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diff --git a/43965-8.txt b/43965-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d0d43bf..0000000 --- a/43965-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12167 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Invention, by Bradley A. Fiske - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Invention - The Master-key to Progress - -Author: Bradley A. Fiske - -Release Date: October 17, 2013 [EBook #43965] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INVENTION *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - INVENTION, THE MASTER-KEY - TO PROGRESS - - - - - INVENTION - - THE MASTER-KEY - TO PROGRESS - - BY - - REAR-ADMIRAL BRADLEY A. FISKE, LL.D. - - UNITED STATES NAVY - - Former Aid for Operations of the Fleet, President U. S. Naval - Institute, Gold Medallist of U. S. Naval Institute, the Franklin - Institute and the Aero Club of America. - - Author of "Electricity in Theory and Practice," "War Time in Manila," - "The Navy as a Fighting Machine," "From Midshipman to - Rear-Admiral," "The Art of Fighting," etc. - - Inventor of the Gun Director System, the Naval Telescope Sight, the - Stadimeter, the Turret Range Finder, the Horizometer, - the Torpedoplane, etc., etc., etc. - - NEW YORK - E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY - - 681 FIFTH AVENUE - - - Copyright, 1921, - By E. P. Dutton & Company - - _All Rights Reserved_ - - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED - STATES OF AMERICA - - - - -PREFACE - - -To show that inventors have accomplished more than most persons -realize, not only in bringing forth new mechanisms, but in doing -creative work in many walks of life, is, in part, the object of this -book. To suggest what they may do, if properly encouraged, is its main -intention. For, since it is to inventors mainly that we owe all that -civilization is, it is to inventors mainly that we must look for all -that civilization can be made to be. - -The mind of man cannot even conceive what wonders of beneficence -inventors may accomplish: for _the resources of invention are -infinite_. - - - - -The author is indebted to Ginn & Company, Boston, for the use of -illustrations from "General History for Colleges and High Schools," -by Philip Van Ness Myers, and "Ancient Times, A History of the Early -World," by James Henry Breasted, and to George H. Doran Company, New -York, for the use of a map from "A History of Sea Power," by William -Oliver Stevens and Allan Westcott. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. INVENTION IN PRIMEVAL TIMES 1 - - II. INVENTION IN THE ORIENT 24 - - III. INVENTION IN GREECE 51 - - IV. INVENTION IN ROME: ITS RISE AND FALL 81 - - V. INVENTION OF THE GUN AND OF PRINTING 101 - - VI. COLUMBUS, COPERNICUS, GALILEO AND OTHERS 125 - - VII. THE RISE OF ELECTRICITY, STEAM AND CHEMISTRY 148 - - VIII. THE AGE OF STEAM, NAPOLEON AND NELSON 179 - - IX. INVENTIONS IN STEAM, ELECTRICITY, AND CHEMISTRY CREATE - A DANGEROUS ERA 203 - - X. CERTAIN IMPORTANT CREATIONS OF INVENTION, AND THEIR - BENEFICENT INFLUENCE 231 - - XI. INVENTION AND GROWTH OF LIBERAL GOVERNMENT AND AMERICAN - CIVIL WAR 255 - - XII. INVENTION OF THE MODERN MILITARY MACHINE, TELEPHONE, - PHONOGRAPH AND PREVENTIVE MEDICINE 279 - - XIII. THE CONQUEST OF THE ETHER--MOVING PICTURES--RISE OF - JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES 301 - - XIV. THE FRUITION OF INVENTION 322 - - XV. THE MACHINE OF CIVILIZATION, AND THE DANGEROUS IGNORANCE - CONCERNING IT, SHOWN BY STATESMEN 333 - - XVI. THE FUTURE 341 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - Carvings in Ivory and in Stone of Cavern Walls made by the - Hunters of the Middle Stone Age 3 - - Early Babylonian Signs, Showing Their Pictorial Origin 27 - - Villa of an Egyptian Noble 34 - - The Pyramids of Gizeh 36 - - Assyrians Flaying Prisoners Alive 44 - - Two Cretan Vases 52 - - Insurgent Captives Brought Before Darius 58 - - The Lighthouse of the Harbor of Alexandria in the Hellenistic - Age 77 - - Triumphal Procession from the Arch of Titus 96 - - The Printing of Books 113 - - Portuguese Voyages and Possessions 126 - - Hero's Engines 150 - - Hero's Altar Engine 151 - - Leupold's Engine 154 - - - - - INVENTION, THE MASTER-KEY - TO PROGRESS - - - - -INVENTION, THE MASTER-KEY TO PROGRESS - - - - -CHAPTER I - -INVENTION IN PRIMEVAL TIMES - - -Our original ancestors dwelt in caves and wildernesses; had no sewed -or fabricated clothing of any kind; subsisted on roots and nuts and -berries; possessed no arts of any sort; were ignorant to a degree that -we cannot imagine, and were little above the brutes in their mode of -living. Today, a considerable fraction of the people who dwell upon the -earth enjoy a civilization so fine that it seems to have no connection -with the brutish conditions of primeval life. Yet, as these pages show, -a perfectly plain series of inventions can be seen, starting from the -old conditions and building up the new. - -The progress of man during the countless ages of prehistoric times is -hidden from our knowledge, except in so far as it has been revealed -to us by ruins of ancient cities, by prehistoric utensils of many -kinds, and by inscriptions carved on monuments and tablets. The sharp -dividing line between prehistoric times and historic times, seems to be -that made by the art of writing; for this epochal invention rendered -possible the recording of events, and the consequent beginning of -history. - -Of prehistoric times we have, of course, no written record; and we -have but the most general means of estimating how many millenniums -ago man first had his being. Geological considerations indicate a -beginning so indefinitely and exceedingly remote that the imagination -may lose itself in speculations as to his mode of living during those -forever-hidden centuries that dragged along, before man had advanced -so far in his progress toward civilization as to make and use the rude -utensils which the researches of antiquarians have revealed. - -Inasmuch as the most important employment of man from his first breath -until his last has always been the struggle to preserve his life; -inasmuch as the endeavor of primeval man to defend himself against -wild beasts must have been extremely bitter (for many were larger -and stronger than he), and inasmuch as man eventually achieved the -mastery over them, one seems forced to conclude that man overcame wild -beasts by employing some means to assist his bodily strength, and that -probably his first invention was a weapon. - -The first evidences of man's achievements that we have are rude -implements of stone and flint, evidently shaped by some force guided -by some intelligence;--doubtless the force of human hands, guided by -the intelligence of human minds. Many such have been found in caves and -gravel-beds over all the world. They were rough and crude, and indicate -a rough and crude but nevertheless actual stage of civilization. Some -call this the Old Stone Age and others call it the Early Stone Age. -Besides stone and flint, bones, horns and tusks were used. Among the -implements made were daggers, fish-hooks, needles, awls and heads of -arrows and harpoons. One of the most interesting revelations of those -rude and immeasurably ancient implements is the fact that man, even in -those times, possessed the artistic sense; for on some of them can be -seen rough but clear engravings of natural objects, and even of wild -animals. - -[Illustration: Carvings in Ivory (1 and 3-7) and in Stone of Cavern -Walls (2), made by the Hunters of the Middle Stone Age] - -Men naturally supported themselves mainly by hunting and fishing, -as savages do now; and it was because they had invented suitable -implements and weapons for practicing those necessary arts, that -their efforts were successful. The first weapon was probably the -fist-hatchet, a piece of sharpened flint about nine inches long, that -he grasped in his hand. At some time during the centuries of the Old -Stone Age, someone invented a much finer weapon, that continued to be -one of the most important that was known, until the invention of the -gun, and is used even now in savage lands--the bow and arrow. What a -tremendous advantage this weapon was in fighting wild beasts (and also -men not possessing it) it is not hard for us to see; for the arrow -tipped with flint or bone, could be shot over distances far greater -than the spear or javelin could be thrown, and with sufficient force -to kill. The club and spear had probably been devised before, for they -were simpler and more easily imagined and constructed. - -How the bow and arrow came to be invented we have no intimation. The -invention of the club and spear did not probably involve much creative -effort, so simple were those instruments, and so like the branches -that could be broken from the trees. Yet, to the untrained mind of the -primeval savage, the idea of sharpening a straight branch of wood into -a fine point at the end, in order that penetration through the skin -might be facilitated, must have come as an inspiration. No such thing -as a spear exists as a spear in nature, and therefore the making of a -spear was a creative act. To us, the use of the spear as a projectile -may not seem to have required the inventive faculty--unless the hurling -of stones may also be supposed to have required it. It may be, however, -that with the dull mind of primeval men, even the idea of using stones -or javelins as projectiles was the result of a distinct, and perhaps -startling inspiration. - -The invention of the bow and arrow was one of the first order of -brilliancy, and would be so even now. It is not easy to think of any -simple accident as accounting for the invention; because the bow and -arrow consists of three entirely independent parts--the straight -bar of wood, the string, and the arrow; for the bow was not a bow -until the string had been fastened to each end, and drawn so tight -that the bar of wood was forced into a bent shape, and held there at -great tension. When one realizes this, and realizes in addition the -countless centuries during which the bow and arrow held its sway, the -millions of men who have used it, and the important effect it has had -in the overcoming of wild beasts, and the deciding of many of the -critical battles of the world, he can hardly escape the conclusion -that the invention of the bow and arrow was one of the most important -occurrences in the history of mankind. - -A still more important occurrence was the invention of making fire. -Probably less inventive effort was needed for this than for the bow and -arrow; for fire could be seen in the lightning and in trees struck by -lightning, and in the sparks that came forth when two hard stones were -struck together. The discovery of fire may have been made by accident; -but this does not mean that no invention was needed for devising and -producing the means whereby fire could be produced at will. To note -the fact of a phenomenon, say the production of fire when stones are -accidentally struck together, or the falling of an apple from a tree, -requires no special effort, and of itself brings forth no benefit; but -to reason from the appearance of the sparks to the production of an -apparatus for making fire at will; or to reason from the falling of an -apple to the enunciation of Newton's Law of Gravitation, is the kind of -successful mental effort that has produced the effects which it is the -endeavor of this humble book to indicate. These effects have combined -as progress has advanced, to put civilized man in a position relatively -to his natural surroundings very different from that held by primeval -man, and very different from that held by the brutes, both in primeval -days and now. Evidently, the effects have been made possible by some -faculty possessed by man and not by brutes. This faculty is usually -called reason, and is held to be a faculty by means of which man can -infer cause from effect, and effect from cause, and can remember events -and facts to a degree sufficient to enable him to hold them in his -mind, while reasoning about them. - -But it seems impossible to explain the advent of even the oldest and -simplest inventions by the possession of reason only, using the word -reason in its ordinary sense; for it is obvious that no matter how -clearly a man could reason as between cause and effect, no matter how -great a student of all phenomena he might be, no matter how good a -memory he might have, he might nevertheless live for many years and -never invent anything. In fact, we see men at the present day who -possess great knowledge, splendid energy, keen powers of analysis, -high courage, and even great administrative talent, and yet who -are obviously deficient in originality, who seem to possess the -constructive faculty in only a small degree, and who seem incapable of -taking any step forward except on paths that have been plainly trod -before. - -Countless instances can be cited of the persistence of men, even in -civilized lands, in following a certain practice for long periods, -until someone possessing the inventive faculty has devised a better -one. For the sake of brevity, only two cases, and those well known, -will be mentioned as illustrative. One was the invention of movable -type, and the other that of pointing the wood screw. Man had continued -for centuries to make blocks of wood or other material on which words -and phrases were engraved or cut, and then to print from them. Suddenly -a man in Germany (usually said to be John Guttenberg) made the change, -so slight in appearance and yet so tremendous in results, of cutting -only one letter on a block, and arranging and securing the blocks in -such a way as to enable him to print any word or words desired. This -did not occur until about the year 1434 A. D. Why had not someone -done this in all the long centuries? Surely it was not because men -of great reasoning faculties had not lived; for in the long interval -the civilization of Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece and Rome -had flourished; and Plato, Aristotle, Cæsar and the great inventor -Archimedes had lived! Similarly, men continued to use in wood the same -flat pointed screw that they used in metals, boring the hole first in -the wood with a gimlet, and then entering the flat point of the screw -into the hole. Suddenly (but not until the nineteenth century A. D.) -an inventor made and patented a screw which came to a sharp point like -a gimlet, which could be forced into wood just as the gimlet was, and -then screwed into the wood without further ado. How can we explain the -curious fact that countless men of reason, intelligence and mechanical -skill had continued century after century to bore into wood with -gimlets, and then follow the gimlet with flat-pointed screws? - -The explanation seems to be expressed in the phrase, "the idea had -not occurred to them." Why had it not occurred to them? This question -cannot, of course, be answered convincingly; but it may be pointed out -that there is a small class of men to whom original ideas seem to come -of their own accord. The inventor of mechanical appliances is in this -class, and is perhaps its most conspicuous exemplar. - - * * * * * - -It may be pointed out, however, that the inventors of mechanical -appliances are not the only men to whom original conceptions come; -for original conceptions evidently come to the poets, the novelists, -the musical composers, the artists, the strategists, the explorers, -the statesmen, the philosophers, the founders of religions and the -initiators of all enterprises great and small. It may be pointed out -also that their mental processes are similar, and that they are best -described by the greatest of all poets in the lines-- - - "The poet's eye in a fine frenzy rolling, - Glances from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven; - And as imagination bodies forth - The forms of things unknown, the poet's pen - Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing - A local habitation and a name." - -These lines suggest that the first step in invention is made almost -without effort; that a picture, confused and dim but actual, is made -by the imagination on the mental retina; and that, after that, the -constructive faculties arrange the elements of the picture in such wise -as to produce a clear and definite entity. - -Regarded in this way, the inventor of mechanical appliances suddenly -sees a confused and dim picture of an instrument or a mechanism (or a -part of it) that he has never seen with his bodily eyes; the musical -composer hears imperfectly and vaguely a new musical composition; the -sculptor sees a statue, the painter sees a new combination of objects -and colors producing a new effect, and the poet feels the stirring in -him of vague, but beautiful, or powerful or inspiring thoughts. If now -the picture is allowed to fade, or if the constructive faculty is not -able to make it into an actuality, or if the picture has not in itself -the elements which the state of civilization then prevailing make it -possible to embody in an entity, no invention of a mechanical appliance -is made, no plan of campaign, no musical composition, no statue, no -painting, no poem is produced. - -If, however, the constructive effort develops successfully the -conception that the imagination made, and if the circumstances of time -and place are all propitious, then the art of making fire at will is -born, or Bonaparte's suggestion at Toulon is made, or the strains of -Beethoven's music inspire the world, or the statue of Moses is carved, -or the Immaculate Conception is pointed, or Hamlet is written, or the -electric telegraph binds the peoples of the earth together. - -The inventor in mechanics, the sculptor, the painter, the novelist and -the poet embody their creations in material forms that are enduring -and definite, and constitute evidences of their work, which sometimes -endure throughout long periods. The architect and the constructing -engineer are able similarly to produce lasting and useful monuments -to their skill; but it can hardly be declared that their work is -characterized by quite so much of originality and invention, because -of the restrictions by which the practice of their arts is bound. It -is, in fact, hard to conceive of a bridge very different in principle -or design from bridges that had been built before; and while it is not -difficult to conceive of an engine different in principle and design -from previous ones, yet we realize that the points of novelty in such -an engine would be attributable more to invention than to engineering. -This is because the arts of engineering and architecture rest on -principles that have long since been proved to be correct, and on -practices that are the results of long experience; whereas one of the -main characteristics of invention is novelty. - -It is true that many of the most important inventions have been made -by engineers; but this has been because some engineers, like Ericsson, -have been inventors also. But it is also true that only a small -proportion of the engineers have made original inventions; and it is -equally true that many inventions have failed--or have been slow in -achieving success--because of lack of engineering skill in construction -or design. These facts show that the work of the inventor is very -different from that of the engineer, and that the inventor and the -engineer are very different people, though an engineer and an inventor -sometimes live together inside of the same skin. In fact, it is by a -combination of inventive genius and engineering talent in one man that -the greatest results in invention have been achieved; though great -results have often followed the intimate cooperation of an inventor and -an engineer, the two being separate men. - -It is in the latter way that important advances have usually been -made; and it is somewhat analogous to the way in which authors and -publishers, actors and managers, promoters and capitalists cooperate. - -But while the individuals whose inventions have taken the form of -new creations, such as novel machines and books and paintings, have -received the clearest recognition as men of genius, may not the -inventive faculty be needed in other fields and be required in other -kinds of work? If an instrument is produced by the joint exercise of -imagination and constructive talent, is not every puzzle worked out, -and every problem solved, and every constructive work accomplished by -the similar exercise of those same faculties? - -It may seem obvious that this question should be answered in the -negative, and so it unquestionably should be. But there always has been -much cloudiness as to what constitutes invention in our own minds; -and it must be admitted that the dividing line is not immediately -obvious between invention and the art of meeting difficulties with -resourcefulness, or between invention and the act of solving any of the -perplexing riddles of our daily lives. - -It may be declared with confidence, however, that the difference -between invention and any one of these other acts is that, while -invention ends in performing such acts, it begins with an exercise -of the imagination. A man who designs an engine to fulfil a stated -purpose, who solves any problem whatever that is presented to him from -outside, simply accomplishes a task that is given to him to accomplish; -whereas, while the inventor accomplishes a similar task, he does it -as a second step in a task that was not given him to accomplish, but -that he himself had pictured to himself. The act of inventing consists -of three separate acts--the act of conceiving, the act of developing, -and the act of producing. Of these three acts, that of conceiving is -obviously not only the first, but also the most important, distinctive -and unusual. - -For every real invention, there have been countless constructive acts. -In the invention of the bow and arrow, the conception was probably -instantaneous and unbidden. The subsequent work of developing the -conception into material and practical shape was probably one of long -duration, consisting of many acts, accompanied with many difficulties -and disappointments, and accomplished finally in the face of much -active and passive opposition. - - * * * * * - -The Old Stone Age gradually developed into the New Stone Age at -different times in different localities, as successive improvements -in implements were made. The New Stone Age was distinguished from its -predecessor mainly by the fact that the principal weapons and utensils -were formed into regular shapes, polished into smoothness, and in many -cases ground to sharp points and keen cutting edges. These improvements -made the implements more effective both as weapons and as utensils, by -facilitating not only cutting but penetration. - -How much invention was needed to make these improvements, it is not -easy to decide; but probably only a little was required, and that of an -order not very original or high; for the improvements were rather in -detail than principle. Perhaps their character can be best indicated by -saying that they were improvements, rather than inventions of a basic -kind. - -It may here be pointed out that the act of improving upon an invention -already existing may be almost wholly a constructive act, performed -on a visible and tangible material object, and not on a picture made -by the imagination on the mind. In such a case, the act of improving -belongs rather in the category of engineering than of invention, for -the reason that it involves only a slight use of the imagination. It -may also be pointed out, however, that a mere improvement may be, and -sometimes has been an invention of the highest order. As a rule, of -course, basic inventions have been the most brilliant and also the most -important. - -But it was not only by polished instruments of stone and bone that -the New Stone Age was characterized; for we find in the records which -our ancestors unintentionally left us, many evidences that they had -invented the arts of making pottery, of spinning and weaving, and -of constructing houses of a simple kind. This Age was characterized -by many improvements besides those relating to articles of stone, -and was a period far in advance of its predecessor on the march to -civilization. It was marked by the domestication of animals and plants, -the tilling of the soil, and a gradual change from a purely savage and -nomadic mode of life. This change was first to a pastoral life, in -which men lived in fixed habitations and tended their flocks; thence -to an agricultural life, in which men cultivated the ground over large -areas and grew crops of cereals and vegetables; and then to a still -more settled existence, in which men congregated in villages and towns. -Certainly, the race had taken the first steps, and had started on the -path which it has since pursued. - -In order to make the start and to proceed afterwards in the line -begun, many physical, mental and spiritual attributes were needed -and employed, that mere brutes did not possess, and because of which -the civilization of the Old Stone Age had been begun and gradually -developed. Of these faculties, those principally characteristic seem -to have been mental; and among those faculties, invention, reason, -construction and memory seem to have been the most important. It would -be unreasonable to declare any one of those faculties to have been -more important than the others; but it can hardly be denied that the -first steps in the march of progress should be credited to invention. -Clearly, it was the weapons and utensils of the Old Stone Age that made -possible the subduing and subsequent domestication of certain animals, -such as the horse, the cow, the dog, the sheep and the goat. - -It may be pointed out, in passing, that many animals have not been -domesticated even at this late day--such as the tiger, the eagle -and the bear. But, equally, certain tribes of men have not been -domesticated. It may be that in both the undomesticated men and the -undomesticated brutes, the mind is of such a character that it cannot -assimilate even the first grains of knowledge, or make any effort -whatever of an inventive character. - -There was one invention that was probably made in the Old Stone Age, -which must have needed considerable inventiveness to be developed as -highly as it was developed during the Old and New Stone Ages, and that -was language. The origin of language is, of course, hidden in the -impenetrable mystery of the childhood of the race; and it may be that -language was an original attribute of man. If we reason, however, that -the development of language must have been a continuing act from the -first, inferring it from the fact that it has been a continuing act -from the dawn of recorded history until now, and if we suppose that it -had a rise and a growth like those of other arts, we may reasonably -conclude that some man invented the plan of making his wants known by -the use of vocal sounds, uttered in accordance with a preconcerted -code; that the invention was only partially successful at first, and -that it was afterwards improved. That language was not a natural gift, -but rather the result of an invention and subsequent development, is -suggested by the fact that a child has to be taught to speak, but -does not have to be taught to exercise his natural functions, such as -breathing, eating, drinking, walking, etc. - -Which was the first invention ever made by man, there is, of course, -no means of ascertaining; but it seems obvious that that of language -must have been among the first. The invention of weapons we may easily -imagine to have been actually the first, called for by the necessity -of defense against wild beasts and other men. Following the defense by -individual men of their individual lives, it seems logical to suppose -that a man and his wife, a man and his brother, and then groups of men, -banded together in their common defense against common foes. To further -their joint action, what would be more valuable than a language -consisting of vocal sounds, arranged in accordance with a simple code, -as a means of conveying information, issuing warnings, and giving -signals in emergencies, to insure concerted action? - -That language should later be used for manifold other purposes would -be most natural; for many other arts have been invented primarily -to further man's first aim, the preservation of his life, and have -afterwards been employed for other purposes. The uses of clothing, -houses, knives, guns and of nearly all weapons are cases in point. - -The New Stone Age seems to have passed gradually into the Age of -Copper, because doubtless of a more or less accidental discovery -when native copper was seen upon the ground, or when some copper ore -was subjected to fire. The metal, by reason of its great durability, -ductility, elasticity and strength, came to be used for many -purposes--the first use being probably in weapons; for weapons were the -main dependence of the people in their struggle against beasts. - -A great advance was made when bronze was discovered, with which weapons -and tools of many kinds could be made that were harder than those of -copper. Then the Age of Bronze succeeded the Age of Copper. One can -hardly imagine that bronze was really invented; for it is difficult to -see how, knowing the softness of copper and tin, any primeval man could -have imagined a metal made from them much harder than either, and then -proceeded to make it by mixing about seven parts of copper with one -part of tin. The gradual improvement made in bronze implements, and the -different kinds of bronze that later appeared (made by altering the -proportions of tin and copper) were doubtless due more to constructive -and engineering methods than to pure invention; but nevertheless a -considerable amount of inventing must have been required; for one can -rarely effect any important improvement in any weapon, instrument or -tool, without first imagining the improvement, and then endeavoring to -effect it. - -In fact, an overwhelming majority of the "inventions" for which -patents are issued by our Patent Office, are for mere improvements -over existing apparatus; and the bald fact that the thing accomplished -is only such an improvement, instead of the creation of something -different from everything else whatever, like the telephone or -phonograph, does not debar the achievement from being classed as an -invention. The pointed screw was merely an improvement over previous -forms of screw, and yet it was an invention of high originality, -novelty and importance. Obviously, improvements occupy various -positions not only in importance and scope, but also in the relative -degrees in which invention and construction were employed to bring them -into being. - -It is held by some that no purely human act can possibly create -anything really new, that "there is nothing new under the sun," and -that therefore every so-called invention made by a man must be merely a -novel arrangement of already existing objects. - -Of course, no man "creates" anything, in the sense that he makes -anything whatever out of nothing; but it is a well-known fact that he -has created many things in the sense that he has made many entities to -exist that had not existed before as such entities; for instance, man -made the speaking telephone to exist. The speaking telephone did not -exist before Bell invented it, and it did exist after he invented it. -To say that Bell did or did not create the telephone conveys a meaning -dependent wholly on the meaning in which the word "create" is used. -Men ordinarily use the word with such a meaning that it is correct to -say that Bell created the speaking telephone; it being understood as -a matter of common sense that Bell did not create the metals and other -material parts which he put together to make the telephone. - -Used in this sense, primeval man (or more correctly some primeval -men, and probably a very few) created certain weapons, implements and -utensils, that gave the men who used them such mastery over wild beasts -and over men who did not use them, that the steps since taken toward -civilization were made possible. - -Our whole civilization can be traced back to those inventions, and can -be shown to proceed from them and be based upon them. _No other basis -that civilization could have proceeded from can even be imagined; for -the actual progress of events was the outcome of the actual nature of -man, and the actual nature of his environment._ - -We seem forced to conclude, therefore, that we owe our civilization -primarily to the invention of certain primeval implements and weapons, -the art of making fire, etc., and therefore to the inventors who made -the inventions. This does not mean that we do not owe it to other -things besides inventions, and to other men besides inventors; for it -is obvious that we owe it to all the facts of our history, and to such -of our ancestors as did anything to advance it. We owe it in part, for -instance, to the men who framed the laws that made living in villages -and cities possible, to the men who executed the laws, and to all the -men and women who observed the laws and gave examples of righteous -living. For it is obvious that, no matter what inventions were made, -the march of civilization could not have even started, unless there had -been a sufficient number of good and intelligent men and women to keep -the human procession in good order from the first. - -It may be pointed out here that, although every human being has much -of evil in his nature, yet even the most depraved person desires -other people to be good. Even thieves see the advantage to themselves -resulting from the fact that most men do not steal; murderers have no -inclination toward being themselves murdered, and human beings as a -class see the benefits of morality and good living throughout society -as a whole. For this reason, and for the still more important reason -that most individuals are not very different in their characteristics -and abilities from the average of all individuals, the tendency of -society is to reduce men to a common level; so that we see only a -small fraction who are extremely good or extremely bad, extremely -brilliant or extremely stupid, extremely large or extremely small, etc. -Similarly, there is only a small fraction of the people who have done -much good individually or much harm, or who have exercised individually -any noticeable influence of any kind. - -We may reasonably conclude, therefore, that there were only a few men -in primeval days who performed any acts that entitle them to individual -recognition; and as the only records that have come down to us indicate -that the most important acts were the inventing of certain implements, -we seem forced to conclude that most of the recognition accorded to -individuals of primeval days may be limited to a very small number, and -they inventors. - -Who they were, and where and when they lived, is not known and probably -never will be. For countless centuries their names and personalities -have been forgotten as wholly as those of many beasts. But maybe other -achievements like those that have exposed the history of certain -Oriental kings and wise men to our knowledge, will some day tell us who -were the inventors who started the march of human progress, and pointed -out the road that it should follow. - -Yet, if we infer the probable conditions of the remote past from the -conditions of the present and recent past, we shall have to conclude -that, while the names and deeds of prehistoric rulers may some day -become known to us, and even the names of authors, poets and song -singers, the names of the original inventors will be forever hid. For -inventors have ever been depreciated in their day; even at the present -time, despite the known facts as to what inventions and inventors -have done for every one of us, the inventor as an inventor is lightly -regarded, and so are his inventions. So are his inventions until they -have ceased to be regarded as inventions, and have been accepted as -constituent parts of the machine of civilization. By that time the -inventor has often been forgotten. - -The Age of Iron succeeded the Age of Bronze in the countries from which -we have inherited our civilization; but in Africa bronze does not seem -to have been discovered until after iron was. Iron being an element -like copper, and not an alloy of two metals like bronze, it seems -probable that its discovery, like that of copper, followed the act of -heating stones with fire. The coming of iron seems due therefore to -discovery rather than to invention; but yet the mere discovery that a -very hard substance had been accidentally produced would of itself have -brought forth no fruit. One is almost forced to infer from probability -that the fact must have become known to many men, but only as a plain -and uninteresting fact. Finally, some man realized that that hard -substance was superior to bronze for making weapons, and then set to -work to ascertain exactly what kinds of stone it could be gotten from, -and exactly what process gave the best results. - -To us who have been carefully taught the facts known at the present -day, and whose minds have been trained by logic and mathematics to -reason from effect to cause, and to construct frameworks of cause -wherefrom to gain effects, it seems that anyone who noted that the -hard substance which we call iron came from heating certain stones, -would immediately invent a process for making iron in quantities. But -prehistoric man had no knowledge whatever save that coming from his -own observation and the oral teachings of the wise men; mathematics -and logic did not exist; and the only training given him was in those -simple arts of hunting, fishing, field tilling, etc., by which he -earned his livelihood. For a mind so untrained and ignorant to leap -from the simple noting of the accidental production of the metal to -a realization of its value, then to a correct inference as to the -possibility of producing it at will, then to a correct inference as -to the method of producing it, and then to devising the method and -actually producing iron at will, suggests a reasoning intelligence of -an order exceedingly high. - -Nevertheless, the art of making iron may have originated not so much -from effort as from inspiration; the process may have been less one of -reasoning than one of imagination, less one of construction than one of -invention. In fact, when we realize that imagination is almost wholly -a pure gift (like beauty, or artistic genius or a singing voice) while -the reasoning and constructive faculties require long education, we may -reasonably conclude that the production of iron and of all the metals -and processes in prehistoric times, was probably attributable mainly to -invention. - -The crowning invention of prehistoric man was that of writing; for -it lifted him out of his dependence on oral teachings, with their -liability to error and forgetfulness, into a condition in which the -facts and experiences of life, and the reasons for failure or success, -could be put into permanent form, and supply sure bases from which to -start on any line of progress in the future. - -The production of the art of writing seems to have been a pure -invention, and it has always been so regarded. Nothing resembling -writing is to be found in nature; _nowhere do we see in nature any -effort to preserve any records of any kind_. How man, or a man, was led -to invent writing we can only imagine, for we cannot ascertain. When -we realize, however, how entirely novel an undertaking the production -of writing was, and that there is no process of mere reasoning by -which a man could arrive at a decision to produce it, we seem forced -to conclude that it must have been caused by one of those inexplicable -conceptions that imagination puts into the mind, and that constitute an -inspiration, coming from the Great Outside and its ruler, the Almighty. - -In fact, if one ponders the history and teachings of the Christian -religion (in truth of all religions), and notes that the revelations -on which they are believed to have been founded seem to have come -unbidden to certain men as inspirations from On High, he must realize -how similar are the conceptions that come to inventors in a field less -spiritual, but yet actual. For in the case of each basic invention, an -idea seems to have come unbidden to the mind, and grown and developed -there. - -The first writing was what we call picture writing, in which -representations in outline of well-known objects were scratched with -a hard point on some softer substance. This form of writing probably -began in the Old Stone Age. It continued for different lengths of -time among different peoples, as have all other characteristics of -any stage of civilization; and it is practiced in some degree by some -peoples even now. In fact, one might with reasonableness declare that -many of the illustrations used in books and magazines and papers, many -of the paintings and drawings that adorn our walls, and many of the -moving pictures in our places of amusement convey messages by means of -pictures, and are therefore forms of picture writing. - -As the intelligence of man increased, and his consequent need for -better means of expressing himself in writing increased, the idea -occurred to someone to use conventional drawings to represent vocal -sounds, instead of pictures of visible objects. The first writing of -this kind, called phonetic writing, used characters that represented -spoken words, and therefore required many characters and necessitated -long and tedious study to master it. It was gradually replaced among -most peoples by an improved phonetic system, in which each character -represented a syllable instead of a word; though the Chinese have -never wholly abandoned it. The syllabic system needed, of course, -fewer characters, and was much more easily learned, much more flexible -and generally satisfactory. The syllabic system was finally replaced -among the more progressive peoples by the alphabetical system, in -which each character represents a separate vocal sound. As the number -of separate vocal sounds is few, only a few characters are needed. In -most alphabets, the number of characters varies between twenty-two and -thirty-six. - -We of the present day plume ourselves greatly on our achievements in -invention, and point to the tens of thousands of scientific appliances, -books and works of art with which we have enriched our civilization. To -most of us, prehistoric man was an uncouth creature, living in caves -and uncleanly huts, and so far removed from us that in our hearts we -class him as little higher than the beasts. Yet to prehistoric man we -owe all that we are and all that we have. The gift of life itself came -to us through him; and so did not only our physical faculties, but our -mental, moral and spiritual faculties as well. It was prehistoric man -who invented the appliances without which the wild beasts would not -have been overcome, and the man, wilder than himself, been kept at bay; -by means of which the soil was tilled, and boats were made to move -upon the water, and villages and towns were built. It was prehistoric -man who invented spoken language and the arts of drawing, painting, -architecture, weaving and writing. It was prehistoric man who started -the race on its forward march, and pointed it in the direction in -which it has ever since advanced. It was prehistoric man who made the -inventions on which all succeeding inventions have been based. The -prehistoric inventor exercised an influence on progress greater than -that of any other man. