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diff --git a/44096.txt b/44096.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 091fc8f..0000000 --- a/44096.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5315 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of An Elementary Manual of New Zealand -Entomology, by G. V. Hudson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: An Elementary Manual of New Zealand Entomology - Being an Introduction to the Study of Our Native Insects - -Author: G. V. Hudson - -Release Date: November 2, 2013 [EBook #44096] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW ZEALAND ENTOMOLOGY *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Keith Edkins and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they -are listed at the end of the text. - -Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). Page numbers -enclosed by curly braces (example: {25}) have been incorporated to -facilitate the use of the General Index. - - * * * * * - -Frontispiece. - -[Illustration] - -Fig. 1. Bolitophila luminosa. 1_a_. Larva, 1_b_. Pupa. - - - - -AN ELEMENTARY - -MANUAL - -OF - -NEW ZEALAND ENTOMOLOGY. - -BEING - -An Introduction to the Study - -OF - -OUR NATIVE INSECTS. - -_WITH 21 COLOURED PLATES._ - -BY - -G. V. HUDSON, F.E.S., - -WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND. - -London: - -WEST, NEWMAN, & CO., 54, HATTON GARDEN. - -1892. - - - - -To - -THE RIGHT HON. LORD WALSINGHAM, - -M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., - -LATE PRESIDENT OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, - -THIS LITTLE BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED - -BY THE AUTHOR. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The object of the present volume is to give a brief account of the Natural -History of the insects inhabiting New Zealand in a form intelligible to the -ordinary reader. For this reason every effort has been made to avoid all -unnecessary technicalities, and to adapt the book as far as possible to the -requirements of youthful entomologists and collectors. - -Several very elaborate systematic lists and descriptions have been -published from time to time of the insects of New Zealand, amongst which -may be specially mentioned--Captain Broun's "Manual of New Zealand -Coleoptera," the illustrated "Catalogue of New Zealand Butterflies," edited -by Mr. Enys, and Mr. Meyrick's "Monographs" of various groups of the -Lepidoptera; but as yet no attempt has been made to present the subject in -a suitable form for beginners. - -It is hoped that this book will, to some extent, fill up the blank, and -help to render what is now one of the most popular natural sciences in -Europe, equally appreciated in New Zealand. - -The author is much indebted to Captain Broun, Mr. R. W. Fereday, Mr. E. -Meyrick, and others, for assistance in identifying the various species -mentioned in this work. - - _Wellington, New Zealand, 1891._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. PAGE - - GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 1 - - CHAPTER II. - - COLLECTING INSECTS 9 - - CHAPTER III. - - THE COLEOPTERA 19 - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE HYMENOPTERA 33 - - CHAPTER V. - - THE DIPTERA 40 - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE LEPIDOPTERA 65 - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE NEUROPTERA 99 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE ORTHOPTERA 103 - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE HEMIPTERA 118 - - GENERAL INDEX 123 - - EXPLANATION OF PLATES 129 - - - - -{1}AN - -ELEMENTARY MANUAL - -OF - -NEW ZEALAND ENTOMOLOGY. - - ------- - -CHAPTER I - -General Observations. - -In the present chapter I propose to give a brief sketch of the general -principles of Entomology, including a rudimentary glance at the anatomy and -classification of insects; after which I think the reader will be in a -better position to study the habits and life-histories of the individual -species which follow. - -The first requisite is a definition of what constitutes an INSECT. - -_An Insect is an articulate animal having the body divided into three -distinct divisions_, viz., _the_ HEAD (Fig. I. A), _the_ THORAX (B), _and -the_ ABDOMEN (C). _It is furnished with three pairs of legs, and generally -has two pairs of wings, and to acquire this structure the creature passes -through several changes, termed its metamorphoses._ {2}The head exhibits no -distinct divisions, but bears the following appendages: the eyes, antennae, -and organs of the mouth, or trophi. - -The eyes are of two kinds, compound and simple. The former (Fig. I. c c) -are situated on the sides of the head above the mouth, and consist of two -large hemispheres, composed of a great number of hexagonal divisions, each -of which is a complete eye in itself. The latter (s s) are usually three in -number, and are situated on the top of the head between the compound ones. -They are, however, frequently wanting. - -The antennae (a) are two jointed organs, one of which is placed on each -side of the head, between the eyes; their functions are at present -extremely doubtful, but they are invariably found in all insects. - -The organs of the mouth consist of the following: the labrum (Fig. II. 3), -or upper lip, a horny plate, closing the mouth from above; the mandibles (1 -1), or upper jaws, two strong bent hooks, articulated to the head on each -side of the mouth, and opposed to one another like scissor blades; the -maxillae (2 2), or under jaws, resembling the mandibles, but more -delicately constructed, and furnished with a pair of jointed appendages -termed maxillary palpi (5 5); and the labium (4), or lower lip, consisting -of a horny plate somewhat resembling the labrum, but provided with two -jointed appendages termed the labial palpi (6 6). All these organs are -subject to great modification in suctorial insects, which I shall notice -further on, when dealing with the differences between the various orders. - -The thorax consists of three primary divisions, viz., the prothorax (Fig. -I. b), mesothorax (d), and metathorax (k). The upper surfaces of these are -termed the pronotum, mesonotum, and metanotum respectively, and the under -the prosternum, mesosternum, and metasternum; other divisions exist in some -insects, but they are not of a sufficiently {3}general character to be -noticed here. The six legs are attached to the under surface of the thorax, -a single pair to each division; they are composed of the following joints: -coxa (Fig. I. n), trochanter (o), femur (p), tibia (r), and tarsus (s). - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: FIG. I.--Body of an insect (Hymenoptera), showing the -principal divisions: A, head; B, thorax; C, abdomen; _a_, antenna; _c_, -compound eyes; _m_, mandible; _s_, simple eyes; _b_, prothorax; _d_, -mesothorax; _k_, metathorax; 1W, fore-wing; 2W, hind-wing; _n_, coxa; _o_, -trochanter; _p_, femur; _r_, tibia; _t_, tarsus; 1 to 9 segments of the -abdomen.] - -[Illustration: FIG. II.--Oral and digestive system of _Deinacrida -megacephala_ (this insect is drawn on Plate XVIII., fig. 2): 1, mandibles; -2, maxillae; 3, labrum; 4, labium; 5, maxillary palpi; 6, labial palpi; 8, -oesophagus; 9, crop; 10, gizzard; 11, pancreas; 12, stomach; 13, biliary -vessels; 14, ilium; 15, colon; 16, anus.] - -{4}The wings are attached to the meso- and metanotum; they consist of two -membranes traversed by numerous horny ribs (Fig. I. 1W and 2W). - -The abdomen is made up of nine segments (C 1 to 9), some of which are not -infrequently wanting. It contains the organs of nutrition, circulation, and -generation. - -The digestive system, the structure of which is apparent from Fig. II., -consists of the following divisions: the throat, or oesophagus (8); the -crop (9); the gizzard, or proventriculus (10); the pancreas (11 11); the -stomach, or ventriculus (12); the biliary vessels (13 13 13); the ilium, or -little gut (14 14); and the colon (15); ending in the anus (16). In the -suctorial tribes, the crop is modified into a very peculiar organ, termed -the sucking stomach, which presents itself as a small bag, attached to the -throat by a thin tube. This bag exhausts the air from the throat, when the -insect is sucking, thus producing a vacuum therein, and causing a rapid -ascent of fluid into the stomach. - -The heart of insects consists of an elongated tube lying along the back, -and termed the dorsal vessel. It is composed of a variable number of -chambers, the blood being driven forward towards the head by its -contractions. These motions may be easily seen in transparent species. - -The breathing organs are distributed throughout the body in the form of -numerous minute air-tubes, which are supplied with air from a variable -number of apertures, situated on the sides of the insect, and termed -spiracles. - -The nervous system consists of a chain of ganglia, running down the ventral -surface of the insect, and analogous to the spinal cord of higher animals. -The number of ganglia varies greatly among the different tribes. - -The metamorphosis of insects, which I have previously mentioned as one of -their most essential attributes, consists of four distinct stages, _viz._, -the Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Imago. - -{5}The eggs of these animals exhibit a great diversity in shape among the -different species. They are deposited by the parent with unerring instinct -on substances suitable for the food of the larvae, which, in the majority -of cases, is quite different from that on which she herself subsists. - -The larva state immediately succeeds the egg, and is spent almost -exclusively in feeding, the insect growing at a great rate, and being -frequently compelled to change its skin. - -The pupa is usually completely quiescent, the insect being at this time -quite incapable of any motion, except, perhaps, a slight twirling of its -abdomen. Exceptions to this rule occur, however, in two of the orders, in -which the pupa state does not differ materially from that preceding it. - -In the imago, or perfect state, the insect appears under its final form, -with every organ completely developed. - - - - -We will now consider the seven great divisions, or Orders, into which -insects are divided, the complete knowledge of which is one of the most -important elements in the entomologist's preliminary education. I trust -that by a careful perusal of the following definitions, aided by references -to the Plates, which illustrate numerous members of each order in their -several states, the reader will be enabled to master the subject without -much difficulty. - - -ORDER I.--COLEOPTERA. - -Wings four; the anterior pair (termed elytra) horny and opaque, the -posterior membranous, and employed in flight; mouth masticatory. The larva -a grub with or without legs, but a distinct head always present. The pupa -inactive, taking no food, the limbs of the future insect enclosed in -distinct cases, and applied closely to the body. This is the largest of the -Orders, and consists of all those insects popularly known as Beetles. -(Plates I. and II.) - - -{6}ORDER II.--HYMENOPTERA. - -Wings four, membranous, the posterior pair being the smaller, and connected -with the anterior during flight by a row of minute hooklets; mouth -masticatory, the maxillae and labium being elongated, in many of the -families, into a long sucking instrument or "tongue." Metamorphosis as in -the Coleoptera. A large Order, containing the numerous tribes of Sawflies, -Bees, Wasps, Ants, and Ichneumon-flies. (Plate III.) - - -ORDER III.--DIPTERA. - -Wings two; the posterior pair represented by two minute clubbed appendages -termed poisers; mouth a suctorial tube formed by an elongation of the -labium, enclosing within it a variable number of setae answering to the -mandibles, &c., of biting insects. The larva without legs, a distinct head -being often absent. The pupa inactive, the limbs of the imago firmly -attached to the body, but plainly visible. Among the majority of species -included in this Order the larval skin is not cast away, but envelopes the -insect in a hard shell; the true pupa is consequently only visible on the -removal of this covering, when it is found to closely resemble those in -which no such arrangement occurs. The Order comprises the numerous Gnats -and two-winged Flies. (Plates IV., V., VI., VII.) - - -ORDER IV.--LEPIDOPTERA. - -Wings four, generally covered with scales; the anterior pair slightly -superior in size; mouth suctorial, the maxillae forming a spiral tongue, -which is coiled between the large labial palpi when not in use; other oral -organs rudimentary. In many instances the whole mouth and alimentary canal -are more or less obliterated, a considerable number of the species taking -no food in their {7}final state. The larvae always possess a distinct head -and six thoracic legs, and in addition a variable number of prolegs are -often present on the abdominal segments. Pupa inactive, the limbs of the -future insect being usually indicated by lines in the integment. This Order -contains all the varied tribes of Butterflies and Moths. (Plates VIII., -IX., X., XI., XII., XIII.) - - -ORDER V.--NEUROPTERA. - -Wings four, of equal size, membranous, and traversed with numerous -branching ribs; the mouth masticatory, and in many instances but slightly -developed. Larva with a distinct head and three strong thoracic legs; -chiefly carnivorous. Pupa inactive; the limbs very perceptible and loosely -applied to the body, but incapable of distinct motion. A small Order, -comprising the Stoneflies, Lace-wings, Ant-lions, &c. (Plate XIV.) - - -ORDER VI.--ORTHOPTERA. - -Wings four, of nearly equal size; the anterior pair often more or less -leathery, but with distinct veins. The larva and pupa closely resembling -the imago; the latter with rudimentary wings. In the instances where these -organs are wanting in the mature insect, the metamorphosis merely consists -of a series of moultings, and it is consequently a matter of some -difficulty to determine when the insect is full-grown. This Order is of -small extent; it includes the Earwigs, Cockroaches, Grasshoppers, Crickets, -Termites, Dragonflies, Mayflies and Perlidae; the last four being -transferred from the Neuroptera of most authors. The minute species of -Mallophaga and Thysanura will also come under this heading. (Plates XV., -XVI., XVII., XVIII., XIX.) - - -{8}ORDER VII.--HEMIPTERA. - -Wings four, in some cases wholly membranous, but in a large proportion of -the families the basal portions of the anterior pair are horny, and form -protective cases for the other pair when not in use; mouth suctorial, -consisting of an elongate rostrum, enclosing four fine setae. The larva and -pupa resemble the imago, the latter being active, with rudimentary wings. -In a few instances, a slight divergence from the parent form is shown in -the preparatory states (Cicadas, &c.). This is a small Order, containing -the Cicadas or "Singers," Bugs, Plant Lice, and all the suctorial animal -lice. (Plate XX.) - - - - -After the Orders, the divisions to be considered are the Groups, Families, -Genera and Species. - -Groups are large divisions immediately subordinate to the orders, and -consist of a number of _kindred_ families. They are of great assistance to -the student in dealing with the very large Orders, such, for instance, as -the Coleoptera. - -Families, again, consist of a number of allied genera, and Genera, in the -same way, of allied species. - -With regard to the Families, I have in the main followed those of Professor -Westwood in his 'Modern Classification of Insects,' as most recent writers -appear very much divided in opinion as to the correct limits of these -divisions. Much diversity also prevails with respect to the proper -definitions of Genera and even Species, but I have deemed it best to follow -the authority of the latest catalogues in this matter, as any changes in -nomenclature are always liable to produce confusion. - - - - -{9}CHAPTER II - -Collecting Insects. - -So many excellent essays have been written on collecting insects that it -would probably be a most difficult task to supply much fresh information on -the subject; but as many of my readers may be unable to consult works -specially devoted thereto, the present chapter will, perhaps, be of some -value in showing them a few of the most convenient methods of collecting -insects in New Zealand. - -Coleoptera, or Beetles, may be found almost everywhere. Overturning logs -and stones, peeling off bark, and cutting into the solid wood of trees, all -produce a great variety of species. A small axe and an iron wrench, shaped -something like a chisel, but bent round at the upper end, are the best -instruments for working old trees. The bark should be all stripped off and -examined, as well as the surface of the log underneath. The same remarks -apply to stones, which should be searched as well as the places from which -they were removed. Sacks, if left about the fields for a few weeks, often -harbour good beetles, and when found they should always be pulled up and -examined. - -An umbrella, held upside down under flowering shrubs in the forest, will -often be found swarming with beetles after the plants have been sharply -tapped with a stout {10}walking-stick. The same object may be attained by -spreading a newspaper, or sheet, under the trees and then shaking them; the -beetles will fall on to the sheet, and may then be captured. The only -advantage of the umbrella is that it can be more readily used in awkward -places, such as on steep hill sides. - -The dead bodies of birds and animals also contain peculiar species; they -may be held over the umbrella and shaken into it, when the inhabitants will -fall out, and can easily be obtained. Dead fish on the sea beach are often -very productive. Moss and fungi are unfailing resorts of many of the -smaller species of Coleoptera, and can be examined in the winter when the -entomologist is otherwise idle. - -Beetles should always be brought home alive. The small round tin boxes sold -with Bryant and May's wax matches will be found very serviceable for this -purpose. These boxes are far better for all kinds of collecting than either -pill- or chip-boxes, as they do not break when knocked about. A separate -box should always be given to a large or rare species, but most of the -smaller kinds will travel quite safely in company, especially if a wisp of -grass or a leaf is put into the box to give them foothold. - -Beetles must be killed with boiling water, and left immersed some hours -before setting. They must be pinned through either the right or left -elytron, and each collector must always keep to one side, as nothing looks -worse than to see some of the specimens pinned on the right and others on -the left side. When pinned the beetles are set on a corked board, the legs, -&c., being placed in a natural position, and retained until dry by means of -pins and pieces of paper and card. The smaller species should be mounted -with transparent gum on a neat piece of card, which can be pinned in the -store-box or cabinet with the others. The greatest care should be taken to -set {11}symmetrically, so that the limbs on the right-hand side of an -insect are in the same position as those on the left. - -Hymenoptera may be captured with the ordinary butterfly-net, and are found -abundantly during the summer. The larger species are pinned through the -centre of the thorax, and set in the same way as Coleoptera, the smaller -ones on card with gum. These insects should, if possible, be made to fly -into the vessel of boiling water, as by this means they generally die with -their wings expanded, which is a great assistance when setting them. This -can usually be managed by holding the box containing the specimen -immediately over the water, and giving it a sharp tap with the finger of -the other hand. - -Diptera are also captured with the net, and pinned in the same way, but -should be killed with the laurel bottle. - -Lepidoptera are the most difficult of all to collect, and are at the same -time the most attractive to beginners. They may be captured with a net made -of fine gauze (mosquito net dyed green is the best material); the frame to -support the net is constructed of a piece of cane bent into a hoop, each of -the ends being supported in a forked tube shaped like a Y, and the long -tube, forming the base of the Y, is firmly fitted on to the end of a -walking-stick. This form of net is light, strong, and easily made; the only -thing requiring special attention is the Y, but this can be readily made by -any tinsmith out of two pieces of gas-pipe of different sizes, the larger -one for the stick, and the smaller one for the ends of the cane to fit -into. The collector should also be furnished with a number of small tin -boxes.[1] All this apparatus can easily be packed into an ordinary satchel. - -{12}When the entomologist reaches his hunting-ground, he will mount his net -and place a number of the boxes in his left-hand coat pocket. The foliage -of all trees and shrubs should be vigorously beaten and the insects -captured as they fly out. When a moth is taken, the collector will first -turn the net half way round so as to close the entrance, and then, directly -the insect ceases fluttering, he should carefully place one of the little -boxes over it and slip on the lid. The box is then transferred to the -right-hand pocket. He will soon learn to do this without in any way -damaging the insect. On arrival at home, the insects should be immediately -killed in the laurel bottle. This is an ordinary wide-necked bottle with a -small bag of well-bruised _young_ laurel shoots at the bottom, covered with -a circular piece of card fitting accurately to the sides of the bottle. -Laurel shoots can always be obtained about the middle of October, when -several killing bottles can be prepared. They must always be wiped out -before using, and kept carefully corked. After a few hours the insects -should be tilted out of the bottle on to a tablecloth, and pinned exactly -through the centre of the thorax. The rough surface of the tablecloth -prevents them from slipping during the operation. About one-third of an -inch of pin should project below the body of the insect. If a moth or -butterfly dies with its wings folded upwards over the back, it must be -carefully picked up between the thumb and index finger of the left hand, -and the pin inserted with the corresponding fingers of the right hand. When -all are pinned they should be transferred to a tin box, lined with cork, -which has been previously well damped with water. While pinning them into -this box great care must be taken not to allow the wings to come in contact -with the damp cork. In about twenty-four hours the specimens thus treated -will be ready for setting. This process is performed by means of corked -boards of various widths for different sized {13}species. Each board has a -groove down the centre for the bodies of the insects to rest in, while the -wings are spread out on either side. They should be carefully moved -forwards with a fine-pointed needle to the desired position, and retained -by strips of tracing cloth pinned firmly down at the ends. These strips -must not be removed until the insects are thoroughly dry and ready to place -in the store-box or cabinet. In setting Lepidoptera, as with other insects, -symmetry and a natural position are the main points to be aimed at, special -care being taken that the antennae, fore- and hind-legs, and wings, are -shown in correct positions, the middle pair of legs being of course, in the -majority of cases, hidden by the wings. It is almost needless to say that -different sized pins should be used for various insects, but this point -must be left to the discretion of the collector. Entomological pins of all -sizes can be obtained from James Gardner, of 29 Oxford Street, London. Gilt -pins are useful for many species which are liable to form verdigris on the -pins, and are universally employed by many entomologists, but are probably -not so strong as the silvered ones. - -Many species of moths are only to be found at night. When working at this -time the collector must suspend a bulls-eye lantern round his neck or -waist, and can then have both arms free for capturing insects on the wing -or at blossoms. Honey mixed with a little rum, and applied with a small -brush to the trunks of trees a few minutes after sunset, will, on some -evenings, attract large numbers of valuable species, but not infrequently -it is quite unproductive. This mode of collecting has been termed -"sugaring" by entomologists, and may be employed during the whole summer. -The best blossoms for attracting insects in New Zealand are those of the -white rata,[2] which blooms in the forest from February till April, and -from which the {14}collector may generally rely on getting a rich harvest. -The insects can usually be slipped directly from the flowers into the -killing bottle. - -This is much better than netting them, although occasionally one will -escape during the process. When dead the specimens should be placed in a -small tin box which has been filled with cotton-wool, packed very lightly. -In this way a large number of moths may be carried a long distance with -perfect safety, and the extremely inconvenient process of pinning them in -the field obviated. If Jahncke's patent boxes are employed it is quite -unnecessary to kill the moths in the field. They can be boxed directly from -the blossoms and taken home alive without suffering any injury. - -Lepidoptera, and in fact all insects, are attracted by light, and in some -situations the collector will find that he may frequently obtain good -species by merely opening his sitting-room window and waiting for the -insects to arrive. Much of course depends on the situation of the -collector's residence and the nature of the night, which should be dark and -warm. I have occasionally tried taking a lamp into the forest to attract -insects, but have not met with much success. In swampy and flat situations, -no doubt, attracting by light would be very effective, especially if a -powerful lamp was employed, in an exposed situation, with a sheet behind -it, supported between two poles. This method has been followed with great -success by many English entomologists in the fens, but has not yet been -tried in the New Zealand swamps, where it would probably be the means of -bringing many new and interesting species to "light." - -With regard to collecting members of the three remaining Orders but little -need be said. Neuroptera can be treated in the same way as Lepidoptera, but -they should be set on flat boards. The treatment of the Orthoptera will -resemble that of the Coleoptera, but the larger species will require {15}to -be stuffed with cotton-wool before setting. A few of the largest species of -the Lepidoptera must also be stuffed. For this purpose the specimens should -be placed on their backs on a piece of clean glass so that none of the -scales may be rubbed off. After the contents have been removed, a little -chalk should be introduced into the abdomen with the cotton-wool. Hemiptera -can be collected and set like Coleoptera, but some of the more delicate -species, such as the _Cicadae_, should be killed in the laurel bottle -instead of in boiling water. - -Before concluding the present chapter I should like to say a few words on -the subject of rearing insects, which the entomologist will soon learn to -regard as by far the most interesting method of acquiring specimens for his -collection. - -Members of the Coleoptera are probably the most difficult insects to rear -in captivity. Their larvae may be kept in ordinary jam-pots covered with -perforated zinc, and filled with earth or rotten wood. The carnivorous -species must, of course, be supplied with the animals on which they feed. -Beetle larvae are often some years in attaining maturity. Many of the -Hymenoptera and some of the Diptera are parasitic on the larvae of the -Lepidoptera; they are consequently found in rearing these insects, and -their economy should always be carefully recorded. - -Lepidoptera are, perhaps, the most satisfactory insects to rear. Most of -the larvae feed on the leaves of different plants, and all that is needed -is to keep them well supplied with fresh food. - -So great a variety of cages have been devised for the rearing of -caterpillars that it would be quite impossible to describe them here. I -will therefore only give