lesson preparing the way for those which -follow." The first part of the work is devoted to a study of the world -as a whole. The second part, comprising about three fourths of the -volume, is an application of these laws to the various countries of -the globe, beginning with the United States. In the United States, for -instance, a general description of the whole is given, which presents -a real, comprehensive mental picture of the country; and the process -is repeated, in measure according to the conditions, for the several -States, so that the pupil is taught what are the factors that give the -characteristics and local features to each. A like method is pursued, -on a more general scale, with other countries. The colored maps are -drawn on a system of uniform scales, with reliefs plainly shown -according to the accepted conventions; graphic charts or sketch maps -showing the distribution of products and resources are employed; and -pedagogical exercises and aids are afforded abundantly. - -A text-book on the _Differential and Integral Calculus_,[61] for -students who have a working knowledge of elementary geometry, algebra, -trigonometry, and analytical geometry, by Prof. _P. A. Lambert_, has -the threefold object of inspiring confidence, by a logical -presentation of principles, in the methods of infinitesimal analysis; -of aiding, through numerous problems, in acquiring facility in the use -of these methods; and, by applications to problems in physics, -engineering, and other branches of mathematics, to show the practical -value of the calculus. By a division of the matter according to -classes of functions, it is made possible to introduce these -applications from the start, and thereby to arouse the interest of the -student. By simultaneous treatment of differentiation and integration -and the use of trigonometric substitution to simplify integration it -is sought to economize the time and effort of the student. - -_The Birds of Indiana_, by _Amos W. Butler_, lately published as part -of Willis S. Blatchley's Twenty-second Annual Report on the Geology -and Natural Resources of Indiana, is just at hand. It is one of the -most accurate, detailed, and satisfactory local catalogues yet -published. Three hundred and twenty-one species of birds have been -taken in Indiana, and of each of these is given a detailed -description, with a general account of its habits, song, migration, -and nesting. In the case of the more rare species, full records of the -dates and places of capture of the known specimens are appended. -Analytical keys to genera and species are also given, so that every -facility is furnished for the identification of species. This book is -a model of its kind, and is a worthy fruit of Mr. Butler's twenty -years of devoted study of the birds of his native State. - -_Robert H. Whitten_, in his monograph on _Public Administration in -Massachusetts_--the relation of central to local activity--pursues a -parallel course with that taken by Mr. John A. Fairlie in a similar -essay on the Centralization of Administration in New York State, of -this same series of Columbia University studies in History, Economics, -and Public Law. Having found the systems and tendencies of -administration in the early settlement of Massachusetts all for -expansion and decentralization, Mr. Whitten now perceives the course -altogether changed, and centralization more and more the rule. The -change corresponds with changes in the conditions of life, and keeps -track with them step by step. Of great dynamic forces which have been -set to work and are bringing about a complete reconstruction of the -social structure, improvements in transportation and communication -were the most vital--first, turnpikes, then the steamboat, railroad, -and telegraph; then the horse railway, cheap postage, the telephone, -the electric railway, and the bicycle. The tendency at first was to -bring about a concentration which was attended by the congestion of -population in cities and the depopulation of the rural towns. "The -electric railway, the telephone, and the bicycle came in to counteract -these evils; while their tendency is strongly toward the -centralization of bureaus, it is also toward the diffusion of -habitations. These great socializing forces, going hand in hand with -the development of the factory system and improvement of machinery, -make possible a vastly higher organization of society than was -possible under a stagecoach _régime_." - -The first volume of the Final Report of the State Geologist of New -Jersey, on Topography, Magnetism, and Climate, was published in 1888. -Other volumes embracing other topics have been published since, and in -the meantime the supply of the first volume has been exhausted, while -the demand has continued. It has been therefore necessary either to -reprint the volume or to publish a new work which should include the -important statistical matter of it. Accordingly, we have now _The -Physical Geography of New Jersey_, prepared by Prof. _Rollin D. -Salisbury_, with an appendix embodying "Data pertaining to the -Physical Geology of the State," by Mr. C. C. Vermeule, who was -formerly in charge of the topographic survey, and is author of the -volume on water supply. The two parts of the volume treat of the -topography of New Jersey as it now is, and the geological history of -the topography. The report is accompanied by a relief map of the -State, prepared by Mr. Vermeule on the basis of the topographical -survey, and presenting, therefore, an accurate picture of the relief. -It shows the great features of the State, its ranges of mountains, -hills, tablelands, plains, marsh lands, streams, and water areas in -their proper relations to one another; and it is contemplated to put -it in every schoolhouse in the State as an aid in the study of -geography. - -M. _Imbert de Saint-Amand's_ series of books about the Second French -Empire furnish very interesting reading, are, so far as our -recollection of events goes, historically accurate, and fill a gap -which the literary world always has to suffer concerning any period -too recently passed for a competent judicial mind to have appeared to -tell its story. The second of the series--_Napoleon III and his -Court_--takes Louis Napoleon at the height of his success and -happiness, just after he had married the beautiful Eugénie, of whom -the world has nothing harsh to say, and carries him through the -period of his wonderful popularity and brilliant accomplishments to -the close of the Crimean War and the birth of the prince whose fate -was so unhappy. It deals, in a pleasant manner, and all favorable to -Napoleon, but not adulatory, with affairs social, political, and -military, in which it is hard to say whether the tact or the good -fortune of the subject of the history shone most brilliantly. We are -told how Eugénie won the French nation; of Napoleon's good will, -especially manifested toward all that could contribute to his -exaltation; of his dealings with the sovereigns around him, gradually -winning their recognition, including that of Nicholas of Russia; of -the darkening of the clouds of war, the Crimean campaigns; of the -interchanges of courtesies, gradually rising into close, firm -friendship, with the British court; and of