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -INVENTION IN THE ORIENT - - -The first countries to pass into the stage of recorded history were -Egypt and Babylonia. Excavations made near the sites of their ancient -cities have brought to light many inscriptions which, being deciphered -and translated, give us clear knowledge of the conditions under which -they lived, and therefore of the degree of the civilization that they -had attained. - -As we note the progress that the inscriptions show us to have been -made beyond the stage reached by prehistoric man, it becomes clear to -us that much--if not most--of that progress could not have been made -without the aid of writing. One cannot conceive of the invention and -development of Astronomy, for instance, without some means of recording -observations that had been made. - -In developing the art of writing itself, much progress was effected -in both countries, and many improvements were made in the art itself -that must have been due to that lower order of invention which consists -in improving on things already existing. In addition, invention was -employed in devising and arranging means for preserving the writings in -an enduring form. In Babylonia, this was done by making the writing on -soft tablets of clay about an inch in thickness, that were afterwards -baked to hardness. In the case of records of unusual importance, the -precaution was sometimes taken of covering the baked inscription with -a thin layer of clay, making a duplicate inscription on this layer, -and then baking it also. If afterwards, from any cause, the outside -inscription was defaced, it could be removed and the inside inscription -exposed to view. - -In Egypt, the writing was done on sheets of papyrus, made from a reed -that grew in the marshes. To devise and make both the baked clay -tablets and the papyrus, it is clear that invention had to be employed; -for nothing exactly like them existed in nature. Thus the invention -of the art of writing was supplemented by the invention of the art of -preserving the records that writing made. The act of writing would have -been useful, even if no means had been invented for preserving the -things written; even if the things written had perished in a day. But -the importance of the invention of writing was increased ten thousand -fold by the invention of the means for preserving the things written; -because without that means it would have been impossible by any process -of continual copying of tablets to keep at hand for reference that -library of records of the past on which all progress has been based, -and from which every act of progress has started, since some inventor -of Babylonia invented baked clay tablets and some inventor of Egypt -invented papyrus. - -It may be objected that there is no reason for assuming that any one -man invented either; that each invention may have been the joint work -of two men, or of several men. This of course, is true; but it does not -minimize the importance of either invention, or the credit due to the -inventors. It simply divides the credit of each invention among several -men, instead of giving it all to one. It is a notable fact, however, -that, although some inventions have been made by the joint work of two -men, and although some books have been written, and some music has been -composed by two men working in cooperation, yet such instances have -been rare. - -Many men combine to do constructive work of many kinds, and millions -combine to work and fight together in armies; and it is an interesting -fact that the working together of many men has been made possible by -inventions, such as writing and printing. Yet there is hardly any other -kind of work that is so wholly a "one man job" as inventing. The fact -that only one man, as a rule, makes a certain invention, or writes a -certain book, or composes a certain musical piece, or does any other -inventional work, seems to spring naturally from the original fact that -an invention begins with a picture made by imagination on a mind. Now a -picture so made is an individual picture in an individual mind. If the -picture is allowed to fade, or if from any cause the mind that received -it does not form it into a definite entity, no invention is made. If, -on the contrary, the mind develops the dim picture into a definite -entity of some kind, that mind alone has made that invention; even if -other minds improve it later by super-posing other inventions on it. - -It is true that sometimes a man who receives from his imagination -a mental picture of some possible invention will communicate it to -another man, and that other man will contribute some constructive work, -and make the dim picture into a reality; so that the complete invention -resulting will be the joint product of two men. It seems to be a fact, -however, that these dim pictures have rarely been disclosed while in -the formless period, and that almost every invention of which we know -the history, was made by one man only. - -It need hardly be interjected here that we are discussing inventions -only, and not the acts of making inventions practicable in the sense -of making them useful or commercially successful. At the present day, -there are few inventions indeed, which even after having been completed -as inventions, need no modification at the hands of the engineer and -the manufacturer, before they are suitable to be put to practical use. - - * * * * * - -That the Babylonians realized the importance of their invention is -proved by the fact that their baked tablets were carefully preserved, -and that in some cities large libraries were built in which they were -kept, as books are kept in our libraries at the present day. When the -expedition of the University of Pennsylvania made its excavations -near the site of the ancient city of Nippur, in the southern part of -Babylonia near the city of Babylon, a library was discovered that -contained more than thirty thousand tablets. - -[Illustration: Early Babylonian Signs, Showing Their Pictorial Origin] - -The writing of the Babylonians, while phonetic, was a development of -picture writing, each character expressing a syllable, and was made of -wedge-shaped characters. From the shape of the characters the adjective -_cuneiform_ has been applied to the writing, the word coming from the -Latin word, _cuneus_, a wedge. Syllabic writing was in use for probably -three thousand years among the peoples of western Asia. - -The Babylonians utilized their ingenuity and inventiveness in divers -ways, and accomplished many things that help to form the basis of -our civilization, without which we cannot imagine it to exist. Their -creations were of a highly practical and useful kind, and illustrate -the proverb that "necessity is the mother of invention." From the fact -that their ships sailed the waters of the Persian Gulf, and had need -of means to locate their positions and determine their courses from -port to port, and from the fact easily noted by their navigators that -the heavenly bodies held positions in the firmament depending on their -direction from an observer, and on the month and season and the time of -day, the study of the heavens was undertaken; with the result that the -science of astronomy was conceived and brought into existence. - -It may here be asked if this achievement can properly be called an -invention. One must hesitate a little before answering this question -either negatively or positively; because such an achievement is not -usually called an invention, and yet it cannot truthfully be denied -that there is nothing in Nature like the science of astronomy, and -that therefore it must have been created by man. It cannot reasonably -be denied, also, that after the science had at last been formulated, -it was as clearly a distinct entity as a bow and arrow or a telephone. -Furthermore, it does not seem unreasonable to suppose that, before -any of the principles of astronomy were laid down, before anyone even -attempted to lay them down, before anyone even attempted to ascertain -the laws that seemed to govern the movements of the heavenly bodies, -the idea must have occurred to someone that those heavenly bodies were -all moving in obedience to some law; and a more or less confused and -yet real image must have been made upon his mind of a great celestial -machine. He must actually have imagined such a machine. This first act -would be quite like that of the inventor of a mechanical device. The -next act would be to observe and record all the phenomena observable -in connection with the movements of the celestial bodies, then to -analyze and classify them. This series of acts would not, of course, be -inventive or even constructive. They would rather be like those studies -of any art, without which no man could be an inventor in that art. - -The analysis having been completed, the positions of the heavenly -bodies at various times having been ascertained and tabulated, the -next step would seem to be to construct a supposititious machine of -which each part would represent a heavenly body, and in which those -various parts would move according to laws induced tentatively from -the actual motions of certain heavenly bodies. If it were afterwards -found that all positions of each part, predicted in advance by applying -the laws tentatively induced, corresponded to the actual positions -of the heavenly body that it represented, then the supposititious -machine could be truthfully declared to be a correct imitation of the -great celestial machine. That is, the machine could be declared to be -successful. - -The science of astronomy is, in effect, such a machine. Its parts are -representations of the sun, moon and other heavenly bodies, that move -according to laws that are illustrated in the diagrams, and expressed -precisely in the formulas. - -The first act of the originator of the science of astronomy being one -of the imagination in conceiving a picture of a celestial machine, and -being like that of the inventor in conceiving a picture of an earthly -machine; and his second act being also like that of the inventor in -developing the picture, a justification for speaking of the "invention" -of the science of astronomy may perhaps be reasonably claimed. - -(We must bear in mind, of course, that no invention is complete until -the third act has been performed, and the thing invented has been -actually produced.) - -To speak of invention in connection with bringing forth novel creations -is far from new, for the phrases "construct a theory," "invent a -science," "invent a religion," etc., are in almost daily use; and it -may seem unnecessary to some persons, therefore, to discuss it at -such length. But most people seem to regard such phrases as merely -figurative; while the author wishes to make it plain that they are not -figurative but exact. - -As this modest treatise does not pretend to be a learned one, and as -the author is not a professional scholar, no further attempt will -be made to claim the production of the science of astronomy as an -invention. To pursue the subject further would be merely to enter a -discussion as to the meaning, both original and derived, of the word -invention. The author, however, cannot escape the conclusion that, -no matter what may be the literally correct meaning of the word, the -mental acts performed by the originators of the science of astronomy -were like the mental acts performed by the inventors of mechanical -appliances, and exerted a similar influence on history. That is, he -believes that the men who brought into being the science of astronomy -and the men who brought into being the bow and arrow, first saw -pictures on the mental retina of some things actual yet vague and -formless, and then constructed entities from them. He believes also -that the creation of the bow and arrow, and the creation of the -science of astronomy constituted actual and similar stepping-stones on -which the race rose toward a higher civilization. - -In default of any definition of the word invention, which precludes -its application to the origination of a science, theory, religion or -formulated school of thought, the author begs permission so to use it, -in indicating the influence on history of the novel creations which, -according to this meaning of the word, have been inventions. - -The influence on history of the invention of the science of astronomy -has been so great that we cannot estimate its greatness. On it the -whole science of navigation rests. Without it, the science and the art -of navigation could not exist, no ships could cross the ocean from one -port to another, except by accident, and the lands that are separated -by the ocean would still rest in complete ignorance of each other. -This world would not be a world, but only a widely separated number of -barbarian countries; most of them as ignorant of even the existence of -the others as in the days before Columbus. - -Following the invention of astronomy, or as it was first called, -Astrology, the imaginative and practically constructive intellects -of the Babylonians naturally led them to invent the sun-dial for -indicating the time during the day, and the water-clock for indicating -it during the night. - -Another invention, doubtless brought into being by the study of -the movements of the heavenly bodies, was the duodecimal system of -notation, of which the base was twelve. In accordance with this -system, the Babylonians divided the Zodiac into twelve equal parts or -"signs"; divided the year into nearly equal months, that corresponded -approximately to the length of a lunar month; divided a day and a night -into twelve equal parts or hours; divided an hour in sixty (12 x 5) -equal parts or minutes, and divided a minute into sixty (12 x 5) equal -parts or seconds. - -The duodecimal system of notation has been supplanted for many purposes -by the more convenient decimal system, the invention of which is -attributed by some to the Arabs; but the duodecimal divisions of time -are still with us, and the duodecimal divisions of the circle are still -used in most countries. - -The duodecimal system of notation seems to have been the earliest -system of notation invented; and it was an invention so important that -we cannot imagine civilization without it and the decimal system, -possibly its offspring. The influence of these two inventions on -history has been so great that the mind is incapable of realizing its -greatness, even approximately. - -Who were the inventors, we do not know. It is almost certain that none -of our generation ever will know, and it is far from probable that any -one of any generation will ever know. If any knowledge on this subject -is ever given to the world, it will be knowledge of names only--only -names. Yet some human beings, forgotten now and probably obscure even -in their lifetimes, invented those systems, and contributed more to the -real progress of the race than many of the great statesmen and warriors -of history. - -The Babylonians invented measures of length, capacity and weight, also; -and it is from those measures that all the later measures have been -directly or indirectly derived. To have invented systems by which time, -angle, distance, space, weight and volume were lifted out of the realm -of the vague and formless into the realm of the definite and actual, -was an achievement that almost suggests that noted in the first chapter -of Genesis, in the words, "And God said 'Let there be light,' and there -was light"; for what a clearing up of mental darkness followed, when -the science of measurement turned its rays on the mysteries that beset -the path of early man! - -The Egyptians seem to have been inventors, though hardly to the same -degree as were the Babylonians. The Egyptians studied the heavens and -employed a science of astronomy; and it is possible that they, rather -than the Babylonians, should be credited with its invention. But it is -not the intention of this book to decide points in dispute in history, -or even to discuss them. Its intention is merely to study the influence -that inventions and inventors had. Whether the name of an inventor was -John Smith or Archimedes, whether he lived in the year 1000 or 1100, -or which one of two rival claimants should be credited with the honor -of any invention, is often an interesting question; but it is not one -that is especially important to us, unless it casts light on the main -suggestion of our inquiry. The only reason for mentioning names and -dates and countries in this book is to show the sequence of inventions -as correctly as practicable. In order to show the influence of -invention on history it seems best to give the treatment of the subject -an historical character. - -Possibly the most important invention of the Egyptians was papyrus, -which was the precursor of the paper of today. The clay tablets of -the Babylonians were clearly much less adapted to the making of many -records than was papyrus. One cannot readily imagine an edition of -300,000 newspapers like the _New York Times_, made out of clay tablets -an inch in thickness, and sold on the streets by newsboys. Clearly the -invention of papyrus was one so important that we cannot declare any -invention as more important, except on the basis that (other factors -being equal) the earlier an invention was the more important it was. -To assume such a basis would, of course, be eminently reasonable; -because the earlier invention must have supplied the basis in part for -the making of the later. The invention of writing, for instance, was -more important than the invention of papyrus. - -[Illustration: Villa of an Egyptian Noble] - -A curious invention of the Egyptians was the art of embalming the -bodies of the dead, an art still practiced in civilized countries. It -was prompted by their belief that the preservation of the body was -necessary, in order to secure the welfare of the soul in the future -life. This belief resulted further in building sepulchres of elaborate -design, filling them with multitudes of objects of many kinds, -decorating the walls with paintings, sculptures and inscriptions, -and placing important manuscripts in the coffins with the mummies or -embalmed bodies. The sepulchres of the kings were, of course, the -largest and most elaborate of all; and of these sepulchres the grandest -were the pyramids. By reason of the great care and labor lavished on -tombs and sepulchres and pyramids, and by reason also of the dryness of -the air in Egypt, and the consequent durability of works of stone, it -has been from the tombs that many of the clearest items of information -have come to us about old Egyptian times. - -The Egyptians excelled in architecture, and the greatest of their -buildings were the pyramids. As to whether or not there was much -invention devoted to those works, it is virtually impossible now -to know. The probability seems to be that they could not have been -produced without the promptings of the inventor, but that the progress -was a slow and gradual march. It seems that there was a long series -of many small inventions that made short steps, and not a few basic -inventions that proceeded by great leaps. - -The Egyptians seem to have been the inventors of arithmetic and -geometry. What men in particular should most be credited with -inventing them, we do not know; but that some men were the original -inventors the probabilities seem to intimate. For these sciences were -creations just as actual as the steam engine, and could hardly have -been produced save by similar procedures. - -[Illustration: The Pyramids of Gizeh] - -The suggestion may here be made that whatever we do is the result (or -ought to be) of a decision to do it, that follows a mental process -not very different from that invented by the German General Staff for -solving military problems. By this process one writes down-- - -1. The mission--the thing which it is desired to accomplish. - -2. The difficulties in the way of accomplishing it. - -3. The facilities available for accomplishing it. - -4. The decision--that is, how to employ the facilities to overcome the -difficulties and accomplish the mission. - -In solving a military problem (or in solving many of the problems of -daily life) it is often a matter of great difficulty to arrive at a -clear understanding of what the mission actually is, what one really -wishes to accomplish. In the majority of ordinary cases, however, the -mission stands out as a clear picture in the mind. Such a case would -be one in which an enemy were making a direct attack; for the mission -would be simply to repel it. Another case would be one in which the -mission was stated by the terms of a problem itself; for instance, to -build a steam engine to develop 1000 horse power. In the case of the -inventor, the mission seems to be sent to him as a mental picture; he -suddenly sees a dim picture in his mind of something that he must make. - -Perhaps, many centuries ago, some man who had been laying out plots of -ground in Egypt, of different shapes and sizes, and making computations -for each one, suddenly saw a phantom picture in which all the lines and -figures appeared grouped in a few classes, and arranged in conformity -to a few fixed rules. The mission was given to him free, but it -devolved on him to formulate the rules. As soon as he had formulated -and proved the rules, the science of Geometry existed. - -It is interesting to note that the conception of the idea required -no labor on the part of the conceiver. He was virtually a passive -receiver. His labor came afterwards, when he had to do the constructive -work of "giving to airy nothing a local habitation and a name." - -The Egyptians seem to have learned the use of many drugs, though they -can hardly be said to have invented a system or a science of medicine. -They did, however, invent a system of characters for indicating the -weights of drugs. Those characters are used by apothecaries still. - -The first means of cure were incantations that evidently influenced the -mind. It is interesting to note that modern systems tend to decrease -the use of drugs and increase that of mental suggestion. - -Both the Babylonians and the Egyptians held religious beliefs; but it -is doubtful if the religious beliefs of either were so definite and -formulated that they could be correctly called religions, according to -our ideas of what constitutes a religion. An interesting fact is the -wide difference between the beliefs of the two peoples, in view of the -similarity of many of the other features of their civilizations. The -beliefs of neither can be called highly spiritual; but of the two, the -Egyptian seems to have been the more so. The Egyptians believed that -the souls of those who had lived good lives would be rewarded; while -the Babylonian belief did not include even a judgment of the dead. - -One of the most important inventions made in Babylonia was that of a -code of laws. It is usually ascribed to a king named Hammurabi; but -whether he was the real inventor or not, we have no means of knowing. -We do know, however, that the first code of laws of which there is any -record was invented in his reign, and that it was the prototype of all -that have followed since. - -The influence on history of the invention and carrying into effect of -a formulated code of laws, we cannot exactly gauge; but we may assert -with confidence that modern civilization would not have been possible -without codes of laws, and that the first code must have been more -important than any code that followed, because it led the way. - -Both the Babylonians and the Egyptians seem to have made most of -their inventions in the period of their youth, and to have become -conservative as they grew older. The Babylonians were a great people -until about the year 1250 B. C., when a subject city, Assur, in the -north, threw off its allegiance and formed an independent state, -Assyria. The decline of Babylonia continued until the fall of Assyria -and the destruction of Nineveh, its capital, about the year 606 B. C., -when the new Babylonian, or Chaldean Empire, came into existence. It -enjoyed a period of splendid but brief prosperity until it was captured -by Cyrus, king of Persia, in the year 538 B. C. - -Egypt's career continued until a later day; but it was never glorious -in statesmanship, war or invention, after her youth had passed. - -A nation possibly as old as the Babylonian or Egyptian was the Chinese; -but of their history, less is known. It is well established, however, -that they possessed a system of picture writing in which each word was -represented by a symbol. The system was much more cumbrous, of course, -than the syllabic or alphabetical; but its invention was a performance, -nevertheless, of the utmost brilliancy and importance, viewed from the -light of what the world was then. There is little doubt also that the -Chinese were the original inventors of the magnetic compass and of -printing from blocks, two of those essential inventions, without which -civilization could not have been brought about. Another of China's -inventions was gunpowder; though it is not clear that the Chinese ever -used it to propel projectiles out of guns. - -Achievements equally great, and maybe greater, were the creations of -religions--Confucianism and Taoism, invented in China, and Buddhism, -invented in India. These religions may seem to us very crude and -commonplace and earthy; but we should not shut our eyes to the fact -that they have probably influenced a greater number of human beings -toward right living than any other three religions that we know of. - -Like Babylonia and Egypt, China became conservative as she grew older. -At the present day, her name stands almost as the symbol of everything -non-progressive and non-inventive. - -Assyria was able to capture Babylon about the year 1250 B. C., and to -maintain the position of the dominant power in western Asia for about -600 years. A progressive and ambitious people, they accomplished an -original and important step in the art of government by organizing -conquered peoples into provinces under governors appointed by the -king. It does not seem to be a great straining of the word to declare -that this achievement was so novel, so concrete and so useful as to -possess the essential features of an invention. For if we realize that -during all the times that had gone by, conquered peoples had remained -simply conquered peoples, paying tribute but not forming parts of the -conquering state, we can see that the idea of actually incorporating -them into the state, thereby increasing the population of the state -by the number of people incorporated, and making the state stronger -in that proportion, we can hardly fail to realize that the conception -of doing this was of the highest order of brilliancy. To work out -afterwards the details of developing the conception in such a way as -to render possible the production of an actual and workable machine -of government was a constructive act. When the machine was actually -produced a new thing had been created. In other words, the institution -of this new scheme in government seems to have followed the same three -stages as the invention of a mechanical device; that is, conception, -development and production. - -_The likeness between this process and that of conception, gestation -and birth is obvious._ - -The Assyrians were evidently a very practical and constructive people, -somewhat such people as the Romans later were. They devoted themselves -to the practical side of life, and to this end they developed the -governmental and the military arts. They were great warriors. The -period of their greatest greatness was in the seventh and eighth -centuries B. C., when the conquerors Sargon II and Sennacherib were -kings. The splendor of the empire afterwards was conspicuous but not -long lived; for after unifying the great nations of the Orient under -Assyrian rule, and carrying on wars marked with the utmost of cruelty -and oppression, they finally entered on a rapid decline in morals, -and consequently in national prosperity and strength. The end came in -606 B. C., when a combined force of Medes and Babylonians captured -and sacked the hated Nineveh, the capital. The intensity of the -hatred against the Assyrians may be gauged by the completion of the -destruction visited on Nineveh. When Xenophon saw its ruins only two -centuries afterwards, he could not even ascertain what city those ruins -marked. - -The Assyrians have left us clearer records of their achievements in -the invention of weapons than has any other ancient nation. It is -impossible to declare with certainty that all the seemingly novel -weapons and armor which the ancient Assyrians possessed and used were -invented by themselves, and not by the Egyptians or the Babylonians; -but the mere facts that the Assyrians were the most military nation of -the three, and that the specimens of those weapons which have come down -to us have been mostly Assyrian, give probability to that supposition. - -The Assyrian soldier was finely equipped and armed as far back as the -thirteenth century B. C.; and Assyrian bas-reliefs show that they -actually used war-chariots then, drawn by horses and operated by armed -warriors. The infantry soldiers wore defensive armor consisting of -helmets, corslets made of skin or some woven stuff on which plates of -metal were sewn, and sometimes coats of steel mail; with leggings to -protect the legs. They carried shields, and were armed with lances, -swords, slings and bows and arrows. The Assyrians employed cavalry, -the horsemen wearing mail armor, and carrying shields and swords and -lances. They employed archers also; the archers being sometimes mounted. - -The use of war-chariots, with all the mechanical equipment that was -necessary, in order to make them operate effectively, shows a state -of civilization much higher than many people realize. It shows also -that a great deal of inventiveness and constructiveness must have been -employed, and must have been skilfully directed;--for it is a very -long road--a very long road indeed--from the bow and arrow to the -war-chariot. In order to produce the war-chariot, several inventions -must have previously been made. The most important of these was one of -the most important inventions ever made,--the wheel. - -Who invented the wheel, and when and where did he invent it? - -This is one of the unanswered questions of history. The war-chariot -suddenly appears on the stage, without any preliminary announcement, -and without any knowledge on our part that even the wheel on which it -moved had been invented. - -It is true that the records of prehistoric man show us that in -fashioning pottery he used a disc that he revolved on a spindle and -applied to the surface of the urn or vase; and it is also true that a -revolving disc is a kind of wheel. But a disc revolving on a stationary -spindle is in its intent and use a very different implement from a -wheel placed on a chariot, and turned by the forward movement of the -chariot itself, for the important purpose of reducing its resistance to -being drawn along the ground. - -It is true also that invention was needed to produce the revolving -disc, the forerunner of all the polishing and turning machines on the -earth today. But the wheel was a different invention, probably a later -one, and certainly a more important one. There are things sometimes -seen in nature that look a little like revolving discs; for instance, -swirls of dust or water. In fact, almost anything put in rotation looks -like one, if the rotation is rapid enough; for instance, the sling that -a primeval slinger revolved around his head. But what do we know of in -nature that looks like a wheel, or that is used for a similar purpose? -Nothing. This being the case, the mind may lose itself in speculation -as to what could have led to the conception of such an appliance in the -mind of the original inventor of the wheel. - -The suggestion may be hazarded that the invention was preceded by an -accidental recognition of the fact that it was easier to drag something -along the ground, if it rested on round logs, than if it did not so -rest; and by noting also that the logs were passed over and left behind -continually. From this point to the mental conception of a roller that -would not be left behind, but would be secured to the thing dragged -by a round shaft on which it revolved, there was probably a single -mental jump. Someone saw such a contrivance with his mental eye. It -looked dim and unreal--but he saw it. To make the picture clear, and -then to develop the thing pictured, constructiveness was used. In other -words, conception and development accomplished their successive but -cooperating tasks. The invention was complete when a wheel was actually -produced. - -To realize the importance of the wheel, we have but to ask ourselves -(or our neighbors) how history could possibly have been even -approximately what it has been if the wheel had not been invented. - -Another important invention probably made by the Assyrians was the -catapult; another one, somewhat similar, was the balista. The catapult -was used for hurling stones, balls, etc.; the balista for shooting -arrows with greater force than an archer could exert. Another was the -battering ram for making breaches in the walls of fortresses. - -[Illustration: Assyrians Flaying Prisoners Alive. (From a bas-relief.)] - -The Assyrians used these inventions in their wars against the -contiguous nations of the East, and with their aid achieved the -mastery, and unified the Orient. That the Assyrian rule was harsh -and cruel should not be denied; but, on the principle that any kind -of government is better than no government, it cannot reasonably be -supposed that the central and efficient administration of Assyria was -not better than the condition of continual petty wars and quarrels that -had existed among the numerous tribes and nations, with their enormous -possibilities for suffering of all kinds. - -It may be pointed out here that the cruelties and injustices committed -by any powerful government against great numbers of persons attract -immeasurably more notice