a short account of those which I have used myself, -and have found so convenient that I do not hesitate in recommending them to -those entomologists who wish not only to rear insects but to study their -habits. - -{16}The cages I have been in the habit of using are made of two or three -thicknesses of cardboard bent round into a cylinder and strongly pasted -together. They may be of various sizes, from three to four inches in -diameter up to eight or ten, and constructed so that one will go inside the -other. The height should exceed the diameter by about one and a half -inches. The cylinders should be made so as to stand exactly level on a flat -surface, and they should have two rows of small openings round the sides -for the admission of air. It is a good plan to have four of these openings -in each row and place them opposite one another. They should be covered on -the inside with gauze, stiffened with green or brown paint, as the dark -colour will enable the observer to see inside more readily. A circular -piece of glass is fitted into the upper end of the cylinder, and fixed by -means of paste and paper. The base of the cage consists of two round pieces -of wood, one about half an inch smaller than the other, the smaller one -nailed exactly in the centre of the larger piece. These are made so that -the cardboard cylinder fits _accurately_ on the outside of the smaller -piece of wood. The whole cage is then neatly covered with white paper -inside and brown outside. A complete view of the interior can of course be -obtained by looking in at the top, while the cages can be stowed away one -within the other when not in use. A stone ink-bottle should be put on the -floor of each cage and filled with water, into which a sprig of the -food-plant can be introduced. Care must be taken to plug up the mouth of -the bottle, so that the larvae may not crawl down the stem of the plant -into the water and thus meet with an untimely end. This may readily be done -by means of a cork with a hole bored in it for the stem to pass through, or -a plug of moss or blotting-paper. Members of almost all the orders can be -reared in these cages, as jam-pots full of earth may easily be introduced, -in the place of the stone {17}bottle, when required for species which bury. -A circular piece of blotting-paper should be placed over the bottom of each -cage, while larvae are feeding in them, and renewed when at all soiled. The -excrement must also be removed when the larvae are supplied with fresh -food. As a rule, this is only necessary about twice a week, as the water -will keep most plants fresh for quite a lengthened period. When it is -necessary to remove a larva it should always be done with a fine camel-hair -brush, never with the fingers. Generally, however, it is better to allow -the larvae themselves to crawl from the old sprig on to the new one, which -they usually do in a few hours after the food is changed. The old plants -should of course then be taken out so as to afford more room for fresh air. - -Many female moths may be induced to lay their eggs in captivity, especially -if put in a box with some of the food-plant of the larva. It is extremely -instructive and interesting to rear an insect from the egg. When the young -larvae first emerge they must be kept in a tumbler with a piece of glass -put over the top, as they might escape through the ventilators of the -cages, but they ought to be transferred immediately they are large enough. -When rearing a lot of caterpillars from a batch of eggs, care should be -taken to avoid overcrowding. - -A collection of insects should always eventually be placed in a neatly -constructed cabinet. They should be arranged in rows, systematically, with -the correct names under each species, and the name of the order or group at -the commencement of each drawer. Numerous modifications in arrangement are -often needed to meet the requirements of different sized insects, but an -inspection of any good collection will at once explain the general -principles. Camphor should be pinned in the corner of each drawer or -store-box, and the whole collection fumigated with carbolic acid, or equal -parts of oil of thyme, oil of anise, {18}and spirits of wine, every six -months. These can be introduced in a watch glass containing a small -quantity of the chemicals on a pellet of cotton-wool, care being taken not -to stain the paper at the bottom of the drawer. For the same reason, while -using carbolic acid, the camphor should be taken out, as otherwise it will -"sweat." All boxes for the reception of insects must of course be lined -with cork and paper. - -It is most important that an accurate record should be kept of every -specimen that is placed in the collection. This may be done by attaching to -the pin underneath each insect a small numbered label, which refers to a -book containing locality, date of capture and other particulars. - -I have found it a good plan to give every species a number, and every -specimen a letter. Thus, supposing _Vanessa gonerilla_ is numbered "6," the -first specimen taken would be "6a," the second "6b," and so on, all the -specimens, perhaps, having different dates and localities. This system is -very convenient when specimens are sent away to be identified by another -entomologist, as, provided the collector always retains a single specimen -of the species which he desires named, it obviates the necessity of having -his specimens returned, the number showing at once to what species the name -refers. At least five lines should be allotted to each species in the -collection journal, and the writing should be small but distinct. - -A collection formed in this manner will not only be a constant source of -pleasure to the collector and those who succeed him, but very probably of -great value in deciding many important questions in entomological science. - - - - -{19}CHAPTER III - -The Coleoptera. - -The observations on the natural history of the New Zealand beetles, forming -the subject of the present chapter, are much less numerous than might have -been expected from the great number of species which have been described. -The difficulties attendant on rearing these insects are, however, very -great, and it thus happens that the life-histories here given bear a -smaller proportion to the number of the Coleoptera than will be found to be -the case with the majority of the other Orders. I hope, however, that the -few details I have collected, referring to the following species, may -induce some of my readers to investigate others for themselves. - - -Group GEODEPHAGA. - -Family _Cicindelidae_. - -_Cicindela tuberculata_ (Plate I., fig. 1, 1a larva). - -This is a very abundant insect found throughout the country in all dry -situations. It delights in hot sunshine, and may be constantly observed -flying from our footsteps with great rapidity as we walk along the roads on -a hot summer's day. - -Its larva (Fig. 1a) is an elongate fleshy grub, the head {20}and first -segment being horny and much flattened, and the body provided with two -large dorsal humps, each bearing at its apex a slender curved hook. - -The burrows of these insects are very conspicuous, and must have been -noticed by every one, in garden paths, sandbanks, and other _dry_ -situations; they are sometimes very numerous, and may be best described as -perfectly round shafts, about one line in diameter, and extending to the -depth of three or four inches, generally slightly curved at the bottom. The -sides are perfectly smooth, and the larva may be often discovered near the -mouth of its burrow, using its dorsal hooks to support it, and thus having -both legs and jaws free to dispose of the unfortunate insects that fall -into its snare. These usually consist of flies and small beetles, which -appear to be urged by curiosity to crawl down these pitfalls, and thus -bring about their own destruction. By reference to the figure it will be -seen how admirably the hollowed head and prothorax serve the purpose of a -shovel to the larva, when forming its shaft. These burrows are first -observed about the middle of November; the perfect insects coming abroad -three weeks or a month later, when they may be often seen in the -neighbourhood of their old domiciles. They are very voracious, devouring -large quantities of flies, caterpillars, and other insects, some of which -are much superior to themselves in size. On one occasion I saw a male -specimen of _Cicindela parryi_ (a species closely allied to but smaller -than _C. tuberculata_) attack a large Tortrix caterpillar, an inch and a -half in length. The beetle invariably sprang upon the back of the -caterpillar and bit it in the neck, being meanwhile flung over and over by -the larva's vigorous efforts to free itself from so unpleasant an -assailant. During the fight, which lasted fully twenty minutes, the beetle -was compelled to retire periodically to gain fresh strength to renew its -attacks, which were eventually {21}successful, the unfortunate tortrix -becoming finally completely exhausted. The beetle devoured but a very small -portion of the caterpillar, and abandoning the remainder went off in search -of fresh prey. Eight other closely allied species of _Cicindela_ are -described by Captain Broun in the "Manual of the New Zealand Coleoptera," -but they offer no especial peculiarities, and _C. tuberculata_ may be taken -as a type of the genus. - - -Family CARABIDAE. - -_Pterostichus opulentus_ (Plate I., fig. 3, 3a larva). - -This fine beetle is very common in most wooded situations in the Nelson -district; it may be at once distinguished from the numerous other closely -allied species by the beautiful metallic coppery tints that adorn its -thorax and elytra. - -During the day it is usually discovered concealed under logs and stones, -and when disturbed, rushes into the first crevice to get out of the light. -At night time, it comes abroad to feed, killing an immense number of flies, -caterpillars, and other insects, to satisfy its voracious appetite. -Although of a most ferocious disposition, it is not wanting in maternal -affection. The female, when about to deposit her eggs, excavates a small -cavity nearly three inches square, in which they are placed. These she -broods over until hatched, and probably some little time afterwards, as I -have found a specimen close to a nest, which contained both eggs and -larvae, and the zealous mother furiously bit at anything presented to her. -The eggs are oval in shape, quite smooth, and yellowish white in colour. -The young larva is drawn at Plate I., fig. 3a; it is remarkable for its -superficial resemblance to a small Iulus, and being found in similar -situations to that animal, its mimicry has probably some useful object. The -older larva differs chiefly in having the head and thoracic segments -proportionately {22}smaller. Twenty-one closely allied insects belonging to -two genera are described by Captain Broun in his Manual, the largest being -_Pterostichus australasiae_, which is found in similar localities to the -present species, but is not so common. - - -Group HYDRADEPHAGA. - -Family DYTICIDAE. - -_Colymbetes rufimanus_ (Plate I., fig. 4, 4a larva). - -This insect is found plentifully in all still waters during the summer -months. Its larva is a soft elongate grub, provided with six slender -thoracic legs, and a pair of powerful mandibles. The posterior extremity of -the body is furnished with two curious appendages bearing a spiracle at the -apex of each, which the larva frequently protrudes above the surface of the -water. The air is taken in through the spiracles, and conveyed to all parts -of the body by two main air-tubes, one of which springs from each spiracle, -and branches throughout the insect in every direction. During the spring -months the larvae may be found of various sizes in similar situations to -the imago; they are very voracious, devouring freshwater shrimps, -_Ephemera_ larvae, and occasionally, when pressed by hunger, they will even -destroy individuals of their own species for food. These they capture by -means of their powerful mandibles, retaining a firm hold of the victim -until they have consumed all the fleshy portions, the rest of the carcase -being thrown aside, and a fresh search made for more. One individual I kept -for some time, remained perpetually concealed in a small patch of green -weed, growing in the middle of its aquarium. In a short time it became -surrounded with the skeletons of small water shrimps which had been seized -by the larva as they passed by its hiding place, the unfortunate -crustaceans only discovering their enemy when it was too late. I have not -yet observed the pupa of this {23}insect, but it probably does not differ -materially from those of its European allies. Although so very different in -general appearance to the preceding insects, this beetle will be found on -careful examination to agree with them in all important respects, being -only what a ground beetle might naturally become if forced to lead an -aquatic existence. Breathing is effected in all the water beetles by the -spiracles of the abdomen, which alone are developed. The air is taken in -between the elytra and the body, and owing to the convexity of the former, -a supply can be retained sufficient to last the insect some twenty or -thirty minutes. The beetles may be often observed with the extremity of -their elytra protruded above the surface, renewing their supplies of air. -On very hot days _C. rufimanus_ may be occasionally seen flying with great -rapidity far away from its native ponds. When doing so it makes a loud -humming noise, and is a much more conspicuous object than when in the -water. - - -Group CLAVICORNIA. - -Family NITIDULIDAE. - -_Epuraea zealandica._ - -This curious little beetle is found abundantly in the neighbourhood of -decaying fungi, throughout the year, being most plentiful in the autumn and -early winter. Its larva is a small cylindrical grub, with the head and legs -so minute that they are scarcely perceptible, causing it to closely -resemble the maggots of many dipterous insects, occurring in similar -localities. It is generally found in the large yellow fungi, so abundant in -wet situations during the late autumn and winter months. It forms numerous -galleries through the plant in all directions, and owing to the large -amount of moisture which is usually present, these galleries are often -filled with water, so that the insect may {24}be said to be sub-aquatic in -its habits. I have not yet detected the pupa of this species, although the -discovery of a large quantity of both larvae and perfect insects is of -everyday occurrence with the entomologist in winter. - - -Family ENGIDAE. - -_Dryocora Howittii_ (Plate I., fig. 6, 6a larva). - -This quaint-looking little insect occurs occasionally in damp matai logs, -when in an advanced state of decay. The larva (Fig. 6a) is very flat and -thin, possessing the usual thoracic legs, which, however, are rather short. -The last segment of the abdomen is furnished with an anal proleg and a pair -of small setiform appendages. Its mode of progression is very peculiar, -resembling that of the Geometer larvae among the Lepidoptera. - -The thoracic legs are first brought to the ground, and the rest of the body -is then drawn up in an arched position close behind them. The anal proleg -then supports the insect while the anterior segments are thrust out, and -the others follow as before. This method is only employed on smooth -surfaces, the larva crawling along elsewhere in the usual manner. - -The perfect beetle is a very sluggish insect, and difficult to find owing -to its colour, which closely resembles that of the wood in which it lives. - - -Family ENGIDAE. - -_Chaetosoma scaritides_ (Plate I., fig. 2). - -This insect may be at once recognized by its peculiar shape, no other New -Zealand beetle resembling it in this respect. Although tolerably common and -generally distributed, it is very seldom seen abroad, spending almost the -whole of its life concealed in the burrows of various wood-boring weevils. -Its larva, which feeds on the grubs {25}of these insects, is of a pinkish -colour, very fat and sluggish; the head and three anterior segments are -strong and horny, the legs being rather short. It undergoes its -transformation into the pupa within the weevil burrows, when the limbs of -the perfect insect can be seen folded down the breast, the wings and elytra -being much smaller than in the beetle. Specimens in all stages of existence -may be readily procured by splitting up old perforated logs which have been -long tenanted by weevils. - - -Group BRACHELYTRA. - -Family STAPHYLINIDAE. - -_Staphylinus oculatus_ (Plate I., fig. 5). - -This is the New Zealand representative of _S. olens_ or the "Devil's Coach -Horse," one of the most familiar of British beetles. It is found -occasionally in the neighbourhood of slaughter-houses, and may be at once -distinguished from any of the allied species by a large spot of brilliant -scarlet situated on each side of its head behind the eyes; this very -conspicuous feature has given it the specific name of _oculatus_. I am at -present unacquainted with the transformations of this fine insect, but they -will probably closely resemble those of the typical species (_S. olens_) -described in the majority of standard books on European Coleoptera. This -beetle may be frequently seen flying in the sunshine, when it has a most -striking appearance, owing to its large size and rapid motion. An -unpleasant odour is found to arise when it is handled, this being -noticeable in nearly all the members of the family. These beetles are -comparatively numerous in New Zealand, the genus _Philonthus_ comprising -several elongate active insects, of which _P. oeneus_ is one of the -commonest, and may be found abundantly amongst garden refuse. Others -frequent the seashore, feeding on decaying seaweed, and {26}may be noticed -flying in all directions along the coast immediately after sundown. Another -genus (_Xantholinus_) includes a number of interesting beetles found in old -weevil burrows, and probably feeding on their inmates. - - -Group LAMELLICORNES. - -Family LUCANIDAE. - -_Dorcus punctulatus_ (Plate I., fig. 7). - -An abundant species chiefly attached to the red pine tree or rimu, where it -may be found concealed beneath the scaly bark, in the angles of the trunk -near the roots. When disturbed, it folds up its legs and antennae on its -breast, and, extending its powerful jaws, awaits the approach of the enemy, -ready to bite anything coming within its reach. These, however, are purely -defensive measures, the insect being quite harmless when left alone. The -larva is at present unknown to me. Another species, _D. reticulatus_, is a -much handsomer insect than the preceding; it may be at once recognized by -four deep impressions in the thorax, filled in with light-brown scales; the -margins of the elytra are similarly scaled, as well as four spots on each -elytron, the remainder of the beetle being dark-brown and shining. It is -generally found in totara bark, but is much scarcer than the last species. -One small specimen I possess, remarkable for its brilliant appearance, was -taken under the bark of a stunted black birch tree, over two thousand feet -above the sea-level. - - -Family MELOLONTHIDAE. - -_Stethaspis suturalis_ (Plate I., fig. 8, 8a larva). - -This conspicuous insect occurs abundantly in all open situations. Its larva -(Fig. 8a) inhabits the earth, feeding on the roots of various plants, and -is especially abundant {27}in paddocks, where it occasionally does -considerable damage to the grass, and threatens ere long to become as great -a pest as its first cousin, the renowned Cockchaffer of England -(_Melolontha vulgaris_), whose fearful ravages need no description. It may -be taken as a typical larva of the family, the rest differing from one -another in little else than size. When full-grown it is quite as large as -the illustration, and is nearly always in the position there indicated, -owing to the size of its posterior segments and the absence of any anal -proleg, which compel it to lie always on its side. I have not yet succeeded -in obtaining the pupa of this insect, although larvae may be frequently -found enclosed in oval cells, evidently about to undergo their -transformation. Several of these have been kept in captivity, but they have -hitherto always died without undergoing any change. I have, however, no -doubt as to its being the larva of _S. suturalis_, as there are no other -large Lamellicorns found near Wellington to which it could possibly be -referred. The perfect beetle appears in great numbers from November to -March; it is best taken at dusk, when it flies with a loud humming noise, -about four feet above the ground. If knocked down it always falls amongst -the herbage, and is not readily perceived until a few minutes later, when -the humming noise is resumed as the insect again gets under weigh, and the -would-be captor must not lose time if he wishes to secure it. Occasionally -individuals are seen disporting themselves on the wing during the day, but -this must be regarded as a purely exceptional circumstance. Unlike the -majority of nocturnal Coleoptera, this insect does not appear to be -attracted by light; in fact I have never obtained any specimens by this -method, although most other night-flying beetles may be taken in goodly -numbers at the attracting lamp. - - -{28}Family MELOLONTHIDAE. - -_Pyronota festiva_. - -This brilliant little insect is extremely abundant amongst manuka, during -the early summer. In general appearance it reminds one of a miniature -specimen of the last species, but is more elongate in form; the green -thorax and elytra are also much brighter. The latter are bordered with -flashing crimson, the legs and under surface being reddish-brown, sparsely -clothed with white hairs. A small Lamellicorn grub, found amongst refuse in -manuka thickets, is probably the larva of this insect; it is less thickened -posteriorly than that of _S. suturalis_, but otherwise closely resembles -it. The perfect insect is diurnal in its habits, flying round flowering -manuka in countless numbers on a hot day. The descent of thirty or forty of -these little beetles on to the beating sheet, out of a single bush, is of -frequent occurrence, and is particularly noticed by the New Zealand -entomologist accustomed to the meagre supply of specimens offered in the -majority of instances. - - -Group STERNOXI. - -Family ELATERIDAE. - -_Thoramus wakefieldi_ (Plate II., fig. 1, 1b larva, 1a pupa). - -This fine beetle may be taken under rimu bark in tolerable abundance, and -is often observed flying about at dusk during the summer. Its larva -inhabits rotten wood, usually selecting the red pine, in which it excavates -numerous flat galleries near the surface of the logs. When disturbed it is -very sluggish, the head being immediately withdrawn into the large thoracic -segment and completely concealed. The legs are very minute, and are of but -little use in walking, the insect being chiefly dependent for locomotion on -its large anal proleg, which is furnished with numerous horny spines. When -full-grown this larva closes up one end of {29}its burrow, and thus forms a -closed cell, in which it is transformed into the pupa shown at Fig. 1a, -remaining in this condition until the warmer weather calls the insect from -its retreat. Two closely allied species are _T. perblandus_ and _Metablax -acutipennis_. The former is occasionally found under the large scales on -matai trees, and resembles the present insect in general appearance, but is -much smaller and more elongate in form, its elytra being also ornamented -with longitudinal rows of yellowish-brown hairs. The latter may be often -taken on the wing in the hottest sunshine, and is chiefly remarkable for -its elongate prothorax and pointed elytra; its colour is dark -reddish-brown, ornamented with a few scattered white hairs. All these -insects possess the singular habit of leaping into the air when placed on -their backs, the last-named species exercising this faculty in a most -marked degree. The movement is effected by the joint between the pro- and -meso-thorax, the sternum of the former being elongated into a long process, -fitting into a corresponding cavity in the latter, so that by means of the -two being suddenly brought together, the insect is thrown high into the air -with a loud clicking sound, hence the English name of the Skipjack or Click -Beetles, the scientific name, Elater, doubtless having reference to the -same habit. The object of this curious arrangement is in all probability -twofold; the sharp click and rapid movement of the insect deterring many -enemies from attacking it, whilst the short legs of the beetle, which are -quite unable to reach the ground when it is thrown on its back, render a -special contrivance necessary. - - -Group HETEROMERA. - -Family TENEBRIONIDAE. - -_Uloma tenebrionides_ (Plate II., fig. 2, 2a larva, 2b pupa). - -One of our commonest beetles, found in great abundance {30}in all moist -wood when much decayed, the favourite trees being apparently rimu and -matai. Its cylindrical larva may be taken in similar situations, and much -resembles in general appearance the well-known "wire-worm" of England, -whose destructive habits, however, it does not share. At present, whilst -bush-clearing is going on, its influence is beneficial, as it devours large -quantities of useless wood, which is thus rapidly broken up and got rid of. -The pupa is enclosed in an oval cell, constructed by the larva before -changing, from which the perfect insect emerges in due course. When first -exuded its colour is pale red, but this rapidly changes into dark brown -after the insect has been hardened by exposure to the air. Specimens are -often met with of every intermediate shade, and are rather liable to -deceive the beginner, who mistakes them for distinct species. An account of -a small Dipterous insect infesting this beetle in its preparatory states -will be found on page 62. - - -Group LONGICORNIA. - -Family PRIONIDAE. - -_Prionus reticularis_ (Plate II., fig. 3, 3b larva, 3a pupa). - -This is the largest species of beetle found in New Zealand, and is common -throughout the summer in the neighbourhood of forests. Its larva (Fig. 3b) -is a large, fat grub, with minute legs; it inhabits rimu and matai, logs, -often committing great ravages on sound timber although frequently eating -that which is decayed; posts, rails, and the rafters of houses alike suffer -from its attacks; the great holes formed by a full-grown larva of this -insect creating rapid destruction in the largest timbers. It may be -remarked, in connection with these wood-boring species, that a good thick -coat of paint put on the timber as soon as it is exposed, and renewed at -frequent intervals, to a great extent prevents their attacks. The pupa -(Fig. 3a) {31}is enclosed in one of the burrows formed by the larva, which, -before changing, blocks up any aperture, so as to rest secure from all -enemies. The perfect insect emerges in the following summer, when it may be -often observed flying about at night. It is greatly attracted by light, and -this propensity frequently leads it on summer evenings to invade ladies' -drawing-rooms, when its sudden and noisy arrival is apt to cause much -needless consternation amongst the inmates. - -Closely allied to the above is _Ochrocydus huttoni_, which may be at once -known by its smaller size and plain elytra; it is very much scarcer than -_P. reticularis_, but may occasionally be cut out of dead manuka trees in -company with its larva. - - -Group RHYNCOPHORA. - -Family CURCULIONIDAE. - -_Oreda notata_ (Plate II., fig. 4, 4a larva). - -This weevil is not often noticed in the open, but may be found in great -abundance in the dead stems of fuchsia, mahoe, and other soft-wooded -shrubs, whose trunks are frequently noticed pierced with numerous -cylindrical holes. The larva also inhabits these burrows, devouring large -quantities of the wood; it is provided with a large head and powerful pair -of mandibles, but, in common with all other weevil larvae, does not possess -legs of any description, the insect being absolutely helpless when removed -from its home in the wood. The pupa might also be found in similar -situations, but I have not yet observed it. The perfect insect may be cut -out of the trees throughout the year, and is occasionally taken amongst -herbage during the summer. - - -Family CURCULIONIDAE. - -_Psepholax