the birth of the Prince -Imperial. Think what we may of the character of the reign of Louis -Napoleon and of its influence, it marked an epoch in nearly every line -of development of the world's history, and was as distinctly separated -from what came before it and from what followed it as if a broad line -were drawn around it; and it left some important results that are not -likely to be soon effaced. M. de Saint-Amand writes from personal -knowledge, having witnessed or participated in much of what he -describes, and has in Elizabeth Gilbert Martin a fully competent and -acceptable translator. (Published by Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 407. -Price, $1.50.) - -The paper of the late Dr. _Theodor Eimer_ on _Orthogenesis and the -Impotence of Natural Selection in Species Formation_ is published by -the Open Court Company, Chicago, as No. 29 of their Religion of -Science Library. Pp. 56. Price, 25 cents. - -The second volume of Uncle Robert's Geography, of Appletons' -Home-Reading Series--_On a Farm_--Mr. _Francis W. Parker_, the editor, -and _Nellie Lathrop Helm_, emphasizes the importance of parents and -teachers, giving full and complete recognition of the immense -educational value of spontaneous activities as displayed in motive and -interest; a recognition which "should be followed by active -encouragement and direction of the child's play, work, and -observations." The story deals entirely with the interests and life of -children in the environment of the country. A little girl is in her -playhouse in a Virginia fence corner, with her doll and mimic -housekeeping. Her shy, retiring companions are the birds who peep into -the playhouse, and, after she has gone away, come into it and pick up -the crumbs she has left. This leads to talks about different birds and -their nest building. A St. Bernard dog is introduced and furnishes the -opportunity for bringing in stories of the Alps, their glaciers and -snows, and the Hospice of St. Bernard, and then about other dogs. Susy -makes a garden in the woods, and the wild flowers become the subjects -of her spontaneous study. So with the rabbits, bread making and the -grain that furnishes the material for the bread, and other incidents; -with more birds' nests; the nature of bulbs, squirrels, etc.; and -finally Uncle Robert sets the child to finding out how the animals in -the woods spend the winter, and whether they are doing anything now in -preparation for it. (New York: D. Appleton and Company. Price, 42 -cents.) - -The _Thirty-fifth Annual Report_ of the Secretary of the State Board -of Agriculture of Michigan includes the Ninth Annual Report of the -Agricultural College Experiment Station, and is largely taken up with -the work of the latter institution, reviewing the records of the -college departments and presenting the reports and bulletins of the -station. The record of meteorological observations, the Proceedings of -the Farmers' Institutes, the Transactions of the Association of -Breeders of Improved Live Stock, and the Transactions of the State -Agricultural Society are also incorporated in the volume. An -interesting feature of the publication is the insertion of a portrait -and biographical notice of one of the pioneer farmers of the State, -Enos Goodrich, who was also prominent in public life. - -The translation by _Eleanor Marx Aveling_ of Lissagaray's _History of -the Commune of 1871_ was made many years ago at the request of the -author from a contemplated second edition which the French Government -would not allow published. The work having been revised and corrected -by the translator's father, and for other reasons, no changes have -been made to adapt it to the time of its issue from the press. The -translator claims that Lissagaray's work is the only reliable and -accurate history that has yet been written of the Commune. He has not -attempted, she says, to hide the errors of his party, or to gloss over -the fatal weakness of the revolution. Of course, a very different view -of the movement is given from that presented in the French accounts, -as well as that generally held by English and Americans; but the -communists have a right to be represented and heard, and it is well -that they have so competent a spokesman. (Published by the -International Publishing Company, 23 Duane Street, New York.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[52] Corona and Coronet: Being the Narrative of the Amherst Eclipse -Expedition to Japan, in Mr. James's Schooner Yacht Coronet, to observe -the Sun's Total Obscuration, August 9, 1896. By Mabel Loomis Todd. -Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Pp. 383. Price, $2.50. - -[53] Revised Text-Book of Geology. By James D. Dana, LL. D. Fifth -edition, revised and enlarged. Edited by William North Rice. American -Book Company. Pp. 482. - -[54] Familiar Life in Field and Forest. The Animals, Birds, Frogs, and -Salamanders. By F. Schuyler Mathews. New York: D. Appleton and -Company. Pp. 284. Price, $1.75. - -[55] A Short Manual of Analytical Chemistry, Qualitative and -Quantitative, Inorganic and Organic. By John Muter. Second American -edition. Illustrated. Adapted from the eighth British edition. -Philadelphia: E. Blakiston, Son & Co. Pp. 228. Price, $1.25. - -[56] Lectures on the Geometry of Position. By Theodor R. Reye. -Translated and edited by Thomas F. Halgate. New York: The Macmillan -Company. Pp. 148. Price, $2.25. - -[57] Introduction to the Study of North American Archæology. By Prof. -Cyrus Thomas. Cincinnati: The Robert Clarke Company. Pp. 391. - -[58] The Art of Taxidermy. By John Rowley. New York: D. Appleton and -Company. Pp. 244. Price, $2. - -[59] The Storage Battery. A Practical Treatise on the Construction, -Theory, and Use of Secondary Batteries. By Augustus Treadwell. New -York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 257. Price, $1.75. - -[60] Natural Advanced Geography. By Jacques W. Redway and Russell -Hinman. American Book Company. Pp. 100. - -[61] Differential and Integral Calculus. For Technical Schools and -Colleges. By R. A. Lambert. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 245. -Price, $1.50. - - -PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. - -Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Proceedings, 1898. Part -II. April to September. Pp. 224, with plates. - -Agricultural Experiment Stations. Bulletins and Reports. Cornell -University: No. 152. Studies in Milk Secretion. By H. H. Wing and -Leroy Anderson. Pp. 56; No. 153. Impressions of our Fruit-growing -Industries. By L. H. Bailey. Pp. 18.--Iowa State College of -Agriculture, etc.: No. 10. Anatomical and Histological Studies. Pp. -25, with plates.--New Hampshire College: No. 53. The Farm Water -Supply. By Fred W. Morse. Pp. 12; The Winter Food of the Chickadee. By -Clarence M. Weed. Pp. 16.--United States Department of Agriculture: -The Chinch Bug. By F. M. Webster. Pp. 82; Some Books on Agriculture -and Sciences related to Agriculture published in 1896-'98. Pp. 45; -Forage Plants and Forage Resources of the Gulf States. By S. M. Tracy. -Pp. 55; List of Publications relating to Forestry in the Department -Library. Pp. 93.--University of Illinois: The Chemistry of the Corn -Kernel. By C. G. Hopkins. Pp. 52. - -Austin, Herbert Ernest. Observation Blanks for Beginners in -Mineralogy. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co. Pp. 80. 50 cents. - -Bailey, M. A. American Elementary Arithmetic. American Book Company. -Pp. 205. - -Beddard, Frank E. The Structure and Classification of Birds. New York -and London: Longmans, Green & Co. Pp. 548. - -Barnes's National Vertical Penmanship. Nos. A and B, and 1 to 6. -American Book Company. - -Bookseller, The, Newsdealer, and Stationer. Semimonthly. New York: 156 -Fifth Avenue. Pp. 38. $1 a year. - -Boutwell, Hon. George S. Problems raised by the War. Boston: Woman's -Educational and Industrial Union. Pp. 20. - -Bulletins, Reports, Proceedings, etc. Michigan Monthly Bulletin of -Vital Statistics, October, 1898. Pp. 16.--National Pure Food and Drug -Congress: Journal of Proceedings, March, 1898. Pp. 53.--United States -Department of Labor: Bulletin No. 18, September, 1898. Pp. 124; No. -19, November, 1898. Pp. 42. - -Card, Fred W. Bush Fruits. A Horticultural Monograph of Raspberries, -Blackberries, etc. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 537. $1.50. - -Carpenter, Frank G. Carpenter's Geographical Reader, North America. -American Book Company. Pp. 352. - -Clark, William J. Commercial Cuba, with an Introduction by E. Sherman -Gould. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 514 with maps. $4. - -Collyer, Rev. Robert. The Parable of "Lot's Wife." Pp. 13. 5 cents. - -Earl, Alfred. The Living Organism. An Introduction to the Principles -of Biology. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 271. $1.75. - -Fisher, George E., and Schwatt, Isaac J. Text-Book of Algebra, with -Exercises. Philadelphia: Fisher & Schwatt. Pp. 683. $1.75. - -Hall, Fred S. Sympathetic Strikes and Sympathetic Lockouts. Columbia -University. (Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law) Pp. 118. - -Hill, Frank A. How far the Public High School is a Just Charge on the -Public Treasury. Pp. 36. - -Holman, Silas W. Matter, Energy, Force, and Work. New York: The -Macmillan Company. Pp. 257. $2. - -Hornbrook, A. R. Primary Arithmetic. American Book Company. Pp. 253. - -Geikie, James. Rock Sculpture, or the Origin of Land Forms. New York: -G. P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. 397. $2. - -Hurley, Denis M. The Metric System of Weights and Measures in the -Congress of the United States. Pp. 4. - -Inglis, George E., Editor. The Anglo-Saxon Monthly. Chicago: The -Anglo-Saxon Publishing Company. 10 cents. $1 a year. - -Jackman, Wilbur S. Nature Study for Grammar Grades. Danville, Ill.: -Illinois Printing Company. Pp. 407. - -Jenkins, C. Francis. Animated Pictures. Washington, D. C.: C. Francis -Jenkins. Pp. 118. - -Jordan, David Starr. Footnotes to Evolution. New York: D. Appleton and -Company. Pp. 392. $1.50. - -Lassalle, Ferdinand. The Workingman's Programme. New York: -International Publishing Company. Pp. 62. - -Macmillan Company, The. Catalogue of Books, Section VII, Scientific, -pp. 24; and Section IX, Classical and Educational, pp. 26. - -Makato, Tentearo. Japanese Notions of European Political Economy. -Philadelphia. Pp. 42. - -Marshall, Henry Rutgers. Instinct and Reason. New York: The Macmillan -Company. Pp. 575. $3.50. - -Merriman, Mansfield. Elements of Sanitary Engineering. New York: John -Wiley & Sons. Pp. 216. - -Metric System, The, of Weights and Measures. Hartford, Conn.: Hartford -Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company. Pp. 196. - -Millennial Dawn, Vol. IV. The Day Of Vengeance. Allegheny, Pa.: The -Tower Publishing Company. Pp. 668. 35 cents. - -Park. J. G. Language Lessons. American Book Company. Pp. 144. - -Payne, Frank Owen. Geographical Nature Studies. American Book Company. -Pp. 144. 25 cents. - -Peabody, J. E. Laboratory Exercises in Anatomy and Physiology. New -York: Henry Holt & Co. Pp. 79. 60 cents. - -Preece, W. H. President's Address before the Institution of Civil -Engineers, November 1, 1898. Pp. 29. - -Reprints. Coulter, John M. The Origin of Gymnosperms and the Seed -Habit. (Botanical Society of America.) Pp. 16.--Brinton, Daniel G. The -Peoples of the Philippines. Pp. 16.--Eckles, C. H. The Relation of -Certain Bacteria to the Production of Butter. Pp. 10.--Graziani, Dr. -Giovanni. A Sensitive Test for Kryofine in the Urine, etc. Pp. -81.--Keen, W. W. The Advantages of a Permanent Abdominal Anus, etc., -in Operations for Cancer of the Rectum. Pp. 11; The Advantages of the -Trendelenburg Posture during Operations involving the Cavities of the -Mouth, etc. Pp. 7; Removal of Angioma of the Liver, etc. Pp. -12.--Keen, W. W., and Spiller, W. G. On Resection of the Gasserian -Ganglion, etc. Pp. 38, with plates.--Ladd, E. F. The Proteids of -Cream. Pp. 3; and Humates and Soil Fertility. Pp. 7.--Lloyd, James -Hendrie. A Study of the Lesions in a Case of Trauma of the Cervical -Region of the Spinal Cord simulating Syringomyelia. Pp. 18.--Sherwood, -W. L. The Frogs and Toads found in the Vicinity of New York City. Pp. -27.--Tromsdorff, Richard. Observations at the Clinic of Professor -Ebstein on Kryofine. Pp. 12. - -Ripley, Frederic H., and Tappen, Thomas. A Short Course in Music. Book -Two. American Book Company. Pp. 175. - -Russell, Israel C. Rivers of North America. New York: G. P. Putnam's -Sons. Pp. 327. $2. - -Sands, Maniel. Opposites in Religion. New York: Peter Eckler. (Library -of Liberal Classics, Monthly). Pp. 138. 50 cents. - -Savage, M. J. The Word of God: The Evils of Religious and Political -Pessimism. Boston: George H. Ellis. Pp. 18 each. - -Schimmel & Co., Leipzig and New York Semiannual Report (fine -chemicals), October, 1898. Pp. 64, with map. - -Seymour, A. T., Editor. The Science Teacher. Monthly. Orange, N. J. -Pp. 12. 15 cents. $1 a year. - -Smithsonian Institution and United States National Museum. Annual -Report of the Board of Regents to July, 1896. Pp. 727.--Bean, Barton -A. Notes on a Collection of Fishes from Mexico, etc. Pp. 4.--Cook, O. -F. American Oniscoid Diploda, etc. Pp. 16, with plates.--Coquillet, D. -W. Report on Japanese Diptera. Pp. 36.--Enkle, Arthur. Topaz Crystals -in the Mineral Collection of the Museum. Pp. 10.--Gilbert, C. N. -Caulolepis Longidens, Gill, on the Coast of California. P. 1.--Jordan, -David Starr, and Evermann, Barton D. The Fishes of North and Middle -America. Part III. Pp. 978.--Marlatt, C. L. Japanese Hymenoptera of -the Family Teuthredonidæ. Pp. 16.--Mearns, Edgar A. Mammals of the -Catskill Mountains. Pp. 20.--Moore, J. Percy. The Leeches of the -United States National Museum. Pp. 20, with plates.--Oberholser, Harry -C. Revision of the Wrens of the Genus Thryomanes, Sclater. Pp. -30.--Rathbun, Mary J. Brachyura Collected by the Steamer Albatross -between Norfolk, Va., and San Francisco. Pp. 50, with plate; and -Fresh-Water Crabs of America. Pp. 30.--Smith, Hugh M. Amphiura, or the -Congo Snake, in Virginia. P. 1.--Smith, John B., and Dyar, Harrison G. -The Lepidopterous Family Noctuidæ of Boreal North America, etc. Pp. -194, with plates.--Starks, Edwin C. Osteology and Relationships of the -Family Zeidæ. Pp. 8, with plates.--Stearns, Robert E. C. A Species of -Actæon from the Quaternary Deposits of Spanish Height, San Diego, Cal. -Pp. 3; and Cythera (Tivala) Crassateloides, Conrad, etc. Pp. 8, with -plate.