and condemnation by historians and others -than do the numberless atrocities of all kinds that lie hidden in the -darkness of anarchy, or the confusion of petty wars. In the endeavor to -preserve order over widely separated and barbarous peoples, when means -of transportation and communication were inadequate, stern measures -seem always to have been required. That they have often been too stern, -and that great cruelty has often been exercised, the wail of the ages -testifies. But human nature is very imperfect; and no really good -government, no government free from the faults of man, has ever been -established. Yet every government has been better than anarchy. - -The Assyrians, despite their cruel treatment of their conquered -peoples, did a direct service to mankind and gave a powerful stimulus -to the march of progress. For the great empire which they established, -and the great cities which grew up, and the system of provinces which -they instituted, formed a pattern for similar work by later nations; -while the civilization which they spread throughout the more backward -countries under their rule, especially in Greece, started the later -culture which Greece developed, and which is the basis of all that is -most beautiful in the civilization of today. - -The influence of the weapons which the Assyrians invented was toward -this end. - -Between Egypt on the west and Babylonia and Assyria on the east lay -Syria; a territory not very large, of which the part that played the -most prominent part in history bordered the eastern coast of the -Mediterranean Sea. Two important peoples dwelt in Syria, the Hebrews -and the Phoenicians. Both belonged to the Semitic race, and neither was -distinctly warlike; though the Hebrews during a brief period achieved -considerable military strength and skill, under their great king David. - -The main gift of the Hebrews to the world was the Jewish religion, a -more spiritual religion than any that had preceded it, and based on a -conception of one God, a holy God. The ideas held of immortality and of -judgment after death for the deeds done in this life were not entirely -new, but the conception of a holy and beneficent Deity was new; and -it was so inspiring and stimulating a conception that it lifted the -Jews at once to a moral and spiritual plane higher than any people had -ever lived on before. It constituted a step also directly toward the -Christian religion--which also was born in Syria; in Palestine. - -That the conception and establishment of the Jewish religion was an -invention may not be admitted by some; but the author respectfully asks -attention to the sense in which he uses the word invention in this -book, and points out that they constituted an invention in that sense. - -That it was a beneficent invention, and that it helped the human race -spiritually in a way analogous to that in which the invention of -many mechanical devices helped it materially, does not seem hard to -realize. For in both cases the race was transported away from savagery -and toward high civilization; and in both cases there was first a -conception of something desirable, then a constructive effort to -develop it, and finally its production. - -The Phoenicians lived just north of the Jews, and possessed a territory -smaller than that of any other people who ever exercised an equal -influence on history; for it embraced merely a little strip of land -hardly longer than a hundred and twenty miles from north to south, or -wider on the average than twelve miles from east to west. It bordered -on the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea, and was shut off by the -mountains of Lebanon from Syria, that lay due east. - -The Phoenicians were a people of extraordinary enterprise and -initiative. Inventors are men of extraordinary enterprise and -initiative. How much the Phoenicians are to be credited with the -invention of sailing vessels, we have no means of knowing; but we -do know that (with the possible exception of the Egyptians) the -Phoenicians were more identified with early navigation by sailing -vessels and by vessels pulled by oars than any other people. It -is even known that Phoenician vessels were navigating the Eastern -Mediterranean, both under sails and under oars, as long ago as 1500 B. -C. So, while we should not be justified in asserting positively that -the Phoenicians were the inventors and developers of sailing vessels -and of vessels pulled by banks of oars and steered by rudders, we may -declare with ample reason that probably they were. - -For the purposes of this book, however, the identity of the inventors -is not important. What is important is the fact that the invention -of those vessels had immediate fruit in a commerce by which the -products of eastern civilization were taken westward to Greece and -other countries, while tin and other raw material were brought east -from Spain and even Britain; and that it had later fruit in gradually -building up a western civilization. It had other fruit as well, in -demonstrating the possibilities and the value of ocean commerce, and -forming the basis of the world-wide navigation of today. - -Few inventions have had a greater influence on history than that of the -sailing ship. To some of us it may seem that no invention was involved; -that to use sails was an obvious thing to think of and accomplish. But -if any one of us will close his eyes a moment and imagine an absence -of most of the great scientific and mechanical knowledge of today, and -imagine also the absence of nearly all the present acquaintance with -the laws of weather, flotation, resistance to propulsion, metacentric -height, etc., he may realize what a feat was the invention of the -sailing ship and even of the ship pulled with oars and steered with a -rudder. It is true that we have no reason to assume that either vessel -was conceived by one leap of the imagination and developed by one act, -while we have many reasons to think that each was the result of a -series of short steps; but this does not invalidate the invention of -the ships, or depreciate its influence. - -By two other achievements, also, the Phoenicians showed the kinship -between the inventor and the man of enterprise and initiative; the -invention of the Tyrian dyes and of an alphabetical system of writing -that forms the basis of the systems of today. Here again it is -necessary to remind ourselves that possibly the Phoenicians were not -the sole and original inventors of the alphabet, and that they may -have merely improved upon a system invented by, say, the Cretans; and -again it may be helpful to point out that the important fact is not the -personality of the inventors but the birth of the invention, and the -influence of the invention on history. Certain it is, however, that it -was the Phoenicians who brought alphabetical writing to the practical -stage and who not only used it themselves, but carried it in their -ships all over the Mediterranean, where it bore abundant fruit. It bore -fruit especially in Greece. - -Phoenicia is an instructive illustration of the fact that a country -(like a man) may make inventions of lasting usefulness to mankind, and -yet not hold a position of power or splendor in the world. Phoenicia -was nearly always a vassal, paying tribute to one great monarchy or -another. - -In striking contrast with Phoenicia was the empire of Persia, which, -though it gave to the world of that day the best government it had -ever known, contributed nothing in the nature of an actual new -stepping-stone to civilization. - -Persia conquered Lydia, which is credited with the important invention -of coinage. The coins first issued by the Lydians were of electrum, an -alloy of gold and silver. King Croesus later issued coins of pure gold -and pure silver. - -Directly east of Syria was Phrygia. It was in Phrygia that the flute, -the first real musical instrument, is supposed to have been invented, -in about the sixteenth century B. C. - - * * * * * - -The brief résumé just given of the inventions made in prehistoric -times, and also in historic times in China, Egypt and western Asia, -shows that before Greece had attained any civilization whatever the -most important inventions for the betterment of mankind had been -already made. These inventions were not only mechanical appliances -and such arts as spinning, weaving, pottery making, etc., that were -intended for safety and material benefit generally; for they included -systems of government and codes of laws and even religions that -aimed to elevate man, and that did elevate him mentally, morally and -spiritually. - -At the present day, when inventions follow each other with such -rapidity that even students and experts cannot keep themselves informed -about them, except in certain specialties, it is natural for us to feel -that no inventing of any consequence was ever done before. In fact, the -present age is called "The Age of Invention." Yet all the inventions -of the last century added together have not had so great influence on -mankind as the invention of writing, or of the bow and arrow, or the -wheel--or almost any of the inventions we have noted. Not only are they -not so important,--they were not so novel, they did not constitute -steps so long, they did not mark such epochs, and probably resulted -from less brilliant pictures on the mind. Can anyone think that the -telephone was as novel or as important as the wheel? Can anyone suppose -that the steam engine, or the electric telegraph, or the powder-gun -took us as long a step upward to civilization as did papyrus? Will -anyone declare that the railroad ushered in as great an epoch as -the sailing ship? Is it probable that the first conception of the -phonograph made quite so startling a picture on the accustomed brain -of the habitual inventor as that of the art of making fire did on the -virgin mentality of the savage? - -The last contribution of western Asia to the betterment of the world -was Christianity. It was not made until after Greece had reached the -prime of her civilization and passed beyond it; and some may consider -it a sacrilege to call it an invention. It was an inspiration from On -High. But dare anyone assert that the wonderful conceptions that have -come unbidden to the minds of the great inventors were not, in their -degree, also inspirations from On High? Whence did they come? That they -came there can be no doubt. Whence did they come? Our religion teaches -us that God directs our paths, that He puts good thoughts into our -minds. It also teaches us that He inspired the men who wrote the Bible. -In the ordinary meaning of the word "inspired," Some One inspired every -noble and novel and beneficent achievement that was ever made. Who? - - * * * * * - -Without insisting tediously on the meaning of the word invention, one -may point out that the word is used continually to mean a mental act by -which something heretofore non-existent is created. The expertest of -all word users, in any language, cried: - -"Oh, for a muse that would ascend the highest heaven of invention"; -expressing almost exactly what the present author is trying to express, -and indicating invention as the highest effort of the mind. - -In this sense, may I reverently claim the Christian Religion as an -invention, one of the greatest inventions ever made? - - - - -CHAPTER III - -INVENTION IN GREECE - - -Our brief survey has thus far carried us over the lands of Egypt, -China and western Asia; lands so far removed from us in distance, and -inhabited by people so far removed from us in time and character, -that they seem to belong almost to another world. But we now are -coming to a country which, though its history goes back many centuries -before the Christian era, was a country of Europe and inhabited by -a people who seem near. The Greeks who overran what we now call -Greece, probably about 1500 B. C., took possession of a civilization -exceedingly high, which the inhabitants of the mainland and the Ægean -Islands had received from the East, through the Phoenicians, who -brought it in their ships. This civilization the Ægean islanders, -especially the Cretans, had developed and improved, particularly in -creations of beauty and works of art. The Greeks created a still -higher civilization, and transmitted it to us. The influence of Greek -civilization we see on every hand:--in our language, in our daily life, -and especially in our ideas of art, literature and philosophy. - -That a civilization so high and beautiful should have been attained, -could hardly have been brought about without the presence of great -imagination among the Greeks, and the exercise of considerable -invention. The presence of both imagination and invention are evidenced -in every page of the early history of Greece, in the stirring -stories of her heroes, and in the conception and development of her -government. Compared with the stories of ancient Greece, the stories of -the childhood of every other country seem unimaginative and tame. The -stories of early Greece still live and still have the power to charm. -The Iliad and Odyssey are in the first rank of the great poems even -now; and the story of Helen and the siege of Troy is as full of life -and color as any that we know. - -[Illustration: Two Cretan Vases] - -An interesting legend characteristic of the inventiveness of the -ancient Greeks was that of the large wooden horse in which a hundred -brave warriors concealed themselves, and were drawn within the walls of -Troy by the Trojans themselves, who had been induced to do this by an -ingenious story, invented to deceive them. Whether the legend is true -or not does not affect the fact that invention was needed and employed -to create the legend in the one case, or to cause the incident in the -other case. - -The prehistoric age of Greece was filled with myths of so much beauty, -interest and originality, that the Greek mythology is more read, even -now, than any other. It formed also the basis of the later mythology of -the Romans. - -It may be noted here that mere imagination is not a quality of very -high importance, unless it be associated with constructiveness. In -fact, imagination is evidenced more by savage and barbarous peoples -than by the civilized; as it is also by children and women than by -men. Imagination by itself, untrained and undirected, while it is -unquestionably an attribute of the mind, is not one of reason, in the -sense that it does not necessarily employ the reasoning faculties. In -fact, the imagination, unless trained and well-directed, may lead us to -the absurdest performances, in defiance of the suggestions of reason. -Using the word imagination in this sense, Shakespeare said-- - - "The lunatic, the lover and the poet - Are of imagination all compact." - -It is only when imagination has been assisted by reason, it is only -when conception has been followed by construction, that practical -inventions have resulted. - -The myths invented by the Greeks in their prehistoric period were -the products of not only imagination but construction. Each myth -was a perfectly connected story, complete in all necessary detail, -admirably put together, and told in charming language. The story of -Jason's Argonautic Expedition in search of the Golden Fleece cannot be -surpassed in any of the elements that make a story good; Penelope is -still the model of conjugal devotion, and Achilles the ideal warrior; -Poseidon, or his Roman successor, Neptune, still rules the waves; -Aphrodite, or Venus, calls up more vividly before our minds than any -other name the vision of feminine beauty even to this day. Hercules -exemplifies muscular strength, and Apollo still typifies that which is -most beautiful in manliness. - -The influence of the Grecian myths, "pure inventions" as they were, in -the sense that they were fictitious and not true, has been explained -and demonstrated at great length and with abundant enthusiasm by poets -and scholars for many centuries. They have been generally regarded as -inventions, but nevertheless as quite different from such inventions -as the steam-engine or the printing press. The present author wishes -to point out that the mental processes by which both myths and engines -were created were alike, and that the inventions differed mainly in the -uses to which they were put. - -Even the uses to which they were put were similar in the end; for the -use of the myths and of the steam engine was to improve the conditions -of man's existence. There is only one way in which to do this, and that -is by improving the impressions made on his mind. The myths did this by -making beautiful pictures for his mind to gaze at, and by using them to -induce him to follow a certain (good) line of conduct, rather than the -contrary. The steam engine did it by making the conditions of living -more comfortable, by rendering transportation more safe and rapid, and -by rendering possible the procuring of many of the pleasant things of -life from distant places. - -The invention of a myth may be said to be the invention of an -immaterial thing; the invention of a steam engine to be of a material -thing. These two lines of effort, invention has followed since long -before the dawn of history. Of the two, the invention of myths and -stories probably succeeded the other. - -Probably also it has been the more important in affecting our actual -degree of happiness; affecting it beneficently in the main. For, while -some myths and stories have filled men with dread and horror, a very -large majority have had the opposite effect; and while many mechanical -inventions have contributed to our material ease and comfort, it -is not clear that they have much increased our actual happiness. -Men accommodate themselves easily to changes in their material -surroundings; what is a luxury today will be a necessity tomorrow; and -very many of the material inventions have tended to artificial and -unhealthful modes of living, with consequent physical deterioration and -its accompanying loss of happiness. - -As to influence on history, however, the influence of the material -inventions has probably been the greater. Immaterial inventions might -have been made in enormous numbers without of themselves affecting -history greatly; but the material inventions have brought about most of -the events that history describes; and without one material invention, -that of writing, history could not exist at all. History is rather a -narrative of men's deeds than of their thoughts; and their deeds have -been directed largely by the implements which they had to do deeds with. - -We must realize, of course, that the Greeks were much indebted to the -Ægeans; for discoveries about the shores and islands of the Ægean -Sea show that long before the advent of the Greeks they used tools -and weapons of rough and then of polished stone, and later of copper -and tin and bronze; that they lived on farms and in villages and -cities, and were governed by monarchs who dwelt in palaces adorned -with paintings and fine carvings, and filled with court gentlemen -and ladies who wore jewelry and fine clothing. Exquisite pottery was -used, decorated with taste and skill; ivory was carved and gems were -engraved, and articles were made of silver and bronze and gold. - -As early as the sixth century B. C., the Greeks made things more -beautiful than had ever been made before. One almost feels like saying -that the Greeks invented beauty. Such a declaration would be absurd -of course: but it seems to be a fact that the Greeks had a conception -of beauty that was wholly original with them, and that was not only -finer than that which any other people had ever had before, but finer -than any other people have had since. And not only did they have the -conception, they had the ability to embody the conception in material -forms that possessed a beauty higher than had ever been produced -before, and higher (at least on the average) than have ever been -produced in any other country since. - -Looked at in this way, the production of a new and beautiful statue, -painting or temple, seems to be an act of invention much like the -formulation of a myth or the writing of a poem. In this sense, the -Greeks were inventors, inventors of works of beauty that have existed -as concrete material creations for centuries, and have exercised an -enduring influence on the minds of men. - -The influence of paintings, statues and temples is not so clear as -that of material inventions, but more clear than that of myths and -poems. They may be said to form a class midway between inventions of -material appliances and inventions of immaterial thoughts and fancies. -A beautiful painting or statue is a material object in the same sense -as that in which a steam engine is; but its office is to stimulate the -mind, as a poem does. - -The first inventor of mechanical appliances, mentioned by name as -such, was Dædalus of Athens. He was probably a mythical person. He was -reputed to be the son or the grandson of Erectheus, a probably mythical -king. He is credited with the invention of the saw, the gimlet, the -plumb-line, the axe, the wedge, the lever, masts and sails and even -of flying;--for he is said to have escaped from Crete to Sicily with -artificial wings. The story of Dædalus, like that of many other -mythological personages, is both interesting and irritating from the -mixture of the very probable, the highly improbable, and the entirely -impossible, in a jumble. But the story of Dædalus seems to make it -probable that all the things which he is reported to have invented -(except flying) were in use in Greece in prehistoric times. - -As no records show to us that the inventions just enumerated (except -masts and sails) had been invented elsewhere, we may feel justified -in inferring that they were invented in Greece by Dædalus, or by some -other man bearing a different name,--or by some other men. The name -borne by the man is not important to us now; but it is important to -realize that such brilliant and original inventions were made so long -ago by a primeval people; especially since they were of a character -somewhat different from those invented in Egypt and Asia which we have -already noted. The invention of the gimlet seems the most brilliant -and original of those just spoken of; and one marvels that it should -have been invented at such a time; for the action of the gimlet was a -little more complicated than that of even the balista or the catapult. -It is true that the number of parts was less, that in fact there was -only one part. But that part turned around in one plane, and advanced -in another; it was less like anything that existed before than the -catapult was like the sling, or the balista was like the cross-bow. -There was no immediate forerunner of the gimlet. In other words, the -mental jump needed to invent the gimlet was from a base of nothing that -we can exactly specify. - -[Illustration: Insurgent Captives Brought Before Darius] - -A possible suggestion for the gimlet was the succession of inclined -planes by which one mounted to the top of an Assyrian or Chaldean -palace; these planes rising gradually on each of the four sides, -so as to form together what might be called a square spiral. It is -possible that a circular spiral may have been traced later around some -cylindrical shaft or column, and given the first suggestion for the -screw or gimlet. Of course, a gimlet is a kind of screw. The Greeks do -not seem to have applied their inventiveness after the time of Dædalus -to mechanical appliances, but to works of art and systems of religion -and philosophy. One of their most important inventions may be said to -be mid-way between: it consisted in adding vowels to the Phoenician -alphabet and producing the basis of the Latin and succeeding alphabets. -The Greeks were not naturally of a warlike disposition, and their -peculiarly jealous temperament prevented the various states and cities -from combining and forming a great nation. Their energetic character -and great intellectuality saved them, however, when Darius, King of -Persia, invaded Greece in 490 B. C. - -By that time the Greeks had raised and trained an army of great -excellence. No especial inventiveness seems to have been exercised, -but the equipments of the men, their organization, their armor, their -weapons and their discipline had been brought to a standard exceedingly -high. All these advantages were needed; for the Persians were a warlike -people, their King Darius was an ambitious and successful conqueror, -and the number of Persians that invaded Greece was far greater than the -number that Greece could raise to fight them. - -Had the Greeks been destitute of invention they would have followed -the most obvious course, that of shutting themselves up inside the -protection of the walls of Athens. Had they done this, the Persians -would have surrounded the city, shut them off from supplies from -outside, and slowly but surely forced them to surrender. - -But, on the insistent advice of Miltiades, the Greeks advanced to -meet the Persians, leaving the shelter of their walls behind them. It -may not seem to some that Miltiades made any invention in planning -the campaign which he urged against much resistance, and which the -Athenians finally carried out. Yet his mental action was one allied -to that of making an invention; for his mind conceived a plan as a -purely mental picture, then developed into a workable project, and -then presented it as a concrete proposition. Later, when the hostile -forces met on the low plain of Marathon, Miltiades rejected the obvious -plan that an uninventive mind would have adopted. Instead of it, he -invented the plan of weakening his center, strengthening his flanks, -and departing from the usual custom of advancing slowly against the -enemy, in favor of advancing on the run. The plan (invention) worked -perfectly. The unsuspecting Persians broke through the center and -pursued the fleeing Athenians to a rough ground;--only to be caught -between the two flanks, like a nut in a nut-cracker, and crushed to -pieces. - -It can hardly be seriously questioned that in this plan Miltiades -showed the abilities of the inventor, and in a highly brilliant and -highly important way. Had he fought the battle in the obvious way, the -great numerical superiority of the Persians could hardly have failed -to gain the victory, despite a really considerable superiority of the -Athenians in training and equipment. But the Persians were the victims -of a new and unexpected kind of attack. A new weapon suddenly brought -to bear on them would have had a similar effect. - -This is the first illustration in recorded history of the influence -of invention on the deciding of a war. Its influence was enormous in -this case; for the battle of Marathon was one of the most decisive and -one of the most important battles ever fought. If it had been decided -contrariwise, Grecian civilization would have been stamped out, or so -completely stifled that it would never have risen to the heights it -afterwards attained; freedom of thought and government would have been -smothered, and the world would be immeasurably different now from what -it really is. - -The defeat of the Persians was so decisive that they withdrew to -their own country, but with the determination of returning, and in -overwhelming force. By reason of a variety of circumstances, including -the death of the king, the invasion did not take place until ten years -later. Then, in the year 480 B. C., King Xerxes set out on a punitive -expedition against Greece with an enormous military and naval force. - -Again Greece was saved from Persia by pure brain power, that of -Themistocles. Like Miltiades, he rejected the obvious. Discerning, -as no one else discerned, that the weakest point in the Persian -forces was the line of communication across the Ægean Sea, because -the ships of those days were fragile, and an invading army needed to -get supplies continually from Persia, he pointed out that although it -was the Persian army that would do the actual damage in Greece, yet -nevertheless, the major effort of the Athenians should not be spent on -their army but on their navy. - -The difficulties he met in making the Athenians see the truth may -easily be imagined, from experiences in our own day. He succeeded at -last, however; so that by the time the Persians reached Greece, Greece -had a fleet that was very good, though not nearly so large as the -Persian. The fleets came near to each other in the vicinity of Athens. -The majority of the Athenian leaders advised that the Athenian fleet -should retreat toward the south and west, to the isthmus of Corinth, -and await the Persians there; because, if defeated, a safe retreat -could be effected. But Themistocles opposed this plan with all the -force and eloquence he could bring to bear; pointing out that the aim -of the Athenians should not be to find a safe line of retreat, but to -win a battle; and that the Bay of Salamis was the best place, for two -reasons. One reason was that the Persians would have to enter the bay -in column, because the entrance was narrow, and the Persian ships, as -they successively passed into the bay, would therefore be at a great -disadvantage against the combined attack of the Athenian ships, waiting -for them there; the other reason was that the bay was so small that the -great numbers and size of the Persian ships would be a disadvantage, -instead of an advantage. Themistocles (not without the use of -considerable diplomacy and even subterfuge) finally secured the assent -of the other Athenian leaders. The result was exactly what he predicted -that it would be. The Persian fleet was wholly defeated, and Greece -again was saved. - -The great victory of the Greeks over the Persians wrought a powerful -stimulation among all the people, especially in Athens, and was -followed by the most extraordinary intellectual movement in the history -of the world. It lasted about a century and a half; and in no other -country, and at no other period, has so much intellectual achievement -been accomplished by so few people in so short a time. - -Before the Persian wars, the Greeks had already shown an extraordinary -originality in art and literature; especially in architecture, -sculpture and poetry. Naturally these peaceful arts languished during -the wars; but after the Persian invaders had been finally ejected, they -rose with renewed vigor, stimulated by the patriotic enthusiasm of the -nation as a whole. - -It was in Athens, and among the Athenians that most of the movement -was carried on. The principal state in Greece besides Athens then -was Sparta. The Spartans devoted themselves mainly to warlike and -allied arts, while the Athenians devoted themselves mainly to the -beautification of Athens; though they were careful to guard it -adequately by maintaining an excellent navy, surrounding the city with -high walls, and building two long parallel walls from Athens to Piræus, -its seaport. - -It would be out of place in a book like this to attempt any description -or discussion of the various phases of the intellectual activities that -rose with such startling quickness, and developed into such important -movements, during the century and a half that followed the Persian -wars; especially as this has already been done by many scholars, -in many languages, and at many times. A very brief and elementary -statement may, however, be made, for the purpose of illustrating the -influence of invention on history. - -The main characteristic of the movement as a whole and of every -one of the various channels which it followed, was originality. No -such perception of beauty had ever been evidenced before; no such -conceptions of logic, philosophy or science. - -Accompanying these was a conception of free government equally -original. Whether the government of Athens was the cause of the -intellectual rise, or the intellectual rise was the cause of the -government, may safely be left to scholars to debate; for the purposes -of the present discussion, it seems sufficient that they co-existed and -had together a powerful influence on history. - -The greatest genius that guided the intellectual forces of the -Athenians in the matter of government was that of Pericles, who ruled -their minds by pure force of argument and persuasion, from about 445 -to 431 B. C. Athens and her subject cities formed a virtual empire, -small in extent, but powerful in influence; though in form it was a -democracy. In some ways it was the most perfect democracy that ever -has existed even to this day; for not only was every citizen available -for office, but he was expected to take active part in deciding public -measures, and to be really qualified to hold office. - -This idea was put into practical operation by a careful system of -payment for every public service; to the end that even the poorest -citizen should be enabled to hold office, and a wealthy office-holding -caste prevented from existing. To so great an extent was this carried -out that, by the time that the Age of Pericles ceased and the -Peloponnesian War began, almost every citizen was in the pay of the -state. The perfect equality of all the citizens, and their community -of interests and privileges, was recognized by supplying them at -times with free tickets to places of amusement, and by banqueting the -people on great occasions at the expense of the state. To distribute -widely the powers and duties of citizenship, exceedingly large juries -were established for the trials of all cases. There was no king or -president or prime minister. The source of authority was the Assembly -which included every citizen over eighteen years of age, and held forty -meetings a year. Cooperating, as a sort of committee, was a Council of -Five Hundred, whose members were chosen by lot each year from citizens -over thirty years of age. - -The success of the Athenian democracy has had a powerful influence ever -since on history; because it has supplied not only a precedent but an -encouragement to every people to try to escape from the individual -restrictions that monarchies and all "strong governments" tend to -impose. But it had another though less powerful influence also, -which continued for a long while, but now has ceased, in supplying a -precedent for slavery. For while the citizens of Athens were free, only -the sons of Athenian fathers and Athenian mothers could be citizens; -many thousand workers and merchants of all kinds could take no part in -the government, and there were besides an enormous number of slaves. -It was to a great degree the fact of slavery that made possible the -success of the so-called Athenian democracy; for it liberated the -citizens in very great measure from the drudgery of life, and gave them -leisure to devote themselves to the study of government and the arts. - -In addition, Athens acquired great wealth from the spoils of its wars -and the tribute of its subject states. This wealth was expended largely -in the beautifying of Athens, and in the consequent encouragement -and opportunity to artists of all kinds. Naturally, the art most -immediately encouraged was that of architecture; and that the -encouragement met with ready and great success the most beautiful ruins -in the world superbly testify. The directing genius in this work and -in all the others was Pericles, who stimulated the Athenians with his -conception and description of a city worthy to symbolize the power and -glory of the empire. The twin arts of architecture and sculpture worked -together and in harmony; and a city more beautiful than ever known -before, or ever known since, testified to the soundness and brilliancy -of the conception and to the constructive ability of the Athenians to -embody it in material form. - -The poets and scholars kept pace with the statesmen and the architects -and the sculptors; but the philosophers surpassed them all. For, while -the successful democracy of Athens is a model still, and while the -Parthenon and the statue of Apollo are models still, yet an integral -part of the system of government (slavery) has been abjured by the -civilized world, and the temples and the statues have been for the -pleasure of but a few; while the teachings of the philosophers have -been the basis on which has rested ever since much of the intellectual -progress of mankind. - -It may be noted here that, as men have progressed up the steep road to -civilization, the only guides they have had have been men who have not -themselves passed over the road before, and whose only qualification -as guides has lain in some attribute of the mind that enabled them -to survey the road a little farther ahead than the others could, and -to point out the paths to take, and the obstructions to avoid. Man's -physical instincts guide him considerably as to the methods to preserve -his physical existence; but they help him not at all to lift himself -above his physical self, and in many ways they hinder him. It seems -to be the office of the mind both to discern the upward paths and to -stimulate the will to overcome the difficulties and dangers in the way. - -Of the great pointers of the way, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and -others, it might be deemed presumptuous of the present author to do -more than speak; and of the great stimulators, Æschuylus, Sophocles, -Euripedes, Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, and, above all, Demosthenes -as well. But because it is pertinent to our subject it is instructive -for us to note that the main distinctive feature of the work of each -was originality. It is true that it is the completed work in the case -of each that meets our gaze; it is true that the superficial impression -would be the same, even if each work had been a copy of some work that -had gone before; in the same way that, superficially, many a copy of -an oil painting is as good as the original. But from the standpoint -of influence on the future, it is the originator rather than the -copyist who wields the influence; just as it is the basic inventor of a -mechanical appliance rather than the man who improves upon it. - -The Athenians and Spartans became involved in the Peloponnesian War, -that lasted from 431 to 404 B. C., and ended with the capture of -Athens. The Spartans thereupon became dominant in Greece, but only to -be mastered by the Thebans in 371 B. C. The little jealous states of -Greece were never able to agree together long, and no one state was -ever able to unite them. But the half-barbarian people of Macedonia, -under Philip their king, after developing their army, according to a -novel system invented by him, overcame and then united under their sway -the highly cultured but now military weak states that had despised them. - -Possibly, it would somewhat strain the meaning of the word invention, -to declare that Philip made a radically new invention, when he -improved on the Theban phalanx, and devised his system of military -training; for