coronatus_ (Plate II., fig. 5 [F], 5a [M]). - -This curious species is found abundantly in the stems of {32}dead currant -trees (_Aristotelia racemosa_), in which it excavates numerous cylindrical -burrows like the last species, which it closely resembles when in the -larval state. The sexes are widely different, the elytra of the male being -furnished with the characteristic coronet of spines, which is entirely -wanting in the female. Numerous other members of this genus may be taken in -company with the present insect, and should be carefully examined, as a -correct determination of the males and females of the several species is -sadly wanted. Digging beetles out of the wood is good employment for the -entomologist in winter, when he will find that a day spent in this manner -will frequently produce as rich a harvest as one in the height of summer. - -Before finally leaving the Coleoptera, I should like to direct the -attention of my readers to the immense number of interesting weevils found -in New Zealand. Chief among these is the remarkable _Lasiorhynchus -barbicornis_, a large insect furnished with a gigantic rostrum, which will -at once distinguish it from any of the rest. Other genera contain numerous -beetles, which may be found in various kinds of dead timber in company with -their larvae, and are worthy of a more minute investigation than has at -present been given them. - - - - -{33}CHAPTER IV - -The Hymenoptera. - -The Hymenoptera are perhaps the most interesting order of insects, their -brilliant colours, great activity, and unparalleled instincts rendering -them alike attractive to the young collector and scientific entomologist. -They are, however, not very numerous in New Zealand, several of the most -important families being completely absent; in fact, with the exception of -the ants, there are no social Hymenoptera native to this country. The -information I here give in connection with these insects does not -adequately represent the large amount of interest which can be derived from -their investigation, and I must therefore refer the reader to those -admirable works by Sir J. Lubbock on Ants and by Huber on Bees, which -cannot fail to interest all who read them. - - -Family ANDRENIDAE. - -_Dasycolletes hirtipes_ (?) (Plate III., fig. 1). - -This is the true native bee of New Zealand, and may be taken abundantly -during the whole of the summer. Its nest is constructed in crevices in the -bark of trees, &c., the insect very frequently selecting the spaces between -the boards of outhouses, where the loud buzzing noise {34}made by the -perfect bees when emerging from their retreat at once arrests our -attention. These nests consist of about ten oval cells, formed of clay, and -neatly smoothed within. They are all constructed by a single female, which -also provisions them with honey and pollen, depositing an egg in each. The -larva, after consuming the food, changes into a pupa, from which the -perfect insect emerges about January. If the reader will imagine a great -number of these nests closely packed together, the formation and storing of -the cells being performed by a number of sterile individuals (workers), -while the eggs are deposited by a single female (queen), he will have a -fair idea of the economy of the social bees and wasps, whose wonderful -instincts attain their maximum in the well-known hive-bee, successfully -introduced and cultivated in various parts of the country. - -Closely allied to this species is _Dasycolletes purpureus_ (?) (Fig. 10), -which forms its nests in sand-banks, its cylindrical holes having a great -resemblance to the burrows of _Cincindela tuberculata_, which frequently -occur in the same situation. - - -Family SPHEGIDAE. - -_Pompilus fugax_ (Plate III., fig. 2). - -This is a very abundant insect, and may be observed flying about on any -fine day during the summer, occasionally stopping to examine leaves and -crevices in the bark of trees, where it is looking for the unfortunate -spiders, which constitute the food of its progeny. The larva is a fat -apodal grub, and may be found in the cells constructed by the perfect -insect, which usually selects a large cylindrical hole in a log, previously -drilled out by a weevil. Into this burrow she pushes a large quantity of -spiders, which she has previously captured and paralyzed with her venomous -sting. When her nest is {35}properly provisioned she deposits an egg in it, -closes the hole with a neat plug of clay, and leaves the larva to quietly -consume its half-dead companions. Each female, no doubt, forms a large -number of these cells during the summer. While cutting up old logs for -Coleoptera, the entomologist will not infrequently come across these nests, -when the insects may be found in various stages of development. -Unfortunately, however, the sight which usually meets his eye is a large -number of legs and other fragments of spiders, the _fugax_ having long -since deserted the burrow, and being very probably engaged in forming -others in a neighbouring tree. These insects are very ferocious, and will -attack spiders which considerably exceed them in size. On one occasion I -noticed a very large one at rest in the centre of its web, which was -suddenly noticed by a passing _fugax_, which immediately sprang upon its -back, and, in spite of violent movements on the part of the spider, twisted -her abdomen dexterously round and stung her victim in the centre of the -thorax, between the insertions of the legs. This produced almost -instantaneous paralysis in the spider; but it was apparently too large for -the _fugax_ to carry away to her nest, as I saw the unfortunate creature -hanging helplessly in its web some hours after the occurrence. - - -Family FORMICIDAE. - -_Formica zealandica_ (Plate III., fig. 3 [M], 3a [F], 3b [N], 3c, cocoon). - -This is one of our commonest ants, and may be noticed under logs and stones -throughout the year. The nest consists of a number of irregular cavities -dug out by the workers either in the ground or in soft rotten wood. Its -size varies considerably, but the societies of this species are not usually -so extensive as those of _Atta antarctica_, {36}an insect I shall have -occasion to refer to presently. The larvae are minute apodal grubs, which -are dependent entirely on the workers for food. When full grown they spin -an oval cocoon of white silk, in which they are converted into pupae, and -these the patient neuter ants may be observed carrying away with great -anxiety when disturbed, risking their own lives to preserve their adopted -offspring from destruction. The females, or queens, of which there are -several in each nest, do not appear to participate in these labours, but -are only instrumental in perpetuating the species, and the same remark -applies to the males. A large number of these winged males and females may -be observed in the nests about February, the general emergence taking place -during that month. At this time they leave their native homes and mount to -a great height in the air, and after sporting for some hours they re-alight -on the earth, and in a short space of time cast their wings. The neuters at -this time are said to carry them away to form fresh colonies, but I have -not carried my investigations sufficiently far to verify this in connection -with the New Zealand species. - - -Family FORMICIDAE. - -_Ponera castanea_ (Plate III., fig. 4 [M], 4a [N], 4b, larva). - -This is a much larger species of ant than the last, but is apparently not -unlike it in habits. I have figured a male (Fig. 4) and worker (4a), the -female not differing from the latter in any great degree, except in being -provided with wings. It will be noticed, however, that the male is very -divergent. The larvae of this insect are covered with numerous minute -spines, and may be often found in the nests; also the cocoons which they -form when full grown, these latter being of a dark brown colour, and rather -elongate. The winged insects are not frequently seen. They appear only for -a short time in February, the earlier {37}ones being invariably held -captive by the workers until the rest have emerged, when they are all -allowed to fly away and form fresh colonies as in the last species. - - -Family FORMICIDAE. - -_Atta antarctica_ (Plate III., fig. 5 [M], 5a [F], 5b, larva). - -This is another very abundant species, found occasionally amongst rotten -wood in very large communities. Its larva, which is represented at Fig. 5b, -does not form any cocoon, the pupa being quite naked and defenceless. It is -a beautiful little object when examined with a microscope of moderate -power. The annual migration of the winged males and females of this species -usually takes place on a hot day in the last week of March, at which time I -have observed the air throughout a day's journey absolutely swarming with -these little insects. Many specimens are captured in the spiders' webs, -while the logs, fences, and ground are covered with ants in the proportion -of about ten males to one female. At other seasons of the year the winged -individuals of _Atta antarctica_ are seldom observed. - - -Family CHALCIDIDAE. - -_Pteromalus_ sp. (?) (Plate III., fig. 9). - -This little insect was reared, in company with thirteen others of the same -species, from a pupa of _Eurigaster marginatus_ which had been procured -from a larva of _Oeceticus omnivorus_, and is consequently a true -hyperparasite.[3] Its curious habits will be better understood by the -reader after perusal of the life-histories of those two insects, which I -have given on pages 60 and 74. The method by which the females of the -Hymenoptera whose larvae are parasitic on insects inhabiting other insects, -{38}introduce their eggs into their hosts,[4] is not at present known to -entomologists, but it seems at least probable that they are deposited in -the eggs of the parasitic Dipteron before these gain access to the -caterpillar of the moth. - - -Family ICHNEUMONIDAE. - -_Ichneumon sollicitorius_ (Plate III., fig. 6). - -This is the most abundant of our ichneumon-flies, and may be taken amongst -herbage from August till May. Its larva is parasitic in the caterpillars of -various Noctuae, having occurred in the following species: _Mamestra -composita_, _M. mutans_, and _M. ustistriga_. The pupa may be frequently -discovered inside that of the moth, and is quite white in its early stages, -but as age advances all the colours of the future insect can be seen -through the thin pellicle which invests it. The perfect insect makes its -escape through a circular hole, which it drills in the upper end of the -unfortunate moth pupa it has destroyed. The sexes of all ichneumon-flies -may be at once recognized by the females possessing an ovipositor[5] -differing considerably in length among the various species, but nearly -always plainly visible. - - -Family ICHNEUMONIDAE. - -_Ichneumon deceptus_ (Plate III., fig. 7). - -This conspicuous insect is chiefly mentioned on account of a very curious -habit possessed by the females of congregating in large numbers on matai -trees, as many as fifty or sixty specimens being often found huddled -together under a single flake of the bark. The males are occasionally taken -flying in the open, but I have never seen any amongst these large -assemblages of females. Whether the {39}ichneumons are parasitic on some -insect which lives on the matai, or whether they assemble to feast on the -sweet juice occasionally exuded from its bark, it is impossible to say, but -in either case the complete absence of males is a very remarkable -circumstance. - - -Family ICHNEUMONIDAE. - -_Scolobates varipes_ (Plate III., fig. 8). - -The larva of this little insect is parasitic on the useful larva of -_Syrphus ortas_ whose life-history is recorded on page 57. It is very -common in some instances, and must consequently destroy a considerable -number. It entirely eats the soft portions of the insect, and may -afterwards be found lying snugly within the hard empty shell of the -deceased syrphus pupa, which acts as a cocoon for it while undergoing its -own pupa state. The perfect insect may be often observed amongst herbage, -searching for syrphus larvae to deposit its eggs in. - - - - -{40}CHAPTER V - -The Diptera. - -The next Order which comes under review is the Diptera, which includes all -the two-winged insects, and constitutes a most extensive Order in respect -to the number of distinct species. When, however, the numbers of -individuals of the same species are considered, it is probable that this -Order includes a greater proportion of the insect-world than all the others -put together. The preponderance of these insects over the rest holds good -with greater force in New Zealand than in many other countries, and this -fact may be almost inferred from the large number of spiders present here, -which are chiefly dependent on Diptera for their support. The important -function of clearing away refuse matter is almost entirely performed by the -members of this Order, as the Necrophagous Coleoptera and other scavengers -which exist in such large numbers in many countries are practically absent -here, and their work consequently devolves upon dipterous insects. - - -Group NEMOCERA. - -Family CULICIDAE. - -_Culex iracundus_ (Plate IV., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa). - -The mosquito is only too familiar to every one from {41}its ceaseless -attacks; it occurs almost everywhere, but is most abundant in marshy -situations. The larva (Fig. 1a) inhabits all stagnant waters, where it may -be found very abundantly throughout the summer, and when disturbed it -plunges about with great agility. Its food consists of the numerous -animalculae swarming in all still waters during the greater portion of the -year. These are captured by means of two curious anterior appendages, which -are fringed with long hair, and pulled through the water like a fisherman's -net; they are then withdrawn into the mouth and the contents devoured, the -hungry insect again extending them for a fresh supply. These larvae are -generally seen suspended from the surface of the water by the curious -air-tube which takes its rise from the penultimate segment of the abdomen, -which is of considerable length. Its apex is armed with a row of stiff -bristles, which effectually prevent the water from entering the spiracle -there situated, so that the insect is enabled to respire when hanging from -the surface, independently of any muscular action. It is also worthy of -note that the intestine discharges itself into this tube, an arrangement -which does not exist among the British species. After several moultings the -transformation to the pupa state takes place. At this stage the insect -(Fig. 1b) becomes much thickened anteriorly, this being the region of the -head and thorax of the future gnat; all the limbs are easily detected on a -close examination, as with lepidopterous pupae. The upper portion is -provided with two short appendages, fulfilling the same function as the -air-tube of the larva, and which constantly support the pupa at the surface -of the water. The terminal fins enable it to dash through the water with -great rapidity when pursued by enemies; at other times it remains perfectly -motionless, suspended from the surface of the water. It should be mentioned -that none of these aquatic pupae take any nourishment, neither have they -any limbs properly {42}so called. Their locomotion, although in some cases -unquestionably rapid, is entirely effected by violent motions of the -abdomen. I have been careful to point out these peculiarities as these -animals have been regarded by many authors as _active_ pupae on a level -with those of the Orthoptera and Hemiptera. This opinion, however, is -manifestly erroneous; the pupae of the nemocerous Diptera are on precisely -the same footing as those of the Lepidoptera, and it would be almost as -reasonable to call one of these _active_, because it wriggles out of its -cocoon in the earth before the emergence of the moth. The perfect mosquito -emerges from a rent in the thoracic shield of the pupa, drawing each pair -of legs out separately, and placing them in front of it on the water; the -wings and abdomen are then extracted and in a few moments it flies away. - -The bites of these insects appear to distress some people much more than -others, probably owing to constitutional differences. I should mention that -the females alone engage in these attacks, the males being quite harmless -and subsisting entirely on honey, which is doubtless the natural food of -both sexes. The male and female mosquito are readily distinguished, the -specimen figured belonging to the latter sex; her companion is chiefly -remarkable for his plumed antennae and beautiful palpi, which are very long -and gracefully plumed. As many of the harmless insects which will be -investigated are often mistaken for this species, and destroyed -accordingly, I should like to advise my readers that they may at once -distinguish all the venomous species of gnats by their long, lancet-like -proboscis and loud humming noise during flight. - -Closely allied to this insect is _Culex argyropus_, which might be called -the coast mosquito as it is always found near the seashore, its larva -living in brackish pools just above high-water mark. The perfect insect may -be also seen skating along the surface of the water like a {43}gerris[6]; -it may be at once distinguished by its dark colour,. - - -Family TIPULIDAE. - -_Corethra antarctica_, n.s.[7] (Plate IV., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa). - -An elegant little gnat, frequenting the margins of ponds and ditches during -the spring months. The larva (Fig. 3a) is bright green, ornamented with -numerous yellow spots; it is very sluggish, living in the green slime weed -which floats on the water in such large masses during that season. Not -being very common it is difficult to find, as its colour so closely -resembles that of the weed which it always frequents. The pupa (Fig 3b), is -not very agile, and is nearly always observed suspended from the surface by -its thoracic air-tubes and caudal fins, the abdomen being directed upwards -and thus bringing the two pairs of organs close together. In its -metamorphosis and general appearance this insect forms a convenient link -between the present family and the Culicidae. - - -Family TIPULIDAE. - -_Chironomus zealandicus_, n.s. (Plate IV., fig. 2, 2a larva, 2b pupa). - -This is the common midge of New Zealand, and is extremely abundant -throughout the country. Its larva (Fig. 2a) inhabits the soft mud at the -bottom of stagnant ponds and streams, and is very conspicuous, being of a -brilliant crimson colour and thus much resembling the well-known -"Bloodworm" of English anglers, which is the larva of a closely allied -European species (_C. plumosus_). It may be readily kept in an aquarium, -and if supplied with a little soil and green weed will rapidly cover the -{44}walls of its glass prison with numerous tubular galleries. These take -their rise from the mud at the bottom, and, extending upwards to a distance -of three or four inches, afford the larva a convenient retreat from all -enemies. These insects are occasionally seen swimming laboriously through -the water with a peculiar zigzag motion. When out of their burrows they -have considerable difficulty in keeping beneath the surface, and may be -often observed floating helplessly with their exposed portions quite dry; -in fact the whole integment of the insect appears to have a peculiar power -of resisting the water. The pupa (Fig. 2b), is a most beautiful object, its -anterior extremity being obtusely thickened and the limbs of the future -insect quite discernible. On each side of the thorax the gills form a set -of graceful plumes, a much smaller group being also situated at the -extremity of its abdomen. In this state the insect remains almost entirely -concealed in the burrows previously constructed by the larva, its gills -imbibing sufficient air from the surrounding medium, and thus rendering -ascension to the surface unnecessary. The water is periodically circulated -in the tunnels by violent movements on the part of the pupa. About a day -before emergence the insect assumes a peculiar silvery appearance, which is -occasioned by the presence of a large quantity of air between the imago and -its pupa skin. This air has been first imbibed by the gills and afterwards -expelled through the spiracles of the enclosed gnat, thus inflating the -skin of the pupa, and helping to buoy it up during its last and most -important transformation. Leaving its tunnel the insect rises to the -surface, the thorax is lifted above the water which retreats from it on all -sides, the skin cracks open at the back and the insect slowly extricates -itself in a similar manner to the mosquito. In about ten minutes' time the -wings are sufficiently hardened for use and the insect then flies ashore, -but we may occasionally notice, {45}beside their old pupa-skins, drowned -individuals which have failed to effect a successful emergence. The perfect -insect is extremely common in all swampy situations throughout the summer; -it has a great partiality for light, and may be occasionally noticed in -vast numbers round the street lamps on a hot summer's night, especially if -rain is impending. It is a most graceful insect, and will amply repay a -minute examination (Fig. 2). - - -Family TIPULIDAE. - -_Ceratopogon antipodum_, n.s. (Plate IV., fig. 4, 4a larva, 4b pupa). - -Very plentiful in the forest throughout the year, often enlivening the -winter sunshine by its merry gambols. The larva (Fig. 4a), is found under -the bark of newly fallen trees, feeding on the sap which exudes in large -quantities from the logs whilst drying. When first discovered it often has -a curiously spangled appearance, owing to the minute beads of moisture -retained by numerous bristles clothing the larva. When about to change, -these insects assemble in large companies of thirty or forty, firmly -affixing their basal segments to the wood, their heads all pointing inwards -and forming a small circle. In some cases, where an unusually large -gathering has occurred, a number arrange themselves into an outer row, -their heads being immediately behind the extremities of the inner group, -the whole thus bearing a rough likeness to the radiations of a star-fish. -The pupa is very short, and is furnished with two clubbed horns on the -thorax for respiration. Its abdominal portions are retained within the old -larval skin, thus keeping it firmly anchored to the log. The perfect insect -emerges from a rent in the thorax of the pupa, groups of exuviae being of -common occurrence under the bark. The sexes differ considerably, the -individual figured {46}(Fig. 4) being a male; the female is slightly -larger, and much more stoutly built; her antennae are filiform[8], and the -limbs generally shorter. Both are equally common, but the male is more -often noticed, owing to his greater activity. - - -Family TIPULIDAE. - -_Psychoda conspicillata_ (Plate IV., fig. 6). - -A common species, occurring plentifully on window panes during August, and -bearing a great superficial resemblance to a small moth of the Tineina -group, often deceiving the novice in consequence. It is a beautiful object -for the microscope, the figure being a careful drawing of the insect, seen -with a power of about ten diameters. I regret to say that its -transformations are at present unknown. - - -Family TIPULIDAE. - -_Mycetophila antarctica_, n.s. (Plate IV., fig. 5, 5a larva, 5b pupa). - -Tolerably common in the vicinity of forest during the major part of the -year. The larva (Fig. 5a), is a small elongate maggot of a pinkish colour; -it is a social insect, inhabiting rotten pine logs, which it perforates -with numerous cylindrical burrows. These larvae, entirely confine their -attention to damp wood of a "pappy" consistency, leaving the harder logs -for the wood-boring Coleoptera, which are provided with much stronger jaws. -They consequently do not injure the rafters and boards of houses, or other -valuable timbers. The pupa (Fig. 5b) is very elongate, reposing in one of -the burrows, previously constructed by the larva. It probably breathes by -means of its spiracles, as no special organs of respiration are visible. -The perfect insect appears in a short time, flying sluggishly in the -sunshine, the female possessing an enormous abdomen, which {47}almost -incapacitates her for aerial locomotion; in other respects she resembles -the male, which is the sex figured (Fig. 5). - - -Family TIPULIDAE. - -_Tipula holochlora_ (Plate V., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa). - -This beautiful insect is very common in the forest throughout New Zealand. -Its larva (Fig. 1a) inhabits various kinds of decaying wood, frequently -occurring in vegetable refuse at the roots of trees. It is a large, -sluggish-looking grub, and the anterior segments are very retractile. Its -colour appears to vary according to its surroundings, those specimens found -in red pine being of the dull reddish hue characteristic of that wood, -while those taken from pukatea and henau are dark brown larvae, resembling -the illustration. These insects are very voracious, but their growth is -gradual, each larva probably occupying at least six months to reach -maturity. They mostly feed during the winter, but may be often taken at -other times. The pupa (Fig. 1b) is enclosed in a small oval cell, -previously excavated by the larva, which also constructs a ready means of -escape for the future insect in the form of a small tunnel leading out of -one end of its prison to the open air. Through this the pupa wriggles, -assisted by the spines, which arm the edges of all the segments; the -coronet of hooks at its extremity retaining the insect firmly at the mouth -of its burrow while undergoing its final transformation. After numerous -twistings and contortions on the part of the pupa, a rent is formed in the -thoracic plates, and the imago draws itself out, standing on the log until -its wings are sufficiently hardened for flight. In many old houses numbers -of these exuviae may be seen projecting from holes in the boards--a relic -of the destruction that has taken place within. These insects naturally -inhabit dead trees, but as they will devour unsound timber in any {48}form -they are very injurious to old wooden buildings. The perfect insect chiefly -frequents forest, where it is difficult to detect owing to its green colour -harmonizing so closely with the leaves. The specimen figured (Fig. 1) is a -male, the female being considerably smaller with a much stouter body and -shorter legs. - - -Family TIPULIDAE. - -_Tipula fumipennis_, n.s. (Plate V., fig. 2, 2a larva, 2b pupa). - -Another fine species, occurring in similar situations to the last, but not -quite so commonly. The larva (Fig. 2a) may be found throughout the year -under the bark of very rotten henau and pukatea, feeding on the moist -decaying wood. It constructs in this material numerous burrows, which are -lined with a viscous fluid constantly emitted from the mouth. Its movements -in these are very rapid, frequently eluding the most careful searches. When -divested of its slimy covering, it is anything but an offensive-looking -larva, the great air-tubes, which run the whole length of the insect, being -very conspicuous, and many of the other internal organs are easily detected -owing to its partial transparency. The pupa (Fig. 2b) is enclosed in a -small cocoon, having ready access to the air; it is chiefly remarkable for -its very large thoracic horns, which are curiously toothed. The air-tubes -connected with these are distinctly visible in the abdomen of the insect, -where they may be seen branching in all directions. When about to emerge -this pupa works its way to the surface of the log, the head and thorax are -thrust outside, and the perfect insect escapes in the ordinary way. The -illustration (Fig. 2) is taken from a female; the male differs in being -less robust, and in being provided with longer legs. - - -{49}Family TIPULIDAE. - -The Glow-worm. _Bolitophila luminosa_, Skuse. - -(Frontispiece, fig. 1). - -Every one who has walked in the forest at night has no doubt noticed, in -many damp and precipitous situations, numerous brilliant points of greenish -white light shining out from amongst the dense undergrowth. The animal -which causes this light may be seen at Fig. 1a on the Frontispiece, and is -probably one of the most interesting