--Stejneger, Leonhard. A New Species of Spiny-tailed Iguana from -California. P. 1.--Test, Frederick C. Variations of the Tree Frog, -Hyla Regilla. Pp. 16, with plate.--True, Frederick W. Nomenclature of -the Whalebone Whales, etc. Pp. 20.--Walcott, C. D. Cambrian -Brachiopoda, Obolus, and Singulella, etc. Pp. 36. - -Sue, Eugène. The Silver Cross, or the Carpenter of Nazareth. New York: -International Publishing Company. Pp. 151. - -Sullivan, Christine Gordon. Elements of Perspective. American Book -Company. Pp. 96. - -Terrestrial Magnetism. An International Quarterly Journal. L. A. Bauer -and Thomas French, Jr., Editors. University of Cincinnati. Pp. 46, -with plates. 60 cents. $2 a year. - -Vines, Sidney H. An Elementary Text-Book of Botany. New York: The -Macmillan Company. Pp. 611. $2.25. - -Volta Bureau, Washington, Publications of Catalogue of Books by Prof. -A. Melville Bell.--Some Differences in the Education of the Deaf and -the Hearing. Pp. 15.--International Reports of Schools for the Deaf. -Pp. 27.--Bell, A. G. Methods of Instructing the Deaf in the United -States. Pp. 4.--Gordon, J. C. The Difference between the Two Systems -of Teaching Deaf-mutes the English Language. Pp. 4.--Gilman, Arthur. -Miss Helen Adams Keller's First Year of College Preparatory Work. Pp. -14.--Bell, Mabel Gardiner. The Story of the Rise of the Oral Method in -America as told in the Writings of the Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard. Pp. -50. - -Voorhees, Edward B. Fertilizers. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. -335. $1. - -Wadden Turner, Susan, Prof. William, and Jane. In Memoriam. By -Caroline H. Dall. Pp. 19. - -Weysse, Arthur W. An Epitome of Human Histology. New York: Longmans, -Green & Co. Pp. 90. $1.50. - - - - -Fragments of Science. - - -=The Huxley Lecture.=--The Charing Cross Medical School in London, -which had the good fortune some fifty-three years ago to number Huxley -among its pupils, had largely through this fact the honor of being -addressed on October 3d by Professor Virchow, the greatest living -pathologist and one of the greatest of living scientists. There was a -peculiar fitness in his delivering the Huxley lecture, for, while -Professor Virchow's work has been chiefly that of the specialist, his -co-operation with laborers in other fields, his continued efforts to -popularize science, and the prominent position which he has occupied -for the last thirty years in public life, have given him a standing in -Germany somewhat akin to that of Huxley in England. His career is a -striking illustration, as was also Huxley's, of the happy results to -humanity from a combination in one man of great ability as an -investigator with a facility for generalization and the practical -application of scientific truths to the concrete problems of science -and civilization. Professor Virchow is described as modest and -unassuming, and very much of a contrast in all ways to the ordinary -German professor. His address was on The Recent Advances in Science, -and their Bearing on Medicine and Surgery. It was inevitable that he -should refer to Huxley, of whom he was in some sense a pupil. In -speaking of the rapid growth of the latter during his four years on -the Beagle, he said: "How this was possible any one will readily -understand who knows from his own experience how great is the value of -personal observation.... Freed from the formalism of the schools, -thrown upon his own intellect, compelled to test each single object as -regards properties and history, we soon forget the dogmas of the -prevailing system, and become first a skeptic and then an -investigator." This paragraph is especially worthy of notice, because -it points out one of the invariable characteristics of the great man. -In whatever field his greatness may lie, he will be found to have -broken away from the formalism and conservatism of the schools, and -that his great work is based on personal observation and research. -This was notably the case with Professor Virchow's establishment of -the cellular pathology, as well as of Huxley's researches in -comparative anatomy. Our present school system is lamentably weak in -this particular, tending to stifle rather than stimulate originality -and self-dependence. Professor Virchow's address was, of course, -interesting and instructive, but, as he said, much too short for -anything like an adequate treatment of the subject. The chief interest -of the occasion lay in its associations. An address by Rudolph -Virchow, at a meeting presided over by Lord Lister on an occasion -commemorating Professor Huxley, left only one thing to be desired--the -presence of the latter. For a biologist, or in fact a modern scientist -of any description, one can not imagine a more delightful occasion. - -=The Climate of Cuba.=--Systematic records of weather appear to be -wanting in Cuba. The meteorological observations kept up for several -years by Andre Poey are not accessible, no need of their being -published having been found. The chief source of information on the -subject is the observations which have been kept up at Belen College, -Havana, since 1859. From these and a few scattered observations of -brief periods at other towns, and by comparison with notes taken at -other West Indian stations, W. F. B. Phillips, of the United States -Department of Agriculture, has attempted to describe the climate of -Cuba. The average annual temperature of the past ten years at Havana -was 77° F., and the difference between the highest and the lowest -yearly means was only 1.1° F. The warmest month is July, with an -average temperature of 82.7° F., and the coldest is January, with an -average temperature of 70.3° F. The highest temperature recorded was -100.6° F., in July, 1891, and the lowest 49.6°. Brief intermittent -records at Matanzas, more than sixty years old, give a mean annual -temperature of about 78°, with 93° as the highest and 51° as the -lowest. At Santiago the annual mean appears to be about 80°, and the -difference between the warmest and coldest months about 6° F. Records -of temperature in the interior, such as they are, give annual means of -from 73.6° to 75°, apparently showing lower temperatures than on the -coast. The average daily range of temperature is about 10°, the -highest occurring between noon and two o'clock P. M., while sudden -variations in the temperature of the day are not unknown. The average -yearly rainfall at Havana is about fifty-two inches. The season of -heavy rainfall begins in the latter part of May and first of June, and -lasts till October, and during this period about sixty-three per cent -of the year's rain is precipitated. Rain occurs on about one day in -three, in heavy downpours of short duration. Notwithstanding the -frequency of rain during the summer months, these do not present the -greatest number of cloudy days. The days on which rain does not fall -are usually perfectly cloudless, and, in general, no clouds are seen -in summer except while the showers are falling; while in other months -cloudy days sometimes occur without rain. The average velocity of the -wind is about 7.5 miles an hour, with variations, according to the -season, from 8.5 miles in winter to 6.5 miles in summer. The diurnal -variation in wind velocity is much more pronounced than the seasonal -variation. - -=The New Planet D Q.