kings and other leaders had trained armies long before -Philip lived, and Philip departed only in what some might call detail -from the methods that had been used before. But, at the same time, -it was an act, or a series of acts, betokening great initiative and -originality, for a man ruling a weak collection of tribes such as dwelt -in Macedon, to create out of such crude material as he began with, such -an extraordinary army as he ultimately was able to lead to battle. To -accomplish this it was necessary for him to conceive the idea of doing -it, then to embody his conception in a formulated plan, and then bring -forth the finished product. The thought of doing it must have come to -him:--how else could he get it? An idea comes from outside through the -mental eye to the mind; as a ray of light comes from outside through -the physical eye to the retina. - -The picture made on Philip's mind must have impressed him profoundly, -for he spent the rest of his life in giving it "a local habitation -and a name." To accomplish it cost him years of continual effort of -many kinds, but he did accomplish it. He did, as a result, produce a -machine, as truly a machine as Stephenson ever produced, but made up of -many more parts; each part independent of any other, and yet dependent -on every other, and all working together, for a common purpose. - -Let us remind ourselves again that a machine composed of inanimate -parts only is only one kind of machine; for a machine may be composed -of animate parts, or inanimate parts, or of parts of which some are -animate and some inanimate. Clearly, it makes no difference, so far -as the act of invention goes, whether a man uses animate or inanimate -parts; the essential of invention is the creation of a new thing. If a -man merely puts two pieces of wood and a piece of string into a pile, -or if he merely collects a number of men together, no invention is made -and nothing is created. But if he so combines the two pieces of wood -and the string as to make a bow and arrow; or if he combines a modified -Theban phalanx with masses of cavalry and catapults in a novel and -effective way as Philip did, invention is exercised and something is -created. - -Before Philip's time a phalanx was used to bear the brunt of the -battle, and to overwhelm the enemy by mere strength and force; as the -Thebans did at Leuctra and Mantinea. But Philip conceived the idea of -merely holding the enemy with his phalanx assisted by the catapults, -and hurling his cavalry against their flanks. Philip's army, as Philip -used it, was a machine and a very powerful one:--each part independent -of every other, yet dependent on every other--all the parts working -together for a common purpose. Philip conceived the idea of making -this machine, and afterwards made it; just as Ericsson more than two -thousand years later conceived the idea of making a "_Monitor_" and -afterwards made it. - -By means of his machine Philip defeated the Greeks at Cheronea in the -year 338 B. C., just as Ericsson by means of his machine defeated the -_Merrimac_ at Newport News in the year 1862 A. D., exactly twenty-two -centuries later. The two machines differed, it is true. Yet they did -not differ so much as one might unthinkingly suppose; for each machine -was made up of parts, of which some were animate and some were not; and -in each machine every part, animate or inanimate, cooperated with all -the others; and all cooperated together, to carry out the inventor's -purpose, the destruction of the enemy. - -The influence of Philip's invention began before Philip died, and it -continues to this day. For after Philip's death, his son Alexander put -it to work at once on the task of subduing thoroughly all of Greece, -and then subduing Asia. - -The influence of the machine in subduing even Greece alone must not be -regarded lightly; not so much because Greece was subdued, as because -the various little states were by that means brought together; and -because it illustrates the fact that without a machine, no great number -of people can work together. It _was because of the absence of any -machine_ that the Grecian states acted separately and antagonistically, -instead of in cooperation. - -After subduing Greece, Alexander took his machine across the -Hellespont, in the year 334 B. C., to try it on the Persian troops -in Asia Minor. The machine worked so successfully at a battle on the -Granicus that Alexander took it south, and with its aid was able to -conquer all of Asia Minor in about a year. - -It may be objected that it is not correct to attribute all of -Alexander's success to the excellence of his machine; and this -objection would have great force and receive the approval of most -people, for the reason that, in most histories, the main credit is -given to the energy of Alexander and the courage of his troops;--though -the excellence of the training and organization bequeathed by Philip is -admitted. - -To this hypothetical objection the answer may be made that the ultimate -result was due to both the machine and the excellence with which it was -operated; that is, to the product of what the machine could do if it -were used with perfect skill and the percentage of skill with which it -was actually used. This statement is, of course, true of all machines -and instruments, as the author has often pointed out, in articles and -addresses. - -In the case of Alexander and his army, the percentage of skill, of -course, was high; but Alexander and each one of his soldiers was only -a part of the machine; and even their skill was part of the machine -in the sense that it was a characteristic included in the original -design of Philip. In other words, we should not fall into the error of -dissociating the skill of Alexander and his soldiers from the machine -itself; because it was part of Philip's invention that the training -should produce that skill. The system of training was part of the -invention. - -It is true, however, and exceedingly important, that the degree of -skill which Alexander brought to bear personally was far in excess of -what any system of training could possibly produce. When we read of the -amazing victories that Alexander made over superior forces of highly -trained warriors, we see that Philip of Macedon should not be given -all the credit; that the genius of Philip of Macedon was not the only -genius contributing to the result. We see that genius of some kind -directed the decisions of Alexander. What were the characteristics of -that genius? - -Courage? Yes; history tells of no one possessing higher courage, -both physical and moral, than Alexander. Not only was he physically -brave, not only did he dare physical danger of many kinds, and on many -occasions, but he was morally brave; he did not shirk responsibility; -he did not fear to take enormous risks; he did not hesitate to reject -advice, even the advice of his most experienced and able generals; he -was willing to stake everything, sometimes, on the success of some -wholly untried expedient of his own devising. - -But does mere courage, even of so many kinds--and even if it be added -to trained skill and the possession of an admirable machine--do they -all together explain the amazing successes of Alexander? No. What does -explain them? - -Genius? Yes, but the word genius is only a word, and explains nothing; -for the reason that no one knows what the word genius means. It is -merely a label that we attach to a man who is able to do things that -other men cannot do. But granting that the possession of "genius" is -an explanation of Alexander's being able to accomplish what he did, in -what way did that genius operate? in what way did it help him to win so -many victories and extricate himself from so many perilous situations? - -By inventing methods and devising schemes and improvising plans -that an uninventive man would not have thought of. The story of the -Gordian knot may or may not be true; but it seems credible, because -it was exactly the kind of a thing that Alexander might have been -expected to do in such an emergency. Posing as a great conqueror, he -was (according to the legend) suddenly confronted with the untying of -a knot, the successful accomplishment of which would make him master -of Asia. He realized that he could not untie it. Any man but a man -like Alexander would have tried it and acknowledged failure, or have -declined to try it: placing himself in a defensive position in either -case. But Alexander draws his sword and cuts the knot in two, thereby -accomplishing whatever the untying of the knot would have accomplished, -but in an unexpected way. Alexander's victories and escapes from -perilous positions were largely accomplished by unexpected measures. - -But Alexander showed his inventive ability before he invaded Persia; -in his very first campaign undertaken to subdue a revolt in Thessaly -immediately after he ascended to the throne. The Thessalians opposed -him in a narrow defile. An ordinary man would have thought, as the -Thessalians did, that he was checkmated. But Alexander conceived and -executed the ingenious scheme of cutting a new road up the steep -side of the mountain, leading his army along that road, and suddenly -threatening the Thessalians in their helpless rear. Shortly afterward -in Thrace he reached a defile in the mountains which it was necessary -for him to pass, but which he found defended by a force that had -stationed a number of war-chariots at the top, to be rolled down on the -Macedonians. Alexander immediately ordered his infantry to advance up -the path and to open their ranks whenever possible to let the chariots -rush through; but when that could not be done to fall on their knees -and hold their shields together as a sort of roof on which the chariots -would slide, and from which they would roll off. This amazing story is -supposed to be true; and it is said to have succeeded perfectly. - -Not long afterward Alexander had to cross the Danube with his army and -all their equipments and attack a force of barbarians on the farther -bank. This he saw he could not do by the use of any means available of -an ordinary kind. Nothing daunted, he conceived and executed the scheme -of floating his equipments across at night in floats made of tent -skins, filled with hay. - -The next clear example that we find of Alexander's inventiveness -was when he undertook the siege of Tyre. Tyre stood on an island -of Phoenicia in the extreme eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. -It was surrounded with a wall, very thick and very high, and was -separated from the shore by half a mile of deep water. To capture -such a place was no small undertaking for a man who had no ships. But -Alexander conceived and executed a scheme that worked successfully. -In accordance with that scheme, he built a causeway that extended -from the shore out toward the island on which Tyre stood. Naturally, -the Tyrians obstructed his efforts by sending fireships against -him and firing projectiles; and these tactics became more and more -effective as the causeway approached the city. Then Alexander visited -some of the jealous neighbors of Tyre that had submitted to him, and -secured a fleet of some eighty ships; and these he led, as the admiral -commanding, against the Tyrian harbor. - -By this time, the causeway was well protected with catapults and -war-engines of various kinds, and had been carried close up to the -island. Yet little actual damage could be done to Tyre, because of the -height and thickness of the walls, and because Alexander's galleys that -he had equipped with war-engines could not get close enough, by reason -of large boulders under water. Alexander then equipped certain galleys -with windlasses to root up the boulders, the galleys being fitted -with chain cables to prevent divers from cutting them. Tyre was soon -afterwards reduced to a purely passive defense and consequent surrender. - -The story of the siege of Tyre, if read in the light of the conditions -of the comparative barbarism of the world in those days, is a record of -inventiveness, on the part of Alexander, so convincing and complete, as -to entitle Alexander to a place in the first rank among the inventors -of our race. - -Shortly afterward Alexander reached the town of Gaza, the great -stronghold of the Philistines. It stood on high ground, and was -more than two miles from the sea. Alexander's engineers reported to -him that, as the fleet could not assist them, and as the walls were -themselves very high and stood on a high hill, the walls could never be -stormed. Things looked serious. They were serious; and failure would -then have come to any man, except a man like Alexander. He cut the -Gordian knot by ordering that ramparts be thrown up as high as the top -of the walls, and war engines placed on the ramparts. This was done, -and the city was taken. - -Alexander's campaigns in Egypt, and afterward in western Asia, were -characterized by the same quickness and daring, both in conception and -in execution, that had marked his opening campaigns in Greece. Later, -when advancing toward Persia, he encountered a tribe of hillsmen in -the Uxian Pass, who, like the Thessalians and the Thracians, thought -they had blocked his passage by opposing him in so narrow a defile. -Alexander literally "circumvented" them by making a night march over -a difficult mountain pass, and astonishing them by an attack on -their rear the following morning. Shortly afterward a like situation -presented itself, when an army opposed him in a narrow defile called -the Persian Gates, that was fortified with a wall. Alexander soon -realized that the position of his enemy was impregnable. He learned, -however, that there was a path that led around the pass, though it was -exceedingly dangerous, particularly to men in armor and to horses, -and especially at that time, when snow and ice were on the ground. He -again utilized his former invention (circumvention) and with his former -success; though the conditions under which it was accomplished were -much more difficult. - -The four examples just given of literally circumventing an uninventive -enemy illustrate in the simplest form the influence of invention on -military history. - -After it became clear to Alexander that his invasion of Asia would -be successful from a military point of view, his active imagination -presented to his mind a picture of a grand and noble empire, embracing -the whole world, but dominated and inspired by the spirit of the -civilization of Greece. To develop this conception into an actual -reality, became at once the object of his efforts. To develop it, he -decided to adopt in some measure the characteristics and dress of -the people in whatever province he might be, and to take such steps -in organizing provinces, founding cities and establishing systems, as -to weld all into one empire, under himself, as ruler. One can hardly -credit the authoritative account he reads of Alexander's bewildering -success. He seems not only to have won battles, and built cities, -and organized provinces, but actually to have super-posed Greek -civilization on Persian civilization! - -In one of his most important later battles, Alexander again utilized -his inventiveness. If he had not done so, he would assuredly have lost -the battle. It was against King Porus in northwestern India. Alexander -found the forces of Porus encamped on the opposite side of the Hydaspes -River, with the evident intention of preventing him from crossing. As -the army of Porus in men alone was evidently equal to his own, and -as it was reinforced with a multitude of elephants, Alexander was -apparently confronted with a problem impossible of solution. It would -have been impossible to anyone but a man like Alexander. He, however, -by means of various feints and ingenious stratagems, managed to get -across at night about sixteen miles up the river, using boats that he -had constructed, and floats of skin stuffed with straw. Porus took up -a position on the opposite shore and made ready to receive attack, his -front preceded by war chariots and elephants. Alexander had neither; -but he did have brains and originality. So he simply held the enemy -with his infantry, and then made a determined attack with cavalry and -archers on the enemy's left flank, and especially on the elephants. The -elephants soon got beyond control; and the rest of the battle was a -fight between a highly trained Macedonian phalanx, assisted by cavalry, -and an Oriental mob. - -Alexander died in Babylon when not quite thirty-three years old. In -actual and immediate achievement he surpassed perhaps every other man -who has ever lived. He founded an empire which he himself had conceived -and developed, which covered nearly all the then known world, and -which, though it was composed mainly of barbarous and semi-barbarous -people, was dominated by Greek thought. It is true that the empire -fell apart almost immediately after Alexander died. But it did not -fall into anarchy, or revert to its previous state: it was divided -into four parts, each of which was distinct, self-governing and well -organized. The two larger parts, the kingdom of the Seleucidæ, which -occupied approximately the territory of Persia, and the kingdom of the -Ptolomies, or Egypt, continued as torch-bearers to civilization for -many centuries thereafter. - -Of the two, the former was the larger and was probably the better, -from an administrative point of view; but Egypt represented the finer -civilization; for Alexandria, with its library and its wonderful -museum, became the seat of learning and the resort of the scholars of -the world, and the centre of the Hellenistic civilization that followed -that of Greece. - -This Hellenistic civilization, it may here be pointed out, was in some -respects as fine as that of Greece, and in some respects was finer, -because it was more mature. But (perhaps for the reason that it was -more mature) it lacked much of the element that was the highest in the -Greek, the element that gave Greek civilization greater influence on -history than any other civilization ever had--the creative element. The -creative period of Greece ceased when her political liberty was lost. -Furthermore, the immense amount of wealth that poured into the Grecian -cities and the Græco-Oriental world, by reason of the putting into -circulation of gold that had been stored away in Oriental palaces, -as well as by the commercial exploitation of the riches of the East, -brought about a general effeminizing of all classes of society, and the -consequent dulling of their minds. - -[Illustration: The Lighthouse of the Harbor of Alexandria in the -Hellenistic Age] - -Nevertheless, there was great intellectual activity in the -Græco-Oriental world, and a certain measure of invention, though little -was of a basic kind. Euclid improved the science of geometry, and put -it in virtually the same shape as that in which it has been taught -since, even to this day. Aristarchus, the astronomer, announced the -doctrine that the earth revolves around the sun and rotates on its -own axis; and Hipparchus invented the plan of fixing the positions of -places on the earth by their latitudes north and south of the Equator -and their longitude east or west of a designated meridian. Hippocrates -and Galen conceived and developed the foundations of the science of -medicine of the present day. Eratosthenes estimated with extraordinary -accuracy the circumference of the earth, and founded the science of -geography. - -But the greatest of all of the original workers of that time was -Archimedes, who lived at Syracuse in Sicily, and was killed by mistake -when Syracuse was captured in the year 212 B. C., while engaged in -drawing a geometrical figure on the sand. His principal fame is as a -mathematician; but as a great inventor of mechanical appliances, he -is the first man recognized as such in history. The invention with -which his name is most frequently linked is that of the Archimedean -screw. This consisted of a tube, wound spirally around an inclined -axle, and so disposed that when the lower end of the tube was dipped -into water and the axle was rotated water would rise in the tube--as -shavings do when a screw is screwed down into wood. It constituted a -very convenient pump and was so used. This was, of course, a mechanical -invention of the utmost originality and value, and forms one of the -clearly defined stepping-stones to civilization. - -There seems to be a belief in the minds of some that Archimedes was the -inventor of the lever. The lever was, of course, invented long before -he lived; but the laws of its operation and the principle that the -weight on each side of the fulcrum, multiplied by its distance from -the fulcrum, is equal to the weight on the other side, multiplied by -its distance (when the lever is in equilibrium), seems to have been -established by him. - -Many stories are told of his exploits when Syracuse was besieged by -the Romans, but they are rather vague. The best known story is that he -arranged a great many mirrors in such a way that he concentrated so -many rays of sunlight on some Roman ships that they took fire. Whether -this is true or not is not definitely known; but many centuries later -Buffon, the French scientist, made an arrangement of plane mirrors -with which he set fire to wood 200 feet away. - -The greatest single exploit of Archimedes was his discovery and -demonstration of the hydrostatic principle that the weight of liquid -displaced by a body floating in it is equal to that of the body. -The story is that the king gave him the apparently impossible task -of determining the quantity of gold and the quantity of silver in a -certain gold coin, in making which the king suspected the workmen of -stealing part of the gold and substituting silver. Pondering this -subject later while lying in his bath, Archimedes suddenly realized -that his body displaced a bulk of water equal to that part of his body -that was immersed, and conceived the consequent law; and the conception -was so startling and so vivid that he rushed unclad out into the street -crying, "I have found it, I have found it." - -The story as a story may not be exactly true; but if Archimedes -had realized the full purport and the never-ending result of his -conception, he would probably have done something even more eccentric -than he did. - - * * * * * - -Archimedes esteemed mechanical inventions as greatly inferior in value -to those speculations and demonstrations that convince the mind, and -considered that his chief single work was discovering the mathematical -relation between a sphere and a cylinder just containing it. - -Whether this discovery and the discovery of the hydrostatic principle -just mentioned were inventions or not, depends, of course, on the -meaning of the word invention. Within the meaning of the word as -employed heretofore in this book, both seem to have been inventions. -Each made a definite creation and each caused something to exist, -the like of which had never existed before. Furthermore, the mental -processes followed resemble very closely the conception and formulation -of a religion or a theory, the conception and composing of a new piece -of music, story or poem, the conception and developing of any new -plan or scheme; the conception and embodying in material form of any -mechanical device. - -It is not asserted, of course, that all inventions are on a dead level -of equality, simply because they are inventions. Evidently there are -degrees of excellence among inventions as among all other things. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -INVENTION IN ROME: ITS RISE AND FALL - - -We have noted, up to a time approximately that of Archimedes, a -continual succession of inventions of many kinds, that formed -stepping-stones to civilization so large and plain, that we can see -them even from this distance. - -We now come to a period lasting more than a thousand years, in -the first half of which there was a gradually decreasing lack of -inventiveness shown, and in the latter half a cessation almost complete. - -The nation that followed Greece as the dominant nation of the world was -Rome. She became more truly a dominant nation than Greece ever was; but -her civilization was built on that of Greece, and her success even in -war and government was due largely to following where Greece had led. -That Rome in her early days should have followed the methods of Greece -was natural of course; for the two countries were close together, and -the methods of Greece had brought success. The early religion of Rome -was so like that of Greece that even to this day the conceptions of -most of us regarding Zeus and Jupiter, Poseidon and Neptune, Aphrodite -and Venus are apt to become confused. - -Like the Greeks, the Romans first were gathered in city-states that -were governed by kings; and as with the Greeks, more republican forms -were adopted later. In one important particular, the Roman practice -diverged from the Greek, and that was in incorporating conquered -states into the parent state, and granting their inhabitants the -privileges of citizenship; instead of keeping them in the condition -of mere subject states. The Roman system was somewhat like the system -of provinces established by the Assyrians. It forms the basis of the -"municipal system" of the free states of the present day, in which -local self-government is carried on, under the paramount authority of -the state. - -It may be pointed out here that the conception of such an idea and its -successful development into an effective machine of government by the -Romans constituted an invention; though in view of what had been done -before by Assyria and Greece, it cannot be called a basic invention. - -The early Romans were very different in their mental characteristics -from the Greeks; for they were stern, warlike, intensely practical, and -possessed of an extraordinary talent for what we now call "team work." -As a nation they were not so inventive as the Greeks; but the Roman, -Cæsar, was the greatest military inventor who ever lived. - -As might be expected, their early endeavors pertained to war, and their -first improvements were in warlike things. One improvement that was -marked by considerable inventiveness was in changing the phalanx into -the legion. The phalanx, the historian Botsford tells us, was "invented -by the Spartans, probably in the eighth century B. C.," and consisted -of an unbroken line of warriors, several ranks deep. The Thebans -improved on this; and from the Theban, Philip developed the Macedonian -phalanx with which Alexander fought his way through Asia. The Romans -under Servius Tullius developed this into the Roman phalanx, which was -different only in detail. The essential characteristic of the phalanx -was strength. This was gained by the close support given by each man -to his neighbor, the personal strength of each man and the trained -co-operation of all. A tremendous blow was given to an enemy's line -when a phalanx struck it. - -In the early wars among the hills of Italy, the Romans found the -phalanx too rigid for such uneven country; and it was in endeavoring -to invent a substitute that they finally developed the legion. This -machine was much more flexible, the individual soldiers had more -room for their movements, and yet the machine seemed to possess the -necessary rigidity when the shock of impact came. The heavy infantry -was in three lines, and each line was divided into ten companies, or -"maniples." The burden of the first attack was borne by the first -line. If unsuccessful, the first line withdrew through gaps in the -second line, and the second line took up the task;--and then the third, -composed of the most seasoned troops. The attack usually began with the -hurling of javelins, and was followed at once by an assault with the -Roman strong short swords. - -Now the legion was just as truly an invented machine as a steam engine -is; and it had a greater influence on history than the steam engine has -ever had thus far. It was by means of their legions that the Romans -passed outside of the walls of Rome, and conquered all of Italy. It -was by means of their legions that the Romans conquered all the coast -peoples that bordered the Mediterranean Sea, subdued Gaul, Europe and -Egypt and Asia, and became the greatest masters of the world that the -world has ever seen. - -The first war of the Romans that history calls great was their war -against the splendid and wealthy city of Carthage, situated on the -opposite side of the Mediterranean, inhabited by descendants of the -Phoenicians. They were an aggressive and energetic people, but only -commercially. They were not of the warlike cast, and delegated the work -of national defense to hired soldiers and sailors. They had one great -advantage over the Romans in the possession of an excellent navy. - -The Romans resolved to create a navy. With characteristic energy -and practical ability, they devoted themselves at once to both the -acquisition of the personnel and the material, and the adequate -training of the crews. It is stated that within two months from the -time of starting, Rome possessed a hundred quinqueremes, the largest -galleys of those days, having five tiers of rowers; though they had had -none when the war broke out. The first naval battle took place near the -promontory of Mylæ. Naturally, the Romans were at a great disadvantage -as compared with the experienced officers and sailors in the -Carthaginian fleet; for though the Roman soldier was far better than -the Carthaginian, the Roman sailor was inexperienced and unskilful. -To remedy the difficulty, the Romans made a simple but brilliant -invention. They provided each quinquereme with a "corvus," that -consisted essentially of a drawbridge that could be lowered quickly, -and that carried a sharp spike at its outer end; and then arranged a -plan whereby each quinquereme should get alongside of a Carthaginian, -drop the drawbridge at such a time that the spike would hold the outer -end of the drawbridge in place on the Carthaginian deck, and Roman -soldiers should then rush across the drawbridge and attack the inferior -Carthaginian soldiers. - -Few more brilliant inventions have ever been made; few have been more -successful and effective. The battle ended in a perfect victory for the -Romans, and constituted the initial step in the subjugation of Carthage -by Rome. - -There were three wars in all, called Punic Wars. The great Carthaginian -General, Hannibal, invaded Italy by land in the Second War, and after -a campaign marked with a high order of daring and ability, threatened -Rome herself after a brilliant victory near Lake Trasimene. Another -victory followed at Cannæ, but a decisive disaster later on the -Metaurus River. So the Second War was won by Rome. But Carthage still -existed, and menaced the commercial, naval and military dominance of -Rome. Therefore war was brought about at last by Rome, and Carthage -destroyed completely. - -The conduct of Rome toward Carthage cannot be justified on any grounds -of any system of morality accepted at the present day; and yet it -cannot reasonably be denied that it was better for human progress that -Rome should prevail than Carthage. The Romans, harsh and ruthless -as they were, were less so than the Carthaginians; and they had an -element of strong manliness and a comprehensive grasp of things beyond -mere commerce and money-getting and ease and comfort that the Semitic -Carthaginians wholly lacked. The effect of the conquest of Carthage by -Rome was a little like that of the conquest of Persia by Alexander. - -During the same year (146 B. C.) when Rome destroyed Carthage, she also -destroyed Corinth in Greece, and brought Greece and Macedonia under her -sway. She had previously (190 B. C.) defeated Antiochus the Great, and -taken from him nearly all his territory in Asia Minor. - -By the year 58 B. C., Rome had become the most powerful nation in the -world and still preserved a republican form of government. In that -year, 58 B. C., the man who probably is the most generally regarded -as the greatest man who has ever lived, appeared upon the stage of -history. His name was Julius Cæsar. - -He appeared in that year, because he went then from Rome to Gaul, -and started on those brilliant and in many respects unprecedented -campaigns which have had so profound an effect on history, and which -for originality in conception and execution have had no rivals since. - -At this time, Italy and the lands of Africa and Asia on which -Alexander had impressed the civilization of Greece, were prosperous -and well-governed; but beyond those countries only barbarous customs -prevailed, and only a primitive civilization reigned. The lands that -lay north and northwest of Italy, throughout all Gaul, were inhabited -by savage tribes that were in a state of continual war with each other. -In the southern and middle parts the effects of Roman civilization -might be dimly seen; but in the southwestern part, and in the north, -especially among the German tribes on the Rhine, and the Belgæ near the -North Sea, a condition of virtually pure savagery prevailed. - -Into such a country Cæsar marched, at the head of a body of men wholly -inferior in numbers to those they were to meet, not superior to them -in courage or physical strength, but considerably superior to them -in discipline, and vastly superior in the weapons and methods that -had gradually been invented, with the progress of civilization. Thus, -while the Roman machine was superior as a machine to any that the -Gauls could bring to bear, it was smaller; so that the question to be -decided was whether the superior excellence of the Roman machine was -great enough to balance its inferiority in size. Looking back from our -vantage ground on the history of the campaigns that followed, we feel -inclined to answer the question in the negative, unless we consider -Cæsar himself a part of the machine. It is true that the campaigns were -decided in favor of the Roman machine; but there seems little ground -for doubting that they would not have been so decided, if the genius -of Cæsar had not managed the Roman machine and made improvements from -time to time. - -Cæsar had had little experience as a soldier, but his habits of life -and traits of character were of the military kind. As the campaigns -progressed, his courage, equanimity and rapidity of thought and action -were continually displayed;--yet not to such a degree as to put him -in a higher class than many other generals of history, or to account -wholly for his marvellous successes. One peculiar ability, however, -he possessed and exercised in a degree greater than any other general -of history: and it was by the exercise of that ability that his most -extraordinary victories were achieved, and his generalship especially -distinguished from the generalship of others. That ability was -inventiveness. - -His first contact was with the Swiss (Helvetii), who were about to -leave the barrenness of their mountain lands, and march west to the -fertile lands beyond. As this would take them through Roman territory -and tend to drive the Gauls into Italy, open Switzerland to occupation -by the Germans, and point a road thence for them also into Italy, -Cæsar hastened to the Rhône River, destroyed the bridge which they -would naturally go over, and forbade the Swiss to attempt to cross the -river. The Swiss pleaded with Cæsar to permit them to cross. As Cæsar -realized that the Swiss were too greatly superior in force to be kept -back, unless he could strengthen himself in some way, he asked time -for reflection, and told them to return in two weeks. When the Swiss -returned at the end of that time, their astonished eyes disclosed to -them the fact that Cæsar had constructed walls and trenches and forts -at every point where a passage could reasonably be attempted. - -It may be objected that walls and trenches and forts were not new, and -that therefore Cæsar invented nothing. This may be admitted as an -academic proposition; but nevertheless, it was clearly the ingenious -and wholly unexpected construction of certain appliances by Cæsar that -opposed the barbarous Swiss with barriers which they could not pass. It -may even be argued with much reason that the conception and successful -execution of Cæsar's plan as a whole constituted an invention, even -though the material used was old. Certain it is that a situation was -created which did not exist before, and that it was the creation of -this situation, and not the exercise of strength or courage, that was -_the determining factor_ in stopping the Swiss. Froude says of Cæsar, -"He was never greater than in unlooked-for difficulties. He never -rested. He was always inventing some new contrivance." - -Cæsar realized fully the value in war of mechanical appliances, -and took careful measures before he left Italy to supply his army -adequately with them, and also with men trained to use them. Besides -the fighting men strictly considered, Cæsar took a considerable number -of engineers with him, and expert men for building bridges, and doing -mechanical work of many kinds. The ingenious and frequent use that -Cæsar made of these men and of mechanical appliances was the most -powerful single factor that contributed to his success. - -The Swiss departing from Switzerland by another route, Cæsar pursued -them, and defeated a fourth of them in a battle on the banks of a river -which the other three-fourths had crossed. He then built a bridge -over the river and sent his army across. This feat alarmed the Swiss -more than their defeat; because Cæsar had built the bridge and sent -his army across in one day, whereas they had consumed twenty days in -merely crossing. The Swiss pleaded to be allowed to proceed; but Cæsar -was obdurate. A battle followed, in which the Swiss, though greatly -superior in numbers and reinforced by 15,000 allies, were decisively -beaten; not because of inferior courage or warlike skill, but by reason -of inferior equipments, mechanical appliances and weapons. - -Cæsar's next battle was with the Germans. It was won, if not precisely -with inventiveness, at least with "brains." He learned that the -German matrons had declared, after certain occult proceedings, that -Heaven forbade them to fight before the new moon. Apprehending his -opportunity, he advanced his forces right up to the German camp, -thereby forcing them as valiant soldiers to come out and fight. Fight -they did, but under an obvious psychological disadvantage, and with the -natural result. - -In this battle, as in others between the Romans and the barbarians, -it was noticeable that although their first onslaught was fine, the -barbarians seemed to be at a loss afterwards,--if anything unexpected -occurred, or if any reverse was sustained; whereas the Romans--and -especially Cæsar himself--never behaved so well as when threatened -with disaster. This may be expressed by saying that