insects we have in New Zealand. It -inhabits irregular cavities, mostly situated in the banks of streams, where -it hangs suspended in a glutinous web which is stretched across the cavity -and supported by several smaller threads running right and left, and -attached to the sides and ends of the niche. On this the larva invariably -rests, but when disturbed immediately glides back along the main thread and -retreats into a hole which it has provided at the end of it. From the lower -side of this central thread numerous smaller threads hang down, and are -always covered with little globules of water, constituting a conspicuous, -though apparently unimportant, portion of the insect's web. It should be -mentioned that all these threads are constructed by the larva from a sticky -mucus exuded from the mouth. - -The organ which emits the light can easily be seen by referring to Fig. 1a. -It is situated at the posterior extremity of the larva, and is a gelatinous -and semi-transparent structure capable of a great diversity of form. It can -be extended or withdrawn at the will of the larva, which, however, can shut -off the light independently of this latter action. Larvae cease to shine on -very cold nights, in the daytime, and in a room which is artificially -lighted. They gleam most brilliantly on dark, damp nights, with a light -north-west wind. These larvae appear to suffer great mortality in a state -of nature, as the {50}young ones will always be found greatly in excess of -those that are approaching maturity. - -When full-grown this insect is transformed into the curious pupa shown at -Fig. 1b. It is furnished with a large process on the back of the thorax -which is attached to the web and holds the pupa suspended in the middle of -the niche previously inhabited by the larva. The light is emitted from the -posterior segment of the pupa, but is much fainter than in the larva, and a -distinct organ is not apparent. It is frequently suppressed for days -together. - -The perfect insect is drawn at Fig. 1. It emits a strong light from the -posterior segment of the abdomen, about half as bright as that emanating -from a full grown larva. It has been recently described by Mr. Skuse, of -Sydney, as _Bolitophila luminosa_. - -During the whole course of my observations[9] on this insect, extending -over five years, I have only succeeded in bringing two specimens to -maturity, and both of these were females. - -The uses of the light and the web to the larva are at present quite unknown -to me, as well as its food, which, however, possibly consists of fungi. It -should also be mentioned that the larvae are found in the greatest -abundance in mining tunnels, many feet below the surface of the earth, as -well as in caves. - - -Family TIPULIDAE. - -_Cloniophora subfasciata_ (Plate V., fig. 3, 3a larva). - -Tolerably common in damp gullies during summer and autumn. The larva (Fig. -3a) inhabits decayed henau logs, {51}drilling deep into the wood, where its -burrows are seldom noticed, as they are filled up with refuse almost as -soon as they are made. The pupa resembles that of _Tipula holochlora_, but -is rather more attenuated in the body, and the thoracic horns are slightly -thicker. It is not enclosed in any cocoon, but lies amongst the powdery -wood, wriggling to the surface when about to emerge. The illustration -represents the male insect, the female having a much stouter body, with -short thick legs; she also differs in her antennae, which are much less -branched than those of the male. - - -Family TIPULIDAE. - -_Rhyphus neozealandicus_ (Plate V., fig. 4, 4a larva, 4b pupa). - -A most abundant species occurring in most damp situations throughout the -year. Its larva (Fig. 4a) closely resembles a small worm, being of an -elongate form attenuated at each end. The skin is very hard and of a dull -yellow colour, with black markings. The food of this insect consists of -decaying vegetable matter, which it procures by means of two small -appendages, situated on each side of the mouth, and which it is continually -moving about in search of suitable materials. The pupa is a curious object -(Fig. 4b), the two little respiratory horns having a singular resemblance -to a pair of ears. It is enclosed in a small oval cell about one inch below -the surface of the earth, the insect working its way to the air before -emergence. The perfect _Rhyphus_ may be almost regarded as one of our -domestic insects, and is seldom found in the open country, but frequents -cowhouses and other farm buildings in great numbers, the larvae feeding on -the manure in these situations. It is often mistaken by ignorant people for -the mosquito and at once destroyed, but quite unfairly, as the species is -in reality perfectly harmless, frequently {52}benefiting mankind by the -removal of considerable quantities of effete matter, which if allowed to -remain could not fail to be injurious. - - -Family TIPULIDAE. - -_Bibio nigrostigma_ (Plate V., fig. 5, 5a larva, 5b pupa). - -This insect is very abundant during the spring months, but rapidly -disappears, and few specimens are noticed after Christmas. Its larva (Fig. -5a) inhabits the woody powder often found under logs, which frequently -consists of the accumulated excrement of wood-boring insects. It is -gregarious in its habits, being found in large companies of fifty or a -hundred individuals. When first disturbed these appear as a wriggling mass, -but very shortly become so still that they can only be distinguished with -the greatest difficulty from morsels of bark. A considerable portion of the -powdered wood is also retained on the body of the insect by a row of short -spines situated in the middle of each segment, which helps to render the -larva still more inconspicuous. In this condition it remains for at least -eight months, during which time growth takes place very slowly. About -September the larvae separate, each being afterwards transformed into a -small yellowish pupa (5b), whose abdominal extremity is usually retained -within the old skin, thus closely resembling that of the genus -_Ceratopogon_. I have figured this pupa entirely naked, in order to show -its characteristics, some of which are rather remarkable, more completely, -the agglutination of nearly all the anterior portions of the body being -especially noteworthy. The perfect insects may be found everywhere, the -males sucking honey from the flowers and performing many antics in the air, -often clinging hold of one another and whirling about together. The female -seldom flies, but is usually observed crawling about fences or the trunks -of trees. She may be at once recognized by her heavy body {53}which is very -large when distended with eggs. Her general colour is dull red, thus -differing widely from the male insect represented in the illustration (Fig. -5). - - -Family TIPULIDAE. - -_Simulia australiensis_ (Plate VI., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa). - -Every one knows the sandfly, the little black insect that so persistently -perches on our hands and faces and inflicts its painful punctures, which in -many cases are followed by large swellings, often lasting for several days -and causing much irritation. Its larva (Fig. 1a) inhabits clear running -water, climbing about in strong currents by means of a pair of suckers -situated at each end of the body, two being placed on the prothoracic -segment just behind the head and two others close to the anal extremity. -These the insect employs rather curiously, the anterior pair being first -affixed and the others drawn up close behind them, its elongate body -consequently forming a loop. Clinging by the posterior suckers for a moment -the larva then reaches forward, re-affixes the anterior ones, and draws up -the posterior as before. Breathing is performed by two spiracles situated -on the last abdominal segments near the hind pair of suckers. Two large -air-tubes originate from these and run forwards, giving off branches to all -parts of the body; they terminate in a number of air-sacs in the thorax. -The food of this larva consists of animalculae, which are no doubt obtained -by drawing the two ciliated appendages rapidly through the water several -times in succession, their contents being afterwards gathered up by the -smaller organs and passed into the mouth. When about to assume the pupa -state the insect covers itself with a glutinous envelope, which is firmly -joined to the under side of a leaf, the transformation taking place within -a few days. The pupa can hardly be distinguished from a small moth -chrysalis except for a pair of branching {54}filaments, which arise from -the top of the thorax and serve the purpose of gills (Fig. 1b). Before -emergence the anterior segments are projected nearly out of the cocoon from -which the perfect sandfly makes its escape, and floating to the surface of -the water ascends the stem of an aquatic plant to expand its wings. I -should here remark that as with the mosquitoes, the bloodthirsty -propensities of the present species have no doubt been acquired since the -arrival of man and other warm-blooded animals. - - -Group BRACHOCERA. - -Family TABANIDAE. - -_Tabanus impar_ (Plate VI., fig. 6). - -I have figured this fine species as a representative of a most important -family of Dipterous insects, but am at present quite unacquainted with its -life-history. It occurs plentifully on the margins of the forest throughout -the summer. - - -Family BOMBYLIDAE. - -_Comptosia bicolor_ (Plate VI., fig. 2). - -This conspicuous species is very abundant in glades throughout the summer, -flying with great rapidity, and delighting to suck honey from the numerous -shrubs which are in blossom at that time of year. It is a social species, -and is usually found in companies of fifteen or twenty individuals, which -engage in endless dances, two insects often seizing one another on the wing -and then revolving together like a wheel in rapid motion. Their manoeuvres -in avoiding the strong gusty wind, so often prevalent in early summer, are -also interesting; the insects play upon the wing whilst the air is quiet, -but if a breeze springs up they instantly settle on the nearest bush, -rising to renew their sports when it is again calm. These flies are rather -variable in colour, some specimens being dark brown, {55}whilst others are -more or less covered with greyish-white hairs; individuals are also often -met with quite black and shining, their hirsute covering having been -completely rubbed off. The female may be at once recognized by her solid, -fleshy abdomen, that of the male being inflated by two great air-bladders, -which cause that portion of the body to appear semi-transparent when the -insect is held up to the light. The figure (2) is taken from a specimen of -the latter sex. - -Closely allied to the present insect is _Comptosia virida_, n.s. (Fig. 3), -which can be at once distinguished by its brilliant green eyes and pale -grey clothing. The larva of this species is a large white maggot, rather -robust, and possessing a small head. It inhabits the dense moss growing on -the trunks of trees in the forest, feeding on the roots of these plants, -and finally forming an oval cocoon, in which it changes into the pupa shown -at Fig. 3b. The perfect insect appears in a few weeks' time, when it may be -taken in similar situations to _C. bicolor_, but in much fewer numbers. - - -Family ASILIDAE. - -_Sarapogon viduus_ (Plate VI., fig. 4, 4a larva, 4b pupa). - -A voracious insect, frequenting all dry sand-banks and pathways throughout -the summer, and destroying the numerous minute diptera found in those -situations. These unfortunate victims are drilled through the thorax by -their destroyer, which sucks them completely dry with its long beak-like -proboscis. The larva (Fig. 4a) inhabits rotten wood, chiefly feeding upon -the moist, powdery portions. It is usually somewhat sluggish, but when -disturbed hops about with electrical rapidity. The head is very minute, and -the elongate body consists of twenty segments, a number very unusual among -larvae, the normal number being twelve exclusive of the head. It lives for -a {56}considerable time and is finally transformed into the blunt-looking -pupa, drawn at Fig. 4b, without having previously constructed any cocoon. -From this the perfect insect emerges in a month or six weeks' time, -commencing its work of destruction as soon as its wings are hardened, which -takes place within a few hours. - - -Family STRATIOMIDAE. - -_Exaireta spiniger_ (Plate VI., fig. 5). - -Abundant during November, when it may be taken in great numbers in the -vicinity of water. The larva is probably aquatic, but I have not yet -observed it, although its habits would, no doubt, be very interesting. The -perfect insects frequent flowers, and are generally very sluggish in their -movements. - - -Family ACROCERIDAE. - -_Acrocera longirostris_, n.s. (Plate VII., fig. 4). - -An extraordinary and very rare species, occurring amongst white rata[10] -blossoms in February. At present I have only taken three specimens, _viz._, -two in Wellington and one in Nelson. The transformations of all the -Acroceridae are as yet unknown. - - -Family SYRPHIDAE. - -_Syrphus ortas_ (Plate VII., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa). - -Very common everywhere from September till May, or even later, when -specimens may be often seen basking in the winter sunshine. The larva (3a) -is a most useful insect to gardeners as it destroys an immense number of -aphides, those noxious little insects that commit such fearful ravages on -many valuable plants (see Hemiptera, page {57}120). In general appearance -this larva resembles a small green slug, with the skin much wrinkled, and -bearing at its extremity a short thick tube, which is probably the -respiratory apparatus, the four lunate holes situated at its apex being no -doubt the spiracles. These insects grow very slowly, occupying several -weeks to attain maturity. Their mode of capturing the aphides is very -curious, and is, briefly, as follows:--The larva lies in the midst of a -number of aphides, and it occasionally happens that some of them crawl over -it. On feeling an aphis touch its back the larva instantly darts out its -long, pointed head and strikes its prey with the apex, which is enveloped -in a quantity of very sticky mucus constantly ejected from the mouth. On -the aphis being thus captured the larva withdraws its head into the hinder -segments of its body and devours all the juicy portions of the aphis, whose -dry skin is afterwards thrown aside. When full-grown it slowly shrinks up -and changes into the pupa shown at Fig. 3b. In this state it is not -protected by any kind of cocoon, but lies amongst the refuse of the -aphides, near the stem of the plant. The fly emerges in a fortnight or -three weeks' time, and is very fond of hovering over and sucking honey from -the flowers, but the females may be often noticed running about plants, -probably in search of a suitable place to oviposit.[11] For an account of -_Scolobates varipes_, a species parasitic on the present insect, I refer to -page 39. - - -Family SYRPHIDAE. - -_Eristalis cingulatus_ (Plate VII., fig. 2). - -This conspicuous insect occurs occasionally in glades in the forest about -January, but is by no means common. It is very fond of the white rata -flowers, where it may be {58}taken, if anywhere. Its life-history is at -present unknown, but no doubt resembles that of the following insect. - - -Family SYRPHIDAE. - -_Helophilus trilineatus_ (Plate VII., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa). - -This fine species occurs abundantly in all damp situations throughout the -summer. Its larva may be found in stagnant pools and is often met with in -the mud at the bottom of ditches. Its posterior segments are enormously -elongated, forming a telescopic breathing apparatus, composed of two tubes, -the smaller of which is capable of being more or less extended at the will -of the larva, which is thus enabled to adjust the length of its breathing -tube, according to the depth of water or mud in which it happens to reside. -This peculiarity has given all these larvae the name of rat-tailed maggots. -The other segments are very stout, each being furnished with a pair of -minute feet, and the head is also provided with two small appendages which -are supposed to be the outlets through which the exhausted air is -discharged by the larva. When mature this insect leaves the water, forming -a small oval cell in the neighbouring moist earth, in which it lies with -its long tail folded along the breast. The skin then gradually hardens, and -it is finally transformed into the pupa shown at Fig. 1b, the conical pair -of breathing-tubes on the thorax being slowly protruded from two hardly -perceptible warts, whilst the telescopic apparatus shrinks up, its -functions being at an end. A variable time, dependent upon the season, -elapses before the perfect insect makes its appearance, but prior to this -occurring, a large circular plate, forming the thorax of the pupa, is -thrust off, thus assisting the escape of the fly, which immediately ascends -a plant, or other convenient object, to dry and expand its wings (Fig. 1). -In the perfect {59}state it delights to hover in the air, darting away with -great rapidity on the approach of any enemies. It also frequently enters -houses, where its presence is at once betrayed by a peculiarly shrill noise -made while flying. The sexes of this insect differ chiefly in size, the -female (Fig. 1) being about twice as large as her companion. - -Closely allied to this species are _Helophilus ineptus_, and _H. -hochstetteri_. The former is slightly smaller than _H. trilineatus_ and may -be at once distinguished by its tessellated orange-yellow and black -abdomen. It is rather local, but extremely abundant wherever found. The -latter has a superficial resemblance to some of the smaller blowflies -(_Musca_), but may be readily known by its large brownish-red -scutellum.[12] It is the commonest of the genus and may be found in great -numbers throughout the summer amongst veronica and other flowers. - - -Family MUSCIDAE. - -_Miltogramma mestor_ (?) (Plate VII, fig. 5). - -A conspicuous species, found occasionally on forest-clad hills round -Wellington. The life-history is at present unknown, but its larva is very -possibly parasitic in some large Lepidoptera. - - -Family MUSCIDAE. - -_Nemorea nyctemerianus_ (Plate VII., fig. 6). - -This little fly is seldom met with in the perfect state. Its larva is -parasitic on the caterpillar of _Nyctemera annulata_[13], the eggs being -deposited on the moth larva at an early age. The caterpillar grows and eats -in the ordinary way, until it has assumed the chrysalis state, when the -{60}maggot eats its way out and changes into a dark-brown pupa. In this -condition the parasite is protected by the web which was previously -constructed by the unfortunate caterpillar for its own use. The perfect fly -appears in about six weeks' time, its great agility and large white scales -rendering it very conspicuous. - - -Family MUSCIDAE. - -_Eurigaster marginatus_ (Plate VII., fig. 7). - -Another parasitic species, its larva inhabiting the caterpillars of various -noctuae which it destroys just before they change into the chrysalis state. -The pupa of the parasite lies in a small oval cell constructed in the earth -by its larva. A variable number of these maggots are found associated in -one host, the smaller caterpillars only harbouring a single individual, -while a large larva will frequently contain three or four. This species has -been bred from the following Lepidoptera: _Mamestra composita_, _M. -ustistriga_ and _M. mutans_. It also occurs in the curious _Oeceticus -omnivorus_, being found in the cocoons of that moth in numbers varying from -two to eleven, or even more, and it is especially interesting, as it is in -turn destroyed by a small species of _Pteromalus_ already noticed among the -Hymenoptera (page 37). The perfect insect occurs occasionally on flowers -throughout the summer. - - -Family MUSCIDAE. - -_Calliphora quadrimaculata_ (Plate VII., fig. 9). - -This is the large blue-bottle fly of New Zealand and is found everywhere in -great abundance. Its larva feeds on decaying flesh and is of a dirty yellow -colour, measuring, when full-grown, about seven lines in length. The pupa -is buried at a considerable depth in the ground, the {61}larva having -descended before changing. The duration of this, and in fact of all the -stages of the insect, depends entirely upon the temperature, but the -females invariably deposit eggs, even during the hottest weather, and are -never ovo-viviparous like the next species, and several others of the -genus. - - -Family MUSCIDAE. - -_Sarcophaga laemica_ (Plate VII., fig. 10). - -Another extremely abundant species having a similar history to the last, -but its powers of development are very much accelerated owing to the larva -being positively born alive. The females hover over meat and other suitable -substances, depositing a number of minute wriggling maggots thereon, not -infrequently to the great disgust of some hungry individual, who perhaps is -making his dinner off a mutton chop which the fly has selected as a home -for her offspring. These larvae are all produced from distinct ova, which -hatch before being laid, as I have often proved, by removing them from the -insect's abdomen, and watching the young larva emerge from a minute -elliptical white egg, covered with a thin leathery skin. Every one who has -travelled in New Zealand must have noticed that, in the wildest spots, -these insects assemble in large numbers as soon as any meat is uncovered, -thus not only showing their universal distribution throughout the country, -but also that they possess a very keen sense of smell. - -Two British species at least, allied to this genus, have been introduced -into New Zealand, _viz._, _Musca domestica_ and _Musca caesar_. The former -is probably a world-wide insect, every ship teeming with it, but the latter -is at present rather scarce and is usually found in the neighbourhood of -farm-yards, where the larva feeds on {62}cow-dung. The perfect insect may -be at once known by its brilliant green colour. - - -Family MUSCIDAE. - -_Cylindria sigma_ (Plate VII., fig. 14). - -A curious species, occurring occasionally in damp situations in the forest -where it may be noticed leisurely walking over the leaves of various -shrubs. It is very sluggish and may often be captured between the fingers -without the aid of a net. Its life-history is at present unknown, but the -larva probably feeds on fungi. The pretty little insect depicted at Fig. 11 -may be found in similar situations but is not so common. - - -Family MUSCIDAE. - -_Phora omnivora_, n.s. (Plate VII., fig. 15, 15a pupa). - -This minute species may be found in large numbers nearly all the year -round. Its larva is parasitic on a great variety of insects and is also not -infrequently met with among decaying vegetable matter. Its habits are, -therefore, very varied. When parasitic in the Lepidoptera it usually -selects the noctuae, destroying a great number of many of the commoner -species[14]. The infected caterpillars usually turn into chrysalides some -time before the little maggots emerge, but this is not invariably the case, -the parasite often destroying the larva at a comparatively early stage. The -pupae are buried in the earth, near the remains of their host, and are -light brown in colour, with the segments much more distinct than is usual -(Fig. 15a). From these the perfect flies proceed in about a month's time. -The occurrence of this insect as a parasite in Coleoptera is not common, -but I know of one instance {63}in which a number of these little flies were -produced from a pupa of _Uloma tenebrionides_ (Plate II., Figs. 2, 2a, 2b), -which I was rearing at the time (page 29). In this case it is difficult to -understand how the female contrives to deposit her eggs in a horny beetle -larva which lies safely hidden in its narrow tunnel in the middle of a -large log of wood. Among bees this is a most destructive insect, its larva -being parasitic in their grubs, and thus greatly reducing the population of -the hive, which is finally ruined by the wholesale destruction of its honey -when the flies emerge. Driving the bees into a fresh box would, no doubt, -be frequently beneficial in these cases, but it is to be feared that -bee-keepers will have much difficulty in contending with this insect. Its -sexes are readily distinguished by their size, the female being -considerably the larger. - - -Family MUSCIDAE. - -_Coelopa littoralis_ (Plate VII., fig. 13). - -Extremely abundant on the sea-beach. Its larva feeds on decaying seaweed, -burying itself in the sand before changing. The perfect insects often -congregate in such vast numbers on some of the rocks that it is necessary -to run past them in order to avoid being positively suffocated by the -countless multitudes which fly up into one's face. This insect must be -regarded as the New Zealand representative of the well-known dungfly of -England (_S. stercoraria_), which many of my readers will recollect has a -similar habit of assembling in great numbers. - - -Family OESTRIDAE. - -_Oestrus perplexus_, n.s. (Plate VII., fig. 12). - -This species is mentioned here as it is the only New Zealand exponent of a -very important and well-known {64}family of Dipterous insects. I am at -present quite ignorant as to its life-history which would, no doubt, be -very interesting. The only two specimens I possess were taken at Nelson, -some four years back, so that it appears to be very rare. - -The two remaining groups of the Diptera are of very limited extent. The -_Pupipara_ include a few anomalous species, in which the young are not -deposited until they become pupae, thus undergoing all their -transformations within the body of the parent, while the _Pulicina_ -comprise the well-known fleas, which are probably identical with the -European species. They are placed by many authors in a distinct order -termed the _Aphaniptera_. - - - - -{65}CHAPTER VI - -The Lepidoptera. - -This Order includes the well-known Butterflies and Moths which are the -first insects to arrest attention on account of their beautiful colouring -and conspicuous appearance. Some of the families are fairly numerous in New -Zealand, but the diurnal section is decidedly poorly represented, our total -number of butterflies being limited to fifteen, of which one (_Diadema -nerina_) has unquestionably been introduced from Australia, although it -will doubtless shortly effect a permanent settlement in the Nelson -district, where several specimens have recently been observed. Among the -others only four species can be called at all common, the remaining twelve -only occurring in certain favoured localities. Of the moths there are a -large number, chiefly belonging to the Geometridae and Micro-Lepidoptera, -many of which are very interesting. Of the life-histories of the latter, -however, I regret to say there is little known at present, the attention of -naturalists having been hitherto chiefly occupied with the larger and more -conspicuous species. - - -Group RHOPALOCERA. - -Family NYMPHALIDAE. - -_Argyrophenga antipodum_ (Plate VIII., fig. 1 type, 1a var.). - -Passing over the local but conspicuous _Danais plexippus_, {66}about which -so much doubt exists as to its origin in this country, we come to _A. -antipodum_, one of the most curious and interesting butterflies found in -New Zealand. It occurs in great abundance amongst the tussock grass on the -plains in the South Island, but becomes an alpine species further north. I -have taken a very peculiar form (Fig. 1a) on the "Mineral Belt" near -Nelson, but can find no record of its appearance in the North Island at -present. Its larva is as yet unknown, but in all probability it feeds on -tussock grass, a fractured pupa having been found attached to that plant by -Mr. G. F. Mathew in January, 1884. Two other closely allied species are -_Erebia pluto_ and _Erebia butleri_, both strictly alpine insects, -occurring in the South Island at elevations ranging from 4,000 to 6,000 -feet. - - -Family NYMPHALIDAE. - -_Vanessa gonerilla_[15] (Plate VIII., fig. 2, 2a underside, 2b 2c larvae, -2d 2e pupae). - -One of our most beautiful butterflies, found abundantly throughout the -country from August till May. The larva feeds on the New Zealand nettle, -where it may be taken in great plenty by careful searching. The caterpillar -joins several of the leaves together and forms a sort of tent, in which it -lives secure from all enemies. While young, these insects are of a uniform -dull brown colour, with two faint lines on each side, but as age advances -they become very variable. The two extreme forms of variation are depicted -at Figs. 2b and 2c, the dark-coloured variety being by far the commoner. -When full-grown, this larva suspends itself by the tail to a small patch of -silk, which it has previously spun on the under side of a leaf. In this -position it remains for about twenty hours, when it begins to twist and -distend the lower portions of its body, thus {67}causing the skin to -eventually break on the back of the thoracic segments, when the soft green -pupa may be seen through the rent. The insect now works the skin upwards by -violent wriggling motions until it is gathered in a crumpled mass round its -tail, the old rent extending on one side almost up to the silken pad to -which it is suspended. Through this rent the tail of the pupa is brought -and firmly anchored in the silk by a few vigorous strokes, the insect -hanging meanwhile to the skin which has not been quite cast off on the -reverse side to the rent. When thus firmly attached to the silken pad, the -pupa shakes itself entirely free, whirling itself round and round until the -old skin is dislodged from the silk and falls to the ground. The two usual -varieties of pupae are shown at Figs. 2d and 2e, many of them being more or -less ornamented with metallic gold or silver spots. The butterfly emerges -in a fortnight or three weeks, and is common from February till April in -most situations, but the greatest numbers are to be found in the spring -months. These hybernated specimens appear as early as August, and some of -them survive till the end of December or beginning of January, when the -earliest of the new ones are just emerging. In fact it is not infrequent at -this time to take both hybernated and recent specimens together. This -species is a great traveller, and may be often seen flying over the tops of -the trees at a great rate. It shows a singular indifference to shadow, and -is constantly flying out of the sunlight into shady places in the forest, -probably in search of the food-plant of the larvae. The two other species -of _Vanessa_ are _V. cardui_, a periodical insect only distinguished from -the "Painted Lady Butterfly" of England by the blue centres in three of the -black spots on its hind-wings, and _V. Itea_, a lovely butterfly found in -the northern portions of this island, of which I have at present only taken -three specimens. - - -{68}Family LYCAENIDAE. - -_Chrysophanus salustius_ (Plate VIII., fig. 3 [M], 3a [F], 3b larva). - -This is the commonest of our Butterflies, and is found in great abundance -throughout both islands from November till April. It is double brooded, and -is consequently most abundant in the early summer and in the autumn, few of -these merry little insects being seen at midsummer. The most forward -individuals of the second brood usually emerge about the middle of March, -but the butterflies are very irregular in their appearance at this season. -The young larva (Fig. 3b) is much thickened anteriorly, the head being -concealed from above by the large thoracic segments. Its colour is pale -green, with a pair of long, erect bristles on each segment, a large number -of shorter ones being situated on the ventral surface, and behind the head. -After the second moult, a brilliant crimson dorsal line is noticeable, but -beyond this I have no record, as my larvae unfortunately died just after -completing their third moult. Up to this time they had fed but sparingly on -the dock, eating minute holes in the leaves and clinging to them with great -firmness. It is much to be regretted that their subsequent history could -not be followed, especially as I only succeeded in obtaining the eggs on -this one occasion, although I frequently kept females in captivity with -this object. Three other species of _Chrysophanus_ occur in New Zealand, -viz., _C. feredayi_, common round Nelson, and chiefly distinguished by the -olive-green under-surface of its hind-wings; _C. enysii_, which is -occasionally met with amongst forest, and may be at once known by its broad -black markings and pale yellow colour; and _C. boldenarum_, a little insect -uniting the "Coppers" with the "Blue Butterflies," and found in great -abundance in certain river beds and shingly places. The western side of -Lake {69}Wairarapa is one of the best localities I know of for this curious -little species. - - -Family LYCAENIDAE. - -_Lycaena phoebe._ - -This is the common blue butterfly of New Zealand, which may be observed in -great numbers along the roadside on a hot summer's day. Its larva must be -very abundant, but has hitherto escaped attention, owing, probably, to its -small size. The perfect insect is on the wing from October till May. - - -Group HETEROCERA. - -Family SPHINGIDAE. - -This family is represented in New Zealand by the splendid _Sphinx -convolvuli_, an insect I am at present unacquainted with. - - -Family HEPIALIDAE. - -_Porina signata_ (Plate IX., fig. 2). - -Common throughout the summer, when it may be taken in great numbers round -lighted windows during any mild evening. The larva is as yet unknown, but -is in all probability subterranean in its habits, and feeds on the roots of -plants. A large _Hepialus_ larva I once discovered under a stone, whilst -looking for Coleoptera, was very likely referable to this insect, but as it -unfortunately died shortly afterwards it is impossible to speak with any -degree of certainty at present. Two closely allied species are _P. -umbraculata_, and _P. cervinata_. The former is rather smaller than _P. -signata_ and of a more uniform brown, with a white stripe in the centre of -each fore-wing, surrounded with darker colouring. The latter is one of the -smallest of the family, its size at once distinguishing it {70}from any of -the rest. In colour it is pale brownish with numerous black and white -markings, varieties occasionally occurring much suffused with the darker -colour. It is rather local, but may be found abundantly in the Manawatu -district. - - -Family HEPIALIDAE. - -_Hepialus virescens_ (Plate IX., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1c larva, 1b pupa). - -This gigantic insect is seen occasionally in the forest during the early -summer. The larva (1c) tunnels the stems of living trees, feeding entirely -on wood which it bites off with its strong mandibles. The plant most -usually selected by the caterpillar is _Aristotelia racemosa_, called by -the settlers "New Zealand currant," from its large clusters of rich-looking -black berries, which appear in autumn. Other food-plants are numerous, the -black maire (_Olea apetala_) and manuka (_Leptospermum_) being among those -more frequently chosen. - -This larva, for the most part, inhabits the main stem of the tree, its -gallery always having an outlet to the air, which is covered with a curtain -of dull brown silk, spun exactly level with the surrounding bark, and -consequently very inconspicuous. These burrows usually run down towards the -ground, and are mostly two or three inches from the surface of the trunk. -In some instances the larvae inhabit branches, in which case, if the branch -is of small dimensions, the tunnel is made near the centre. These remarks -only refer to galleries constructed by young larvae, as the tunnel made by -the insect prior to becoming a pupa is of a very complicated character and -merits a somewhat detailed description. It consists of a spacious, -irregular, but shallow cavity, just under the bark, having a large opening -to the air, which is entirely covered with a thin silken covering, almost -exactly the same shape and size as {71}the numerous scars which occur at -intervals on the trunks of nearly all the trees. Three large tunnels open -into this shallow cavity: one in the centre, which runs right into the -middle of the stem, and one on each side, which run right and left just -under the bark. These are usually very short, but sometimes extend half-way -round the tree, and occasionally even join one another on the opposite -side. The central tunnel has a slightly upward direction for a short -distance inwards, which effectually prevents it from becoming flooded with -water; afterwards it pursues an almost horizontal course until it reaches -the centre of the tree when it appears to suddenly terminate. This, -however, is not the case, for, if the gallery floor is carefully examined a -short distance before its apparent termination, a round trap-door will be -found, compactly constructed of very hard, smooth silk, and corresponding -so closely with the surrounding portion of the tunnel that it almost -escapes detection. When this lid is lifted a long perpendicular shaft is -disclosed which runs down the middle of the tree to a depth of 14 or 16 -inches, and is about six lines in diameter. At the bottom of this the -elongated pupa (Fig. 1b) sleeps quietly and securely in an upright -position, the old larval skin forming a soft support for the terminal -segment of the pupa to rest on. The upper end of this vertical shaft is -lined with silk, which forms a framework on which the trap-door rests when -closed. The lid itself is of a larger size than the orifice which it -covers, and this makes it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to force -it from the outside, whilst it fits down so closely to the aperture as not -to be readily lifted. The object of this most ingenious contrivance is, in -all probability, to prevent the ingress of insects, large numbers of -spiders, slugs, and various Orthoptera being frequently found in both -central and lateral tunnels, but they are quite unable to pass the -trap-door. The galleries of different individual larvae are all wonderfully -{72}alike, the only differences observable being in the length of the -perpendicular shaft and the direction of the horizontal burrow, which is -sometimes curved. These variations are usually caused by the presence of -other tunnels in the tree, which the larva invariably avoids, although how -it can ascertain that it is approaching another tunnel before actually -reaching it, is hard to understand. As development progresses in the pupa, -it becomes darker in colour, especially on the wing-cases, which in some -individuals show the future black markings of the moth, as early as two -months before emergence. Others remain quite white and soft, the green -wings suddenly appearing through their cases a fortnight or three weeks -prior to the bursting forth of the imago. Previous to this change the pupa -works its way up the vertical tunnel, lifts the trap-door, which yields to -the slightest pressure from within, and wriggles along the horizontal -burrow until it reaches the air, the last three or four segments only -remaining in the tree. The thoracic shield then ruptures, and the moth -crawls out and expands its wings in the ordinary way, resting on the trunk -of the tree until they are of sufficient strength and hardness for flight. - -The perfect insect, although it must be common, is very rarely seen. It is -best reared from the pupae, which can be often successfully cut out of -their burrows and kept amongst damp moss until they emerge. It appears to -be much persecuted by birds, as we often observe its large green wings -lying about on the ground.[16] - -The curious "vegetable caterpillar," which is usually referred to this -species, probably belongs to one of the larger subterranean larvae of the -family. - - -{73}Family BOMBYCIDAE. - -_Nyctemera annulata_ (Plate IX., fig. 3 [M], 3a larva, 3b pupa). - -This abundant species is usually mistaken for a butterfly by the -uninitiated owing to its diurnal habits and conspicuous colouring. Its -larva feeds on various plants, the most usual being a light green kind of -ivy with yellow flowers, but its original food no doubt consisted of the -"New Zealand groundsel" (_Senecio bellidioides_), on which it may now be -occasionally taken in wild situations. Its general colour is black, with -interrupted dorsal and lateral lines, the ventral surface and connecting -membrane between the segments being slate-coloured. In younger larvae there -are also several slate-coloured lines extending the whole length of the -insect, and thus dividing the black into squares. Round the middle of each -segment, at its greatest circumference, a variable number of brilliant blue -warts are situated, and out of these dense tufts of long black hair take -their rise. There are, however, no warts along the ventral surface. This -description applies very well as a rule, but the larva is subject to many -slight variations. It remains in this state for nearly three months, or -more, according to the season, and is very common, numbers being found on -the different plants which constitute its food. The pupa (Fig. 3b) is of a -shining black colour, with many longitudinal rows of small yellow blotches -on the abdominal segments; there is also a stripe of the same colour at the -tip of the wing-case. It is enclosed in a slight cocoon, formed of a -mixture of silk and hair, and is attached near the ground to any firm -object. The moth emerges in the course of a month or six weeks. It is very -common, being found profusely in the neighbourhood of its food-plants, and -appears in the greatest numbers during the early morning hours in the -middle of summer. - -{74}For an account of a Dipterous insect, parasitic in the present species, -I refer to page 59. - - -Family PSYCHIDAE. - -_Oeceticus omnivorus_ (Plate X., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1b larva, 1c [M] -pupa). - -This insect is very rarely seen abroad, but can be easily reared from the -larva, which feeds on manuka and other plants throughout the year. When -very young, and in fact immediately after leaving the egg, it constructs a -wide spindle-shaped case, principally composed of silk, with a few small -fragments of leaves, &c., attached to the outside. It has a large aperture -in front, through which the head and anterior portion of the larva are -projected, and a much smaller one at the posterior extremity, which allows -the pellets of excrement to fall out of the case as they are evacuated. The -body of the enclosed caterpillar is of a light straw colour, the head and -three first segments being dark brown, with numerous white markings. The -abdominal segments are considerably thickened near the middle of the -insect, rudimentary prolegs being present on the third, fourth, fifth, and -sixth segments of the abdomen. The anal prolegs are very strong, and are -furnished with numerous sharp hooklets, which retain the larva very firmly -in its case. As it grows it increases the length of its domicile from the -anterior, causing it gradually to assume a more tubular form, tapering -towards the posterior aperture, which is enlarged from time to time. The -outside is covered with numerous fragmentary leaves and twigs of various -sizes, placed longitudinally on the case, and frequently near the anterior -aperture, the materials, owing to their recent selection, are fresh and -green. The interior is lined with soft, smooth silk of a light brown -colour, the thickness of the whole fabric being about the same {75}as that -of an ordinary kid glove, and so strong that it is impossible to tear it, -or indeed to cut it, except with sharp instruments. The size of the case -when the caterpillar is mature varies considerably, ranging from 25 to 30 -lines or more in length, and about three in diameter, the widest portion -being a little behind the anterior aperture (see Fig. 1b). - -During the day the larva closes the entrance and spins a loop of very -strong silk over a twig, the ends being joined to the upper edges of the -case on each side; in this way it hangs suspended, the caterpillar lying -snugly within. I have often known a larva to remain thus for over three -weeks without moving, and afterwards resume feeding as before; this -probably occurs while the inmate is engaged in changing its skin. At night -the larvae may be seen busily engaged: they project the head and first four -segments of the body beyond the case, and walk about with considerable -rapidity, often lowering themselves by means of silken threads; the only -locomotive organs are, of course, their strong thoracic legs, which appear -to easily fulfil their double function of moving both larva and case. If -disturbed, these insects at once retreat into their cases closing the -anterior aperture with a silken cord which is kept in readiness for the -purpose, and pulled from the inside by the retreating larva. This operation -is most rapidly performed, as the upper edges of the case are flexible, and -thus fold closely together, completely obstructing the entrance. When full -fed, this caterpillar fastens its case to a branch with a loop of strong -silk, which is drawn very tight, preventing the case from swinging when the -plant is moved by the wind, and also rendering the insect's habitation more -inconspicuous, by causing it to resemble a broken twig. The anterior -aperture is completely closed, the loose edges being drawn together and -fastened like a bag. The posterior end of the case is {76}twisted up for -some little distance above the extremity, thus completely closing the -opening there situated. It is lined inside with a layer of very soft silk, -spun loosely over the sides, and partly filling up each end. In the centre -of this the pupa lies with its head towards the lower portion of the case, -the old larval skin being thrust backwards amongst the loose silk above the -chrysalis. In this stage of existence the extraordinary sexual disparities, -which are so characteristic of the family, manifest themselves, the male -and female pupae being very widely different in all respects. The former is -figured at 1c, the female pupa differing from it in the following -particulars. It is much larger and more cylindrical in shape, the abdomen -occupying nearly the whole of the body, and consisting of nine visible -segments, the terminal one being obtusely conical. The head and thorax are -very rudimentary, more resembling those of the larva than the male, all the -appendages being, however, reduced to hardly visible warts. In colour it is -pitchy black and shining, and its length is about ten lines. This insect -remains in the pupa state during the winter months, viz., from May till -September. When about to emerge, the male chrysalis works its way down to -the lower end of the case, forces open the old aperture there, and projects -the head, thorax, and upper portion of the abdomen, the pupa being secured -from falling by the spines on its posterior segments, which retain a firm -hold in the silk. Its anterior portion then ruptures, and the moth makes -its escape, clinging to the outside of its old habitation, and drying its -wings. It is probable that the female insect does not leave her case, -communication with the male being no doubt effected through one of the -orifices, and the eggs afterwards deposited inside. On one occasion I found -a case full of eggs, containing the shrivelled body of the female and her -old pupa shell, which would seem to confirm the above opinion. The perfect -insects are drawn at {77}Figs. 1 and 1a. The male (1) is extremely active, -dashing about the breeding cage with great rapidity when first emerged, and -rapidly beating his wings to tatters; but the female (1a) closely resembles -a large maggot, all the appendages being completely rudimentary, except the -two-jointed ovipositor at the end of her body; she is incapable of any -motion, except a slight twirling of the abdomen, which takes place while -the eggs are being laid.[17] - - -Family NOCTUIDAE. - -_Leucania nullifera_ (Plate XIII., fig. 3, 3a larva). - -This large, though dull-looking insect, is occasionally taken at light -during the summer and autumn months. - -The larva feeds on the spear-grass (_Aciphylla squarrosa_), an abundant -plant on the coast hills near Wellington. It devours the soft -central-growing point, and its presence in a tussock can be at once seen by -a quantity of pale-brown "frass," visible at the bases of the leaves. The -formidable spear-like points with which this plant is armed must afford the -caterpillar considerable protection from enemies. As a rule a single -specimen only is found in each clump of the grass, so that the female -probably deposits her eggs singly. This larva is full-grown about August, -and may be found feeding in the plants during the autumn and winter. - -The pupa state is spent, in an earthen chamber, amongst the roots of the -spear-grass, and the moth emerges during the summer. - -This species occurs at considerable elevations. I have seen it as high as -4,000 feet in the Nelson province, where its food-plant may also be found. - - -{78}Family NOCTUIDAE. - -_Leucania atristriga_ (Plate X., fig. 2). - -Abundant among various blossoms during the latter end of summer, being one -of the last of the Noctuae to disappear in the autumn. - -The larva probably feeds on grasses, but I have not yet met with it. - -The illustration (Fig. 2) is taken from the male insect, the female -differing only in having her abdomen rounded at the tip, a sexual -distinction which holds good throughout the family. - - -Family NOCTUIDAE. - -_Erana graminosa_ (Plate X., fig. 5, 5a larva). - -This beautiful insect occurs commonly on the white rata blossoms -(_Metrosideros scandens_) round Wellington during March and April, at which -time it may be readily taken just after dark with a lantern and -killing-bottle. The larva (Fig. 5a) feeds on the mahoe (_Melicytus -ramiflorus_) in the spring and autumn. It remains concealed in crevices in -the bark during the day, not infrequently selecting the deserted burrows of -wood-boring beetles as a secure retreat from its enemies. When full grown -it is olive-green, the colour being lighter on the ventral surface and -between the segments. A row of ill-defined, feathery, black markings -extends down the back and sides and there are also two tolerably -conspicuous ochreish spots on every segment except the last. The head, -legs, and prolegs are reddish-yellow, and the whole insect is more or less -spotted with black. Younger larvae differ in being of a light -yellowish-green, with very pale yellow dorsal and lateral lines. A row of -black warts, emitting a few bristles, extend round each of the segments, -while the head is pale ochreous with a few black dots. - -When full-grown this larva descends to the ground, and {79}forms a slight -cocoon in the earth round the roots of the tree, where it is transformed -into a very stout, ruddy-brown-coloured pupa, somewhat paler on the -wing-cases. The moth emerges in two or three months' time. Its colouring -renders it so inconspicuous amongst moss that I have frequently lifted a -handful of the latter out of the breeding cage, and only discovered that -the insects had emerged by their falling from the moss on to the table. A -very noticeable peculiarity in this species is the presence of a fringe of -long hairs in a fold on the anterior margin of the fore-wing. This organ -emits a fragrant perfume, and is confined to the male sex (Fig. 5). Only -one or two other instances of this kind are at present known among the New -Zealand moths. - - -Family NOCTUIDAE. - -_Mamestra mutans_ (Plate X., fig. 7, 7a larva, 7b pupa). - -This extremely abundant species occurs almost without intermission during -the whole of the year. The sluggish larva (7a) feeds on plantain, and is -best obtained by overturning logs and stones, when it may be discovered -among the grass and other plants growing round their edge. Its head is pale -green, with two broad black stripes, and is clothed with numerous short -bristles; the four succeeding segments are of a ruddy-brown colour, -considerably wrinkled, the remainder being light green, suffused with a -dull, pinkish hue towards the dorsal surface. The markings consist of a -triangular black spot on each side of the second to eighth abdominal -segments, and a cloudy lateral line of the same colour; the legs and -prolegs being pale green, and the whole insect more or less marbled with -black. This description and the figure on Plate X. exhibit the usual -peculiarities of the larva, but in some individuals the markings there -indicated are quite obsolete, and the {80}insect is of an almost uniform -pale-green colour. When mature, this caterpillar sometimes constructs a -slight cocoon amongst moss, on fallen trees, but more often buries itself -in the usual manner, the moth appearing in a few weeks' time. Nearly all -pupae collected at random in New Zealand will be found to give rise to -either this species or the one which immediately follows (_Mamestra -composita_). The perfect insect is most abundant in the spring and early -summer, but may be found fluttering round lamps on any mild night -throughout the year. The sexes differ considerably: the female is greyish -white, with faint brown markings, while the male is dull reddish-brown, -with the markings considerably darker (Fig. 7). His antennae are also -slightly pectinated, those of the female being quite simple. - - -Family NOCTUIDAE. - -_Mamestra composita_ (Plate X., fig. 3, 3a larva). - -Very common during the spring and autumn in all open situations. - -Its pretty larva (Fig. 3a) feeds on various grasses, and threatens in time -to do considerable damage to pastures. The head and dorsal surface of the -first segment are dark shining green, with one or two obscure white -markings; the rest of the body is ornamented with a number of parallel -brown, white, and orange lines, which render the larva very inconspicuous -when amongst the grass. Sometimes it occurs in great numbers, nearly every -blade of grass having its caterpillar; in fact this was almost the case in -the Wairarapa valley in the summer of 1886, when the larvae must have -produced a marked effect on the paddocks. When full-grown this caterpillar -changes into a light chestnut-brown pupa, which lies on the surface of the -ground amongst the vegetable refuse. The perfect insect appears in about a -month's time, and if the evening be mild {81}may be seen flying with great -rapidity at dusk; it may also be readily captured at light. The figure (3) -represents the male insect, the female differing only in her simple -antennae. - - -Family NOCTUIDAE. - -_Mamestra ustistriga_ (Plate X., fig. 6 [M]). - -This handsome insect is rather uncertain in its appearance, but is -occasionally taken quite unexpectedly at rest on tree-trunks or palings in -the daytime. Specimens may also be captured while feeding on the white rata -blossoms early in March, where they occasionally occur among the hosts of -other Noctuae. The larva, which feeds on the honeysuckle, is of a pale -brown colour, with two obscure darker lines on each side, the under-surface -being light slate-colour. The pupa state is spent in the ground, and many -fine specimens may be reared from chrysalids picked up while gardening, &c. -The sexes of this insect differ considerably in colour: the male is of a -pinkish grey with black markings, while the female is of a uniform pale -grey, and considerably smaller. - - -Family NOCTUIDAE. - -_Heliothis armigera_ (Plate X., fig. 4, 4a larva). - -This conspicuous insect occurs in great abundance during certain seasons, -but is very irregular in its appearance, it frequently happening that only -two or three specimens are noticed in a whole year. It is generally seen -flying in the daytime, when it delights to suck honey from the flowers of -the Scotch thistle, a plant which much overruns the forest lands when first -cleared. The larva (Fig. 4a) is a very handsome caterpillar, of a dark -brownish black colour, ornamented with yellow subdorsal and lateral lines -and numerous streaks and dots of the same hue. The ventral surface is a -rich yellowish brown, and the subventral line {82}white, the spiracles -being white with black rings; a reddish blotch also adorns each of the -three thoracic segments. It feeds voraciously on geraniums, tomatoes, peas, -and many other garden plants, where it often commits the most serious -ravages. About the end of April it is full-grown, when it descends to the -ground and buries itself two or three inches below the surface. In this -situation it is shortly transformed into a pupa, remaining in that state -until the following summer, when the moth appears. The