=--The number of minor planets discovered during -the last few years, and their lack of practical importance in -astronomy, has tended to distract astronomers' attention from the -search for them, as unprofitable, and the announcement of a new one -attracts little attention, as a rule. The planet D Q, however, -discovered by Herr Witt, of the Urania Observatory, of Berlin, on -August 13th last, has aroused from the first special attention through -its remarkable behavior. The orbit is a very unusual one. Mars has -always been considered our nearest neighbor, although it was known -that some of the minor planets were slightly nearer to the sun when at -perihelion than Mars is when at aphelion. But the mean distances of -the latter were in all cases much greater than that of Mars; while -that found for the new planet is only 1.46 as compared with 1.52 for -Mars, and, as the eccentricity amounts to 0.23, the perihelion -distance is only 1.13, and the least distance from the earth's orbit -only 0.15 as compared with 0.27 for Venus in transit, and 0.38 for -Mars in perihelion. The planet will thus be far closer to us than any -other member of the solar system, and will afford a most excellent -means of determining the sun's parallax. Its diameter is thought to be -about seventeen miles. - -=Extra-Organic Factors of Evolution.=--Observing that our civilization -has made advances or "strides" in recent years out of all proportion -to any improvements that have taken place in our organic faculties, -Arthur Allin has insisted, in Science, on the importance of -extra-organic factors in human development. Our sense and motor -organs, he says, are essentially instruments and tools, and so is the -brain; and most if not all of the three hundred or more mechanical -movements known in the arts are found exemplified in the human body. -Our sense organs are thus indefinitely multiplied and extended by such -extra-organic sense organs as the microscope, telescope, resonator, -telephone, telegraph, thermometer, etc. Our motor organs are -multiplied by such agencies as steam and electrical machines, etc., in -the same manner. "The printing press is an extra-organic memory far -more lasting and durable than the plastic but fickle brain. Fire -provides man with a second digestive apparatus by means of which hard -and stringy roots and other materials for food are rendered digestible -and poisonous roots and herbs innocuous. Tools, traps, weapons, etc., -are but extensions of bodily contrivances. Clothing, unlike the fur or -layer of blubber of the lower animals, becomes a part of the organism -at will. One finds himself more or less independent of seasons, -climates, and geographical restrictions." By organic heredity or the -transmission of the congenital characteristics of the parents to the -children, working alone, all progress depends upon the transmission of -variations occurring within the organism. "Moreover, these -advantageous organic variations die with the individual, and must be -born again, so to speak, with each new individual." This requires -time, and progress depending on it would be indefinitely protracted. -On the other hand, by means of social heredity, each new member of the -race has handed to him at birth the accumulated organic advantageous -variations of sense and motor organs, and the extra-organic -adaptations that have multiplied so indefinitely in the age of -civilized man. "The vast importance of accumulation of capital is -obvious." - -=Fossils as criterions of Geological Ages.=--Prof. O. C. Marsh said in -a paper on The Comparative Value of Different Kinds of Fossils in -determining Geological Age, which was read at the meeting of the -British Association, that the value of all fossils as evidence of -geological age depends mainly upon their degree of specialization. In -invertebrates, for example, a lingula from the Cambrian has reached a -definite point of development from some earlier ancestor. One from the -Silurian or Devonian, or even a later formation, shows, however, -little advance. Even recent forms of the same or an allied genus have -no distinctive characters sufficiently important to mark geological -horizons. With ammonites the case is entirely different. From the -earliest appearance of the family the members were constantly -changing. The trilobites show a group of invertebrates ever subject to -modification, from the earliest known forms in the Cambrian to the -last survivors in the Permian. They are thus especially fitted to aid -the geologist, as each has distinctive features and an abiding place -of its own in geological time. In the fresh-water forms of -mollusca--the Unios, for example--there is little evidence of change -from the palæozoic forms to those still living, and we can therefore -expect little assistance from them in noticing the succeeding periods -during their life history. The same law as to specialization holds -good among the fossil vertebrates. - -=Pedigree Photographs.=--Sir Francis Galton unfolded before the -British Association a plan for the systematic collection of -photographs of pedigree stock, particularly of cattle breeds, and of -more information about them than is now obtainable. He believes that a -system of this sort would greatly facilitate the study of heredity. -The author had previously shown how the general knowledge that -offspring can inherit peculiarities from their ancestry as well as -from their parents was superseded by a general law the nature of which -was first suggested to him by theoretical considerations, and this -ancestral law proves the importance of a much more comprehensive -system of records than now exists. The breeder should be able to -compare the records of all the near ancestry of the animals he -proposes to mate in respect to the qualities in which he is -interested. No present source for such information is comparable with -what the system proposed would furnish. A habitual study of the form -of each pure-bred animal in connection with the portraits of all its -nearest ancestry would test current opinions and decide between -conflicting ones, and could not fail to suggest new ideas. Likenesses -would be traced to prepotent ancestors, and the amount of their -several prepotencies would be defined; forms and features that -supplement one another or "nick in," and others that clash or combine -awkwardly, would be observed and recorded; and conclusions based on -incomplete and inaccurate memories of ancestry would give way to -others founded on more exact data. The value of the ancestral law -would be adequately tested, and it would be possible to amend it when -required. - -=English Names for Plants.