the barbarians, as -compared with the Romans, were wholly inferior in the inventiveness -needed to devise a new plan quickly. - -Not long afterward, Cæsar advanced against the town of Noviodunum. He -soon saw that he could not take it by storm; and so he brought forward -his mechanical siege appliances. The psychological effect of these on -the barbarians was so tremendous that they at once pleaded for terms of -surrender. - -After a battle with the Nervii, in which Cæsar defeated them -disastrously, largely because of his resourcefulness in emergency and -their lack of it, he advanced against a great barbarian stronghold -that looked down on steep rocks on three sides, and was protected by -a thick, high double wall on the fourth side. Cæsar made a fortified -rampart around the town, pushed his mantlets (large shields on wheels -protected on the sides and top) close up to the wall, and built a -tower. The barbarians laughed at this tower; seeing it so far away -that, they thought, no darts thrown from it could reach them. But when -they saw the tower actually moving toward them they were struck with -terror and began at once to sue for peace. - -During the following winter the Veneti, a large tribe on the -northwestern coast, the most skilful seamen and navigators of Gaul, -stirred up a revolt that quickly and widely spread. The situation at -once became serious for Cæsar, for the reason that the Veneti could not -be subdued, except on the sea; and neither the Roman sailors nor the -Roman vessels were as good as were those of the Veneti. Nevertheless, -Cæsar ordered war-vessels to be built on the Loire River, and seamen -and rowers to be drafted from the Roman Province. - -When the improvised fleet of the Romans and the thoroughly prepared -fleet of the Veneti came together, the latter was superior even in -numbers. Furthermore, the Romans were at a great disadvantage in the -matter of throwing projectiles, from the fact that the Veneti's decks -were higher than theirs. - -But Cæsar had prepared a scheme that gave him victory. In accordance -with it, the Roman galleys rowed smartly against the Veneti ships, and -Roman sailors raised long poles on which were sharp hooks which they -put over the halliards that held up the sails. Then each Roman galley -rowed rapidly away, the halliards were cut, and down came the sails. -The Veneti ships became helpless at once and were immediately boarded; -with the result that, of all the number, only a few made their escape. - -Somewhat later, Cæsar decided to cross the Rhine into the country of -the Sueves, and to impress them with the power of Rome by building a -bridge and marching his army across. This bridge and the quickness and -thoroughness with which it was built are still models for engineers; -for in ten days after he had decided to build it, at which time the -material was still standing in the forest, a bridge 40 feet wide had -been constructed. Across this Cæsar at once marched his legions. The -effect on the barbarous Germans can be imagined. It made them realize -that the Romans were a race superior to themselves in ways that they -could not measure or even understand; and it impressed them with that -fear which is the most depressing of all fears, the fear of the unknown. - -Did Cæsar make an invention? This depends on the meaning of the word -invention. Cæsar did not invent the bridge; but he did conceive and -carry into execution a highly original, concrete and successful scheme. -By it he accomplished as much as a victorious campaign would have -accomplished, and without shedding any blood. _He devised means which -created a state of thought in the minds of his enemies that destroyed -their will to fight._ Therein lay his invention. - -Cæsar then conceived the idea of going across the water to the island -of Britain, about which little was known. After having a survey made -of the coast, he took his legions across in about eighty vessels. He -had to fight to make a landing, of course; but he succeeded, and then -formed his camp. A Roman camp, we may now remind ourselves, was so -distinctly a Roman conception, and so distinctly a part of the Roman -system of conducting war, that it almost constituted an invention. -Whenever a Roman army halted, even for one night, they intrenched -themselves within a square enclosure, surrounded with a ditch and -a palisade of stakes, and made a temporary little city, laid with -streets. In such a camp they were reasonably safe against any attack -that barbarians could make. - -But a storm arose that drove some of Cæsar's ships ashore and some out -to sea. In this emergency, Cæsar's resourcefulness and energy directed -the work of recovery and repair, and enabled the Romans to collect and -put into good condition nearly all their ships. Cæsar returned shortly -afterward to Gaul; arrived there, he gave directions for building and -equipping another and larger fleet. - -In the following July (54 B. C.), he started again for Britain. This -time he took five legions and some cavalry and had about 800 vessels. -He landed and formed his camp, and then advanced inland;--but another -storm arose that scattered his ships. He returned at once to the coast, -and instituted such prompt and resourceful measures that in ten days he -was able to resume his march. On this march, which took him far inland, -he was able to overcome all opposition; largely because, after the -first onset, the barbarians seemed to be without any plan of action, -while Cæsar was at his best. - -_Cæsar had the ability to invent under circumstances of the utmost -danger and excitement._ - -Cæsar's remaining campaigns in Gaul were marked with the same -resourcefulness and originality on his part, and the same lack of -resourcefulness and originality on the part of the barbarians. Cæsar -would continually do something that the barbarians had not expected him -to do. True, they gradually learned some of his schemes and methods -from him; but only to find that he had then some newer schemes and -methods. - -Cæsar at one time remarked that wise men anticipate possible -difficulties, and decide beforehand what they will do, if certain -possible occasions arise. Does not this process involve invention, -in cases where the possible occasions are not of the ordinary and -expectable kind? In such cases, does it not require imagination to -foresee the possible occasions, and form a correct picture on the mind -of the resulting situations? This being done, does it not require the -exercise of the constructive faculty afterwards, to make a concrete and -effective plan to meet them? - -If it be so, then we may reasonably declare that, of all the factors -that contributed to the successes in Gaul of Cæsar, the most powerful -single factor was his inventiveness. - -The final crisis came when Cæsar besieged Alesia, and Vercingetorix, -who had taken refuge in it, sent out a call for succor, that was -eagerly and promptly responded to; for it was plain to the barbarians -that Cæsar, being held in position fronting a fortress that he could -not successfully storm, would be in a precarious condition if attacked -vigorously in his rear. Attacked vigorously he was; for the barbarians -came in his rear with about 250,000 men; Cæsar having only 50,000, and -the enemy in front having 80,000. - -But it required somewhat more than a month for the barbarians to unite -and reach Alesia. With his wonted energy and resourcefulness, Cæsar had -by this time cast up siege works all around the fortress, placed camps -at strategic points, and constructed twenty-three block-houses. He dug -a trench twenty feet deep around the place, and back of this began his -other siege works. These included two parallel trenches fifteen feet -broad and fifteen feet deep. Behind these he built a palisade twelve -feet high, and to this he added a breastwork of pointed stakes; while -at intervals of eighty feet he constructed turrets. In addition, he -had branches cut from trees and sharpened on the ends; and these he -fastened at the bottom of the trenches, so that the points projected -just above the ground. In front of these he dug shallow pits, into -which tapering stakes hardened in the fire were driven, projecting -four inches above the ground. These pits were hidden with twigs and -brushwood. Eight rows of these pits were dug, three feet apart; and -in front of all stakes with iron hooks were buried in the ground at -irregular intervals. When all this had been done on the side toward the -fortress, Cæsar constructed parallel entrenchments of the same kind, to -protect his rear; the two sets being so arranged with respect to each -other that the same men could man both. Having constructed all these -material appliances, he instituted a comprehensive system of drills, so -that his men would know exactly how to utilize them under all probable -contingencies. - -In the battle that followed the barbarians showed their wonted courage -and dash; but an unexpected situation arose when Cæsar attacked a -separated part in their rear. Then they were seized with panic, and the -natural rout and disaster followed. - -This battle decided the fate of Gaul; though its actual subduing, -especially in the southwestern part was not accomplished immediately. -The last major act was taking a strong fortress. This was accomplished -by cutting a tunnel, by which the spring was tapped that supplied -the garrison with water. As Vercingetorix said, the Romans won their -victories, not by superior courage, but by superior science. - -Cæsar's later passage across the Rubicon, the flight of the Senate, -and his later operations by land and sea against Marseilles (Massilia) -and hostile forces in northern Spain, are well known, and were -characterized by the same high order of inventiveness. His later -operations against Pompey, and later still against Pharnaces and -Scipio, were conducted under conditions that gave him less opportunity -to utilize the quality of inventiveness in such clear ways; but they -were marked with the kindred qualities of foresight, skilful adaptation -of means to ends, and presence of mind in emergencies. - -In the minds of some, Cæsar's greatest influence on history has been -due to his improvement of the Calendar, and especially his reforms of -the public morals and the laws of Rome, after his campaign against -Pharnaces. This subject has been the theme of jurists and scholars to -such a degree that it might seem presumptuous in a navy officer to -do more than mention it. At the same time it may be pointed out that -Cæsar's work was not in any matters of detail, or in contributing any -legal or juridical skill or knowledge, but in conceiving the idea of -creating the _Leges Juliæ_, and then creating them. - -Julius Cæsar was murdered in the year 44 B. C. He was followed in power -by his grandnephew Octavius, one of the most fortunate occurrences in -history; for Octavius possessed the ability and the character to carry -on the constructive work that Julius Cæsar had begun. Under Octavius -and his successors, the Roman Empire became increasingly large and -strong, until the reign of Trajan in the second century, A. D., when it -acquired its greatest territorial extent. - -During the time when Rome was increasing in extent and power, the -wealth of cities and of individuals increased also, and enormous public -works of all kinds were constructed, many of which are still the -admiration of the world. Material prosperity reached its highest point. - -But the creative period had passed. Youth, with its dreams and vigor -of doing had gone, and maturity, with the luxury of prosperity and -the consequent dulling of the imagination, had assumed its place. -Senescence followed in due course. Then the empire was divided into -two parts, the Empire of the West and the Empire of the East. Finally, -in 476 A. D., Rome died and with it the Empire of the West. - -[Illustration: Triumphal Procession from the Arch of Titus] - -But the Eastern Empire stood, and Constantinople was its capital. And -it stood, alone and unassisted, as the sole bulwark of Christianity and -civilization for nearly 1000 years, until it finally fell before the -Ottoman Turks in 1543. It could not have done this, if in the latter -part of the seventh century when it was beleaguered by a Turkish fleet, -much greater than its own, it had not suddenly received unexpected -aid in the shape of a new invention. This was "Greek fire," which -seems to have been a pasty mixture of sulphur, nitre, pitch, and other -substances, which when squirted against wood set it on fire with a -flame that water could not quench. In the very first attack, the Turks -were so demoralized by the Greek fire that they fled in panic. They -never learned the secret and were never able to stand up against it. -On one occasion, fifteen Christian ships, using Greek fire, actually -put to rout a Turkish fleet numbering several hundred. - - * * * * * - -During all the countless centuries before the dawn of recorded history, -and during the approximately forty centuries that elapsed from the -beginning of recorded history until the fall of Rome, we have observed -the coming of many inventions of both material and immaterial kinds, -and noted the influence of those inventions in causing civilization, -and therefore in directing the line that history has followed. - -It may be objected that a perfectly natural inference from what has -been written would be that the only thing which had influenced the -direction of movement of history was invention. To this, the answer -may very reasonably be made that this book does not pretend to be a -history, or to point out what have been the greatest factors that -have influenced its line of movement; it attempts merely to emphasize -the influence of one factor, invention, and to suggest that maybe its -influence has not hitherto been estimated at its proper value. - -Another objection like that just indicated might be made to the effect -that all the progress of the world up to the fall of Rome is attributed -in this book to inventors only; that all the work of statesmen, -scientists, generals, admirals, explorers, jurists, men of business, -etc., etc., is ignored. - -Such an objection would be natural and reasonable; but to it an answer -like the previous one may be made, to the effect that the purpose of -this book is not to compare the benefits conferred by any one class of -men with those conferred by any other, but merely to point out, in a -very general way, what inventors have done. - -Nevertheless, it does seem clear that inventors did more to map out -the direction of the progress just traced than any other single class -of men. If we will fix our attention on any one invention about which -we know enough--say, the water-clock--we can see that the original -inventor of the water-clock (no matter who he was) had more influence -on the history of the clock than any other man has had; and that the -inventors of clocks who followed him had more influence on the clock -than any other equal number of men had. This does not mean that the -men who risked their money in making novel clocks did not influence -the history of the clock materially; and it does not mean that the men -who made good materials for them did not influence the history of the -clock greatly; and it does not mean that the engineers and mechanics -who operated them successfully did not influence its history. It would -be absurd to pretend that each one of these men did not influence -the history of the clock; for without them there would have been no -successful clock. Nevertheless, in the nature of things, the original -inventors must be credited with influencing the history of the clock -more than any other equal number of men did, just as a father must -be credited with influencing the history of his children more than -any other man can, from the mere fact of his having caused them to be -born. The inventors of clocks were the fathers of the clocks that they -invented, and also the forefathers of all the inventions that proceed -directly or indirectly from them. - -What has been said about the clock applies with equal force to every -other invented thing. Therefore, it can hardly be gainsaid that, so -far as invented things are concerned, their inventors have had more -influence on the history that has resulted from them than any other men -have had. - -If anyone will glance through any book of ancient history, he will -realize that it is mainly a record of wars; the political changes -caused by wars, or rendered possible by their means; the growth of -nations and other organizations; the invention of certain mechanisms, -arts and sciences; and the construction of certain structures such -as temples, palaces and ships. All these agencies influenced ancient -history, of course; but it is clear that the agency that influenced it -the most obviously and immediately was the wars. - -Yet let us remind ourselves that the real effect on history of any war -was not exerted by the war itself, so much as by the result of the war. -Let us also remind ourselves that the result of any war was because of -the material forces engaged and the skill with which they were handled. - -Now the material forces put onto the field of battle on each side -in any of the wars were the product of the material resources of -the country, of its wealth, its ability to manufacture weapons -and transport troops; that is, of its utilization of invented -mechanisms, processes and methods. The skill with which they were -handled--(especially when supreme skill was exerted, as in the cases of -Alexander and Cæsar)--was the outcome not of mere laborious training, -not of mere knowledge, or courage, or carefully detailed arrangement, -but of plans so conceived, developed and produced (invented) as to -confront the enemy with unexpected situations that they were not -prepared to meet. So the influence of even the wars seems to have been -due fundamentally to invention. - -As to the other agencies that influenced the course of ancient history, -they seem to owe their influence even more obviously to invention than -war does. Every department of ancient civilization seems traceable back -to some invention or inventions. The whole of ancient civilization -seems to rest primarily on inventions. - -As inventions were made by inventors, we seem forced to the conclusion -that inventors influenced ancient history more than any other one class -did. This does not mean that the inventor of a child's toy influenced -history more than did any one of the millions of wise and good men in -each generation who helped to keep the machine of civilization working -smoothly; for it refers to inventors as a class, and not to inventors -as individuals. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE INVENTION OF THE GUN AND OF PRINTING - - -The period from the fall of Rome to the beginning of the fourteenth -century was almost destitute in the matter of inventions that can be -distinctly named: though the conception and carrying into effect of -Mohammedanism in the seventh century, the campaigns and governmental -systems of Charlemagne in the ninth century, the invasion of England by -William of Normandy in the eleventh century, and the Crusades in the -eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries, as well as all the numerous -wars and campaigns that succeeded each other so rapidly, indicate a -mental and nervous restlessness which sought relief in action, and -which received guidance in seeking that relief from the suggestions of -invention. - -During the interval, paper is supposed by some to have been invented, -or at least the art of making it from rags. Paper itself, however, had -been invented long before in China. - -The early part of the twelfth century opened a new era in Europe with -the introduction of one of the most important inventions ever made, the -gun. It is often said that gunpowder was invented then. Gunpowder, of -course, had been invented or discovered many centuries before. - -There is much obscurity about the invention of gunpowder. It is usually -supposed to have been invented in China, and to have crept its way -first to the western Asian nations, and afterwards to Europe by way -of the Mediterranean. There can be little doubt that gunpowder was -known to the Romans in the days of the empire; and some accounts of -Alexander's campaigns declare that he used mines to destroy the walls -of Gaza. - -It is supposed by many that the Chinese had cannon, from certain -embrasures in some of their ancient walls; but there seems to be no -absolute proof of this. It seems fairly well established that the Moors -used artillery in Spain in the twelfth century; though some writers -hold that what were called firearms in Europe before the fourteenth -century were only engines which threw fire into besieged places. - -It seems probable that the gun was invented as the result of an -accident that occurred while some man was pounding the (gunpowder) -mixture of charcoal, saltpetre and sulphur in a receptacle of some -kind. According to one story, the mixture exploded and threw the pestle -violently out of the mortar. From this incident, the man who was -handling the pestle, or a bystander, is supposed to have conceived the -idea that the powder could be used intentionally to throw projectiles, -and he is supposed also to have actually proved that it could be done -at will, and to have produced a concrete appliance for doing it. From -the history of the case, it would seem that the first gun was what we -still call a "mortar." - -It may occur to some that (conceding the story to be true, which it -possibly is, in essentials) the gun was not an invention so much as a -discovery. It may be pointed out, however, that while the fact that -gunpowder would blow a pestle out of a mortar might be truly called -a discovery, yet the conception of utilizing the discovery by making -a weapon, and the subsequent making of the weapon constituted an -invention of the most clean-cut kind. - -Let us realize the extreme improbability that the phenomenon of the -expulsive force of gunpowder was then noted for the first time. It -seems probable that accidental ignition of the mixture had often -occurred before, and missiles hurled in all directions in consequence. -But, as happens in the vast majority of all incidents, no one imagined -any possible utilization of the facts disclosed by the incident; and -if the man who invented the gun, after witnessing the expulsion of the -pestle from the mortar, had not been endowed with both imagination -and constructiveness, he would have treated it as most of us treat -an incident--merely as an incident. But the imagination of this man -must at once have conceived a picture of what we now call a mortar, -which should be designed and constructed so that projectiles could -be expelled from it at will, in whatever direction the mortar were -pointing; and then his constructive faculty must have taken up the task -that imagination had suggested, and developed the conception into a -concrete thing. - -Into the long, elaborate and exciting history of the development of -the gun, that has been carried on with enormous energy ever since, it -is not necessary at this point to enter. Since the sixteenth century, -its history is accurately known, and many large books are filled with -descriptions and diagrams and mathematical tables and formulæ that -recount its progress in detail; while the histories of all the nations -blaze with stories of the battles in which guns have been employed. -Of all the inventions ever made, it is doubtful if the development -and improvement of any other has enlisted the services of a greater -number of men and of more important men, than the gun. It is more than -doubtful if a greater amount of money has been expended on any other -invention, if a greater number of experiments have been made, or if -more mental and physical energy has been expended. Certain it is -that no other invention has had so direct and powerful an effect on -human beings; for the number of men it has killed and wounded must be -expressed in terms of millions. - -This phase of the influence of the gun on history is clearly marked. -Not so clearly marked, but really more important, has been its -influence in deciding wars; for the ways in which wars have been -decided have been the turning points in the march of history. The issue -of Alexander's wars, for instance, had decided that Greek civilization -should not perish, but survive; the issue of Cæsar's wars in Gaul had -decided that Roman civilization should extend north over Europe, and -that the western incursion of the savage Germans should be stopped; the -issue of the wars between the vigorous Goths and degenerate Rome had -decided that Rome must die; and so forth, and so forth. So, after the -invention of the gun, the issue of every succeeding war supplied a new -turning point for history to follow. Naturally, those nations that took -the most skilful, prompt and thorough advantage of the power, range and -accuracy of the new invention gained in almost every case the victory -over their opponents. - -So long as no weapons existed, struggles between men had to be -decided by physical strength and cunning and quickness only. When the -first flint fist-hammer was invented, a man who was sagacious enough -and industrious enough and skilful enough to make one, could gain -the victory over many another man of greater physical strength and -quickness, but who had not the sagacity, industry and skill to provide -himself with a flint fist-hammer. - -Supposing the flint fist-hammer to be the first invention ever made, -as many think it was, we see here the first instance of the influence -of invention on history; because this first invention influenced the -course of history in favor of men possessing sagacity, industry and -skill, as against men not possessing those qualities. By doing this, it -not only decided that such men (and tribes composed of such men) should -prevail, but did even more to influence history; _it induced men and -tribes to make and develop and utilize inventions_. This resulted in -what we call civilization. - -As each improved weapon followed its predecessor, a new demand was -made;--not only for a new kind of skill on the part of the man making -the weapon and on the part of the soldiers using it, but also for -foresight on the part of the tribe or nation that would supply the -weapon to its troops. It is easily realized that, if there were two -contiguous tribes about to go to war against each other, one of which -was ruled by a sagacious, energetic and far-seeing chief, while the -other was ruled by a dull, slothful and short-sighted chief, the former -chief would probably provide his warriors with the newest weapon (say, -the bow and arrow) and train them in its use; whereas the other would -ignore it and go to battle with clubs and javelins only. As between -two tribes otherwise equally matched, the result would be obvious; and -doubtless it was exceedingly obvious in hundreds of tribal battles, -before the dawn of history. - -It is a characteristic of evolution, as has been pointed out by wise -men, that complexity eventually evolves from simplicity. In no one -department of man's endeavor does this truth stand out more clearly -than in the evolution of weapons. For the oldest weapon that we know of -was probably a stone, or a stick used as a club; and each succeeding -weapon has been more complicated than its predecessor,--needing -additional parts with which to secure the additional results achieved. -This increased complexity has entailed increased liability to -derangement, because the failure of any one part has entailed the -failure or the decreased effectiveness of the weapon as a whole. This -increased liability to derangement has entailed a demand for not only -increased care and skill in fabricating the weapon, but for increased -knowledge, diligence and skill in caring for it, and using it. - -The superiority of the gun over all previously existing weapons was -quickly recognized, and every civilized nation soon adopted it as -its major implement of war. As the gun was a piece of mechanism, it -possessed the attribute which seems to give to pieces of mechanism an -element of superiority over every other thing in the universe, the -attribute of continual improvability. Human beings do not possess this -attribute, nor does any other thing in nature, so far as we know. Every -human being begins where his father did--and so does everything else -on the earth; though human invention has recently made it possible for -certain plants to be improved. No new invention ever dies as a man -does, even if the material parts or immaterial parts that compose it -are destroyed. On the contrary, it lives, in the sense that it exists -as a definite usable entity, and also in the sense that it continues to -propagate. And the things that it propagates do not begin as helpless -and useless babies, but as mature creations. The first completed gun is -still the model for the guns that men make now, and will continue to be -the model for all guns in the future. The man who made the first gun -has been succeeded by other men, as the first gun has been succeeded by -other guns; but the human successors have been no improvement on the -inventor of the first gun, while the guns that have succeeded the first -gun have been improvements on it to a degree that it is difficult--in -fact, impossible, to realize. - -The relations of the gun to civilization are reciprocal, and are -therefore in accord with most of the other phenomena of our lives; for -just as the gun furthered the improvement of civilization, civilization -furthered the improvement of the gun. Nearly every step taken in the -physical sciences, and afterward in engineering and general mechanics, -has had a direct effect in improving the gun. The gun began as an -exceedingly rough, awkward and crude appliance; the gun today is one -of the most highly specialized and perfect appliances that the world -possesses. - -But it is not only the gun itself that has been improved; the powder -has also been improved, and to a degree almost equal, if not quite. -When we realize that modern gunnery is so exact that if a gun is fired -in any direction and at any angle of elevation, the projectiles will -fall so close to a designated spot that all considerable variations -in the points of fall from that spot are usually attributed to other -causes than imperfection in the powder; and if we realize also that -a variation of one per cent. in the initial velocity imparted to a -projectile by its powder would result in a variation (practically -speaking) of one per cent. in the range attained, we then may realize -how perfectly understood the laws of the combustion of powder and the -development of powder gas have become, and how perfect are the methods -of manufacturing, storing and using it. Books upon books have been -written on the subject of making and using gunpowder; and as high a -grade of experimental ability has been employed as on the development -of any other art. - -It is not quite clear whether stationary cannon or small guns carried -by soldiers were the first to be used; but the probability seems to be -that cannon were the first. It soon became desirable to devise and to -make appliances for holding the cannon in position, elevating them to -predetermined angles, and transporting them from place to place. To -accomplish these things, gun-carriages were invented. These appliances -have kept pace with guns and gunpowder in the march of improvement; -countless minor inventions have been made; countless experiments -have been conducted; countless books and articles have been written; -countless millions of money have been expended. That the field has -been large can readily be realized, when we remind ourselves of the -numberless situations that gun-carriages have had to be adapted to, on -the level plains of Central Europe, in the mountains, on the sands of -the desert,--in cold and heat and wet; and on the ocean also, in small -vessels and great battleships, to handle cannon great and small, on the -uneasy surface of the sea. But it will not be enough for us to realize -that it has been necessary to construct gun-carriages so ingeniously -that guns can be handled on them under all these circumstances; for we -will fall short of a realization of what must be attained, unless we -realize that the guns must be handled with safety, and (which is more -difficult of attainment) with precision and yet with quickness. - -Now to bring the gun and its accessories to the high standard they have -now reached, the resources of virtually all the physical sciences have -been required and utilized; so that, while modern civilization was made -possible by the gun, and could not have been made possible without it, -the modern gun has been made possible by civilization, and could not -have been made possible without it. - -This mutuality between civilization and the gun is evident in the -relations between civilization and every other great invention. It is -very clearly evident in the case of material mechanism; for it has been -plainly impossible for any material invention to exist without directly -and indirectly contributing to the improvement, and even to the birth, -of others. Any improvement in the process of making any metal or any -compound has always been of assistance to every mechanism using that -metal or that compound; and it seems impossible to name any mechanism -or process whose invention has not helped some other mechanism or -process. In the matter of the invention of immaterial things, the -effect may not be quite so obvious; and yet it is plain that most of -those inventions have contributed to the safety, intelligence and -stabilization of peoples, and therefore to a condition of mentality and -of tranquillity that permitted and often encouraged the improvement of -existing appliances, and the invention of new ones. Of one class of -immaterial invention, such as new books on the physical and engineering -sciences, the influence on material inventions is, of course, as -obvious as it is profound. - -The boom of the gun may be said, by a not forced figure of speech, to -have ushered in the new civilization that rose from the mental lethargy -of the Middle Ages; for it was the first great invention of all in the -long line that have followed since. As it was the first, and because -without it the others would have been impossible, we can hardly avoid -the conclusion that it was the most important. - -The mutual reactions between the gun and civilization have resulted, -and are still resulting, in widening the distance between the civilized -and the uncivilized, placing more and more power in the hands of the -civilized, and putting the uncivilized more and more into subjection -by the civilized. The process that began with the invention of the -fist-hammer, and was continued through the centuries by all the -improvements in weapons that followed, was brought to a halt when -Rome fell, and not revived until the gun came into general use in the -fourteenth century. During the interval of nearly nine hundred years, -civilization indeed went backward with the advance of the barbarians -into Europe, checked but not wholly stopped by Charles Martel at the -Battle of Tours in 732, and later by Charlemagne, his grandson, in -numerous campaigns. But the gun, being adopted and improved by peoples -having the mentality needed to discern its usefulness, stabilized the -conditions of living afterward by keeping in check the barbarians, -especially east of Europe. Its greatest single usefulness followed from -this by making possible the development and utilization of the next -great invention. This invention was next to the gun in point of time. -It was next to the gun in influence on history also; and some people -think it has had even more influence than the gun. This invention is -usually called the invention of printing. - -Of course, printing had been invented centuries before, probably in -China, and had been practiced during all the intervening centuries, -in China, Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Greece, Rome, the Hellenistic -countries and Italy. But the printing had been done from blocks on -which were cut or carved many characters, that expressed whole words or -sentences. Naturally, printing done from them was not adaptable to the -recording of discussions, the making of connected narratives, or the -publishing of books. - -Suddenly, about the year 1434, John Gutenberg, who lives at Mayence, -conceives the idea of cutting only one letter on each block, putting -the blocks in forms so arranged that the blocks can be put in such -sequence as may be desired for spelling words, and all the blocks -secured firmly in position. In other words, he invented movable type. - -Objection may be made to this statement, and the declaration urged that -movable type were used in China before the Christian era. Possibly -they were; some declarations have been made to that effect. But -even if they were, we cannot see that their invention there had any -considerable influence on history. China was separated from western -Asia and from Africa and Europe by the long stretch of the dry lands -of Central Asia, across which little communication passed. It is -more nearly certain than most things are in ancient history, that -the civilized peoples of western Asia, Africa and Europe, including -Gutenberg himself, did not know of movable type until Gutenberg -invented them. - -It is absolutely certain that virtually the whole of the influence -that printing by movable type has exercised on history sprang from the -invention of Gutenberg. It started almost immediately; and it increased -with a rapidity and a certainty that are amazing. No invention made -before, not even the gun, was seized upon with such avidity. The -world wanted it. The world seemed to have been waiting for it, though -unconsciously. - -It may be well at this point to impress upon our minds the fact that -no invention has ever been recognized as an invention, unless it has -been put into a concrete form. The U. S. Patent Office, for instance, -will not award a patent for any invention unless it is described and -illustrated so clearly that "any one skilled in the art can make and -use it." It is an axiom that a man "cannot patent an idea." In many -countries a patentee is required to "work" his invention, to make -apparatus embodying it, and to put the apparatus to use. The underlying -idea of the patent laws of all countries is that the good of the public -is the end in view, and not the good of the inventor; that rewards -are held out to the inventor, merely to induce him to put devices of -practical value into the hands of the people. From this point of view, -which seems to be the correct one, the mere fact that a man conceives -of a device, even if he afterward develops his device to the degree -that he illustrates it and