sexes of this insect -differ considerably, the male having the fore-wings of a ruddy-brown -colour, sometimes inclining to orange, while in the female they are pale -ochreish; both sexes are, however, subject to considerable variation, and -the figure (4) is taken from a rather dark male specimen. - - -Family NOCTUIDAE. - -_Plusia eriosoma_ (Plate X., fig. 8, 8a larva). - -An abundant species round Nelson, where almost any number may be taken -hovering over flowers on a still summer's evening. In Wellington it occurs -occasionally. The larva (Fig. 8a) is a pseudo-geometer, having twelve legs, -and thus showing a strong affinity with the next family. In colour it is -pale green, darker on the dorsal surface than elsewhere. A white line runs -down each side, and the whole insect is covered with black dots and -bristles. The colouring of different individuals varies in intensity, and a -fainter white line, above the usual one, exists in some specimens. It feeds -on beans, geraniums, and many other imported plants, and is doing much good -in the Nelson gardens by the havoc which it is committing among the Scotch -thistles--weeds equally injurious to the agriculturalist and the gardener, -not only crowding out useful plants, but rapidly exhausting the soil in -which they grow. Formerly this insect must have fed exclusively on the New -Zealand {83}nightshade (_Solanum aviculare_), on which plant it may still -be occasionally found in the forest, where no imported species are -available, but, like many other caterpillars in this country, it is -forsaking the native vegetation for the European. When full-grown, this -larva spins a slight cocoon of white silk, which is generally placed -between two leaves. The pupa is of a shiny black colour, the membrane -between the segments being reddish-brown. The moth emerges in about three -weeks' time. The figure (8) is taken from a female insect, the male being -readily distinguishable by two large tufts of hair situated at the end of -his body and often very conspicuous. In some cases the wings of the female -are considerably lighter than in the illustration, but otherwise the -species does not seem to vary. It is the New Zealand representative of the -English "Silver Y Moth" (_P. gamma_), no doubt familiar to many of my -readers. - - -Family GEOMETRIDAE. - -_Declana floccosa_ (Plate XI., fig. 1, 1a larva). - -I have started the Geometridae with _Declana_ because it exhibits a great -many more points in common with the Noctuidae than does the genus -_Acidalia_, which latter is placed at the head of the Geometridae by some -modern Lepidopterists, chiefly, I believe, on account of neuration, a -character which if taken alone cannot but produce the most unnatural -divisions. The present insect is one of the commonest of the genus, and may -often be observed throughout the whole summer resting on the sheltered -sides of trees and fences, occasional stragglers being met with as late as -the end of May. Its larva is a pseudo-geometer possessing twelve legs (Fig. -1a), and thus almost exactly resembling the caterpillars of the genus -_Catocala_, belonging to the Noctuidae; the curious filaments on each side -of the insect making this likeness still more complete. It feeds {84}on the -"New Zealand currant" (_A. racemosa_), from which, individuals can be -occasionally beaten during the spring and early summer. They are almost -impossible to find by searching in the ordinary way, from a habit they -possess of clinging firmly to the twigs, which they exactly imitate in -colour. When full-grown this caterpillar constructs a small cocoon just -below the ground, where it is transformed into a robust-looking pupa, from -which the moth emerges in a month or six weeks' time. The sexes of this -species may be readily distinguished, the male (Fig. 1) having the antennae -slightly pectinated, while those of the female are quite simple, and her -body much more robust. The moth drawn at Fig. 1b has been reared from -larvae exactly resembling those of the present insect, of which it is -consequently now known to be only an extreme variety. It was formerly -ranked as a distinct species under the name of _Declana junctilinea_. - - -Family GEOMETRIDAE. - -_Chalastra pelurgata_ (Plate XI., fig. 2 [M], 2a [F], 2b larva). - -This delicate species may be taken flying about the forest at night, from -October till March, but is most abundant on the white rata blossoms during -the latter end of summer. - -Its caterpillar feeds sparingly on a delicate fern (_Todea -hymenophyllioides_) which grows in dark glades in the forest, where the sun -seldom or never shines. In colour it is generally dull brown, with a row of -green or pale brown lunate spots on each side; on the ventral surface the -colour is darker, except on the thorax, where it is green, the legs being -also green. There are in addition numerous fine, wavy lines down the back -and sides of the larva, and the dorsal surface of the thoracic segments and -ventral prolegs are bright reddish brown (Fig. 2b). These larvae are, -however, very variable; in many the "lunate" stripes are much longer, -having a diagonal direction, and {85}thus extending up the sides of the -insect towards its dorsal surface, while others have the ventral surface -dark green, and additional markings of more or less importance. - -When full-grown it spins a loose cocoon of earth and dead leaves, from -which the perfect insect emerges in a month or six weeks' time. The sexes -are widely different, both being figured on the Plate (Fig. 2 [M], 2a [F]). -I have noticed that at least four females occur to every male, which is a -very unusual arrangement, the males being generally much the commoner among -the Lepidoptera. - - -Family GEOMETRIDAE. - -_Ploseria hemipteraria_ (Plate XI., fig. 3, 3a larva). - -A curious moth, occurring in some numbers at various blossoms during the -summer evenings, but rather uncertain in its appearance. The larva (Fig. -3a) feeds at night on veronica, where it may be often found with a lantern, -devouring the flowers and leaves. In colour it is light green with two -yellow lines on each side, the dorsal surface being considerably darker, -and almost blue. Specimens are not infrequently met with of a uniform dark -brown, and the two conspicuous lateral lines are then reduced to a single -obscure ochreous band. These caterpillars are very inconspicuous during the -daytime, as they remain quite motionless for hours together, sticking -straight out from the stems of their food-plant, which they closely -resemble. The pupa is unusually robust, and possesses a sharp spine at its -extremity. In colour it is pale olive brown, with a pinkish line on each -side of the abdomen, the wing-cases being more or less suffused with pink. -It is not enclosed in any cocoon, but may be found amongst the dead leaves -round the stems of the veronica. The perfect insect appears in about three -weeks' time. It is liable to be passed over for a faded leaf, the general -outline and colouring of the wings rendering the {86}insect very -inconspicuous, especially amongst foliage. The specimens I have reared all -closely resemble Fig. 3, so that this insect does not appear at all prone -to vary. - - -Family GEOMETRIDAE. - -_Ploseria alectoraria_ (Plate XI., fig. 4; Plate XIII., fig. 7 larva). - -One of our most variable moths, occurring occasionally amongst foliage -during the summer, but most abundant on the white rata blossoms in February -and March. - -The larva feeds on _Pittosporum eugenioides_, where it may be sometimes -found in October and November. It has a most wonderful resemblance to the -buds of the plant, and can only be dislodged by vigorous beating. It is -easily reared in captivity--in fact the female moths may often be induced -to lay their eggs and the insect observed through all its stages. - -The eggs are very flat, oval, and light green in colour, becoming brown at -one end about five days before hatching. - -The young larva is pale green with a dull yellowish head. It has no -markings until after the first moult when a reddish dorsal line appears. As -age advances the larva becomes darker in colour and is ornamented with a -series of diagonal yellow stripes. The spiracles and antennae are pink and -very conspicuous. The legs and prolegs are very small, and the latter are -bright red in colour; a fleshy process which projects from the last segment -of the larva is similarly coloured. The whole insect is also speckled with -yellow. When full-grown this caterpillar is very robust and measures about -ten lines in length. The pupa is enclosed in a light cocoon formed of three -or four leaves fastened together with silk. It is greenish brown in colour. - -The perfect insect first appears in December. It may be observed during the -whole of the autumn and occasionally in the winter. As the larvae grow very -slowly I am {87}inclined to think that the females hibernate and lay their -eggs early in the spring (Fig. 4). - - -Family GEOMETRIDAE. - -_Sestra humeraria_ (Plate XI., fig. 5, 5a larva). - -This abundant species occurs in large numbers round Wellington, amongst -brushwood, whence it may be often dislodged during the daytime, but is most -readily procurable in the evening. The larva (Fig. 5a), feeds on _Pteris -incisa_, a pale green fern, growing in many open spots in the forest to a -height of three or four feet. Its general colour is dull brownish yellow, -slightly darker on the back, and ornamented with a number of wavy yellow -lines on each side. The ventral surface and legs are green and the head is -dark brown; the whole insect being covered with numerous black dots and -bristles. When disturbed these larvae immediately drop to the ground, and -coiling themselves up like small snakes, become very inconspicuous. - -The pupa is buried in the earth about two inches below the surface, the -insect remaining in this state during the winter months. The moths -generally emerge about October. So far as my experience goes they are not -subject to any notable variations. The specimen drawn at Fig. 6 is regarded -as a variety of this species by Mr. Meyrick, but I myself believe it to be -quite distinct, as among over a dozen _humeraria_ larvae reared in -captivity, none of the imagines had the slightest resemblance to Fig. 6, -although the caterpillars were all taken within a few yards of the place -where such moths occurred. - - -Family GEOMETRIDAE. - -_Selidosema dejectaria_ (Plate XI., fig. 8 [M], 8a [F], 8b larva). - -An abundant and conspicuous species, occurring throughout the summer, often -noticed at rest on fences and trees {88}during the day and always taken in -great numbers on various blossoms in the evening. - -The caterpillar is extremely variable, the colouring of different -individuals being apparently much influenced by their surroundings; those -specimens, for instance, taken from the pale green foliage of the mahoe -(_M. ramiflorus_) resemble in colour the twigs of that plant, while others -captured feeding on the white rata (_Metrosideros scandens_) are dark -reddish brown. Fig. 8b is drawn from a larva found on the fuchsia, which, -when in its favourite position, viz., sticking straight out from the side -of a branch, is so much like one of the sprouting twigs that it absolutely -defies detection. When full-grown this insect buries itself about two -inches in the earth, where it shortly becomes a dark chestnut-brown pupa, -lighter between the segments. The time required for the development of the -perfect insect depends upon the season, larvae which undergo their -transformations in the spring developing much more rapidly than those that -feed up in the autumn.[18] - -This insect is extremely variable, having been formerly divided into -several distinct species; the two most usual forms are those shown at Figs. -8 and 8a, but every intermediate variety exists. The sexes are -distinguished by the usual differences in the antennae. My experience leads -me to believe that the light varieties occur more frequently in the female -than in the male sex, and also that the dark larvae give rise to dark -moths, and _vice versa_, although a great many more specimens will have to -be reared before these can be regarded as established facts. - - -{89}Family GEOMETRIDAE. - -_Selidosema panagrata_ (Plate XI., fig. 7 [M], 7a [F], 7b larva). - -One of our commonest moths, occurring in great numbers in the forest -throughout the whole summer. - -The larvae (Fig. 7b) are extremely variable, the most usual colouring being -that of the individual figured, but when very young they are all of a -uniform green with a conspicuous white dorsal line; as age advances the -caterpillars become dark olive brown of varying degrees of intensity in -different specimens, some retaining a considerable amount of their original -green colouring, especially those feeding on the kawakawa (_Piper -excelsum_), whose hue consequently harmonizes with that of the plant. These -larvae often select a forked twig to rest in, where they lie curled round -with the head and tail close together. They are very voracious, and are the -primary cause of the riddled appearance which the leaves of the kawakawa -almost invariably present. Other food-plants are the "currant" (_A. -racemosa_), and the _Myrtus bullata_; those taken from the latter have a -strong pinkish tint, and are consequently very inconspicuous amongst the -young shoots where they generally feed. The burrows of _Hepialus virescens_ -are frequently utilized by the larvae which feed on the "currant," as -convenient retreats during the winter, a large number being often found in -a single hole. When full-grown they descend to the ground and construct, on -the under-side of fallen leaves, loose cocoons of silk and earth from which -the perfect insects emerge in about a month's time. The autumnal larvae, -however, either hibernate or remain in the pupa state throughout the -winter. This moth is even more variable than the last species (_S. -dejectaria_), which it occasionally somewhat resembles. The sexes are very -different, the colouring of the male consisting of various {90}shades of -warm brown (Fig. 7), while in the female the prevailing hue is slaty brown -or even grey (Fig. 7a). Many specimens are much suffused with ochre and -reddish-brown, while the stigma near the centre of the fore-wing, although -sometimes almost obsolete, is often very conspicuous and black, white, or -even yellow in colour. It would be of great interest to learn, by rearing a -large number of these insects, whether the many varieties existing in the -larval and perfect states could be traced to differences in food-plant, or -some other external circumstance. - - -Family GEOMETRIDAE. - -_Selidosema productata_ (Plate XII., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1b larva). - -Abundant in the forest, where it may be dislodged from ferns and -undergrowth during the day or captured flying about in the evening. Its -larva is rather attenuated, and possesses a large hump on the second -abdominal segment. In colour it is dark reddish brown, mottled with creamy -white and pale green, and is sparsely supplied with a few isolated hairs -(Fig. 1b). It feeds on the white rata (_Metrosideros scandens_), and when -in its usual position--_i.e._, sticking straight out from a -branch--absolutely defies detection. Specimens, however, may be readily -procured with a lantern at night, when they may be found walking about and -eating. The pupa state is spent in the earth, about two inches below the -surface, the moth appearing in three or four weeks' time, this period, -however, being extended in the case of autumnal larvae, to as many months. -It is extremely variable, scarcely two individuals being found exactly -alike. The colouring, as in the caterpillar, is chiefly protective, -consisting of a delicate tracery of browns and greys, which render the -insect quite invisible when resting on the trunk of a tree, with its pale -yellowish hind-wings concealed, a position it invariably assumes {91}during -the daytime (Fig. 1 male, 1a female). The curious and interesting -"_Tatosomas_," with their enormously elongated bodies, are closely allied -to the present insect; one of them (_Tatosoma agrionata_) being found in -similar situations, although in much more limited numbers; as, however, I -know nothing of their transformations, I am forced reluctantly to pass them -by. - - -Family GEOMETRIDAE. - -_Hydriomena deltoidata_ (Plate XIII., fig. 1, 1a larva). - -One of our commonest moths, appearing in great numbers during January and -February, in all open situations. It is especially abundant on the -fern-hills. - -The larva (Fig. 1a) feeds on the plantain. It is very sluggish, and lives -all through the winter, becoming full-grown in September, when it changes -into a pupa, among the roots of its food-plant. In colour it is a uniform -dark brown. - -The moth is extremely variable, but the figure may be taken as representing -a fairly typical specimen. It is a pretty insect, and may be often seen -resting on fences with its fore-wings folded backwards and forming together -a triangle, whence its name of _deltoidata_. Any unusual-looking specimens -of this species should always be netted, in order to form a thoroughly -representative series, as many of the varieties are very interesting. A -rather uncommon and remarkable-looking form occasionally occurs, in which -the dark central band of the fore-wings is completely divided near the -middle. - - -Family GEOMETRIDAE. - -_Asthena schistaria_ (Plate XII., fig. 2, 2a larva). - -This delicate little insect may be often taken at rest on fences and -tree-trunks during the day, and is a {92}conspicuous moth when flying in -the evening, owing to its light colour. The larva (Fig. 2a), which feeds on -the manuka (_Leptospermum ericoides_), is very ornamental. Its general -colour is light green, with black dorsal and lateral stripes, and a series -of diagonal markings bordered with crimson; the legs and prolegs are also -crimson, and the segments are divided by brilliant yellow rings, a white -line extending down each side of the larva. It is difficult to find, as it -remains closely concealed amongst the dense manuka foliage, from which it -can only be dislodged by vigorous and continued beating. The caterpillars -allow themselves to fall a short distance, hanging suspended by a silken -thread, which they rapidly ascend when the danger is passed. The pupa is -rather attenuated, dark-brown, and much pointed at its posterior extremity. -It is found buried about an inch in the earth, and the moth appears in a -month's time. This insect varies much in intensity of markings. The males -are generally considerably darker than the females, but are more certainly -distinguished by their attenuated bodies. - -The pearly white _Asthena pulchraria_ occurs in October and April; it is a -most beautiful insect, and may be found amongst the foliage of the kawakawa -(_P. excelsum_), on which its larva will probably be found to feed. - - -Family PYRALIDAE. - -_Scoparia hemiplaca_ (Plate XII., fig. 4). - -This pretty little moth was reared from a larva found feeding amongst moss -during the winter of 1885, but unfortunately I neglected to make a drawing -until it was too late. Doubtless many of the other Pyrales we meet with in -the New Zealand forest have similar habits, their larvae probably feeding -on different kinds of mosses. These can always be examined during the -winter months, {93}when the entomologist is usually in want of work, and -thus much information may be obtained regarding this interesting but -little-known family. - - -Family PYRALIDAE. - -_Scoparia sabulosella_ (Plate XIII., fig. 4, 4a larva). - -This is that extremely abundant, though dull-coloured little insect, that -rises in such multitudes from every field before one's footsteps during the -early summer. - -Its larva (Fig. 4a) feeds on various mosses, forming numerous silken -galleries amongst the roots in which it resides. These caterpillars are -very active, and consequently rather difficult to obtain, as they move -either backwards or forwards in their galleries with equal rapidity. - -They feed during the whole of the autumn and winter, changing into pupae -about September, from which the moths emerge in a month or six weeks' time. - -The habits of the numerous other species belonging to this genus and the -closely allied genus _Xeroscopa_ (Meyr) probably do not materially differ -from those of the species here described. - - -Family PYRALIDAE. - -_Crambus flexuosellus_ (Plate XII., fig. 5). - -An extremely abundant insect, occurring in swarms over meadows during the -summer, where it may be captured in the daytime or taken by hundreds at the -attracting lamp in the evening. Its larva is at present unknown, but -probably feeds on the roots of grasses. - -Closely allied is _Crambus tahulalis_, found in similar situations, but -appearing rather later in the season, the earliest specimens being met with -about January, while _C. flexuosellus_ is on the wing throughout the -summer. - - -{94}Family PYRALIDAE. - -_Siculodes subfasciata_ (Plate XII., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa). - -This curious insect may be occasionally taken flying round patches of -_Muhlenbeckia adpressa_, which grows freely amongst brushwood in many parts -of the country. - -Its larva (Fig. 3a), is very stout and sluggish, resembling the caterpillar -of an ordinary Pyrale in general appearance. It feeds in the stems of the -creeper, causing large swellings therein, which readily betray its -presence, and should therefore be cut off and kept until the moth emerges, -as specimens obtained in this way are far superior to any captured in the -open. The pupa is dark brown, and shining; it lies in the centre of one of -the swellings, the larva having previously prepared a safe outlet for the -moth in the form of a small burrow leading to the air, its extreme end -remaining closed by a thin pellicle of the original bark, which effectually -prevents the inmate's resting-place being discovered from the exterior (see -Fig. 3b, the small circle marked * represents the outlet). - -The perfect insect appears about December, flying rapidly in the hottest -sunshine. It varies greatly, both in size and colour, some of the small -males being very much suffused with dark brown, while the females usually -resemble the figure (3), and are often more than twice the size of their -mates. This insect is generally placed in a family called the _Siculidae_, -but I think without sufficient reason, and have therefore located it among -the Pyralidae, with which it has unquestionably a great affinity. - - -Family TORTRICIDAE. - -_Isonomeutis amauropa_ (Plate XIII., fig. 2, 2a larva). - -This odd little moth may be occasionally seen basking in openings in the -forest, and usually flies away {95}with lightning speed when an attempt is -made to capture it. - -The larva lives under the scaly bark of the matai-tree, feeding on the -soft, juicy inner bark and sap. In colour it is light yellowish white, -darker on the back, some specimens becoming quite pink on the dorsal -surface. When full-grown it encloses itself in a tough silken cocoon, -covered on the outside with fragments of wood, from which the moth emerges -in about a fortnight's time. - -The sexes differ considerably in appearance, the male having much broader -wings, and darker in colour than those in the female from which the -illustration (Fig. 2) is taken. - -This insect is probably single-brooded, as the larva may be found feeding -in the trees during the whole of the winter. - - -Family TORTRICIDAE. - -_Cacoecia excessana_ (Plate XIII., fig. 5, 5a larva). - -This is the commonest species of _Tortricidae_ in New Zealand, and may be -found almost without interruption during the whole of the year. - -The larva (Fig. 5a) feeds on a great variety of plants, the common manuka -being probably the most usual food for the species when in a state of -nature. It now, however, eats numerous European plants, including -honeysuckle and occasionally the fruit of the apple, but further evidence -is required on the latter subject before we can really consider it as -actually injurious in that direction. - -In colour this caterpillar is light green with a yellow line on each side, -but varies considerably; it feeds between several rolled-up leaves, in -which it is afterwards converted into a pupa whence the moth emerges in -about three weeks' time. - -The perfect insect is also excessively variable and is often more or less -suffused with yellow. It is most abundant in {96}the middle of summer, and -may be taken at light, or in the daytime at rest on fences and trees. - - -Family TORTRICIDAE. - -_Ctenopseustis obliquana_ (Plate XII., fig. 6). - -This little moth is occasionally noticed at rest on garden fences during -the autumn. Its larva inhabits the interior of the peach, feeding on the -kernel, which appears to exactly meet its requirements, the caterpillar -being full-grown as soon as it has completely devoured the nut. Before -assuming the pupa state this insect provides a ready means of escape for -the future moth by drilling a small hole through the hard shell and pulp of -the peach to the air; it also spins a slight cocoon inside the stone, the -pupa resting in the place formerly occupied by the kernel, in which -position it is often discovered. The only noticeable mischief produced by -this insect is delay in the ripening of the fruit. In fact all the infected -specimens which I have seen were quite hard and green, whilst other fruit -from the same tree had reached complete perfection. - - -Family TINEIDAE. - -_Endrosis fenestrella_ (Plate XII., fig. 7, 7a larva, 7b pupa). - -This common species may be observed in almost any house in New Zealand, and -is often mistaken for the dreaded "clothes moth" (_Tinea tapezella_), which -it somewhat resembles in general appearance. Its larva (Fig. 7a) is very -destructive, feeding on dried peas, amongst which it creates great havoc, -drilling numerous holes through them and spinning a large number together, -in the centre of which the caterpillar undergoes its change into a pupa -(Fig. 7b), from which the moth emerges in about a fortnight's time. This -insect should be destroyed whenever seen, as there is no doubt that much -loss will be caused by its ravages in the future. It also infests -bee-hives. - - -{97}Family TINEIDAE. - -_Oecophora scholaea_ (Plate XIII., fig. 6, 6a larva). - -This dull-coloured insect is extremely abundant during the early summer. - -The larva feeds on the roots of various plants, forming numerous white -silken galleries in the earth where it resides. In colour it is dark -chocolate-brown with a yellowish head and white markings. It is very large, -considering the size of the future moth, full-grown specimens often -measuring as much as 10-1/2 lines in length. About the end of September -these caterpillars are transformed into pupae, and the moths emerge in a -month or six weeks' time. - -The perfect insect may be often disturbed amongst brushwood. It is very -sluggish on the wing and usually drops to the ground, where it is very -inconspicuous. It also has a habit of running into any crevice immediately -on the approach of an enemy. This peculiarity is shared by the other -members of the genus _Oecophora_, of which there are large numbers in New -Zealand. - - -Family TINEIDAE. - -_Semiocosma platyptera_ (Plate XII., fig. 8, 8a larva, 8b pupa). - -This is one of the largest of the _Tineidae_ found in New Zealand, -measuring fully fifteen lines across the expanded wings. Its larva (Fig. -8a) is abundant under the bark of dead henau trees (_Eleocarpus dentatus_), -feeding on the soft inner surface, but leaving the hard wood untouched. In -colour it is pale yellow, the head and prothorax are dark brown and -corneous, and the remaining segments are provided with two horny warts, -from which numerous hairs arise; its legs are all very small, and the -caterpillar is considerably attenuated posteriorly; it is very active, -wriggling about with great violence when disturbed. - -{98}The pupa (Fig. 8b) is enclosed in a compact cocoon, constructed of -minute fragments of wood, firmly woven together with silk, and attached to -the inner surface of the bark, where it may be soon found by careful -searching, and the finest specimens may thus be easily reared in captivity. - -The perfect insect appears about November, and may be often observed at -rest on the trunks of trees; its pale hind-wings are completely concealed -by the