=--In the Proceedings of the Torrey -Botanical Club, published in its journal for July, Dr. V. Havard -suggested some principles which it would be well to follow in applying -English names to plants, predicating that an authorized vernacular -binomial should be assigned to each plant, so that ambiguity and -confusion may be avoided. In the absence of suitable English names -already recognized, it seems best to adopt the Latin genus name, if -short and easy, like _Cicuta_, _Parnassia_, _Hibiscus_, or a close -translation thereof, when possible, like astragal, chenopody, -cardamin, while the specific English name should be an equivalent of -the Latin one or a descriptive adjective. In case of all English -binomials clearly applying to well-known individual species and no -others, all substantives are capitalized without a hyphen, as in Witch -Hazel, May Apple, and Dutchman's Pipe. In all genera in which two or -more species must be designated, the genus name is compounded into one -word without a hyphen, as Peppergrass, Sweetbrier, Goldenrod, -Hedgenettle, etc.; except in long names, where the eye requires the -hyphen, as Prairie-clover, Forget-me-not. Genus names in the -possessive case (St. John's-wort) are written with the hyphen, -followed by a lower-case initial. Plants commemorating individual men -(Douglas Spruce, Coulter Pine) are written without the mark of the -possessive. In specific names participial endings are suppressed, the -participle becoming a substantive, which is added as a suffix without -the hyphen; thus Heartleaved Willow is changed to Heartleaf Willow. In -the discussion that followed this paper, President Addison Brown and -Dr. T. F. Allen deprecated the manufacture of book names. The -secretary defended the use of vernacular names, saying that they -deserved more attention, and adding that in their absence the generic -name should be used unchanged. Many Latin names, as _Portulacca_, win -their way without change as soon as they are fairly made familiar. -"Coined names seldom live. A name to be successful must be a growth, -as language is." - -=Cooking Schools in Philadelphia.=--The establishment of schools in -Philadelphia for the teaching of cookery is mentioned, in the Annual -Report of the Superintendent of Public Schools in that city, among the -results of the general movement for manual training, as a means of -mental development and practical knowledge. The teaching was -introduced experimentally into the Girls' Normal School in 1887, and -was in the following year made a regular branch of the course. It was -later extended to other schools. There are now eight school kitchens -under the department of Public Instruction, situated in different -parts of the city. The question of the proper place for cookery in the -school course has been solved, for Philadelphia, by putting it in the -sixth school year, when the pupils are firmly established in the work -of the grammar grades, and their attention has not yet been directed -to preparation for admission to the High School. The course provides -between twenty-five and thirty lessons, and is completed in a single -year. It includes instruction in the care of the kitchen, and of the -stove or range, general lessons in the classification and nutritive -values of foods, the cooking of vegetables, breakfast cereals, bread, -eggs, soups, meats, simple cakes and desserts, lessons in invalid -cookery, and in table setting and serving. Special attention is given -to the preparation of nutritious and savory dishes from inexpensive -materials. About two thousand pupils, or less than one half of the -number of girls of the sixth year now in the schools, are accommodated -in the eight cookery schools. The pupils manifest an intelligent -interest in the instruction, and spend the half day per week in the -school kitchen without any appreciable loss in the other branches of -study. "It comes as a period of relaxation." - -=A Trait Common to us All.=--The doctrine of the tendency of mankind -to develop the like fancies and ideas at the like stage of -intellectual infancy was mentioned by Mr. E. W. Brabrook in his -presidential address before the Anthropological Section of the British -Association, as a generalization for which we are fast accumulating -material in folklore. It is akin to the generalization that individual -savage races present in their intellectual development a marked -analogy to the condition of the earlier races of mankind. The fancies -and ideas of the child resemble closely the fancies and ideas of the -savage and the fancies and ideas of primitive man. Mrs. Gomme has -found that a great number of children's games consist of dramatic -representations of marriage by capture and marriage by purchase, and -that the idea of exogamy is distinctly embodied in them. There can be -little doubt that they go back to a high antiquity, and there is much -probability that they are founded upon customs actually existing, or -just passing away, at the time they were first played. Upon the same -principle, if we view children's stories in their wealth of details, -we shall deem it impossible that they could have been disseminated -over the world otherwise than by actual contact of the several peoples -with each other. But if we view them in their simplicity of idea, we -shall be more apt to think that the mind of man naturally produces the -same result under like circumstances, and that it is not necessary to -postulate any communication between the peoples to account for their -identity. It does not surprise us that the same complicated physical -operations should be performed by far-distant peoples without any -communication with each other; why should it be surprising that mental -operations, not nearly so complex, should be produced in the same -order by different peoples without any such communication? - -=The Toes in Walking.=--An instructive discussion of the walking value -of the lesser toes by Dr. Heather Bigg is given in a recent copy of -the London Lancet. Dr. Bigg believes that the lesser toes of the human -foot are of little importance in walking--the great toe constituting -the important tread of the foot--and in proof of this he gives an -account of a patient, all of whose lesser toes it was found necessary -to amputate because of persistent contraction of the tendons. On -November 10, 1894, the toes were removed, especial care being taken to -keep the resulting scars well up on the dorsal aspect of the foot, so -as to be well away from the subsequent tread. In three weeks the -patient could stand on her feet, and, after her return home, sent the -following record of her progress toward complete recovery: December -30, 1894: "I am able to walk perfectly on my feet with little or no -pain, but can not yet wear either slippers or boots, as they are still -tender."--January 15, 1895: "I managed to get on my slippers yesterday -and wore them with ease for more than six hours."--January 28th: "I -put on my boots to-day for the first time. It still pains me slightly -to walk; otherwise my feet are going on all right."--February 18th: "I -ought to say that the steel plates only half way answer -splendidly."--March 24th: "You will be glad to hear that I can walk -splendidly now, just like a proper human being; it is just eighteen -weeks next Tuesday since the operation."--May 5th: "I have decided to -come to town next Monday week to let you see how well I can -walk."--June 17th: "I played two sets of tennis on Saturday, and my -feet were none the worse afterward."--July 24th: "You will be -surprised to hear that the big toes have lengthened half an inch since -the operation, and I have had all my boots lengthened and the toe line -made straighter."--August 30th: "I know that you will be interested to -hear that I have just accepted an invitation to a dance on September -13th. Whether I shall dance comfortably or not is another -thing."