describes it to someone in such a way that a -person skilled in the art can make and use it, does not entitle him to -any reward. He must use "due diligence" in communicating full knowledge -of his invention to the public, through the Patent Office, ask for a -patent, and pay to the Government the prescribed fee. - -Now, Gutenberg "worked" his invention so energetically that, with the -assistance of Faust, Schaeffer and others, an exceedingly efficient -system of printing books was in practical operation as early as 1455. -The types were of metal, and were cast from a matrix that had been -stamped out by a steel punch, and could therefore be so accurately -fashioned that the type had a beautiful sharpness and finish. In -addition, certain mechanical apparatus of a simple kind (printing -presses) were invented, whereby the type could be satisfactorily -handled, and impressions could be taken from them with accuracy and -quickness. - -News of the invention spread so rapidly that before the year 1500 -printing presses were at work in every country of Europe. The first -books printed were, of course, the works of the ancient authors, -beginning with three editions of Donatus. These were multiplied in -great numbers, and gave the first effective impulse to the spread of -civilization from the Græco-Oriental countries, where it had been -sleeping, to the hungry intellects of Europe. - -The new birth of civilization (usually called the Renaissance) began -in Italy, where civilization had never quite died out, at some time -during the fourteenth century, and took the form at first of the -study of classical literature. This led naturally to a search for old -manuscripts; and so ardent did this search become that the libraries -of cathedrals and monasteries in all the civilized countries were -ransacked. Many new libraries were founded, especially in Italy, to -hold the old manuscripts that were discovered. A great impetus was -given to the movement by the exodus of scholars from Constantinople, -and their migration west to Italy, during the half century between the -year 1400 and the fall of Constantinople before the Ottoman Turks in -1453. - -[Illustration: The Printing of Books] - -Therefore, when the news of the invention of Gutenberg reached -the scholars of Italy and other lands, they seized upon it as an -undreamed-of blessing for bringing about that widespread study of -the classical authors which they had been struggling under so many -difficulties to accomplish. - -To narrate and describe the progress made since then in the art of -printing would be to rewrite what has been written from time to time in -books and magazines and papers. To describe and point out the other -arts that have sprung directly from the art of printing, such as the -manufacture of printing presses and allied machinery, would require an -enormous book of a wholly technical nature; to describe and point out -the arts that have been made necessary, and the arts that have been -made possible, by the invention of printing would entail a history of -most of the industrial arts of the present day; while to mention and -adequately describe the measures that have resulted from the invention -of printing, and those made necessary and possible by it, would entail -a history of all the civilization that has come into being since -printing was invented. - -The effects of the invention of printing are most of them so obvious -that it would be unnecessary to call attention to them. No other -one art seems to be so directly and clearly to be credited with the -progress of civilization. In the minds of many people, perhaps of most -people, printing is considered the most important invention ever made. -Maybe it is; but let us remind ourselves that the gun came before -the printing-press, and that the civilization contributed to by the -printing press would not have been possible without the gun. It may be -answered that, nevertheless, the printing press contributed more than -the gun; in the same way that a bank contributes more to the welfare of -a city than does the policeman who guards the bank. - -Such an argument would have much to commend it, and it may be based -on the correct view of the situation. But to the author, the gun -seems to constitute the foundation of modern civilization, and the -printing press to be part of the structure built upon it; for the -fundamental enemy to civilization has always been the barbarian, be -he a savage under Attila or a Bolshevik in New York. It is true that -civilization may be considered as more important than the means that -makes it possible, but even this seems to be discussible; but that the -gun constitutes more distinctly the preservative influence of modern -civilization than any other one thing constitutes civilization itself -seems hardly to be discussible. The whole system of defense of all the -nations against foes outside and anarchy inside has rested on the gun -ever since it was invented; whereas, not even the printing press can -be said to be the only element, or even the main element, in modern -civilization. - -This brief discussion is perhaps not very important; but it does not -wholly lack importance, for the reason that it brings into clear -relief the fact that we cannot reasonably discuss civilization without -realizing the dangers that confront it, and have always confronted -it, and will continue to confront it. _Civilization is an artificial -product_, that some people think has more evil in it than good for the -majority of mankind, and that certainly has been forced on mankind by a -very small minority. The foundation on which the force has rested for -four hundred years has been the gun. - -But whatever the comparative amount of influence of the gun and the -printing press, there can be no doubt that they have worked together -hand in hand: that one guarded, and the other assisted, the first -tottering steps of the Renaissance movement, and that both have -continued to guard and assist the grand march that soon began, and that -is still advancing. - -As the circumstances surrounding the invention of both the gun and the -art of printing are sufficiently well known to warrant the belief that -each was made, not by a king or any other man of high position, but by -a man relatively obscure, and that the surroundings and early life of -both were not those of courts or palaces, but those of a humble kind, -it may be well to note how enormous are the results that have flowed -from causes that seem to be very small. We have been told that "great -oaks from little acorns grow"; but the consequences that have grown -from the conception of the idea of printing are larger than any oak; -and an acorn is probably much larger than the part of the brain in -which an idea is conceived. - -As a matter of interest, let us realize the strong resemblance between -the impression we receive from a material object actually seen by the -eye and the memory of that impression afterwards. Let us then realize -the strong resemblance between it and another impression of that same -object seen mentally but not physically; for instance, let us realize -the strong resemblance between the impression made on us by actually -seeing some friend and the impression received by _imagining_ him -receiving a letter which we are now writing to him. The first picture -was an image of the external object that was physically made on the -retina, as a picture or image is made by a camera on a screen; but that -picture on the retina must have been seen by the brain, or we would not -have known of it. The other pictures were not made physically on the -retina, so far as we know. Yet we all realize that we can make pictures -on our minds the more readily if we close our eyes. The fact of our -eyes being open seems to operate adversely to our receiving a clear -mental picture. - -Now it is a matter of fact that an object (for instance, a pole) can -be seen by a person with normal eyesight, if it subtends an angle as -great as one minute; that a pole a foot thick can be seen clearly from -a distance of 3600 feet, at which distance it subtends that angle. The -rays of light pass through the crystalline lens of the eye and are -focussed on the retina, as they pass through the lens of the camera, -and are focussed on the sensitized paper. Assuming the distance from -the crystalline lens to the retina to be about three-quarters of an -inch, the pole would be represented on the retina by an image 3/(4 x -3600) or less than 1/4000 of an inch wide. During daylight our retinas -are continually receiving images of which all lines as wide as 1/4000 -of an inch (and much narrower) are very clearly apprehended by the mind. - -But very few of those images are noticed by us. It is only when some -incident calls them to our attention, or when the mind voluntarily -seizes on them, that any conscious impression is made upon the brain. -Similarly, images of physical objects unseen by the physical eye are -continually made on the mind: we are continually thinking of our -friends and of past incidents and possible future incidents; and our -thoughts of these things take the form of pictures. We see the man -with whom we had a conversation yesterday, and we see him with a -clearness that is proportional to the interest taken by the mind in the -conversation and the circumstances surrounding it. If our conversation -was uninteresting and the circumstances tame, we see him dimly. But if -our conversation was angry and the circumstances were exciting, we see -him and the surroundings very vividly--so vividly that our anger is -again aroused; perhaps to as high degree as on the day before, or even -higher. - -This image-making is, of course, voluntary sometimes; but most images -come without volition on our part, and require no effort that we are -conscious of. To call up an image voluntarily requires conscious -effort; and to keep it in position while we gaze upon it requires -effort that is great in proportion to the time during which it is -exerted. Psychologists speak of this act of keeping an image in -position as one of giving attention, or paying attention. - -To perform this act requires the exercise of will, unless the act gives -pleasure, or the image suggests danger; in each of these cases, of -course, the act is almost involuntary. - -A man who is observant notes consciously the incidents that are passing -around him: he seizes on certain of the millions of pictures passing -before him, concentrates their images on his retina, and gazes on -each one for a while. Similarly, a man who is contemplative, seizes -on certain of the vague mental pictures passing through his mind, -concentrates his attention on them, and gazes at each one for a while. -We call the former an observant man and the other a thoughtful man. -Sometimes an observant man learns a great deal from what he sees, in -the same way that sometimes a studious man learns a great deal from -what he studies; but the learning of course cannot be accomplished -without the assistance of the memory. One is often surprised to see -how little some observant and studious men have remembered. Many -impressions have been received, but few retained. - -The thoughtful man, of course, cannot in the nature of things receive -so many conscious impressions as the merely observant or studious man; -for the reason that he continually seizes on one and then another, and -holds each for a time, while he fixes his attention on it. Usually, -however, the thoughtful man memorizes his observations or his studies -for some specific purpose; he moves the various images about in his -mind; and arranges them in classes: for otherwise, the various images -would form merely an aggregation of apparently unrelated facts. The -value of such aggregations is, of course, enormous; they compose what -we call data, and include such things as tables of dates, etc. - -But data, even tables of dates, have no value in themselves; it is only -from their relations to other things that they have value. There would -be no value, for instance, in knowing that William of Normandy invaded -England in 1066, unless we knew who William was, and what England -was, and what the effect of his invading it was. Now the thoughtful -man, like the man who arranges a card-catalogue in such a way that -it will be useful, not only notes isolated facts, but puts them into -juxtaposition with each other, and sees what their relations are. -The mental pictures that he finally fixes in his mind are of related -things, seen in their correct perspective. They are like the pictures -which are made on the mind of anyone by--say, a landscape: whereas the -mental pictures made by an unthoughtful man are such as little children -probably receive from nature; pictures in which the trees and hills and -valleys of a landscape do not appear as such, but merely as a great -aggregation of numberless separate images, confused and meaningless -like the colored pieces of a kaleidoscope. - -To the thoughtful man, therefore, life seems not quite so meaningless -as to his neighbor; though even the most thoughtful can fix very few -complete and extensive pictures in his mind. If his thoughtfulness -takes him no further than simply forming pictures that enable him to -see things as they are, and in their correct relations to each other, -he becomes "a man of good judgment," a man valuable in any community, -especially for filling positions in which the ability to make correct -deductions is required. - -Such a man, however, no matter how correctly he may estimate any -situation, no matter how clearly he may see all the factors in it, -no matter how accurately he may gauge their relative values and -positions, may be unable to suggest any way for utilizing its possible -benefits, or warding off its possible dangers. That is, he may lack -constructiveness. He is like a man who possesses any desirable thing or -dangerous thing, and who understands all there is to understand about -it, but _does not know what to do with it_. The various factors are in -his (mental) hands, but he can make nothing of them. - -The constructive man can construct concrete entities out of what -are apparently wholly individual factors having no relation to each -other; he can, for instance, take two pieces of wood and a piece of -string, and make a weapon with which he can kill living animals at a -considerable distance. With neither the pieces of wood nor the string -could he do that; and he could not do it with all three, unless he were -able to construct them into a bow and arrow. That is, he could make the -weapon if he had ever seen it made before. If he were only constructive -and not inventive, he could not make it unless he had seen it done -before, or knew it had been done. - -Men of purely constructive ability have not of themselves taken very -conspicuous parts on the stage of history; and yet the things that they -have constructed comprise nearly all that we can see and hear and touch -in the world of civilization. Thus history, while it is a narrative -of things that have been done, is not a narrative of all the things -that have been done, but only of the new and striking things. It is a -narrative of wars, of the rise and fall of nations, of the founding of -cities, of the establishment of religions and theories, of the writing -of books, of the invention of mechanisms, of the painting of pictures, -of the carving of statues; in general, of the creative work that man -has done. - -The merely constructive man, unless he has been inventive also, has -never constructed anything of a really novel kind. It is a matter of -everyday experience that nearly all the things that are constructed -are according to former patterns and the lessons of experience. All -the constructive and engineering arts and sciences are studied and -practiced for the purpose of enabling men to build bridges and houses -and locomotives, etc., in such ways, as experience has shown to be -good. Nearly all our acts, nearly all our utterances, nearly all our -thoughts, are of stereotyped and conventional forms. - -This condition of affairs possesses so many advantages that we cannot -even imagine any other to exist. It enables a man to act nearly -automatically in most of the situations of life. The main reason for -drilling a soldier is that when confronted with the conditions of -battle, he shall fire his musket and do his other acts automatically, -undisturbed by the danger and excitement. Similarly, all our experience -in life tends to automaticity. It is a very comfortable condition, -for it demands the minimum amount of mental and nervous energy. The -conductor demands your fare, and you pay it almost automatically. -That a condition of automaticity prevails in nature, as we see it, -one is tempted to suppose: for the seasons succeed each other with a -regularity suggestive of it. - -But even if the machine of nature and the machine of civilization are -automatic now, we have no reason for believing that they always were -so. Even the most perfect automatic engine had to be started at some -time, and it had to be invented before it could be started; and it had -also to go through a long process of development. Similarly, a man -reads a paper almost automatically; but it required years of time to -develop his ability to do so. - -Now it has happened from time to time in history that some invention -has broken in on the smoothly running machine of civilization and -introduced a change. The gun did this, and so did the printing press. -In every such case, a few men have welcomed the invention, but the -majority have resented the change: some of them because their interests -were threatened by it; others because of the instinctive but powerful -influence of dislike of change. - -The purely constructive man does not cause any such jolt. His work -proceeds smoothly, uniformly, and usually with approval. But the -inventive man, "his eye in a fine frenzy rolling," is visited with some -vision which he cannot or will not dismiss, and which compels him to -try to embody it in some form, and to continue to try until he succeeds -in doing so, or gives up, confessing failure. The inventive man, having -seen the vision, becomes a constructive man, and (in case he succeeds) -_puts the vision which he sees into such form that other people can see -it also_. - -It is obvious therefore that two kinds of ability are needed to produce -a really good invention of any kind, inventive ability and constructive -ability; and it is also obvious that they are separate, though they -cooperate. Many an invention of a quality that was mediocre or even -inferior in originality, novelty and scope, has been quite acceptable -by reason of the excellent constructive work that was done upon it: -many a book and many an essay has succeeded almost wholly because of -the skilful construction of the sentences; many a picture because of -the accuracy of the perspective and the mixing of the colors; many a -new mechanical device because of the excellent workmanship bestowed -upon it. Conversely, many a grand and beautiful conception has failed -of recognition because of the poor constructive work that was done on -it. But occasionally a Shakespeare has given to the world an enduring -masterpiece, the joint work of the highest order of invention and the -highest order of constructive skill; occasionally a Raphael has painted -a picture similarly conceived and executed; and occasionally an Edison -has given the world a mechanical invention, comparably wonderful and -perfect. - -In all such cases, the start of the work was a picture on the mental -retina; an image of something that was not, but might be made to be. -A physical picture is actually made on the physical retina, but it -cannot be recognized by the owner of the retina, unless a healthy optic -nerve transmits it to his brain. Every mental picture must also be -transmitted to the brain; and some mental pictures are very bright and -clear. In some forms of insanity, the mental pictures are so clear that -the patient cannot be persuaded that they are not physical; the patient -sees a man approaching him, when there is no man approaching him; but -the impression made on the patient's mind is the same as if there were. - -The thought of the enormousness of the consequences that have followed -the appearing of some visions to men (the vision of the gun, for -instance) is almost stunning, if we try to realize the small area of -the brain that the vision must have covered. If a line 1/4000 of an -inch wide made on the physical retina and afterwards transmitted to the -brain is seen with perfect clearness by the mind, what a small area of -the brain must have been covered by the original vision of the gun! Yet -how vast have been its consequences! - -The fact that the inventor sees a vision, and then mentally arranges -and rearranges the various material elements available in order to -embody his vision in a painting, a project, a machine, a poem or a -sonata, indicates that the essential processes of invention are wholly -mental. This truth is illustrated by the work of every inventor, great -or small. Possibly, the most convincing illustration is that given by -the deaf Beethoven, who conceived and composed some of his grandest -works when he could not physically hear a note. - - Reference to the work of Roger Bacon has not been made, because - of the doubts surrounding it. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -COLUMBUS, COPERNICUS, GALILEO AND OTHERS - - -Long before the Christian era the Chinese used pivoted magnetic needles -to indicate absolute direction to them; but that they possessed or -had invented the mariner's compass, there is considerable doubt. The -history of the invention of the mariner's compass has not yet been -written. It is not known when, or where, or by whom it was invented. - -It is well-known, however, that the mariner's compass was in use in -the Mediterranean Sea in the early part of the fifteenth century A. D. -Guided by it, the navigators of that day pushed far out from land. - -The first great navigational feat that followed the invention of the -compass was that performed by the Portuguese, Bartholomew Dias, who -conceived the idea of reaching India by going around Africa, and -sailed down the west coast of Africa as far as its southern end, -later called the Cape of Good Hope. It was a tremendous undertaking, -and it had tremendous results; for it demonstrated the possibilities -of great ocean voyages, proved that the road to India was very long, -and led to the expedition of Columbus, six years later. It was also a -great invention, both in brilliancy of conception and excellence of -execution, although Dias did not reach India. - -The second great navigational feat was performed by Christopher -Columbus in 1492. Before that time it was conceded by most men of -learning and reflection that the earth was spherical; and it was -realized that, if it was spherical, it might be possible by sailing to -the westward to reach India, the goal of all commercial expeditions in -that day. Columbus is not to be credited with the first conception of -that possibility. - -[Illustration: Portuguese Voyages and Possessions] - -But that conception rested undeveloped in the minds of only a few men. -Had it not been for Columbus, or some man like him, it would have -remained undeveloped and borne no fruit. The Savior in his parable -tells us of the sower who went forth to sow, and tells us also that -most of the grain fell on stony ground. So it is with most of the -opportunities that are offered to us every day; and so it is even -with most of the visions that are placed before our minds. But the -Savior tells us also of other grains that fell on good ground and bore -abundant fruit. Such are the conceptions that the great inventors have -embodied; such was the conception that fell on the good ground of the -mind of Christopher Columbus. - -The conception that came to him was not of the possibility that someone -could sail west and eventually reach India, but of preparing a suitable -expedition himself and actually sailing west and reaching India. The -conception must have been wonderfully powerful and clear, for it -dominated all his life thereafter. But he could not make others see -the vision that he saw. For many years he went from place to place, -trying to get the means wherewith to prepare his expedition. He made -only a few converts, but he did make a few. Some of these exerted their -influence on Queen Isabella of Spain. She, together with her husband -Ferdinand, then supplied the money and other necessaries for the -expedition. - -The invention of the gun was followed by the invention of printing in -1434, and this by the discovery of America in 1492. These three epochal -occurrences started the new civilization with a tremendous impetus. -This impetus was immediately reinforced by the voyage of the Portuguese -Admiral, Vasco da Gama, around the Cape of Good Hope to India in -1497-1498, and the circumnavigation of the globe by Ferdinand Magellan -in 1519-1522. - -The immediate practical influence of da Gama's feat was almost to kill -the commerce of the cities of Italy and Alexandria with India by way -of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, and to transfer the center of -the sea-commerce of the world to the west coast of Europe, especially -Portugal. Near the west coast it has rested ever since; though but -little of it stayed long with Portugal. - -While Magellan's voyage was not quite so important as the discovery of -America, it was not immeasurably less so; for it set at rest forever -the most important question in geography,--was the earth round or -not? The voyage of Columbus had not answered it, because he returned -by the same route as that by which he went. But Magellan started in -a southwesterly course, and one of his ships again reached home, -coming from the east. The Victoria had circumnavigated the globe! Only -eighteen men and one ship returned. The other ships and the other men -had perished. Magellan himself had been buried in the Philippines. - -The news of Magellan's great exploit and the stories that came to -Europe of the riches beyond the sea, resulted soon in an idea coming -to the mind of Hernando Cortez, the development of that idea into a -concrete plan, and the making of a complete invention. This was a -plan by which he should head an expedition to a certain part of the -New World, and "convert" the heathen dwelling there; doing whatever -killing and impoverishing and general maltreatment might be found to -be convenient or desirable. The invention worked perfectly; some -half-savage Indians of what we now call Mexico were "converted," many -were killed, and untold treasure was forcibly obtained. - -The success of this invention was so great that Francisco Pizarro was -inspired to copy it, and to try it on some Indians in a country that -now we call Peru. Whether Pizarro improved on Cortez's scheme, or -whether the conditions of success were better need not concern us now: -the main fact seems to be that Pizarro was able to convert and kill and -impoverish and generally ruin more effectively than Cortez. - -Following Cortez and Pizarro, many expeditions sailed from Spain to -the West Indies, Central America and South America, and carried out -similar programs. The two principal results were that those parts -of the world were soon dominated by Spain, and that the people of -Spain received large amounts of gold and treasure. The main result to -them was that they succumbed under the enervating influence of the -artificial prosperity produced, and rapidly deteriorated. By the end of -the hundred years' period after Columbus discovered America, Spain was -clearly following the downward path, and at high speed. - -One of the early results of the invention of printing was an increased -ability of people separated by considerable distances to interchange -their views; and a still greater though allied result was an increased -ability of men of thought and courage to impress their thoughts upon -great numbers of people. At the time when printing was invented, the -Church of Rome had ceased to dominate European nations as wholly as it -had done before; but it exercised a vast power in each country. This -was because of its prestige, its hold on the clergy and the Church -property, and its authority in many questions connected with marriage, -wills, appointments, etc. This was resented, but impotently, by the -various sovereigns. - -It was realized also (and it came to be realized with increasing -clearness toward the end of the fifteenth century) that there were many -grave evils and scandals in the Church, even in the highest quarters. -The printing-press lent itself admirably to the dissemination of views -on this matter: so that there gradually grew up a strong and widespread -feeling of discontent. But despite considerable friction as to the -limits of their respective functions, the Church and the State were so -intimately allied in every country, and each realized so clearly its -dependence on the other, that no movement of any magnitude against even -the acknowledged evils had been able to gain ground. No man appeared -who was able to conceive and execute a plan that could successfully -effect reform. - -But such a man appeared in the year 1517, whose name was Martin -Luther. He was a poor monk; but a knowledge of virtually all there -was to know lived in his mind, coupled with imagination to conceive, -constructiveness to plan, and courage to perform. In that fateful year, -1517, the Pope sent agents through the world to sell "indulgences," -which remitted certain temporal punishments for sin, in return for -gifts of money. The agent who was commissioned for Germany carried out -his work with so little tact and moderation, that he made the granting -of indulgences seem even a more scandalous procedure than it really -was. Luther had been preaching the doctrine of a simple following of -the teachings of the Savior, and deprecating a too close adherence to -mere forms and ritual. He now seems to have conceived a clean-cut plan -of effective action; for on the evening before the indulgences were to -be offered on All Saints Day, in the Church of Wittemberg, Luther nails -on the door his celebrated ninety-five theses against the sale. The -printing-press reproduced copies of these in great numbers throughout -Germany. A definite sentiment antagonistic to the indulgences developed -rapidly, and a general movement toward the reform of the abuses in the -Church took shape. Luther was threatened with excommunication by the -Pope in 1520, but he burned a copy of the "papal bull" in a public -place on December 10 of that year. - -The emperor of Germany convened a meeting of the Diet at Worms in 1521, -at which he exerted all his powers to make Luther retract: but in vain. -So great a following did Luther now have that, though the emperor put -him under ban, and all persons were forbidden to feed or give him -shelter, he was cared for secretly by men in high position, until he -voluntarily came out of hiding, and appeared in Wittemberg. The emperor -called a meeting of the Diet at Spires in 1526, and another meeting -in 1529. Both meetings had for their object the suppression of the -movement begun by Luther. It was against a decree made by the second -Diet that certain high officials and others made the famous protest, -that caused the name to be affixed to them of Protestants. This name -has been perpetuated to this day. - -As is well known, the movement resulted, after nearly a hundred years -of disturbed conditions, in a series of wars, called "The Thirty Years' -War" that began in 1618, and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in -1648. This Peace marked the end of the Reformation period, and resulted -in establishing Protestantism in North Germany, Denmark, Norway, -Sweden, England and Scotland. - -The influence of Luther's conception with its subsequent development -was thus definite, widespread and profound, even if regarded from a -merely religious point of view: but the influence it had on religion -was only a part of its total influence. In words, the protest was -against certain abuses in the Roman Church; but in fact it was against -a domination exercised over the minds and souls of men. Luther's -influence was in reforming not only the Roman Catholic Church and the -practice of the Christian religion throughout Europe, but also the -conditions under which men were allowed to use their minds. - -While the inventions in mechanism, religion, etc., which we have just -noted were going on during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, -others were going on in the realm of science. The movement was begun -about 1507 by a young man named Nicolas Copernicus, who was executing -the dissimilar functions of canon, physician and mathematician in -the little town of Frauenberg in Poland. Copernicus at this time -was thirty-four years old, but he had even then devoted the major -activities of his mind to astronomy for several years. Naturally, -his efforts had been devoted to mastering whatever of the science -then existed. The efforts of most people in dealing with any subject -end when they have gone thus far--and very few go even thus far. But -Copernicus noted that, while the Ptolemaic System (suggested, though -probably not invented by the Egyptian king) was the one generally -accepted, it did not account for many of the phenomena observed; that -none of the other systems that had been suggested afterward explained -matters more satisfactorily, and that no one of the systems was in -harmony with any other. - -Thereupon this daring young man conceives the idea of inventing a -system of astronomy himself, in which all the movements of the heavenly -bodies should be shown to be in accordance with a simple and harmonious -law. Seizing on this idea, he proceeds at once to develop it; and he -works on it until death takes him from his labors in 1543 at the age of -seventy. - -The whole civilized world had virtually accepted the Ptolemaic -Theory,--at least, the part of it which assumed that the earth was the -center of the universe, the sun and stars and planets revolving around -it. Copernicus invented the theory that the sun was the center, that -the earth and the other planets revolved around it, and that the earth -revolved on its own axis once in twenty-four hours. So great was the -insistence of the religious bodies in adhering to the Ptolemaic Theory, -so set were the minds of all men of high position on it, that though -Copernicus wrote a book expounding his own theory, he did not think it -wise to publish it. He seems to have completed the book in about 1530. -He did not publish it till 1543. Just before its printing was finished, -Copernicus was taken ill. The first volume was held before him. He -touched it and seemed to realize dimly what it was. Then he relapsed -into torpor almost immediately, and soon died. - -It is interesting to note that Copernicus was not the first to conceive -the idea that the earth turns on its own axis, or that the earth -revolves around the sun, any more than Bell was the first to conceive -the idea that speech could be transmitted by a suitable arrangement of -magnet, diaphragm and electric circuit. But Copernicus was the first to -invent a system of astronomy that was like a machine. It was a usable -thing. It could be made to explain astronomical phenomena and predict -astronomical events correctly. - -It may be well to remind ourselves again that no application for patent -will be granted by our Patent Office unless the invention is described -and illustrated so clearly and correctly that "a person skilled in -the art can make and use it;" and to realize that this admirable -phraseology may be utilized to distinguish any other novel endeavor of -man entitled to be called an invention from any other not so entitled; -for no system, no theory, no religion, no scheme of government, -regardless of how attractive it may be, is entitled to be called an -invention, unless, like the Copernican System, "a person skilled in the -art can make and use it." - -Shortly after Copernicus, came Johann Kepler, who was born in -Württemburg in 1571, and died in 1630. He had been a pupil of Tycho -Brahe, who did not succeed in making any great invention or discovery, -but who did collect a great amount of data. Utilizing these, Kepler -devoted many years to the study of Copernicus, and tried to invent a -system which would explain some facts of astronomy that the system -of Copernicus did not explain, notably the non-uniform speed of the -planets. The main result of his labors was the famous Kepler's Laws, -which were - - "1. The orbits of the planets are ellipses having the sun at - one focus. - - "2. The area swept over per hour by the radius joining sun and - planet is the same in all parts of the planet's orbit. - - "3. The squares of the periodic times of the planets are - proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the - sun." - -These three discoveries, enunciated in three interdependent, concrete -laws, constituted an invention which, while it was merely an -improvement on Copernicus's, was so great an improvement as almost -to make the difference between impracticability and practicability. -Without this improvement, astronomy would not be what it is, navigation -would not be what it is, the regulation of time throughout the world -would not be what it is, and the present highly intricate but smoothly -running machine of civilization could not exist at all, except in a -vastly inferior form. The machine of civilization is dependent for its -successful operation on the good quality and correct design of every -other part. So is every other machine; for instance, a steam-engine. - -The Copernican System was not recognized for more than a century. -It was, in fact, definitely rejected, and people were subjected to -punishment and even torture for declaring their belief in it. - -One of the amazing facts surrounding Copernicus's invention was that -he carried on his observations with exceedingly crude appliances. _The -telescope had not yet been invented._ - -Who invented the telescope is not definitely known; but it is probable -that both the telescope and the microscope (compound microscope) -were invented by Jansen, a humble spectacle-maker in Holland. Both -inventions were made about the year 1590, and were of the highest order -of merit from the three main points of view,--originality, completeness -and usefulness. Few inventions more perfectly possessing the attributes -of a great invention can be specified. The originality of the -conception of each seems unquestionable; the beautiful completeness of -the embodied form of each was such that only improvements in detail -were needed afterward; and, as to their usefulness, can we even imagine -modern civilization without them both? - -The interesting fact may now be called to mind that, although many men -who lived