dark upper pair, which render its discovery very difficult. The -sexes may be at once distinguished by their size, the males being much -smaller than the female (Fig. 8) and usually lighter in colour. - - - - -{99}CHAPTER VII - -The Neuroptera. - -The Order Neuroptera, as here considered, is a very limited one, consisting -only of the seven small families, which comprise the Lace-wings, Ant-lions, -Caddis-flies, and a few others. It forms a most convenient passage from the -insects undergoing a complete metamorphosis with a quiescent pupa, to those -which are active during the whole of their life, as the larvae are widely -different from the adults, but the pupae, although incapable of walking or -eating, approximate very closely in structure to the perfect insects. I -regret that my observations have been at present restricted to three -families only, _i.e._, the _Hemerobiidae_, _Sialidae_, and _Phryganidae_, -which will consequently have to represent the entire series. I understand, -however, from Mr. A. S. Atkinson, that a species of _Myrmeleontidae_ -(Ant-lion) is not uncommon round Nelson, and doubtless future investigation -will reveal insects belonging to the other families. - - -Family PHRYGANIDAE. - -_Oxyethira albiceps_ (?) (McLach.) (Plate XIV., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa). - -This insect occurs in the neighbourhood of ponds and streams during the -summer. Its larva may be found {100}commonly in the green, slimy weed -floating in large masses on all stagnant waters. Being very small it is -rather difficult to detect, and is best procured by washing a small -quantity of the weed in a saucer of water, when the little insects will be -at once seen walking about at the bottom. On examination with the -microscope the case will first arrest attention, being of a most unique -structure. Its shape is best described as closely resembling that of a -minute pocket-flask, very much flattened at the lower end and almost -transparent. Its surface is slightly corrugated, and the neck of the flask -constructed of a much denser material than the body. It is open at both -ends, the posterior end being perforated by a long shallow slit, which -extends for nearly the whole width of the case, thus admitting a free -circulation of water round the larva, which is also able to turn round and -project its head and anterior segments through the lower aperture, thus -occupying the reverse position to that shown in the illustration (Fig. 3a). -It is, however, prevented from actually leaving the case by its abdomen, -which is too large to be withdrawn from either end. The head and thorax of -the larva are very horny in comparison with those portions permanently -retained in the case, the legs being constructed to fold up into the -smallest possible compass, a cavity existing in each joint for the -reception of the preceding one--a structure which is almost universal among -the caddis-worms. The two organs, situated on the posterior segments, are -doubtless respiratory in their function, a large air-tube taking its rise -from each and ramifying through the body in all directions. When alarmed -these insects retreat into their cases with lightning rapidity, remaining -concealed until the danger is passed. Their food probably consists of the -green weed, although they are perhaps carnivorous, feeding on the rotifers -and other animalculae, which swarm in the water where they are found. - -{101}With regard to the method employed by the young larva in constructing, -and subsequently enlarging, its case, I can give no positive information, -although it is undoubtedly made of a viscous fluid, secreted by the insect, -which hardens when exposed to the water; this secretion is no doubt -analogous to the silk of caterpillars, which always exists in the form of a -gummy fluid before being spun. - -When about to change, the insect fixes its case down by four ligaments, two -at each end, the extremities of these being firmly fastened to a stone; it -then closes the small aperture, and constructs a curious arch-shaped -partition, of dense material, a short distance from the broad end (Fig. -3b). In about a week's time the larva is transformed into a pupa, having -the limbs, &c., free from the body but incapable of motion. The fixing down -of the case prior to the change may be easily performed from each of the -apertures, which are no doubt left open till the last for this purpose. -Before the final transformation the pupa breaks through the partition at -the broad end of the case and rises to the surface, the imago (Fig. 3) -ascending a blade of grass to dry and expand its wings. The little exuvia -of the pupa may be often noticed floating on the water, and the empty cases -are very conspicuous on the sides of a glass aquarium, where the insects -generally fix them down when in captivity. - - -Family HEMEROBIIDAE. - -_Stenosmylus incisus_ (Plate XIV., fig. 2). - -This lovely insect is figured as an example of this family, being found -occasionally in the New Zealand forest, but is rather scarce as a rule. I -regret that nothing is at present known of its transformations. - - -{102}Family Sialidae. - -_Chauliodes diversus_ (Plate XIV., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa). - -During still warm weather, from December till March, this large insect is -frequently observed flying lazily over water at dusk, when it may be -readily captured with the ordinary net. Its larva is aquatic, living under -stones in running streams, where it devours large quantities of Ephemerae -and other insect larvae, which are always abundant in those situations. It -is very ferocious and will bite violently when disturbed, being furnished -with a pair of powerful mandibles. The curious filaments on each side are -gills, and it will be noticed that they are situated exactly where the -spiracles of the perfect insect afterwards appear (see Fig. 1a). - -This larva probably lives over a year, its growth proceeding very slowly, -but mature specimens are not infrequently met with quite as large as the -illustration. When full-grown it leaves the water and forms an oval cell in -the mud, usually under a large stone; its gills then gradually shrivel up, -and in ten days or a fortnight it is transformed into the curious pupa, -shown at Fig. 1b, from which the perfect insect proceeds in about six -weeks' time. The sexes of this species may be readily distinguished by -their size, the male being considerably smaller than the female (Fig. 1), -and possessing longer antennae. - - - - -{103}CHAPTER VIII - -The Orthoptera. - -This Order, although including a comparatively small number of species, -comprises some of the largest and most conspicuous insects inhabiting New -Zealand, many of them reminding one of the denizens of the tropics in their -gigantic size and striking appearance. They may be conveniently divided -into the three following groups:--The _Aquatic group_, or those whose -larvae inhabit the water, including the Dragonflies, Mayflies, and -Perlidae; the _Terrestrial group_, including all the typical Orthoptera, -Termites, and Mallophaga; and the _Euplexoptera_, including the Earwigs. We -start our observations with the Aquatic group, as these exhibit the -greatest affinity with the Neuroptera. - - -AQUATIC Group. - -Family LIBELLULIDAE.[19] - -_Uropetala carovei_ (Plate XV., fig. 1 [M], 1a larva.) - -This magnificent insect occurs in all swampy situations during January and -February, when it may be seen dashing about with amazing rapidity intent on -catching {104}the various flies which constitute its food. Its curious -larva is represented at Fig. 1a, the drawing having been taken from a -singularly perfect exuvia, which I had the good fortune to discover, -clinging to the stem of a fuchsia-tree in a swamp, the rent through which -the perfect insect escaped having almost closed up. In this state it no -doubt feeds on various aquatic animals, which it procures with a prehensile -instrument similar in structure to the "mask" of British dragonfly larvae, -but much larger. - -The female of this species may be at once recognized by the absence of the -two peculiar leaf-like appendages at the anal extremity, from which the -insect takes its name. Her abdomen is also much stouter. My experience -leads me to believe either that she is very retired in her habits or else -that there are at least six males to one female. - -Closely allied, and much commoner than the above insect, is _Cordulia -Smithii_, found almost everywhere, its rapid and continuous flight -frequently taking it many miles away from any water. The specimen figured -is a male (Plate XV., fig. 2), the female possessing a pair of slender -sickle-shaped hooks, attached to the end of her body. She may occasionally -be seen depositing her eggs in stagnant streams, the abdomen being -violently beaten against the surface of the water during the operation. I -have not yet met with the larva, which probably lives concealed in the mud. -One specimen, taken near Lake Wairarapa, is remarkable in possessing a -cloudy brown patch near the tip of each wing, but it is no doubt only a -variety of the ordinary insect. - - -Family LIBELLULIDAE. - -_Lestes colensonis_ (Plate XV., fig. 3, 3a larva). - -Extremely abundant in all damp situations from September till May, being -one of the last insects to disappear in the autumn. The larva is found -under stones, &c., in {105}every stream, feeding on various aquatic insects -and crustaceans. When very young the wing-cases are scarcely discernible, -but gradually become more distinct at each moult, until the larva assumes -the form shown in the illustration (Fig. 3a), which is taken from a -specimen about a week before the emergence of the perfect insect. In all -these insects it would be much more convenient to regard the metamorphosis -as consisting of only two stages, viz., larva and imago, as there is really -no condition analogous to the quiescent pupa of other orders. The female is -rather stouter than the male, which is the sex figured, and her abdomen is -of a dull bronze colour, instead of metallic blue. The only other dragonfly -found in my neighbourhood (Wellington) is the pretty little _Telebasis -zealandica_ (Fig. 4), which occurs in similar situations to the last, but -is not quite so common. The male is of a brilliant red colour, the female -being bronzy green, but she may be readily distinguished from the same sex -in _Lestes colensonis_ by her smaller size. The larva of this species is -rather more attenuated than that of the previous insect, and is of course -considerably smaller. - - -Family EPHEMERIDAE. - -_Ephemera_, n.s., near _Coloburus_[20] (Plate XVI., fig. 4, 4a larva). - -The well-known mayflies are very extensively represented in New Zealand, -hovering in swarms over running water during the summer evenings. - -The larva of the present species (Fig. 4a) occurs abundantly under stones -in rapid streams. It may be immediately distinguished from its numerous -congeners by its large head and conspicuous black eyes. It is carnivorous, -{106}feeding on various small insects, chiefly those belonging to the -present family, but in lack of these it will even devour individuals of its -own species. It is consequently a most difficult insect to rear, and it was -a long time before I succeeded in obtaining a single imago in captivity. -When mature the insect leaves the water, and an apparently perfect imago -escapes through a rent in the thorax in the usual way. In a few hours, -however, a second moult occurs, the wings gaining additional size and -beauty, and the anal setae becoming very much more elongated than before -(Fig. 4). This second change, which has so perplexed some entomologists, is -merely an _apparent_ departure from the general rule, a careful examination -of the exuviae of the dragonflies, and pupa shells of many other insects, -revealing a delicate membrane within, which invests the imago, and is cast -off at the same time as the harder external envelope. In the case of the -mayflies, the retention of this internal membrane some two or three hours -longer than usual, will fully explain its apparently unique metamorphosis. - - -Family PERLIDAE. - -_Stenoperla prasina_ (Plate XVI., fig. 3, 3a larva). - -This is the green gauzy-winged insect which we see flying feebly over -running water, during the twilight, throughout the summer. - -Its larva (Fig. 3a) is aquatic, hiding itself under stones, and devouring -the unfortunate _Ephemerae_ found in similar situations. Towards the end of -its career the rudimentary wings become very conspicuous, at which time it -is a most interesting object. The curious appendages on each side of the -abdomen are gills, which the larva is constantly vibrating, in order to -obtain a fresh supply of aerated water. When mature, it ascends the stem of -some aquatic plant, the skin becomes dry and brittle, and finally bursting, -allows the perfect insect to escape, {107}and in a few hours its wings are -sufficiently hardened for flight. Several other species occur in New -Zealand, one of the commonest being _Perla cyrene_, a black insect much -resembling _S. prasina_, but considerably smaller; its larva may be -occasionally found, and is at once known by its dark colour. - - -TERRESTRIAL Group. - -Family PSOCIDAE. - -_Psocus zealandicus_, n.s. (Plate XVI., fig. 2, 2a larva). - -During the hottest days in summer every one must have noticed numbers of -minute active insects assembled on garden fences in groups, ranging from -ten to fifty, immediately dispersing when disturbed. These are individuals -of _Psocus zealandicus_ (Fig. 2), a curious little species, closely allied -to the renowned "Book Tick" (_Atropos pulsatorium_), whose ravages in -museums and libraries need no description. Its larva (2a) may be found in -the same situations as the imago, and often assembles in similar groups. -Its food probably consists of rotten wood and other decaying vegetable -matter, and in its later stages it is provided with wing-cases, thus -differing from the Book Tick (_A. pulsatorium_), which remains apterous -during the whole of its life. - - -Family TERMITIDAE. - -_Stolotermes ruficeps_ (Plate XVI., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1b "soldier," 1c -"worker"). - -The termites, or white ants, which occur in such great numbers in the -tropics, are represented in New Zealand by several small species, the -commonest in this neighbourhood being _Stolotermes ruficeps_. - -This species inhabits rotten logs, excavating extensive burrows, resembling -in a very humble manner the {108}wonderfully elaborate nests constructed by -the African and other species, about which so much has been written, and so -much remains to be discovered. The present insect appears in the perfect -state during January and February. It is seldom noticed flying about, but -may be readily obtained by opening the nests, where a large number are -frequently seen huddled together in the main galleries. At this time the -community consists of three classes of individuals, viz., males, females, -and workers, which last are in all probability nothing more than the -larvae. After pairing they shed their wings and return to the nest, the -female becoming very much distended with eggs. About March she commences to -lay. This is continued for several months, and during this time the female -is queen of the nest. She resides in a capacious chamber, from which -numerous galleries diverge in all directions, some extending as far as -eighteen or twenty inches, but the most populous portion of the nest is -contained within a radius of six inches from the queen's apartment. The -"soldiers" (Fig. 1b) now appear in considerable numbers. They are chiefly -stationed in the royal chamber, and furiously attack any intruders; but the -workers which stream in and out, carrying the eggs from the queen, they -treat with the greatest gentleness. I have never seen soldiers in a nest -containing winged insects, nor indeed later in the spring than October, -when they seem to have all disappeared. With regard to the nature of these -individuals I am unable to supply any positive information, but it appears -probable that they are abortive males, in the same way that the neuters of -the bees and ants are abortive females. As none of these insects have yet -been reared, many points of great interest remain to be discovered in -connection with their economy, and a rigid investigation of a number of -nests kept in captivity, is the only mode by which we can hope to become -fully acquainted with the habits of this interesting family. - - -{109}Family BLATTIDAE. - -_Periplaneta fortipes_ (Plate XVII., fig. 5). - -Few people who cut up old wood remain unacquainted with this species for -very long, its insufferable odour immediately betraying its presence -independently of anything else. It is very common under the bark of rimu, -henau, and other large trees, where specimens may be found in all stages of -growth; the mature individuals only differing from the young in the matter -of size and the possession of rudimentary wing-cases. I have never found -the females of this species carrying their eggs, but have, on several -occasions, discovered the closely allied, but smaller, _Periplaneta -undulivitta_ thus engaged under stones on the hills round Nelson. This is a -much more agreeable insect to study than _P. fortipes_, not possessing the -disgusting odour so characteristic of the latter species. - -The only winged _Blattidae_ found round Wellington are _Blatta conjuncta_, -and _Periplaneta orientalis_. The former (Fig. 6), may be occasionally -noticed under the scaly bark of rimu and matai trees, but a sharp eye and -hand are needed to effect a capture, the insect running with marvellous -rapidity. The latter species I have not yet noticed, but as it is the -ordinary "cockroach" of Europe its habits have already been amply -described. - - -Family MANTIDAE. - -_Tenodera intermedia_ (Plate XVII., fig. 2). - -A local species confined, I believe, to the South Island, and occurring in -some numbers round Nelson, where my specimens were obtained. It seldom -flies, but crawls stealthily about the trunks of trees, in the hottest -sunshine, capturing and destroying great quantities of insects, its green -colouring and leaf-like form rendering it very inconspicuous {110}to its -victims. The purple spots on the tibiae of this insect are very noticeable, -and resemble small drums in structure, hence they are regarded by Mr. A. H. -Swinton ("Insect Variety," page 239), as the organs of hearing. These -curious drums may be also found in insects belonging to nearly all the -remaining families of the Orthoptera, but, as we find no auditory organs -occupying a similar situation in any other groups of insects, I think that -Mr. Swinton's explanation of their function must be regarded at present as -a somewhat doubtful one.[21] - - -Family PHASMIDAE. - -_Acanthoderus horridus_ (Plate XIX.). - -The curious Stick Insects are familiar to most people from their remarkable -similarity to the twigs of trees. - -The present species is one of the largest, the mature insect frequently -attaining a length of five inches. It is best taken at night, when it may -be readily discovered, feeding on the leaves of shrubs, and suddenly -becoming perfectly motionless when the lantern is turned upon it. The -favourite plant for this (and indeed most of the species) is the white -rata, upon which they are often seen in large numbers when the entomologist -is collecting Lepidoptera in autumn. One of the commonest species found in -this way is _Bacillus_ (_hookeri?_) chiefly remarkable for its great sexual -disparities, the male resembling a very slender stick about twenty-eight -lines long, while the female is nearly half as long again (thirty-eight -lines), and much more stoutly built. A more systematic investigation of -this family is needed before we can pretend to correctly determine the -various species, as there is little doubt that in other cases the sexes -will be found quite as divergent. In addition to this {111}the insects are -most variable in colour, and their completely apterous character rendering -the distinction between larva and imago a matter of considerable -difficulty, it is very probable that some of the smaller species may be -only immature specimens of the larger ones. - -Stick insects are easily kept in captivity, and will not be found devoid of -interest. They are great eaters, and grow with considerable rapidity, -frequently casting their skin, a task of no easy accomplishment, which I -once had the pleasure of watching in the case of a specimen of -_Acanthoderus prasinus_ which I had under observation for several months. - -The insect first suspends itself by its hind pair of legs, keeping the -others in the same position as when walking, the head is bent in, and the -antennae are placed along the breast, the long abdomen hanging over -backwards. The skin then splits along the back of the thorax, and the head -and thorax are gradually pushed out. The front and middle legs are -immediately afterwards extracted, the long femora and tibiae easily passing -the sharp angles in the exuvia, owing to their complete flexibility. When -these are finally clear, the insect reaches forwards with its fore-legs and -draws the abdomen and hind-legs out of the old skin, which remains attached -to the branch until dislodged by some accident. - -During the spring months great quantities of little stick insects may be -noticed on the parasitic ferns covering the tree stems in the forest; they -are curious little animals, their antics when simulating inanimate twigs -being often most amusing, and if the reader wishes to investigate a -comparatively untouched branch of entomology he cannot do better than keep -a number of these until mature, when he will doubtless contribute much to -our scanty knowledge of this curious family. - - -{112}Family ACHETIDAE. - -_Acheta fuliginosa_ (Plate XVIII., fig. 1). - -This destructive insect is not indigenous to New Zealand, having been -introduced from Australia into the Nelson district many years ago. Strange -to say it has never been seen in Wellington, where specimens must be -constantly landed amongst produce, &c., but appear to be unable to effect a -settlement, owing, probably, to some peculiarity of the climate which -renders the place unsuitable for them. The larvae may be first observed -about December, when they are often seen hopping about the vegetation. They -are extremely obnoxious, devouring everything, and frequently entering -houses, where they consume provisions, clothes, and even boots. During the -summer of 1875 the farmers round Nelson were fairly eaten out by this -insect, the cattle absolutely starving for the want of food, but since that -time the pest seems to have gradually diminished, although it is still very -injurious to many garden plants. - -The illustration (Fig. 1) is taken from a female, the male wanting the long -ovipositor. These insects appear in the imago state about March, and -continue in great abundance until the end of summer, the cold weather which -generally sets in about the beginning of May rapidly destroying them. - - -Family GRYLLIDAE. - -_Deinacrida megacephala_ (Plate XVIII., fig. 2 [M], XVII., fig. 8 [F]). - -This conspicuous species is especially interesting, as it may be regarded -as the type of a very peculiar assemblage of apterous crickets, -pre-eminently characteristic of New Zealand. It is very abundant round -Wellington, and may be occasionally taken under logs, &c., but is best -procured {113}from the hollow stems of various trees, where it is found -inhabiting the deserted galleries of wood-boring species--frequently -enlarging them to suit its own requirements. - -The plant most usually selected by these insects is the mahoe (_Melicytus -ramiflorus_), whose stems may be often seen pierced with large holes. Out -of these the insects emerge at night to feed on the leaves. To extract a -number of specimens, without injury, requires considerable care, and is -best performed with a small axe, which should be first used to cut in about -three-quarters through the trunk, just below one of the holes. Another -notch is then cut about a foot lower down, and the intermediate wood split -off in long pieces, until the tunnel is laid bare. On approaching an insect -the first thing seen are two red threads, which are the antennae, laid back -as shown at Fig. 8. A deep notch is then cut into the trunk, some nine or -ten inches below this point, and the piece bodily wrenched off. If the -individual thus treated is a male he will cling firmly to the log, -elevating his hind-legs in the air and biting viciously at anything within -reach, but the females, in the majority of cases, endeavour to escape and -hide themselves under the leaves, &c., on the ground. Both sexes when -irritated emit a peculiar grating sound, which may be often heard at night -in the forest, and is produced by the friction of the femur against a small -file situated on each side of the second abdominal segment. They can also -leap a short distance, but not so far as many of the smaller species -(_Libanasa macropathus_, &c.). They are evidently strictly arboreal in -their habits, as they exhibit great skill in walking along branches, and -will climb up a thin stick with wonderful rapidity. - -When in their burrows the posterior legs are extended behind the insect and -push, while the anterior and intermediate ones are thrust forwards, the -claws being firmly inserted, so as to enable the insect to pull itself -along. {114}Travelling along the burrow in this manner, they frequently -evade all efforts to extract them, until they are stopped by arriving at -the end of the gallery. - -The sexes of this species are readily distinguishable, the male (Plate -XVIII., fig. 2) possessing an immense head furnished with a pair of -enormously powerful mandibles. The female (Plate XVII., fig. 8) is a more -attractive insect, her gracefully curved ovipositor and smaller head having -a much more pleasing appearance than the terribly menacing jaws of her -mate. Both sexes are able to give severe bites, but it is extremely -doubtful whether they would prove anything worse than slight mechanical -injuries, as the insect is not likely to be poisonous. I am, however, -unable to speak from experience. - - -Family GRYLLIDAE. - -_Xiphidium maoricum_ (Plate XVII., fig. 1). - -This pretty insect may be found in great abundance round Nelson during the -autumn, but is rarer in the Wellington Province. Its presence may be at -once detected by the curious chirping heard in various directions shortly -before sunset and lasting till eight or nine o'clock in the evening. This -sound is produced with the wing-cases, which the male insects may be seen -vigorously rubbing together. The females are quite mute, and they may be -also distinguished by possessing a short curved ovipositor at the end of -the body. The peculiarly leaf-like shape of the insect and its bright green -colour render its discovery amongst the herbage a most difficult matter, -even when its whereabouts is indicated by its cry--in fact, were it not for -their music, there is little doubt that very few of these insects would -ever be captured, as they are practically invisible, and are an instance of -protective resemblance carried to great perfection. - -When disturbed these crickets fly about twenty yards {115}and again settle -in a bush or amongst herbage, carefully avoiding alighting on the ground -where they would be readily visible. Their flight is somewhat feeble for -such large insects. Great care must be taken, when capturing specimens for -preservation, not to hold them by their powerful hind-legs, as they will -not infrequently cast one off while endeavouring to escape. - -I have not yet noticed the larva of this species, but should imagine it -would closely resemble a wingless imago. - - -Family LOCUSTIDAE. - -_Caloptenus marginalis_ (Plate XVII., fig. 4). - -This is the little grasshopper which rises before our footsteps in swarms -on a hot summer's day; it is one of the last insects to leave us in the -autumn, being frequently found in warm situations on fine days in the -middle of winter. Owing to its great abundance this species must inflict -considerable damage on the grass, as it has taken up its quarters like the -English grasshopper in the cultivated fields, where an unlimited supply of -food is always at hand. Formerly, no doubt, it was much less common round -Wellington than at present, owing