--September 14th: "I went to the dance on Tuesday evening and -thoroughly enjoyed myself after not dancing for so long. My feet were -on their best behavior, and did not pain me once during the evening. I -never realized before that I had no toes until I began to dance; then -it seemed so odd only to have one toe, but I suffered no inconvenience -whatever from the loss of them."--December 5th: "I get on so well with -my bicycle." Only two disadvantages showed themselves as the result of -the operation and these were temporary. One was that the great toes -tended to pervert themselves toward the middle line of the feet, a -thing which was readily remedied by the use of single-toed stockings, -and by packing the space in the boot left vacant by the missing toes -with cotton wool; the other was a loss of local sense on the outer -sides of the feet, which went to show that the lesser toes were missed -rather as tactile organs than anything else. This failure of feeling -righted itself in time, presumably by a vicarious and intenser sense -being acquired by the skin of the outer side of the foot. In all other -respects the loss of the toes discovered no inconvenience. - -=Animals' Bites.=--That there is something more serious than the mere -wound in the bite even of a healthy animal is attested by Mr. Pagin -Thornton, from a chapter in his own experience, and in the testimony -of a number of his own friends who have suffered for weeks together -from having been bitten. "And what is more surprising to me," he says, -"is that some of us may have hands crippled for some time from bites -of a man's teeth." Dog bites are always dangerous, but largely from -the size of the wound which a dog biting in earnest will inflict. With -men they usually fail to do their best. Animals recover from wounds -more easily than men do; but Lord Ebrington says that deer bitten by -the dogs in Exmoor hardly ever recover. Much of the poisoning caused -by bites is supposed to be due to the state of the animal's teeth; and -in this way the bite of a herbivorous animal, whose teeth are usually -soiled, may cause worse after effects than that of a carnivore, whose -wet mouth and wet tongue keep its teeth fairly clean. A similar -difference is observable in the effects of being clawed and bitten by -carnivora. Wounds made by the claws of leopards are poisonous, while -those caused by the teeth are rarely septic. The force with which a -bite in earnest is inflicted is an important element in its dangerous -character. "It seems," says the London Spectator, "as if for the -moment the animal threw all its force into the combination of muscular -action which we call a 'bite.' In most cases the mere shock of impact, -as the beast hurls itself on its enemy, is entirely demoralizing, or -inflicts physical injury. A muzzled mastiff will hurl a man to the -ground in the effort to fasten its teeth in his throat or shoulder. -Then, the driving and crushing force of the jaw muscles is -astonishing." Sir Samuel Baker noticed that the tiger usually seized -an Indian native by the shoulder, and with one jaw on one side and the -other on the other bit clean through chest and back. In nearly all -cases the bite penetrates to the lungs. This kind of wound is -characteristic of the bites of the _felidæ_. Hardly any bird recovers -from a cat's bite, for the same reason. The canine teeth are almost -instantly driven through the lung under the wing. - -=Doulton Potteries.=--Sir Henry Doulton, head of the Lambeth -potteries, whose death, November 17, 1897, has been recorded in the -Monthly, preferred devoting himself to the factory to engaging in the -study of a learned profession for which his parents intended him, and -himself did much of the largest work produced there in the earlier -days of his connection with it. As the factory was enlarged, it made -drain pipes, vessels and appliances of stoneware for chemical and -other similar uses, for which it gained prizes at the great -exhibitions of 1851 and 1862; ale pots and mugs of traditional and -original designs; terra-cotta vases; and first exhibited articles of -higher artistic merit at Paris in 1867. It showed a magnificent -collection at Vienna in 1873, and its exhibit at Philadelphia in 1876 -was one of the marked features of our Centennial. The chief styles of -its work are the ornamental salt-glazed stoneware known as Doulton -ware, and the underglaze-painted earthenware called "Lambeth faïence." -Sir George Birdwood ascribes as the great merit of Sir Henry's life -work his adherence to the two principles of making, as far as -possible, every piece intended for decoration on the wheel, and of -giving the utmost scope to the designer into whose hands the piece -fell for ornamentation. Four hundred designers, mostly women, and some -of them real artists, are engaged at the potteries, and each has her -way and signs her name to her work; so that "Sir Henry Doulton -succeeded in creating a most prolific school, or rather several -schools, of English pottery, the influence of which has been felt in -the revival of the ceramic arts in all the countries of the Old -World"--where they had been demoralized by the use of machinery; and -through the influence of his example, working since 1871, the United -Kingdom now produces "the most artistic commercial pottery of any -country in the world." - - -MINOR PARAGRAPHS. - -A little over a year ago Professor Fraser published the results of -some researches which showed that the bile of several animals -possessed antidotal properties against serpents' venom, and against -the toxines of such diseases as diphtheria and tetanus, and that the -bile of venomous serpents is an antidote to their venom. The results -from an extension of these first experiments have been recently -published in the British Medical Journal. The most important -conclusions are as follows: The bile of venomous serpents is the most -powerful antidote to venom, and is closely followed in efficiency by -the bile of innocuous serpents. Regarding the antidotal power of bile -on the toxines of disease, Professor Fraser found that the bile of -venomous serpents had more antidotal power than that of the majority -of the other animals examined. It is curious that among the -non-venomous animals the rabbit's bile is the most powerful in -antidotal properties. - -Three ways are mentioned by Prof. W. A. Herdman in which disease may -be communicated through oysters to the consumer; viz., by the presence -in the animal of inorganic, usually metallic, poison; or of organic -poison; or of a pathological organism or definite disease germ. From -experiments in the inoculation and disinfection of oysters, it was -found that all traces of these organisms could be removed by proper -washing. Good currents passing the beds are an important factor in -keeping the oyster healthy, and make it possible for the animal to -absorb large quantities of sewage and dispose of it. The effect of -this is to purify the water; but in the sifting process, while the -sewage is passing through, the animal retains disease germs, and may -pass them on to the consumer. Oysters should therefore be given an -opportunity to purify themselves, as is done in France, where they are -kept for