in Jansen's time were loaded with honors and fame and wealth -and glory, the inventor of the telescope and the microscope received -no reward of any kind that we know of; and his fame has come to us so -imperfectly that we are not even sure that Jansen was his name. - -The man usually credited with the invention of the telescope is -Galileo, though Galileo himself never pretended that he invented it, -and though historical statements are clear that he heard that such -an instrument had been invented, and then designed and constructed -one himself in a day. It would be interesting to know just how much -information Galileo received. It seems that his information was very -vague. If so, a considerable amount of inventiveness may have been -required, besides a high order of constructiveness. But the mere fact -that Galileo knew that such an instrument had been invented caused his -mental processes to start from an image put into his mind by an outside -agency and not from his own imagination. Galileo's work did not begin -with conception, and therefore it was not an invention. - -Galileo was one of the foremost and most ardent supporters of the -Copernican Theory; and it was on his skilful and industrious use of -the telescope in making observations confirming the theory that his -fame mainly rests. As late as 1632, nearly a century after Copernicus's -doctrine had become known, Galileo was compelled by threat of torture -to recant, and was condemned to imprisonment for life. - -The influence of inventions on history has been greater and more -beneficial than that of any other single endeavor of man. Yet most -inventions have been resisted. _The invention of Copernicus was -resisted for more than a century by the organization commanding the -greatest talent and character and learning that the world contained._ - -The extraordinary access of mental energy in Europe about the beginning -of the seventeenth century is illustrated by another invention -virtually contemporaneous with those of Copernicus and Jansen, and also -in the line of mathematical research. This was the invention by Baron -John Napier of logarithms. - -It was a curious invention--an invention the like of which one cannot -easily specify; for the thing invented was not a material mechanism, -or a theory, or anything exactly like anything else. It is difficult -to classify a logarithm except as a logarithm:--yet Napier did -create something; he did make something exist that had not existed -before; he did conceive an idea and embody that idea in a concrete -machine. That machine, in the hands of a man who understood it, could -supply extraordinary assistance in making mathematical calculations, -especially calculations involving many operations and many figures, as -in astronomy. It has been in continual use since Napier invented it, -and is used still. In order to indicate the simplicity and the value -of Napier's invention, it may assist those who have forgotten what -a logarithm is, or who have been so fortunate as never to have been -compelled to study about them, to state that logarithms are numbers so -adapted to numbers to be multiplied, divided, or raised to any power, -that one simply adds their logarithm, subtracts one logarithm from the -other or multiplies or divides a logarithm by the number representing -the power, and then notes in a table the number resulting, instead of -going through the long process of multiplying, dividing, squaring, -etc. Of course, in the case of small numbers, the use of logarithms -is not only unnecessary but undesirable; but in the case of the long -numbers used in astronomy, and even in navigation, logarithms are -inexpressibly helpful and time-saving. The mental feat of Napier -consisted in conceiving the idea of accomplishing what he subsequently -did accomplish, and then constructing and producing the "logarithmic -tables" that made it possible. - -Another indication of the new intellectual movement in Europe was the -experiments, deductions and inventions of William Gilbert, an English -physician, who lived from 1540 till 1603. According to the use of -the word invention followed in this book, only two actual inventions -can be credited to Gilbert, that of the electroscope and that of -magnetization. Gilbert's work was valuable in the highest degree, more -valuable than that of most inventors; and yet it was more inductive -and deductive than inventional. It is not the purpose of this book to -suggest that invention has been the only kind of work that men have -done which has had an influence on history; and the work of Gilbert -gives the author an opportunity to emphasize the value of certain -work which is not inventional. At the same time, the author cannot -resist the temptation of pointing out that Gilbert's work was original -and constructive, that it hovered around the borders of invention, -and that it did more to assist the inventors of the electric and -electro-magnetic appliances that were soon to follow, than the work of -almost any other one man. - -The full influence of Gilbert's work was not apparent for many years; -not, in fact, until the discoveries and inventions of Volta, Galvani -and Faraday showed the possibilities of utilizing electricity for -practical purposes. Then the facts which Gilbert had established, and -the discoveries built upon them afterward, were the basis of much of -the work of those great men, and of the vast science of electrical -engineering that resulted. - -The inventions made before the opening of the seventeenth century A. -D., wonderful as they were, were quite widely separated in time, and -seem to have been wholly the outcome of individual genius, and not the -result or the indication of any widespread intellectual movement. But -soon after it opened, the influence of printing in spreading knowledge -became increasingly felt, and inventions began to succeed each other -with rapidity, and to appear in places far apart. - -In the beginning of the seventeenth century, certain writings appeared -in England that took great hold on the minds of thinking men, not only -in England, but throughout Europe. The name of the author was Francis -Bacon. - -It would not be within the scope of this book even to attempt to -analyze the philosophy of Bacon, to differentiate between it and -the philosophy of Aristotle or any other of the great thinkers of -the world, or to try to trace directly the influence of Bacon's -philosophy on his own time and on future times. It is obvious, -however, that Bacon invented a system of inductive reasoning that -assisted enormously to give precision to the thoughts of men in his -own day, by convincing them of the necessity of first ascertaining -exact facts, and then inferring correct conclusions from those facts. -This seems to us an easy thing to do, looking at the matter in the -light of our civilization. But it was not easy, though Bacon's high -position gave him a prestige exceptional for a philosopher to possess; -and this smoothed his way considerably. Men had not yet learned to -think exactly. The efforts of even the great minds were of a groping -character; and fanciful pictures made by the imagination seem to -have intertwined themselves with facts, in such a way that correct -inferences (except in mathematical operations) were hardly to be -expected. Bacon insisted that every start on an intellectual expedition -should be made from absolutely indisputable facts. - -The first effect of such teaching was to make men seek for facts. Not -long afterward, we find that many men were making it the main business -of their lives to seek for facts from Nature herself. This does not -mean that men had not sought for facts before from Nature, or that -Bacon alone is to be credited with the wonderful increase in the work -of research and investigation that soon began. - -Bacon's principal book was published in 1620, and called the "Novum -Organum," or "the new instrument." It was obviously an invention, for -it was a definite creation of a wholly new thing, that originated in -a definite conception, and was developed into a concrete instrument. -That Bacon so regarded it is evident from the title that he gave it. -Furthermore, he described it as "the science of a better and more -perfect use of reason in the investigation of things and of the true -aids of the understanding." Bacon was a patient of Dr. Harvey, who -discovered the circulation of the blood; and it would be strange indeed -if Bacon's philosophy did not give to Harvey a great deal of guidance -and suggestion that furthered his experiments. - -William Harvey discovered the fact that the blood circulates in the -bodies of living animals. This declaration stated by itself would -convey to the minds of some the idea that Harvey discovered it, -somewhat as a boy might discover a penny lying on the ground. The first -definition of the word discover in the _Standard Dictionary_ is "to -get first sight or knowledge of"; so that the mere announcement that -an investigator has "discovered" something gives to many people an -incorrect idea of his achievement. Harvey discovered the fact of the -circulation of the blood after years of experimentation and research on -living animals, and by work of a most laborious kind. His conclusions -were not accepted by many for a very considerable period; but he was -fortunate, like Bacon, in holding a position of such influence and -prestige, that he escaped most of the violent opposition that inventors -usually meet. - -Harvey's discovery did not of itself constitute an invention; but the -embodiment of that discovery in a concrete theory, so explained "that -persons skilled in the art could make and use it," did constitute -an invention of the most definite kind. The whole influence of that -invention on history, only a highly equipped physician could describe; -but, nevertheless, one may feel amply justified in stating that its -influence on the science and practice of surgery and medicine, and on -the resulting health of all the civilized nations of the world, has -been so great as to be incalculable. - -A contemporary and acquaintance of Harvey was Robert Boyle, one of the -most important of the early scientific investigators, who was an avowed -disciple of Bacon, and followed his methods with conscientious care. -His work covered a large field, but it was concerned mostly with the -action of gases. He is best known by "Boyle's Law," which is usually -expressed as follows: "When the volume of a mass of gas is changed, -keeping the temperature constant, the pressure varies inversely as the -volume; or the product of the pressure by the volume remains constant." -While it has been found that this law is not absolutely true with all -gases at all temperatures and pressures, its departure from accuracy -are very small, and these are now definitely known. With certain -tabulated corrections, this law is the basis on which most of the -calculations for steam engines, air engines and gas engines are made. -It is usually expressed by the formula - - p v = p´ v´ = constant. - -Boyle is said to have "discovered" this law, and Harvey is said to have -"discovered" the circulation of the blood. Doubtless they did: but if -they had done no more than "discover" these things, no one else would -have been the wiser, and the world would have been no richer. What -these two men did that made us wiser and the world richer, was to make -inventions of definite character, and give them to the world in such -manageable forms, that "persons skilled in the art can make and use -them." - -In 1620, the spirit thermometer, as we know it now, was invented by -Drebel. It is by some ascribed to Galileo. An interesting controversy -has been waged as to which was actually the inventor. The facts seem to -be that Galileo did invent a thermometer in which the height of water -in a glass tube indicated approximately the temperature. The tube was -long and ended in a bulb at the top. The bulb being warmed with the -hand of Galileo, and the open lower end of the tube being immersed in -water, and then the warmth of the hand removed, water rose in the tube -to a height depending on the warmth of the air in the bulb. The height -of the water therefore varied _inversely_ as the temperature. The -defect of the instrument was that it was a barometer as much as it was -a thermometer; because the varying pressure of the atmosphere caused -the water to rise and fall accordingly, and thus falsify the thermal -indications. Drebel realized this, and closed both ends of the tube. - -Thus Galileo came very near to inventing both the thermometer and the -barometer, but yet invented neither! It seems incredible that he should -have failed to invent the barometer, having come so near it; for he had -been engaged for a long period in investigating the weight of air, and -finally had succeeded in ascertaining it. The barometer was invented -or rather discovered by Galileo's successor, Torricelli, in 1645. -Torricelli, in investigating the action of suction pumps, constructed -what now we call a barometer; but it was not until _after_ he had -constructed it that he realized that the height of mercury in his tube -indicated the pressure of the air outside. Seventy-five years later, -Fahrenheit made a great improvement in the thermometer by substituting -mercury for spirits. - -Meanwhile, Otto von Guericke, following in the footsteps of Galileo and -Torricelli, had invented the air-pump, by means of which he succeeded -in getting a fairly perfect vacuum in a glass receiver. This seems to -have been an invention of the most clear-cut kind, resulting from an -idea that occurred to Guericke that he seized upon promptly and put to -work to serve mankind. Its influence in giving impetus to the science -and art of pneumatics, and the influence of pneumatics on the progress -of civilization, are too obvious to need more than to be pointed out. -The invention of Guericke is a simple and clear illustration of the -"power of an idea"; an illustration of seed falling on good ground and -bringing forth fruit an hundred fold. - -One of the greatest inventors that ever lived was Isaac Newton, who -lived from 1642 till 1728. Even as a child he busied himself with -contriving and constructing mechanical appliances, mostly toys. As -a young man he occupied himself mostly with studies in mathematics -and experiments in physics, especially optics. In 1671 he invented -a special form of the reflecting telescope, called after him the -Newtonian telescope. He made many experiments in optics, in consequence -of which he discovered and announced that white light consists of seven -colors, having different degrees of refrangibility. The influence of -this discovery on the advancement of learning since that time, it -is unnecessary to point out; but we cannot realize too clearly that -without it much of the most important progress in optics since that -time would have been impossible. - -The invention by reason of which Newton is most generally known is his -theory or law of gravitation, which he announced in his _Principia_, -published in 1686. In 1609, Kepler had announced his famous laws, that -reads: - - "1. The orbits of planets are ellipses having the sun at one - focus. - - "2. The area swept over per hour by the radius joining sun and - planet is the same in all parts of the planet's orbit. - - "3. The squares of the periodic times of the planets are - proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the - sun." - -Newton showed from the laws of mechanics which he had discovered that, -assuming the first two laws of Kepler to be true, each planet must -always be subject to a force directing it toward the sun, that varies -inversely as the square of its distance from the sun: otherwise, it -would fly away from the sun or toward it. From this, Newton inferred -that all masses, great and small, attract each other with a force -proportional to their masses, and inversely proportional to the square -of the distance between them, and invented what is now called the law -of universal gravitation. - -Another invention of possibly equal value, also published in his -_Principia_, but not so generally known, is his three laws of motion. -These are - - "1. Every body continues in its state of rest, or of moving - with constant velocity in a straight line, unless acted - upon by some external force. - - "2. Change of momentum is proportional to the force and to the - time during which it acts, and is in the same direction as - the force. - - "3. To every action there is an equal and contrary re-action." - -It is probably impossible for any human mind to conceive any invention -of a higher order of originality than either of these two, or to -construct any invention more concrete and useful. Certainly no more -brilliant inventions have ever yet been made. These two wonderful -products of Newton's genius underlie the whole structure of modern -astronomy and modern mechanics. The sciences of modern astronomy and -modern mechanics could not exist without them, and would not now exist -unless Newton (or someone else) had invented them. - -It may be pointed out that Newton's conception of our solar system is -that of a machine in rapid motion, of which the sun and the planets are -the principal parts. - -Another important invention ascribed to Newton is that of the sextant, -a small and easily handled instrument, used ever since in ships for -purposes of navigation; but whether he should receive the entire credit -for this invention seems quite doubtful; for another astronomer, Robert -Hooke, is credited by some with the original suggestion, and John -Hadley, still another astronomer, with having adapted it to practical -sea use. Numerous other scientific inventions, however, that have -formed the basis of much of the scientific work of later experimenters -and inventors are clearly to be credited to Newton. Among these, his -formula for the velocity of a wave of compression, his color-wheel, -and his simple apparatus known as "Newton's rings," by which can be -measured the wave lengths of light of different colors, are possibly -the most important. - -In approximate coincidence with the Renaissance movement and the -accompanying awakening of the intellect of Europe, there began a -conflict between the sovereigns and the Pope. The Popes had gradually -acquired great power, because of their prestige as the successors of -St. Peter, to whom it was declared our Savior had given the keys of -heaven. Coincidentally, the multitudinous barons had gradually built -up the Feudal System. This was a loose-jointed contrivance, under -which Europe was virtually divided into little geographical sections, -ruled over by hereditary feudal lords, who in each country owed -allegiance to a sovereign. By reason of the slowness and uncertainty -of transportation and communication, the various feudal lords were -extremely independent, and each one did substantially as he willed in -his little domain. - -The situation was a miserable one for every person, except the Pope, -the sovereigns, the feudal lords and their hangers-on; not only -because of the various petty tyrannies, but because of the continual -little wars and the general absence of good government. Gradually, -the sovereigns got more and more power (except in England) and the -conditions improved so much that the people realized that it was better -to be ruled by one king, or emperor, than by a multitude of barons. The -sovereigns finally acquired so much power that they dared to oppose the -Pope in many of his aggressions; but no very important situations were -developed until the Reformation caused the existence of protestant or -heretic sovereigns, and the occasional excommunication of one of them -by the Pope, with its attendant exhortation to his subjects to take -up arms against him. To meet this situation, the theory of the Divine -Right of Kings was invented. - -This was a very important invention; for it offset the Divine authority -of the Pope as Pope, and gave a theme for the bishops and priests in -their discourses to the people, and a slogan for the soldiers. It was -extremely successful for three centuries, and its influence was in the -main beneficent. It worked for the establishment of stable governments -and great nations, tended to prevent the excessive domination of -a religious organization, and, by recognizing the fact that every -sovereign's power comes from the Almighty, it suggested the sovereign's -responsibility to Him. At first this suggestion evidently bore little -fruit; for the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were characterized -by general oppression of the people, and filled with dynastic wars, -waged merely in behalf of monarchical ambitions. But gradually the -kings and the peoples came to realize the duties of sovereigns, as well -as their privileges and powers. Gradually then, the view came to be -held that kings were bound to exercise their power for the benefit of -their people. - -Even the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings, now condemned and -obsolete, had a great influence and a good influence during the time it -was in vogue; and it supplies a clear illustration of the power of a -good idea, skillfully developed, to fulfill a given purpose, so long as -its existence is necessary. - -Most men have a considerable amount of energy, but do not know what to -do with it. Children are in the same category, except that toys have -been invented for them, and parents give these toys to their children. -Without toys, children find the days very long, and parents find their -children very trying. The usefulness of toys seems to be mainly, not so -much in giving children pleasure directly, as in supplying an outlet -for their energies, both physical and mental. For what greater pleasure -is there than in expending one's natural energies under pleasant -conditions? - -Possibly, all the work that men have done in building up civilization -is like the work that children have done with building blocks. -Certainly there are many points of similarity. The mental efforts are -similar; and, so far as we can see, the results are similar also. -Toy temples have been built of building blocks, and then have been -destroyed. Civilizations also have been built and then destroyed. And -in the case of both the building blocks and the civilizations, the -pleasure seems to come, not from the result achieved, but from an -enjoyable expenditure of energy in achieving it. In both cases it has -been the inventors who have pointed out the ways in which to expend the -energy, and achieve the results. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE RISE OF ELECTRICITY, STEAM AND CHEMISTRY - - -The invention of the first electrical machine was made by Otto Von -Guericke, of Magdeburg, about 1670. It consisted of a sulphur ball, a -stick with a point, and a linen thread "an ell or more long," hanging -from the stick. The lower end of the thread being made to hang "a thumb -breadth distance" from some other body, and the sulphur ball rubbed and -brought near the point of the stick, the lower end of the thread moved -up to the body. The ball being removed, the lower end of the thread -would drop away from the body; so that by moving the ball back and -forth, the lower end of the thread would be made to move back and forth -simultaneously. - -It may be objected that Guericke made no invention, because he did not -conceive the idea of making a machine or instrument and did not, in -fact, produce one: that he merely made a discovery. The author admits -that such an objection would have great reasonableness, and that -Guericke's feat is a little hard to class. It is classed by many as an -invention, however, and the present author is inclined to class it so; -because there seems no reason to doubt that Guericke first conceived -the idea of doing what he did do, and that he did produce a device -whereby an actual motion of a rubbed ball at one place caused actual -motion at another place, through the medium of a current of electricity -that traversed a conductor joining the two places. The device is -sometimes spoken of as the first telegraph instrument. - -Guericke (like Gilbert) was more distinctly an experimenter than an -inventor,--and (like Gilbert) his work was not only in electricity, but -in most of the other branches of science. Of the two, Guericke seems -to have covered a wider field, and to have been more distinctly an -inventor. His celebrated experiment of holding two hollow hemispheres -together, then exhausting the air from the hollow sphere thus formed, -and then demonstrating the force of the atmosphere by showing that -sixteen horses could not pull the hemispheres apart, indicates just the -kind of clear apprehension of the laws of Nature that characterizes the -inventor. - -By some, Guericke is esteemed the inventor of the first electric light, -because by rubbing a sulphur ball in a dark room he produced a feeble -electric illumination. Of Guericke's discoveries and inventions, the -only one that has survived as a concrete apparatus is the air pump; -but it is doubtful if the direct influence on history of the air pump, -great as it has been, has actually been any greater than the indirect -influence of his less widely known discoveries and experiments. - -[Illustration: Hero's Engines] - -One of the early influences of the art of printing was to bring to the -notice of some restless minds the writings of Hero and Archimedes. In -Hero's _Pneumatics_, published more than 120 years before Christ, he -gives such a clear account of an invention of his own, in which the -expansive force of steam was used to give and maintain motion, as to -establish thoroughly his right to the basic invention of the steam -engine. He described three apparatus that he devised. In one, the -currents of air and aqueous vapor rising through a tube from a hollow -sphere, containing water, under which a fire is burning, support a -ball placed immediately above the tube, and make it seem to dance. In -another apparatus, a hollow sphere into which steam has arisen from -what we now call a boiler, is supported on a horizontal or vertical -axis, and provided with tubes that protrude from the sphere, and are -bent at right angles to the radius and also to the pivot. The inner -ends of these tubes lie within the sphere, so that the steam passes -from the sphere through the tubes. As soon as this happens, the sphere -takes up a rapid rotation, that continue so long as the steam continues -to escape from the nozzles of the tubes, which point rearwardly. A -third apparatus was merely an elaboration of the second, in that the -sphere was connected with an altar which supported a large drum on -which were figures representing human beings. The fire being lighted, -the sphere would soon begin to revolve, and with it the drum; and -the figures on it would seem to dance around, above the altar. The -invention was probably to impress the people with the idea that the -priests were exerting supernatural power. - -[Illustration: Hero's Altar Engine] - -Hero's wonderful invention remained unused and unappreciated for nearly -2,000 years. About 1601, an Italian named Della Porta, published a book -that seems to show acquaintance with it, also with the fact that if -water be heated it is converted into a gas that can raise water to a -height. In 1615, a Frenchman named de Caus published a book in which he -showed a hollow sphere into which water could be introduced through an -orifice that could then be closed; the sphere carrying a vertical tube -that dipped into the water at its lower end, and ending in a small -nozzle at its upper end. When a fire was started under the sphere, the -air in the upper part expanded, and forced down the water that occupied -the lower part, so that a jet of water would soon issue from the upper -end of the tube. Of course, this was really less than Hero had done, -because the appliance described did not constitute a machine, in any -real sense of the word. - -In 1629, an Italian named Branca carried Hero's invention a step -further, by inventing a simple apparatus whereby the revolution of -Hero's hollow sphere was communicated to a series of pestles in -mortars, and put to the useful work of compounding drugs. Branca seems -entitled to the basic invention of the steam engine as an industrial -machine. - -About 1663, the Marquis of Worcester invented a steam engine that -exerted about two horse-power, and was employed to raise water from the -Thames River, and supply it to the town of Vauxhall. Six years later -(1669) Captain Thomas Savery erected a steam engine about twenty-five -feet above the water in a mine, and successfully drew water out. This -was a very important feat, because the difficulties surrounding the -problem of freeing the mines from water were extremely great, and the -desirability of overcoming them was equally so. In Savery's engine, -there were two boilers in which steam was raised, and two receivers -communicating with them. Steam being admitted to one receiver, the -connection with the boiler was shut off by a valve, and a cold jet was -then suddenly thrown on the receiver, condensing the steam and forming -a partial vacuum. This vacuum the water below immediately rushed up to -overcome. Connection with the pipe leading down was then shut off, and -steam introduced to the receiver. This steam forced out the water from -the receiver into a pipe, which discharged it above. This operation -was then performed by the other boiler and receiver; so that, by -their continued and alternate action, a fairly continuous stream of -discharged water was maintained. - -This invention was quickly followed by Captain Savery with another, by -means of which the discharge stream was made to fall on a mill-wheel, -as though from a natural waterfall. Several of these machines were -erected for actuating the machinery of mills and factories in the -district. - -In 1690, Dr. Papin invented a steam engine, in which he used a cylinder -containing water, with a piston so arranged that, when the water was -heated, the steam would raise the piston. The fire being then removed -the pressure of the atmosphere would force down the piston. This -was followed shortly by an invention of Newcomer and Cawley, which -was a very considerable advance on previous engines. It comprised a -separate boiler and furnace, a separate cylinder and piston, means for -condensing the steam in the cylinder by injecting water into it, and -a system of self-acting valves that were opened and closed by a long -beam that was moved by the piston. Furthermore, this beam communicated -motion to a pump that pumped the water up directly. This engine was -so efficient and so practically useful, that it was very generally -introduced into service for draining mines throughout England. About -1775, Smeaton built an engine carefully designed on these lines, of -which the cylinder was 72 inches in diameter, and the length of stroke -was 10 feet and 6 inches. - -In 1725, Jacob Leupold invented an engine, in which the work was done -by steam alone, instead of by the atmosphere, as in the engines that -immediately preceded it. Leupold used two cylinders. They were open -at the top to the atmosphere as in the others, but he used higher -pressures of steam, and arranged a four-way cock between the bottoms of -the two cylinders in such a way that the bottom of each cylinder, in -its turn, was connected to the boiler or to the open air. Each cylinder -actuated directly a separate vibrating beam, which in turn actuated the -piston of a pump; the two pistons acting reciprocally, each drawing up -water in its turn. - -[Illustration: Leupold's Engine] - -In 1765, James Watt made the very great improvement of providing a -condenser separate from the cylinder of the engine, so that the great -loss of heat caused by cooling the cylinder and then heating it at -each stroke was wholly avoided. He covered the cylinder entirely, and -surrounded it with an external cylinder kept always full of steam, that -maintained the cylinder at a high temperature. The steam, instead of -being condensed within the cylinder, after it had done its work, was -allowed to escape into the condenser. To facilitate this action, the -condenser was fitted with an air-pump that maintained a good vacuum in -it. - -In 1769, Watt invented an improvement that consisted mainly of means -whereby the supply of steam to the cylinder could be shut off at any -desired part of the stroke, and the steam allowed to complete the -rest of the stroke by virtue of its expansive force. This invention -increased tremendously the efficiency of the engine: that is, the -amount of work done with a given amount of steam. - -During all this time, Watt had realized that virtually all the work was -done on the down stroke, and none on the up stroke, and also realized -that it would be highly desirable to devise an apparatus whereby the -reciprocating motion of the piston could be converted into a rotary -motion. Watt was able to accomplish both feats, and to connect the -bottom and top of the cylinder alternately with the condenser and -boiler by a simple mechanism driven by a wheel rotated by the engine. -The result was the reciprocating steam engine in its main features, as -it exists today. - -The influence of Hero's invention on history is not direct, because -his engine has never been employed for any industrial purpose. But -Hero's engine has had an enormous influence on history, nevertheless, -because it supplied the basis on which the steam engine of the last -two centuries has rested. The influence of Hero's invention was not -realized until two thousand years after he had died, and until after -all those men had died whose names have just been mentioned. It is -inconceivable that any of those men could really have expected that -their work was to have even a small fraction of the influence on -mankind that it actually has had. The influence of Watt's work became -visible to some degree before he died, and became clearly visible not -very long after he had died; so clearly visible that by many men Watt -is credited with the invention of the steam engine. But his good work -was built on the good work of his predecessors, whose main work was -in making Watt's work possible. The successive feats of all, like the -successive layers in the foundations of any building, were to support, -in time, the whole superstructure of the great and beneficent science -of steam engineering. - -But the work done by these men was not all the work that had to be -done, to make Watt's steam engine the efficient machine it was. These -men were the men who are directly to be credited, but they were not -the only men engaged. Neither did they belong to the only class of -men engaged. There was another class of men whose labors were equally -arduous, and equally important, though not so clearly in evidence--the -physicists, as we now call them. It was by the knowledge which they -gleaned regarding the properties of steam and air and water and iron, -regarding the laws of motion and heat and work and force and weight -and mass, that the inventors' experiments were guided. It is true that -the science of physics was then in its infancy, as we realize with the -knowledge of the science today; but Aristotle in the days of Greece, -and Archimedes and Hero later, and Galileo and many others in Italy--as -well as Guericke in Germany, Newton and Gilbert in England, and others -of less note, had evolved a good deal of order out of what had been -chaos, and had given inventors a great deal of firm ground on which -to stand themselves and raise their structures. And reciprocally, the -inventors found themselves confronted with problems of a kind that gave -opportunities for the physicists to show their skill and knowledge. - -Thus were opened up promising avenues of investigation, and not only -of investigation, but of invention also. For it is obvious that, -while investigation and experimentation can hardly fail to secure -data, they may secure nothing else, and usually do. But mere data are -mere facts; and, valuable as they are if suitably classified, they -are not valuable unless they are classified; and even after data are -classified, they are not useful until some use is found for them. The -data in card-indexes are mere unrelated facts, and are almost useless, -until they have been classified and arranged in boxes alphabetically -labeled. Then they are useful whenever any use is found; when, for -instance, some one is seeking information on a certain subject. In -this condition, data are like material substances, in that they are -available for use,--in fact, data are often spoken of by writers -as "material"; a certain series of incidents, for instance, supply -"material" for a story. Now, just as pieces of iron and brass supply -material with which an inventor can create a new machine, so classified -facts, or data, supply material with which an inventive investigator -can create a new theory, or formulate a new law. - -Our books on physics are full of accounts of experiments and -investigations conducted by such men as Hero, Archimedes, Gilbert, -Galileo and many others, the consequent discoveries that they made, -and the consequent laws that they enunciated; but those books could -not possibly describe all the investigations that have ever been -made. Those which they describe are those that ended in some definite -creations, such as the hydrostatic law enunciated by Archimedes. Most -investigations, experiments and researches have ended in nothing -definite:--most of them, in all probability, have not even established -facts. The investigations that we studied about when boys were such as -those of Archimedes, that presented us with inventions, in the form of -useful and usable laws. No appreciable difference is apparent between -the mental operations of Archimedes in inventing these laws and his -mental operations in inventing his screw: for in both cases the mental -operations consisted mainly in conceiving an idea and then embodying -it. The Archimedean screw was a machine of an entirely new kind that, -in the hands of a man understanding its use, would enable the man to -do something he could not do before--or enable him to do a thing he -could do before, but do it better. So were his laws. The laws have been -utilized ever since, as definite and concrete devices; and to a much -greater extent than the special form of screw that he invented. - -In a like way, all the laws that investigators have put into concrete -and usable form, have been used by other investigators as bases -for further investigations, and by inventors as bases for future -inventions. Even the inventor of the fist-hammer had to know something -about the material which he employed; he had to know that it was hard -and heavy, for instance, and that it could be hammered so as to have a -point and a sharp edge. He had to know also something about the flesh -of a man: he had to know that if his flesh was