to the few open spots then existing, none -of these grasshoppers being found in the forest. - -The perfect insect may be recognized by the rudimentary wings which are -present on the thorax, thus causing it to closely resemble the larval form -of many of the winged species, and for which it might readily be mistaken -were its true character unknown. - - -Family LOCUSTIDAE. - -_Oedipoda cinerascens_ (Plate XVII., fig. 3). - -This large and conspicuous insect occurs abundantly in all open situations -near Nelson, but is very rare in the {116}Wellington district, becoming, -however, again common further north. - -When disturbed it leaps into the air, spreads its wings, and flies away -with great rapidity for thirty or forty yards, when it alights, and allows -its pursuer to get within a few yards of his prize before again making off. -This habit renders the capture of a good series of this insect a most -arduous matter. The sexes may be readily distinguished by their size, the -female being nearly twice as large as her mate. - -This species is very variable in colour, some individuals being dark green -whilst others are of a uniform drab. - -The food of this insect consists of various domestic grasses, but I do not -think it is at present sufficiently abundant to exercise any harmful -influence on agriculture. By some entomologists, however, it is regarded as -only a variety of the renowned migratory locust (_Locusta migratoria_), and -as such its advent in large numbers might be viewed with serious -apprehension. - -It is also strange that although I have often seen large numbers of this -species in the perfect state I have never observed the larva. I can only -conjecture that the insect breeds in very secluded localities and then -migrates in search of fresh food supplies. - - -Group EUPLEXOPTERA. - -Family FORFICULIDAE. - -_Forficesila littorea_ (Plate XVII., fig. 7). - -Abundant on the sea beach throughout the year, where it may be readily -captured under stones and seaweed. It is a very bold insect, and when -disturbed will grasp a blade of grass, or other object, very firmly with -its powerful abdominal forceps, and allow itself to be lifted off the -ground and carried away rather than relinquish its hold. - -{117}The food of this species probably consists of seaweed, although it is -possibly carnivorous, and feeds on the small insects and crustaceans, which -are numerous on the beach. Being permanently apterous, mature individuals -can only be recognized by their large size, and the perfect development of -their anal forceps. It is evidently erroneous to regard these as organs -exclusively employed in opening and shutting the wings, as we see that in -the present insect, which does not require them for that purpose, they are -larger than in many of the flying earwigs. They are probably chiefly used -to _intimidate_ intruders. - -This species is strictly marine in its habits and is seldom found more than -a few yards above high-water-mark. The females may be often observed -hatching their eggs. For this purpose they excavate an oval chamber -underneath a log or large stone, and after carefully smoothing it within, -deposit the eggs at the bottom. These eggs are most faithfully guarded by -the mother, which boldly attacks all intruders, and will suffer herself to -be killed rather than leave the spot. She also remains with the young ones -for a considerable time after they are hatched, as we sometimes observe the -females accompanied by a number of larvae of quite a large size. - - - - -{118}CHAPTER IX - -The Hemiptera. - -The present Order of insects, although of very limited extent, contains -several important species, of which the noisy Cicadas, destructive Aphides, -and numerous Bugs, and Lice, can be cited as familiar examples. The -Hemiptera may be conveniently divided into the two following groups:-- - - The _Homoptera_, comprising all the species in which the anterior wings - are entirely membranous, and-- - - The _Heteroptera_, including those having the basal portion of the - anterior wings thickened, and quite opaque. - -These peculiarities have induced some entomologists, who regard the -structure of the wings of the greatest importance in classifying, to -arrange the insects included in the Homoptera and Heteroptera, into two -distinct Orders; but their uniform character in all other respects renders -this, I think, hardly desirable. - - -Group HOMOPTERA. - -Family CICADIDAE. - -_Cicada cingulata_[22] (Plate XX., fig. 1, 1a pupa). - -This beautiful insect may be found in great numbers {119}amongst brushwood -during the hot sunny days so common from January till March. Its larva -inhabits the earth earlier in the summer, and its curious pupa can often be -observed crawling up the stems of trees in order to allow the perfect -insect to emerge. After this has taken place the exuviae still remain -firmly attached to the tree, and are very conspicuous objects; but if it is -desired to remove them great care must be taken not to break off the legs, -which are always very brittle. - -The perfect insects are at once betrayed by their loud singing, which, in -certain localities, becomes quite deafening. This noise is entirely -confined to the males, and proceeds from two large drum-like organs, -situated on the under surface of the abdomen near its base, which, in -conjunction with the curious ovipositor existing in the females constitute -good sexual distinctions throughout the family. The structure of these two -organs having been admirably described by several European authors renders -it quite unnecessary for me to do so here. - -Closely allied to the present insect is _Cicada muta_, the female of which -is depicted on Plate XX., fig. 2. The male is often of a reddish-brown -colour, but the insect is an extremely variable one. It is found in similar -situations to _C. cingulata_, but appears rather earlier in the year. - - -Family CICADIDAE. - -_Cicada iolanthe_, n.s. (Plate XX., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa). - -This is the first species of Cicada to appear in the spring, and is found -during November and December. Its larva (Fig. 3a) is a curious little -animal, the two hind-legs being very long. I am at present unable to state -with certainty what constitutes its food, but am extremely doubtful whether -it consists of the juices imbibed from the roots of plants, as is generally -supposed. The anterior legs, although probably chiefly constructed for -digging, {120}appear to be also suited for raptorial purposes, which leads -me to believe that the insect may be carnivorous in its habits. The pupa -(Fig. 3b) does not materially differ from that of the last, except in size, -and its empty exuvia is also frequently found attached to the stems of -trees. - -The perfect insect may be at once discovered by the peculiarly shrill note -emitted by the male. - - -Family APHIDAE. - -This family is extensively represented in New Zealand, but as I have not -yet been able to obtain any information respecting their specific identity -I am compelled to pass them by for the present, hoping that future -investigation will reveal much that is interesting in their habits, and -also help both gardener and agriculturist to protect himself from their -ravages. - - -Family COCCIDIDAE. - -_Coelostoma zealandicum_ (Plate XX., fig. 4 [M]). - -This species is figured as a representative of this very curious family -chiefly on account of its great similarity to a Dipterous insect, the -rudimentary condition of its posterior wings being most perplexing to the -beginner. Its habits have been amply described by Mr. Maskell, in his work -on the Coccididae of New Zealand, to which I consequently refer. - - -Group HETEROPTERA. - -Family NOTONECTIDAE. - -_Corixa zealandica_, n.s. (Plate XX., fig. 5). - -Abundant throughout the summer in all slow-running streams. The larva -closely resembles the imago except that it has no wings. Its food probably -consists of the juices of other insects. The present insect invariably -swims with {121}its back exposed, thus differing considerably from the -English Water-boatman (_Notonecta glauca_), whose keel-like back is kept -beneath the water, while the two long hind-legs are rapidly moved backwards -and forwards like oars. - - -Family SCUTELLERIDAE. - -_Cermatulus nasalis_ (Plate XX., fig. 6, 6a larva). - -This insect may be beaten out of various trees during the summer, and is -usually taken in some abundance in February amongst white rata blossoms, on -which it may be often observed sucking the honey from the blossoms with its -long rostrum. Its larva, which is represented at Fig. 6a, is found in -similar situations. - - - - -This concludes the series of insects I have selected as representative of -the several orders in New Zealand. The brief sketch of entomology thus -given is of necessity extremely fragmentary, and many important groups and -families are entirely unrepresented. Should, however, this little book -induce some of its readers to investigate insects for themselves, I shall -feel that my efforts have been amply rewarded. - - - -THE END. - - - - -{123}GENERAL INDEX. - - - - PAGE - Abdomen, 4 - Acanthoderus, 110 - " horridus, 110 - " prasinus, 111 - Acroceridae, 56 - Acrocera, 56 - " longirostris, 56 - Achetidae, 112 - Acheta, 112 - " fuliginosa, 112 - Andrenidae, 33 - Antennae, 2 - Ants, 35 - Ant-lions, 99 - Anus, 4 - Aphides destroyed by Syrphus, 57 - Aphidae, 120 - Aphaniptera, 64 - Aquatic insects, 22, 40, 100, 103 - Argyrophenga, 65 - " antipodum, 65 - Asilidae, 55 - Asthena, 91 - " schistaria, 91 - " pulchraria, 92 - Atta antarctica, 37 - Attracting by light, 14 - Atropos, 107 - " pulsatorium, 107 - - Bacillus, 110 - " hookeri, 110 - Beating, 9 - Bee parasites, 63 - Bees, 33 - Beetles, 19 - Beetles under sacks, 9 - " killing, 10 - " pinning, 10 - Bibio, 52 - " nigrostigma, 52 - Blattidae, 109 - Blatta, 109 - " conjuncta, 109 - "Bloodworm", 43 - Blossoms, 13 - Blue butterfly, 69 - "Blue-bottles", 60 - Bolitophila, 49 - " luminosa, 49 - Bombycidae, 73 - Bombylidae, 54 - Book tick, 107 - Boxes, 10 - Brachelytra, 25 - Brachocera, 54 - Breathing organs, 4 - Butterflies, 65 - " setting, 12 - " rearing, 15 - - Cacoecia, 95 - " excessana, 95 - Calliphora, 60 - " quadrimaculata, 60 - Camphor, 17 - Catocala, 83 - Caloptenus, 115 - " marginalis, 115 - Caterpillar cages, 15 - Carabidae, 21 - Carbolic acid, 17 - Case-bearing larvae, 74 - Casting skin, 111 - Ceratopogon, 45 - " antipodum, 45 - Cermatulus, 121 - " nasalis, 121 - Chaetosoma, 24 - " scaritides, 24 - Chalastra, 84 - " pelurgata, 84 - Chalcididae, 37 - Chauliodes, 102 - " diversus, 102 - Chironomus, 43 - " zealandicus, 43 - " plumosus, 43 - Chrysophanus, 68 - " salustius, 68 - " boldenarum, 68 - " feredayi, 68 - " enysii, 68 - Cicadidae, 118 - Cicada, 118 - " cingulata, 118 - " muta, 119 - " iolanthe, 119 - Cicindela, 19 - " tuberculata, 19 - " parryi, 20 - Cicindelidae, 19 - Clavicornia, 23 - Cloniophora, 50 - " subfasciata, 50 - Clothes moth, 96 - Click beetles, 29 - Cockchaffer, 27 - Cockroaches, 109 - Coccididae, 120 - Coelopa, 63 - " littoralis, 63 - Coelostoma, 120 - " zealandicum, 120 - Coleoptera, 5, 19 - " rearing, 15 - " collecting, 9 - Collecting insects, 9 - " at night, 13 - Collection, 17 - Collectional journal, 18 - Coloburus, 105 - Colon, 4 - Colymbetes, 22 - " rufimanus, 22 - Comptosia, 54 - " bicolor, 54 - " virida, 55 - Copper butterflies, 68 - Cordulia, 104 - " smithii, 104 - Corethra, 43 - " antarctica, 43 - Corixa, 120 - " zealandica, 120 - Compound eyes, 2 - Coxa, 3 - Crambus, 93 - " flexuosellus, 93 - " tahulalis, 93 - Crickets, 112 - Crop, 4 - Ctenopseustis, 96 - " obliquana, 96 - Culex, 40 - " argyropus, 42 - " iracundus, 40 - Culicidae, 40 - Curculionidae, 31 - Cylindria, 62 - " sigma, 62 - - Danais, 65 - " plexippus, 65 - Dasycolletes, 33 - " hirtipes, 33 - " purpureus, 34 - Declana, 83 - " floccosa, 83 - " floccosa _v._ junctilinea 84 - Deinacrida, 112 - " megacephala, 112 - Diadema, 65 - " nerina, 65 - Digestive system, 4 - Diptera, 6, 40 - Dorcus, 26 - " punctulatus, 26 - " reticulatus, 26 - Dorsal vessel, 4 - Dragon-flies, 103 - Dryocora, 24 - " howittii, 24 - Dyticidae, 22 - - Earwigs, 116 - Eggs of insects, 5 - Elateridae, 28 - Elytra, 5 - Endrosis, 96 - " fenestrella, 96 - Engidae, 24 - Entomologist in winter, 10 - Entomological pins, 13 - Ephemeridae, 105 - Ephemera, 105 - Epuraea, 23 - " zealandica, 23 - Eristalis, 57 - " cingulatus, 57 - Erana, 78 - " graminosa, 78 - Erebia pluto and butleri, 66 - Euplexoptera, 116 - Eurigaster, 60 - " marginatus, 60 - Exaireta, 56 - " spiniger, 56 - External organs, 2 - Eyes, 2 - - Family, 8 - Femur, 3 - Flea, 64 - Forficulidae, 116 - Forficesila, 116 - " littorea, 116 - Formicidae, 35 - Formica, 35 - " zealandica, 35 - - Ganglia, 4 - Genus, 8 - Geodephaga, 19 - Geometridae, 83 - Geometer, 83 - Gerris, 43 - Glow-worm, 49 - Gilt pins, 13 - Gizzard, 4 - Grasshopper, 115 - Gryllidae, 112 - - Head, 2 - Heart, 4 - Heliothis, 81 - " armigera, 81 - Helophilus, 58 - " trilineatus, 58 - " ineptus, 59 - " hochstetteri, 59 - Hemerobiidae, 101 - Hemiptera, 8, 118 - Hepialus, 70 - " virescens, 70 - Hepialidae, 69 - Heterocera, 69 - Heteromera, 29 - Heteroptera, 118 - Homoptera, 118 - Host, 38 - Hydradephaga, 22 - Hydriomena, 91 - " deltoidata, 91 - Hymenoptera, 6, 33 - - Ichneumon, 38 - " deceptus, 38 - " sollicitorius, 38 - Ichneumonidae, 38 - Ilium, 4 - Imago, 4 - Internal organs, 4 - Insect, definition of, 1 - Isonomeutis, 94 - " amauropa, 94 - - Jaws, 2 - Journal, 18 - - Killing insects, 10, 12 - " bottle, 12 - - Labelling insects, 18 - Labial palpi, 2 - Labium, 2 - Labrum, 2 - Lace-wings, 101 - Lamellicornes, 26 - Larva, 4 - Lasiorhynchus, 32 - " barbicornis, 32 - Laurel bottle, 12 - Lepidoptera, 6, 65 - Lestes colensonis, 104 - Leucania, 78 - " atristriga, 78 - " nullifera, 77 - Libanasa macropathus, 113 - Libellulidae, 103 - Light, insects at, 14 - Locusta, 116 - " migratoria (?), 116 - Locustidae, 115 - Longicornia, 30 - Lower lip, 2 - Lucanidae, 26 - Luminous larva, 49 - Lycaenidae, 68 - Lycaena, 69 - " phoebe, 69 - - Mamestra, 79 - " composita, 80 - " mutans, 79 - " ustistriga, 81 - Mandibles, 2 - Mantidae, 109 - Maxillae, 2 - Mayflies, 105 - Melampsalta, 118 - Melolonthidae, 26 - Melolontha, 27 - " vulgaris, 27 - Mesothorax, 2 - Mesonotum, 2 - Mesosternum, 2 - Metamorphosis, 4 - Metablax, 29 - " acutipennis, 29 - Metathorax, 2 - Migrations of ants, 37 - Miltogramma, 59 - " mestor?, 59 - Mosquito, 40 - Moths, 69 - " setting, 12 - Musca, 61 - " caesar, 61 - " domestica, 61 - Muscidae, 59 - Mycetophila, 46 - " antarctica, 46 - Myrmeleontidae, 99 - - Nemocera, 40 - Nemorea, 59 - " nyctemerianus, 59 - Nervous system, 4 - Net, 11 - Neuroptera, 7, 99 - Nitidulidae, 23 - Noctuidae, 77 - Notonectidae, 120 - Notonecta, 121 - " glauca, 121 - Nyctemera, 73 - " annulata, 73 - Nymphalidae, 65 - - Oeceticus, 74 - " omnivorus, 74 - Oecophora, 97 - " scholaea, 97 - Oedipoda, 115 - " cinerascens, 115 - Oestridae, 63 - Oestrus, 63 - " perplexus, 63 - Ochrocydus, 31 - " huttoni, 31 - Orders, 5 - Oreda, 31 - " notata, 31 - Orthoptera, 7, 103 - Ovipositor, 38 - Oxyethira, 99 - " albiceps, 99 - - Painted Lady Butterfly, 67 - Palpi, 2 - Parasites, 59 - Periplaneta, 109 - " fortipes, 109 - " orientalis, 109 - " undulivitta, 109 - Perla, 107 - " cyrene, 107 - Perlidae, 106 - Phasmidae, 110 - Philonthus, 25 - " oeneus, 25 - Phora, 62 - " omnivora, 62 - Phryganidae, 99 - Pinning insects, 12 - Pins, 13 - Plant-lice, 118 - Ploseria, 85 - " alectoraria, 86 - " hemipteraria, 85 - Plusia, 82 - " eriosoma, 82 - " gamma, 83 - Pompilus, 34 - " fugax, 34 - " " and spider, 35 - Porina, 69 - " signata, 69 - " cervinata, 69 - " umbraculata, 69 - Ponera, 36 - " castanea, 36 - Prionidae, 30 - Prionus, 30 - " reticularis, 30 - Pronotum, 2 - Prothorax, 2 - Prosternum, 2 - Proventriculus, 4 - Psepholax, 31 - " coronatus, 31 - Psocidae, 107 - Psocus, 107 - " zealandicus, 107 - Psychidae, 74 - Psychoda, 46 - " conspicillata, 46 - Pteromalus, 37 - Pterostichus, 21 - " opulentus, 21 - Pulicina, 64 - Pupa, 4 - Pupipara, 64 - Pyralidae, 92 - Pyrameis, 66 - Pyronota, 28 - " festiva, 28 - - Queens, 34 - - Rearing Insects, 15 - Rhopalocera, 65 - Rhyncophora, 31 - Rhyphus, 51 - " neozealandicus, 51 - - Sandfly, 53 - Sarcophaga, 61 - " laemica, 61 - Sarapogon, 55 - " viduus, 55 - Scutelleridae, 121 - Scolobates, 39 - " varipes, 39 - Scoparia, 92 - " hemiplaca, 92 - " sabulosella, 93 - Selidosema, 87 - " dejectaria, 87 - " panagrata, 89 - " productata, 90 - Sestra, 87 - " humeraria, 87 - Setting boards, 12 - " insects, 12 - Semiocosma, 97 - " platyptera, 97 - Sialidae, 102 - Siculidae, 94 - Siculodes, 94 - " subfasciata, 94 - Simple eyes, 2 - Simulia, 53 - " australiensis, 53 - Skipjack beetles, 29 - Social bees, 34 - Soldiers, 108 - Sphegidae, 34 - Sphinx, 69 - " convolvuli, 69 - Sphingidae, 69 - Staphylinus, 25 - " oculatus, 25 - Stenoperla, 106 - " prasina, 106 - Stenosmylus, 101 - " incisus, 101 - Stick insects, 110 - Sternoxi, 28 - Stethaspis, 26 - " suturalis, 26 - Stolotermes, 107 - " ruficeps, 107 - Stomach, 4 - " sucking, 4 - Stuffing insects, 15 - Stratiomidae, 56 - Sugaring, 13 - Syrphidae, 56 - Syrphus, 56 - " ortas, 56 - - Tabanus, 54 - " impar, 54 - Tatosoma, 91 - " agrionata, 91 - Tarsus, 3 - Telebasis, 105 - " zealandica, 105 - Tenebrionidae, 29 - Tenodera, 109 - " intermedia, 109 - Termitidae, 107 - Thoramus, 28 - " wakefieldi, 28 - " perblandus, 29 - Thorax, 2 - Throat, 4 - Tinea, 96 - " tapezella, 96 - Tineidae, 96 - Tipula, 47 - " holochlora, 47 - " fumipennis, 48 - Tipulidae, 43 - Tortricidae, 94 - Trap-door, 71 - Trochanter, 3 - - Uloma tenebrionides, 29 - Umbrella, 9 - Uropetala carovei, 103 - - Vanessa cardui, 67 - " gonerilla, 66 - " itea, 67 - Vegetable caterpillar, 73 - Ventriculus, 4 - - Weevils, 32 - White rata, 13 - Wings, 4 - Wireworm, 30 - Wood destroyers, 30 - Workers, 108 - - Xantholinus, 26 - Xiphidium maoricum, 114 - - - - -{129}EXPLANATION OF PLATES. - - -_NOTE.--In all the Plates and references thereto the sign_ [M] _indicates -that the specimen figured belongs to the male sex,_ [F] _to the female sex, -and_ [N] _to the neuter sex._ - -_In the case of enlarged figures the insect's natural size is indicated by -a line._ - - - - PLATE I. - - COLEOPTERA. - - Fig. 1.--Cicindela tuberculata. - " 1a.--Larva. - " 2.--Chaetosoma scaritides. - " 3.--Pterostichus opulentus. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 4.--Colymbetes rufimanus. - " 4a.--Larva. - " 5.--Staphylinus oculatus. - " 6.--Dryocora howittii. - " 6a.--Larva. - " 7.--Dorcus punctulatus. - " 8.--Stethaspis suturalis. - " 8a.--Larva. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE II. - - COLEOPTERA (_concluded_). - - Fig. 1.--Thoramus wakefieldi. - " 1a.--Pupa. - " 1b.--Larva. - " 2.--Uloma tenebrionides. - " 2a.--Larva. - " 2b.--Pupa. - " 3.--Prionus reticularis. - " 3a.--Pupa. - " 3b.--Larva. - " 4.--Oreda notata. - " 4a.--Larva. - " 5.--Psepholax coronatus [F]. - " 5a.-- " " [M]. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE III. - - HYMENOPTERA. - - Fig. 1.--Dasycolletes hirtipes. (?) - " 2.--Pompilus fugax. - " 3.--Formica zealandica [M]. - " 3a.-- " " [F]. - " 3b.-- " " [N]. - " 3c.--Cocoon. - " 4.--Ponera castanea [M]. - " 4a.-- " " [N]. - " 4b.--Larva. - " 5.--Atta antarctica [M]. - " 5a.-- " " [F]. - " 5b.--Larva. - " 6.--Ichneumon sollicitorius. - " 7.-- " deceptus. - " 8.--Scolobates varipes. - " 9.--Pteromalus (?), n.s. - " 10.--Dasycolletes purpureus. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE IV. - - DIPTERA. - - Fig. 1.--Culex iracundus [F]. - " 1a.--Larva. - " 1b.--Pupa. - " 2.--Chironomus zealandicus, n.s. - " 2a.--Larva. - " 2b.--Pupa. - " 3.--Corethra antarctica, n.s. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 3b.--Pupa. - " 4.--Ceratopogon antipodum, n.s. - " 4a.--Larva. - " 4b.--Pupa. - " 5.--Mycetophila antarctica, n.s. - " 5a.--Larva. - " 5b.--Pupa. - " 6.--Psychoda conspicillata. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE V. - - DIPTERA (_continued_). - - Fig. 1.--Tipula holochlora. - " 1a.--Larva. - " 1b.--Pupa. - " 2.--Tipula fumipennis, n.s. - " 2a.--Larva. - " 2b.--Pupa. - " 3.--Cloniophora subfasciata. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 4.--Rhyphus neozealandicus. - " 4a.--Larva. - " 4b.--Pupa. - " 5.--Bibio nigrostigma [M]. - " 5a.--Larva. - " 5b.--Pupa. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE VI. - - DIPTERA (_continued_). - - Fig. 1.--Simulia australiensis. - " 1a.--Larva. - " 1b.--Pupa. - " 2.--Comptosia bicolor. - " 3.--Comptosia virida, n.s. - " 3b.--Pupa. - " 4.--Sarapogon viduus. - " 4a.--Larva. - " 4b.--Pupa. - " 5.--Exaireta spiniger. - " 6.--Tabanus impar. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE VII. - - DIPTERA (_concluded_). - - Fig. 1.--Helophilus trilineatus. - " 1a.--Larva. - " 1b.--Pupa. - " 2.--Eristalis cingulatus. - " 3.--Syrphus ortas. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 3b.--Pupa. - " 4.--Acrocera longirostris, n.s. - " 5.--Miltogramma mestor? - " 6.--Nemorea nyctemerianus, n.s. - " 7.--Eurigaster marginatus. - " 9.--Calliphora quadrimaculata. - " 10.--Sarcophaga laemica. - " 12.--Oestrus perplexus, n.s. - " 13.--Coelopa littoralis. - " 14.--Cylindria sigma. - " 15.--Phora omnivora, n.s. - " 15a.--Pupa. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE VIII. - - LEPIDOPTERA. - - Fig. 1.--Argyrophenga antipodum. - " 1a.--Northern form of same insect. - " 2.--Vanessa gonerilla. - " 2a.--Underside. - " 2b, 2c.--Larvae. - " 2d, 2e.--Pupae. - " 3.--Chrysophanus salustius [M]. - " 3a.-- " " [F]. - " 3b.--Young larva (magnified). - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE IX. - - LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_). - - Fig. 1.--Hepialus virescens [M]. - " 1a.-- " " [F]. - " 1b.--Pupa. - " 1c.--Larva. - " 2.--Porina signata. - " 3.--Nyctemera annulata [M]. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 3b.--Pupa. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE X. - - LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_). - - Fig. 1.--Oeceticus omnivorus [M]. - " 1a.-- " " [F]. - " 1b.--Larva. - " 1c.--Male pupa. - " 2.--Leucania atristriga [M]. - " 3.--Mamestra composita [M]. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 4.--Heliothis armigera [M]. - " 4a.--Larva. - " 5.--Erana graminosa [M]. - " 5a.--Larva. - " 6.--Mamestra ustistriga, [M]. - " 7.-- " mutans [M]. - " 7a.--Larva. - " 7b.--Pupa. - " 8.--Plusia eriosoma [F]. - " 8a.--Larva. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE XI. - - LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_). - - Fig. 1.--Declana floccosa [M]. - " 1a.--Larva. - " 1b.--Declana floccosa, _var._ junctilinea [M]. - " 2.--Chalastra pelurgata [M]. - " 2a.-- " " [F]. - " 2b.--Larva. - " 3.--Ploseria hemipteraria. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 4.--Ploseria alectoraria. - (Larva at Plate XIII. fig. 7.) - " 5.--Sestra humeraria. - " 5a.--Larva. - " 6.--Sestra humeraria, _var._ (?) - " 7.--Selidosema panagrata [M]. - " 7a.-- " " [F]. - " 7b.--Larva. - " 8.--Selidosema dejectaria [M]. - " 8a.-- " " [F]. - " 8b.--Larva. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE XII. - - LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_). - - Fig. 1.--Selidosema productata [M]. - " 1a.-- " " [F]. - " 1b.--Larva. - " 2.--Asthena schistaria. - " 2a.--Larva. - " 3.--Siculodes subfasciata. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 3b.--Section of stem showing enclosed pupa and - aperture (*) through which moth escapes. - " 4.--Scoparia hemiplaca. - " 5.--Crambus flexuosellus. - " 6.--Ctenopseustis obliquana. - " 7.--Endrosis fenestrella. - " 7a.--Larva. - " 7b.--Pupa. - " 8.--Semiocosma platyptera. - " 8a.--Larva. - " 8b.--Pupa. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE XIII. - - LEPIDOPTERA (_concluded_). - - Fig. 1.--Hydriomena deltoidata. - " 1a.--Larva. - " 2.--Isonomeutis amauropa. - " 2a.--Larva. - " 3.--Leucania nullifera. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 4.--Scoparia sabulosella. - " 4a.--Larva. - " 5.--Cacoecia excessana. - " 5a.--Larva. - " 6.--Oecophora scholaea. - " 6a.--Larva. - " 7.--Larva of Ploseria alectoraria. - (For imago see Plate XI. Fig. 4.) - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE XIV. - - NEUROPTERA. - - Fig. 1.--Chauliodes diversus. - " 1a.--Larva. - " 1b.--Pupa. - " 2.--Stenosmylus incisus. - " 3.--Oxyethira albiceps. (?) - " 3a.--Larva. - " 3b.--Pupa. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE XV. - - ORTHOPTERA. - - Fig. 1.--Uropetala carovei [M]. - " 1a.--Larva. - " 2.--Cordulia Smithii [M]. - " 3.--Lestes Colensonis [M]. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 4.--Telebasis zealandica - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE XVI. - - ORTHOPTERA (_continued_). - - Fig. 1.--Stolotermes ruficeps [M]. - " 1a.--Female. - " 1b.--Soldier. - " 1c.--Worker. - " 2.--Psocus zealandicus, n.s. - " 2a.--Larva. - " 3.--Stenoperla prasina. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 4.--Ephemera, n.s. (near Coloburus). - " 4a.--Larva. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE XVII. - - ORTHOPTERA (_continued_). - - Fig. 1.--Xiphidium maoricum [M]. - " 2.--Tenodera intermedia. - " 3.--Oedipoda cinerascens. - " 4.--Caloptenus marginalis. - " 5.--Periplaneta fortipes. - " 6.--Blatta conjuncta. - " 7.--Forficesila littorea. - " 8.--Deinacrida megacephala [F]. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE XVIII. - - ORTHOPTERA (_continued_). - - Fig. 1.--Acheta fuliginosa [F]. - " 2.--Deinacrida megacephala [M]. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE XIX. - - ORTHOPTERA (_concluded_). - - Fig. 1.--Acanthoderus horridus. - -[Illustration] - - - PLATE XX. - - HEMIPTERA. - - Fig. 1.--Cicada cingulata [F]. - " 1a.--Pupa. - " 2.--Cicada muta [F]. - " 3.-- " iolanthe, n.s. - " 3a.--Larva. - " 3b.--Pupa. - " 4.--Coelostoma zealandicum [M]. - " 5.--Corixa zealandica. - " 6.--Cermatulus nasalis. - " 6a.--Larva. - -[Illustration] - - - -Notes. - - [1] For Lepidoptera I can strongly recommend "Jahncke's Patent Round - Boxes" with glass lids. They may be obtained from any chemist, or from - Messrs. Sharland & Co., Wholesale Druggists, Wellington. - - [2] Metrosideros scandens. - - [3] Hyperparasite is an animal parasitic in a parasite. - - [4] "Host" is a term applied to any animal harbouring a parasite. - - [5] Ovipositor, a boring instrument employed in depositing the eggs. - - [6] A genus of Hemipterous insects commonly seen skipping over ponds in - England. - - [7] "n.s." is the accepted abbreviation for new species. - - [8] Thread-like. - - [9] For an extended account of these observations see "Transactions of the - New Zealand Institute," vol. xxiii. (1890). - -[10] Metrosideros scandens. - -[11] Or lay eggs. - -[12] Scutellum: A horny plate situated on the mesonotum, usually somewhat - triangular in form. - -[13] For life-history of this insect see page 73. - -[14] Mamestra composita, M. mutans, M. ustistriga, Erana graminosa, &c. - -[15] This genus, as represented in New Zealand, is often called Pyrameis. - -[16] For a more detailed account of the metamorphosis of this insect see - _The Entomologist_, vol. xviii. p. 30. - -[17] For accounts of parasites and hyperparasites of this insect see pages - 60 and 37, also _The Entomologist_, vol. xviii. p. 153. - -[18] On one occasion I enclosed a full-grown caterpillar of this insect in - a pot of earth with a recently formed Noctua pupa, whose internal - portions it immediately devoured, employing the empty shell of the - unfortunate chrysalis as a cocoon. It is impossible to say whether - this horrible proceeding often occurs in a state of nature. - -[19] The _Libellulidae_, _Ephemeridae_, _Perlidae_, _Psocidae_, and - _Termitidae_ are usually included in the _Neuroptera_. - -[20] One mutilated [F] specimen of this insect was sent to Mr. McLachlan, - but was too imperfect to describe from. - -[21] For account of the earlier stages of this, or a closely allied insect, - see "Transactions of New Zealand Institute," vol. xvi. p. 114. - -[22] This genus is frequently called Melampsalta. - - * * * * * - - - -Corrections made to printed text - -P. 110: 'similar situation' corrected from 'similiar ...'. - -P. 114: 'to speak from experience' corrected from 'to tpeak ...'. - -Index: 'Chaetosoma scaritides' corrected from '... scaratides'. - -Footnote [19]: 'Neuroptera' corrected from 'Neuropteria'. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Elementary Manual of New Zealand -Entomology, by G. V. 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