a time in clean tanks before being sent to market. Oysters -may be effectively washed in fresh water. Sea water is unfavorable to -disease germs. Greenness in oysters is caused by food administered to -improve their quality; by the presence of copper; and in some American -oysters by an inflamed condition of the mantle. Green spots are also -produced by wandering cells getting under the epithelium. These cells -are loaded with granules which give a copper reaction. - -The most interesting result of the massacre and sack of Benin, the -Saturday Review says, was the capture of a large series of brass -plaques, statuettes, box lids, pipes, etc., which have been brought to -England. The various articles are all castings, and their elaborate -ornamentation bespeaks for their makers great skill in metal working. -Most African tribes have smiths who hammer pieces of brass rod and -wire into simple ornaments; but these Benin brasses represent a stage -of metal working far more advanced than anything recorded for the -native races of Africa. Nothing like them is being made by any negro -race at present, and nothing is known that can be regarded as a -precursor of them. A statuette in the Liverpool Museum of a negro -holding a flint gun fixes their date as not earlier than about 1630. -In trying to account for them, many think they were due to the -influence of some comparatively advanced tribe that reached Benin from -the central Soudan and brought with them a knowledge of brass work -derived from early, possibly Egyptian, sources; and others attribute -the work to some prisoner or trader who lived at Benin in the -seventeenth century. - - -NOTES. - -The Committee of the British Association on Meteorological Photography -reported that the result of their determinations of the heights of -clouds showed the existence of greater altitudes in hot weather under -thunderstorm conditions, when clouds may occur at five or six -different levels, extending as high as ninety thousand feet. A rise of -cloud takes place in hot weather, also during the morning and early -afternoons, while the lowest altitudes are found during cyclones. - -M. Maige, by varying the condition of exposure of plants to light, and -keeping flowering branches in the dark, has succeeded in transforming -the latter into sterile creeping or climbing branches. Inversely, he -has been able, by means of the localized action of light, to transform -creeping or climbing into flowering branches. These results were -obtained at the vegetable biological laboratory of Fontainebleau. - -F. L. Washburn, of the State University of Oregon, reports that the -condition of the Eastern oysters introduced to the Oregon coast waters -two years ago leaves nothing to be desired. The specimens have -withstood two winters successfully, and have made phenomenal growth, -"far exceeding what they would have made in the same time in their -native waters. Further, they spawned." The experiments in artificial -fertilization were not so successful. The spawn suffer from the -serious difficulties of sudden variations in the temperature and -salinity of the water resulting from the change of tide and strong -winds. It is hoped that better conditions may be found at Yaquina Bay. - -The population of Egypt has been gradually increasing during the past -hundred years. It is stated to have been about two and a half million -in 1800, and is now estimated at nearly ten million. There are about -112,000 foreigners, of whom 38,000 are Greeks; the remainder being -chiefly Italians, 24,000; English, 19,000; French, 14,000; Austrians, -7,000; Russians, 3,000; and Persians and Germans, about 1,000 each. -Only about five per cent of the population can read and write, and -nearly two thirds are without any trade or profession. - -Our record of deaths among men known in science includes the names of -Dr. Henriques de Castro, a Dutch archæologist of Portuguese descent, -member of many learned societies of the Netherlands; John Eliza de -Vry, of the Netherlands, one of the chief authorities on the chemistry -and pharmacy of the cinchona alkaloids, at The Hague, July 30th, in -the eighty-sixth year of his age; Dr. Eugenio Bettoni, director of the -Fisheries Station at Brescia, Italy, August 5th, aged fifty-three -years; Professor Arzruni, mineralogist in the Polytechnic Institute at -Aix; Heinrich Theodor Richter, director of the School of Mines at -Freiberg, Saxony; Dr. J. Crocq, professor of pathology in the -University of Brussels; Dr. C. G. Gibelli, professor of botany and -director of the Botanical Institute at Turin; Don Francisco Coello de -Portugal, president of the Geographical Society of Madrid, and author -of an atlas of Spain and its colonies; Dr. B. Kotula, author of -Researches on the Distribution of Plants; Surgeon Major J. E. T. -Aitchison, a distinguished botanist, particularly in the botany of -India, and author of numerous papers on the subject, September 30th, -in his sixty-fourth year; M. Thomas Frédéric Moreau, a French -archæologist, author of a collection of Gallic, Gallo-Roman, and -Merovingian antiquities, in his one hundred and first year; M. Gabriel -de Mortillet, the eminent French anthropologist, in Paris, November -4th, aged sixty-seven years; Sir George Smyth Baden Powell, political -economist, aged fifty-one years; Sir John Fowler, engineer in chief of -the Forth Bridge, aged eighty-one years; Dr. James I. Peck, assistant -professor of biology in Williams College, and assistant director of -the Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole; George Vestal, professor of -agriculture and horticulture at the New Mexico Agricultural College, -October 24th, aged forty-one years; Dr. W. Kochs, docent for -physiology at Bonn; M. J. V. Barbier, a distinguished French -geographer; M. N. J. Raffard, an eminent French mechanical engineer, -author of many valuable inventions; Latimer Clark, F. R. S., an -eminent English electrician, one of the founders and a past president -of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, whose name is associated -with the history of electric telegraphy and with many inventions, and -author of several books that are standard with the profession, at -Kensington, London, October 30th, in his seventy-sixth year; Count -Michele Stefano de Rossi, a distinguished Italian seismologist; M. de -Meritens, a French electrical engineer, inventor of one of the first -practical dynamos, and of other valuable electrical apparatus, aged -sixty-five years. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - - -Words surrounded by _ are italicized. - -Words surrounded by = are bold. - -Obvious printer's errors have been repaired, other inconsistent -spellings have been kept. - -Illustrations were relocated to correspond to their references in the -text. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, -January 1899, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, JAN 1899 *** - -***** This file should be named 44097-8.txt or 44097-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/0/9/44097/ - -Produced by Judith Wirawan, Greg Bergquist, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by Biodiversity Heritage Library.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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