struck with a sharp hard -instrument, it would be bruised, and the man injured, and maybe killed. -Similarly, the inventor of the gun, and the inventor of printing, -and the inventors of steam engines, had to know a good deal about -the materials which they employed, and about the uses to which their -appliances could be put. Naturally, they had to know much more than did -the inventor of the fist-hammer. But the inventor of today has to know -still more, because there is still more to know. An inventor of the -present day who knew no more about physical science than Galileo did -would not be able to go far. - -A like remark may be made about any man in any vocation, as compared -with his predecessor in Galileo's time. The machine of civilization is -so vast and so complex, that the amount of knowledge which anyone of -us needs in mere daily life is almost incredible. Let anyone try to -enumerate all the facts he knows! The attempt will convince him quickly. - -It may be pointed out here that, while modern civilization differs -from ancient civilization in many ways, it differs more in complexity -than in any other one way. Some of the factors of ancient civilization -were as good as those of today; such things, for instance as temples -and pyramids and stationary objects in general. But the ancients did -not understand motion clearly, especially irregular motion; and they -had no fast vehicles of any kind. Their knowledge of statics must have -been fairly complete, or they could not have built their temples and -pyramids; but their records show little understanding of dynamics. - -Now the basis of dynamics is mathematics. Dynamics is the result of the -application of mathematics to the observed effects of force on bodies, -in producing motion. Dynamics is a branch of the science of mechanics, -and a most difficult branch. It is built on the observations, -calculations and conclusions of Newton and a host of experimenters and -mathematicians of lesser mentality, and it could not have come into -being without them. - -But dynamics has not been the only physical science involved in making -the machine of civilization. All the physical sciences have taken part; -and each one has taken a part which was essential to the final result, -and without which the final result could not have been attained. -The science of light made possible the solution of our problems of -illumination and the development of inventions for producing it; the -science of acoustics made possible the solution of our problems of -sound, including music, and the invention of acoustic and musical -instruments; the science of heat made possible the invention of all the -complex and powerful steam and gas engines that have revolutionized -society; the science of electricity (including magnetism) has made -possible the invention of those electric and electro-magnetic machines -that have supplemented the work of the steam engine; and the science of -pneumatics has made possible the invention of those "flying machines" -of many kinds, that promise to complicate civilization further still. - -But let us realize clearly that no one of these sciences by itself -has been able to perform any of the feats just mentioned. Each one -was virtually dependent on every other one; and all were dependent on -mathematics. In order to make the steam engine work efficiently, it was -not enough that heat should expand water into steam: the mathematical -laws which showed how much water was needed to secure a certain amount -of steam, for instance, and how a certain desired pressure of steam -could be secured, had first to be comprehended and then to be followed. -In order to have boilers and engines so designed as to prevent -disastrous explosions, the laws governing the strength of materials -had to be known and followed. In order that a projectile could be so -fired from a gun as to reach a certain predetermined spot, the laws of -heat, pneumatics, chemistry and dynamics had all to be understood and -followed with exactness. - -But it was not only the machines and instruments that needed the -assistance of those sciences, it was the sciences themselves; because -it was only after eliminating phenomena caused by one agency from those -caused by another, that accuracy in any conclusions whatever could be -secured; and in order that the phenomena caused by one agency could -be kept separate from the phenomena caused by another agency, the -laws underlying both had to be understood. The science of light could -not be developed until the action of heat was fairly well understood; -dynamics had to wait on statics; Newton could not have contributed what -he did to astronomy, unless the science of light (including optics) was -sufficiently understood; and the laws of pneumatics could not have been -developed, unless the laws of heat had been developed, etc. And not one -of the physical sciences could have gone beyond the state of infancy, -if the science of mathematics had not been invented and made into a -workable machine. - -The paragraph above may be put into a different form, and made to -state that all the physical sciences have been brought up to their -present stage, by subjecting the phenomena studied by each science -to quantitative investigation. It was by making these quantitative -investigations that Newton and the others were able to ascertain the -exact facts from which to start in their endeavor to discover the -laws of nature; and it was from the laws of nature thus induced that -later investigators were able to start on still further expeditions of -discovery into the unknown. As the common basis of all quantitative -work is mathematics, the common basis of all the physical sciences -is mathematics. This makes all the physical sciences interdependent, -despite the fact that each is independent of the others. Each one -of the physical sciences has contributed its part to building the -machine of civilization; the part that each has specially contributed -can be clearly specified; and yet, since the machine is the result -of the combination of what all have contributed, their contributions -are interdependent. This remark applies to the various parts of all -machines. The piston of a steam engine, for instance, and the valve -that admits steam to the cylinder are entirely separate from each -other; but from the mere fact that they both work together, each one -must be designed and operated with reference to the other; so that both -in their construction and their operation, they are interdependent. - -Francis Bacon, in the sixteenth century, may be said to have -inaugurated the system on which the whole of modern progress has been -based, and Newton in the seventeenth century to have taken up Bacon's -work and carried it further on. Following Newton, only a few great -investigators can be seen in the seventeenth century; but in the -eighteenth, began that intense and brilliant movement of investigation, -discovery and invention, that has been adding more and more to the -machine of civilization--and still is adding more. - -One of the earliest and most important contributions was an apparatus -for measuring time accurately. Who was the inventor is not precisely -known. It seems fairly well established, however, that Galileo was the -first to call attention to the fact that the vibrations of a pendulum -were nearly isochronous, and could be used to measure the lapse of -time; and that Galileo's son (as well as Dr. Hooke, Huygens and a -London mechanic named Harris, in the early part of the seventeenth -century) made clocks based on that principle. It is fairly well -established also that Huygens was the first one to make a mathematical -investigation of the properties of the pendulum, and to enumerate the -laws since utilized for making accurate clocks and watches. - -Most of the investigators of the eighteenth century occupied themselves -with studies indirectly or directly caused by the invention of the -steam engine, that is with studies relating to heat and light; but, -by reason of the interdependence of all the physical sciences, their -investigations led them automatically into the allied fields of -acoustics and electricity. Their investigations led even further; they -led to the establishment, on the ruins of the illusions of alchemy, of -a wholly new and supremely important science, chemistry. - -One of the most important inventions of a purely scientific character -made during the period was one that has never been known by any other -name than "Atwood's machine." It is an interesting illustration of the -addition of invention to investigation, in that its end was--merely -investigation; and it reminds us of a fact that many people are -prone to forget, that invention may be applied to almost any purpose -whatever, and that even a "machine" may be devoted to a purpose not -utilitarian. - -Atwood's machine was the outcome of studies into the relations between -force and a body to which force may be applied. Galileo had shown -that a body subjected to a constant force, like that of gravity, will -gradually acquire a velocity and at a constant rate; and also that -this rate, or acceleration, is proportional to the force (leaving out -the effect of air resistance). Atwood's machine consisted merely of an -upright with a pulley at its upper end over which passed a cord, to -both ends of which weights could be attached. In any given experiment, -a weight was attached to one end and allowed to fall free; but another -weight could automatically be attached to the other end by a simple -device, when the first weight had fallen through any predetermined -distance. If the added weight were equal to the first weight, the -velocity of movement became uniform at once; while if it were less, the -velocity approached uniformity to a degree depending on the approach -to equality of the two weights. While this machine did not establish -any new law, or prove anything that Newton had not proved before, it -supplied a very valuable device for conducting quantitative experiments -with actual weights, and for instructing students. - -The first important improvement in the art of printing was made by -a Scotch goldsmith named William Ged, about the year 1725. It is now -called stereotyping, and it seems to have been successful from the -first, from a technical point of view. It was far from successful from -a financial point of view, however, mainly because of the opposition -from the type-founders; so that Ged died without realizing that he had -accomplished anything. Ged's invention was not put to practical use -for nearly fifty years after his death; but after that, its employment -extended rapidly over the civilized world. Ged's experience was bitter, -but no more so than that of many other discoverers, inventors and -benefactors. He did not profit in the least by his invention; in fact, -it must have brought him little but exasperation and discouragement. -But can we even imagine civilization to exist as it exists today, if -stereotyping had not been invented? - -An invention of a highly original kind was made some time in the middle -of this century which is attributed by some to Daniel Bernoulli, one -of the eight extraordinary investigators and scholars of that family. -According to this theory, the pressure of any gas is due to the -impact of its molecules against the walls of the vessel containing -it. Naturally, the greater the density of the gas, and the greater -the velocity of the molecules, the greater is the pressure. This -theory has greatly assisted the study of gases, and contributed to the -investigation of electric discharges in gases and partial vacua, and -therefore to the modern science of radio-activity. - -In the year 1640 there came to the little throne of the Margravate -of Brandenburg a coarse and violent man, who conceived a principle -of government that seems to have been wholly novel at that time, the -principle of efficiency. Having conceived this idea clearly in his -mind, he proceeded to develop it into a system of administration, in -spite of opposition of all kinds, especially inertia. He ruled till -1688. He found Brandenburg unimportant, disordered and poor; he left -Brandenburg comparatively rich, with a good army, an excellent corps of -administrators, a very efficient government, and a recognized standing -before the world. For his contribution to the cause of good government, -he is known in history as The Great Elector. He might be called, with -much reasonableness, the inventor of governmental efficiency, if Julius -Cæsar had not in some degree forestalled him. - -He was followed by his son, who contributed nothing to this cause -or to any other, but who was able to take advantage of his father's -work and be crowned as King of Prussia. He was followed by his son, -King Frederick William I, who was a man like the Great Elector, his -grandfather, in the essential points of character, both good and bad. - -He was somewhat like Philip of Macedon also; for he conceived the -idea of making his army according to a certain pattern, novel at that -time, though considerably like the pattern that Philip had employed. -The likeness was in so organizing and training the soldiers that a -regiment or division could be handled like a coherent and even rigid -thing, directed accurately and quickly at a pre-determined point, and -made to hit an enemy at that point with a force somewhat like the blow -of an enormous club. He succeeded during his reign of twenty-seven -years in developing his conception into such a perfect and concrete -reality, that he was able on his death in 1740 to bequeath to his son a -veritable military machine--the first since the days of Rome. - -These two Frederick Williams were inventors in the broad sense of -the word, and made inventions that have had an influence on history -since they died, as great as that of almost any other contemporary -inventions that can be specified. Their immediate influence was to make -it possible for the son of King Frederick William, Frederick the Great, -to put Prussia in the first rank among the nations, and to lay the -foundations of the German Empire. - -It may be objected that the ultimate result was not extremely great, -after all, because the German Empire fell in 1918. To this possible -objection, it may be answered that, nevertheless, the doings of Prussia -and the German Empire have had an enormous influence up to the present -time; and that, though the empire itself has ceased, the influence of -its policies and doctrines, of its military system, and, above all, of -its doctrine of efficiency in government has not ceased, and shows no -signs of ceasing. Besides, _history still is young_. - -Frederick the Great made no inventions in improving the military -machine bequeathed him; but he did operate it with inventiveness, -daring and success. He showed these qualities in his actual operations -in the field; but he showed inventiveness in an equal degree before -those operations took place, in the plans which he prepared. As a -tactician, Frederick could hardly help being good, in view of the -training he had received and the military atmosphere in which he -had been born and bred. But no amount of training could have given -Frederick the brilliant and yet correct imagination that enabled him -to see entire situations clearly and accurately with his mental eye; -that enabled him to form a correct picture of the mission in each case, -the difficulties in the way of accomplishing it, and the facilities -available for his use. And, equally, no amount of training or knowledge -or experience could of themselves have given him the constructive -ability necessary to build up such plans as he built up, for -accomplishing the mission with the facilities available and in spite of -the difficulties. - -Frederick's first invention was his successful invasion of Silesia. -This may be called by some "an invention of the devil," and perhaps it -was inspired by him. But even if Frederick's conception came straight -from the devil, it was a brilliant conception, nevertheless, as the -conceptions of the devil himself are popularly supposed to be. So -original in conception and so perfect in development was Frederick's -invented plan, that he had seized the capital of Silesia before Austria -had taken any real defensive measures of any kind. - -During the first half of Frederick's reign, or twenty-three years (from -1740 to 1763), he was engaged continually in war or preparation for -war; and in both activities he had to plan to fight against odds that -often seemed overwhelming. They would have overwhelmed any man, except -a man like Frederick. It is true that Frederick had two advantages, -the best trained army, and the fact that all his forces, military and -political, were united under one head--his own. But it is the verdict -of history that even these advantages were far from sufficient to -explain his victories; that his victories cannot be explained except -on the ground that Frederick showed a generalship superior to that -of his foes. In what did its superiority consist? A careful study of -his campaigns, even if it be not in detail, shows that Frederick was -able to invent better plans than his adversaries, to invent them more -quickly, and to carry them into effect more promptly. If he had been -born under other stars, he might have exercised his inventiveness in -such ways as men like Guericke, for instance, did; as is shown by his -gathering around him, in the peaceful period of the latter half of -his reign, a company selected from the most eminent philosophers and -scientists of the age; and as is shown with equal clearness by his -admirably conceived and executed measures for the better government of -his country. - -The middle of the eighteenth century is especially distinguished by the -success of some extraordinary and brilliant experiments with electrical -apparatus. One of the most important in results occurred about 1746, -in the town of Leyden, where Muschenbroek invented a device that made -possible the accumulating and preserving of charges of electricity. -This appliance consisted of merely a glass jar, coated on the outside -and the inside with tin foil. It was a most important invention, and it -is still in general use, and called the Leyden jar. - -The Leyden jar was soon put to practical work in electrical -investigations, notably by the Royal Society in London; and many -valuable demonstrations were made with it. Among these were the firing -of gunpowder by the electric spark that passed when both surfaces of -tin foil were connected by an external conductor; and the transfer -of the spark over a distance of two miles, by using one discharging -conductor or wire two miles long, the earth acting as the return -conductor. - -But the greatest results came from the investigations of Benjamin -Franklin, who proved that there was only one kind of electricity, that -the two coatings of tin foil were both charged with it, that one had -more than its ordinary quantity, while the other had less, and that -the spark was caused by the transfer of electricity from one coating -to the other. These discoveries were as much as any one discoverer -might reasonably be expected to contribute; but Franklin soon followed -them by his discovery of the power of points to collect and discharge -electricity. He then pointed out with extraordinary clearness the fact -that all the phenomena which had been produced by electricity were like -those produced by lightning; and made the suggestion that lightning -and electricity were identical. - -This was an interesting suggestion, but a suggestion only. To make -it into a theory, or prove it as a law, an invention was required. -Franklin made the invention. He conceived the idea of bringing down the -electricity, with which he imagined that a storm-cloud was charged, by -means of a long conductor, and of drawing off a spark from the lower -end of the conductor as from an electrical machine. The long conductor -he had in mind was a high spire that was about to be erected in -Philadelphia. The erection of the spire being delayed, his imagination -presented to his mind the picture of a kite flying near the cloud, -and the charge flowing down the cord, made into a conductor by the -accompanying rain. Forthwith, he embodied his conception in definite -form by preparing a kite to which was connected a long cord, that ended -with a piece of non-conducting silk, that was to be held in the hand, -and kept dry if possible, and a key that was secured to the junction of -the conducting cord and the non-conducting silk. The expectation was -that the key would receive the charge from the cloud and give it out as -a spark, if Franklin applied to it the knuckle of his disengaged hand. -The invention was a perfect success in every way; sparks were given -off, a Leyden jar was charged, and subsequent discharges of the Leyden -jar were made to perform the same electrical feats as jars charged from -ordinary electrical machines. (June, 1752.) - -The courage shown by Franklin in performing this experiment may here be -pointed out. To the eye of a casual observer, he must have been trying -to get struck by lightning. - -This brilliant invention caused Franklin to conceive another brilliant -invention, the utilization of the discovery he had just made in -combination with his previous discovery of the power of points to -collect electricity. He embodied his conception in what we now call -"lightning rods," by erecting on the highest points of houses thin -metal rods or conductors, the lower ends of which were buried in the -earth, while their upper ends were sharpened to points, and made to -project upward, above the houses. Franklin's theory was that the points -would collect the electricity from the clouds and allow it to pass -harmlessly through the conductors into the ground. The invention worked -perfectly, and has been utilized everywhere ever since. - -Naturally, Franklin's epochal discoveries stirred the scientific world -in Europe, and gave a great impetus to the study of electricity and -the other physical sciences. One of the earliest important discoveries -that followed (made by Mr. Cavendish) was that the electrical spark -could decompose water and atmospheric air, and make water by exploding -mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen. An epochal discovery was made by Mr. -Cavendish about 1787, when he exploded a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen -and obtained nitric acid. - -In 1790 Galvani discovered that, if two dissimilar metals were -placed in contact at one end of each, and if the free ends are put -into contact with the main nerve of a frog's hind leg and the thigh -muscle respectively, spasmodic muscular movements would ensue. In -investigating the cause of this phenomenon, Volta discovered that if -the lower ends of two dissimilar metals were immersed in a liquid they -would assume opposite electrical states; so that if their outer ends -were joined by a conducting wire, electricity would pass along it. This -led him at once to the invention of the Voltaic cell. The enormous -value of the Voltaic cell in building up the science of electricity -need hardly be pointed out. It is still used in electric telegraphy as -a source of current. - -During the eighteenth century, the relations between chemistry and -heat were very ill defined; but they were cleared up gradually by the -researches of such men as Black in Scotland, Priestley and Cavendish -in England, and Lavoisier in France. Black's work was mainly in -making investigations of the phenomena of heat. In the course of them -he discovered the important fact that different substances require -different amounts of heat to be applied to a given mass to raise its -temperature 1°. From this discovery arose the science of calorimetry, -which deals with the specific heats of all substances, solid, liquid -and gaseous, and which is necessary to the present science of heat -and the arts that depend upon it. About 1774 Dr. Priestley discovered -oxygen. - -Lavoisier prosecuted rigorous researches in heat and chemistry, and -finally made a discovery that cleared up a great fog of doubt as to -the nature of oxidation, by proving that it consisted in an actual -attack on a metal by oxygen, and that the increased weight resulting -from oxidation was that of the oxygen that became associated with the -metal in the form of rust. He therefore disproved the theory formerly -loosely held that the increase in weight was due to the escape of a -spirituous substance which the chemists of that day imagined to depart -from the metal, and called by the name phlogiston. An analogous and -equally valuable contribution by Lavoisier was that of introducing the -use of exact measurements into the study of chemistry. The result of -his labors was to put the science of chemistry on a new basis and to -separate it from physics entirely. - -It might be supposed that Lavoisier would live and die in great honor. -He lived in comparative obscurity, and was publicly guillotined on a -false accusation. He requested a brief respite, in order to complete an -important experiment, and was told in answer that "the Republic has -no need of philosophers." This was France's reward for one of the most -useful lives that has ever been lived. - -One of the most important industrial inventions ever produced and -one of the first of the long list of inventions for making things -by machinery that had formerly been made by hand, was the spinning -machine, that was invented by Dr. Paul in England about 1738. Spinning -is an exceedingly ancient art, and consists in forming continuous -lengths of thread by drawing out and twisting together filaments of -such material as wool, cotton, flax, etc. This art was practiced in -many of the ancient countries; and it seems to have been practiced in -essentially the same way in England in the eighteenth century A. D., -as in Egypt and Assyria long before the eighteenth century B. C. About -1738 Dr. Lewis Paul invented and patented a simple mechanism that -anyone with imagination could have invented at any time during the -two or three thousand years before, in which the filaments were drawn -between rollers. The invention seems to have been moderately successful -from the start; for it is stated that in 1742 a spinning mill was -in operation in Birmingham in which ten girls were employed, and in -which the motive power was supplied by two asses. Paul's invention -was improved by a weaver named Hargreaves, who invented the "spinning -Jenny"; and it was later brought to a high state of efficiency and -value by an invention of a poor and wholly uneducated barber, named -Richard Arkwright. The spinning machines of the present day are of -the highest order of intricacy, efficiency and usefulness; but they -are all based directly on the invention of Arkwright, and his was -based on the previous inventions of Paul and Hargreaves. Few persons -have contributed so much as these three men of humble station to the -comfort and well-being of the race. - -On July 3, 1775, George Washington arrived at Cambridge, near Boston, -and took command of an army of about 17,000 men that faced a British -army occupying Boston. Washington devoted his energies to organizing -and training his motley force during the ensuing fall and winter, the -enemy making no decided move to drive him off. Finally, on March 4, -1776, having conceived a plan that promised success to him, he suddenly -seized and fortified Dorchester Heights, about two miles south of -Boston, from which he could command the whole of Boston and the channel -south of it, by means of guns which he had ordered, to be dragged -through the snow from Ticonderoga. His plan worked perfectly; for the -British General Howe, after a vain attempt to drive Washington away, -evacuated Boston himself, and took his army to Halifax. - -This was Washington's opening move in our War of the Revolution. It -was the execution of a plan admirably conceived. There may seem little -of originality or brilliancy in it to us now, looking at a map of -Boston in the quiet and safety of a library, but there must have been -a great deal of merit and originality in it; for it took a British -major-general completely by surprise, and compelled him to evacuate an -important stronghold with a precipitancy that must have been distinctly -galling to British pride. Few neater feats of strategy can be found in -military history. - -Washington's next feat was in extricating his force from a distinctly -perilous position in Brooklyn in front of a superior British force, -retreating across the East River to New York, and landing near what -is now called Fulton Street. This was on August 30, 1776. The next -three months were spent in maneuvers that showed great clearness in -conception and great energy in execution on Washington's part, and -ended with his occupying Trenton, and Howe occupying New York with -the bulk of his forces. Washington had only a little more than 4,000 -men, while Howe had 30,000. Washington's troops were discouraged, -half-ragged, underfed and untrained; Howe's were elated, well clad, -well fed and thoroughly trained. Washington was in as dangerous a -plight as can easily be imagined. He extricated himself by conceiving -and carrying into execution the brilliant plan of crossing the Delaware -River on Christmas night, forcing his way through floating ice, and -falling on the amazed camp of the Hessians on the other side. His -invention worked perfectly, and effected almost a complete reversal in -the relative conditions of the opposing forces; for it put the British -on the defensive, and made them withdraw all their forces from New -Jersey. - -Thenceforward, Washington, by the exercise of imagination, -constructiveness and sheet force of will, fought a continual fight -against forces that were superior in material and training, but -inferior in mentality. Finally, in August, 1781, the crisis came. -The British were occupying New York, and Washington was in front of -it, threatening to attack it, but knowing that he could not do so -with success. About August 14 he received a letter written in July -by Admiral Comte de Grasse, then in the West Indies, saying that he -would start with his fleet and a force of troops for Chesapeake Bay -on August 13. Washington knew that the British General Cornwallis -was entrenched at Yorktown, near the mouth of the Chesapeake, with -a force considerably inferior to his own. He instantly proceeded -to embody in action an idea that he had already conceived--that of -leaving the vicinity of New York secretly, and marching with the utmost -possible despatch to Yorktown, and calling on de Grasse to assist him -to capture Yorktown, and if possible Cornwallis. No invention ever -succeeded better. Its influence on history was to precipitate the -collapse of the entire British program of hostilities, and cause the -establishment of the United States. - -The balloon was invented about 1783. Mr. Cavendish had found that -hydrogen was about seven times lighter than air, and Dr. Black had -forthwith delivered a lecture in which he pointed out that a thin light -vessel inflated with hydrogen should be able to rise and float in the -air. He conceived the idea of the balloon, but made no invention. The -Italian philosopher, Cavallo, about 1782, inflated soap-bubbles with -hydrogen gas, but went no further. The subject of making balloons -filled with hydrogen was widely discussed; but the first balloon -really to rise was the hot-air balloon invented by Joseph and Stephen -Montgolfier. This balloon made a successful ascent on June 5, 1783, -carrying the two brothers, flew about ten minutes, and alighted safe, -after a trip of about a mile and a half. This was followed on August 27 -by a flight of a balloon filled with hydrogen gas, the design of which -was made by the physicist Charles, and the cost of which was met by a -popular subscription. The flight was followed shortly by many others. -The first employment of balloons in practical work was in making -observations of the enemy by the French army in 1794. - -An important invention for utilizing mechanical power in place of -hand-power was the power-loom invented in 1785 by Edmund Cartwright. -This was an invention of the most clean-cut kind, originating in the -conception by the Rev. Dr. Cartwright of the possibility of doing much -more weaving by mechanical power than by hand, then constructing the -machine to accomplish it, and then accomplishing it. An interesting -fact in the early development of looms for weaving was the determined -and angry opposition of weavers to each improvement in succession. - -Another invention also utilizing external power, made near the end of -the eighteenth century, was the hydrostatic press. It consisted of a -vertical cylinder, fitted with a piston prevented by suitable means -from rising, except against great pressures; the piston resting on a -liquid in the bottom of the cylinder, which was connected by a small -pipe with a small pump, by which more liquid could be forced in. When -the pump was operated the pressure per square inch on the piston of -the pump was communicated to each square inch of the large piston in -the press, and a force exerted equal to that pressure multiplied by -the difference in area of the two pistons. This is the model on which -hydraulic jacks and many other hydraulic mechanisms are constructed; -and it has taken a prominent part in the development of the science of -hydraulics ever since it was invented. - -Because of the gradual recognition of the value of sea-commerce in the -British Isles, and the fact that the stormy seas adjacent necessitated -the construction of ships at once sturdy and yet capable of speed, -much study and experimentation were carried on during the eighteenth -century, especially in England. In these experiments, the invention -by Archimedes of the hydrostatic principle of buoyancy supplied the -starting-point, and gave an excellent illustration of the influence -of invention on history: for from experiments and investigations on -floating bodies carried on in England, based on the invention of -Archimedes, and followed by others of English origin, sprang England's -merchant marine and England's navy and England's domination over a -quarter of the land on the surface of the earth. - -The eighteenth century closed with the invention of two very important -mechanisms that reinforced the power of the human hand with power -drawn from external sources: these were the threshing machine and -the cotton gin; the former invented by Andrew Meikle in 1788, and -the latter by Eli Whitney in 1793. It would be hard to decide with -knowledge as to which has had the greater influence in constructing -the machine of civilization; but it is not at all hard to realize that -the machine of civilization could not have attained its present stage -without the assistance of both. - -One of the last important inventions of the century was that of an -art entirely new, as distinguished from inventions like the cotton -gin, that merely increased the value of an art already in existence. -This was the invention of lithography, or printing from stone, made by -Alois Senefelder in 1796. The first thing printed by him was a piece of -music. While this invention was more brilliant than those of Meikle and -Whitney, it was hardly so important. Nevertheless, it was important in -a high degree and made a valuable addition to civilization. - -An invention of a kind different from either Whitney's or Senefelder's -was made on October 15, 1793, by Napoleon Bonaparte. He was at that -time a young and ill-clad captain of artillery, attending a Council of -War in Toulon. An idea for driving out the English had been conceived -and embodied in a complete plan by a celebrated engineer, and it -had been approved by the Committee on Fortifications. The youthful -and prestigeless captain opposed this plan with a vehemence and -convincingness that came to be familiarly known a few years later, -and proposed in place of it a plan that he had himself conceived and -embodied in a concrete form. His plan consisted in the main merely in -mounting some guns on a point of land that he designated, from which -they could command the British war-ships in the harbor; and it was so -much simpler and in every way better, that, despite his obscurity -and youth, it was adopted, and he himself was charged with carrying -it into operation. This he did; and with such constructive skill and -energy, that the British ships were driven from the harbor and the -entire vicinity, and without doing any damage to the town. The British -soldiers, then unsupported, immediately withdrew. - -What was the determining difference between Napoleon's plan and that of -the great engineer? _The idea conceived._ - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE AGE OF STEAM, NAPOLEON AND NELSON - - -In the early part of the nineteenth century began what has been called -the Age of Steam; but before it ended, it was supplanted by the Age of -Electricity. When the century opened, the steam engine of Watt existed -in a practical and useful form, and the numberless experiments of -the physicists in the preceding century had laid bare the main laws -governing the force and the expansion of steam and air, and of gases -and vapors in general. The laws of the expansion of solids and liquids -were also understood in their main features, and the various inventions -mentioned in the last chapter were in operation. Seizing on the -facilities thus supplied, and noting the worldly success that certain -discoverers and inventors had achieved, the inventors of the nineteenth -century got speedily to work. The result was that the civilized world -at the end of the nineteenth century was vastly different from the -civilized world at the end of the eighteenth century. - -In general terms, it may be declared that during the first half of the -nineteenth century, the principal inventions were in the utilization of -heat, especially in the form of steam engines; while during the latter -half, the principal inventions were electrical:--though some very -important electrical inventions were made before 1850. In this brief -résumé, no attempt will be made to describe or even mention all the -inventions made, or even all the important ones; for such an attempt -would be impossible to carry out. Only a few super-important ones will -be mentioned. - -The first important successful application of the steam engine was -embodied in the steamboat _Charlotte Dundas_ that was produced in -Scotland in 1801. Other steamboats had appeared before, but they had -not been successful. The first was tried on the Soane River in France -in 1781. Later, Fitch and Ramsay made some unsuccessful attempts in the -United States. Then, in 1788, Patrick Miller, with the assistance of an -engineer named William Symington, had constructed a steam vessel that -attained a speed of five knots on a lake in Scotland. In the next year, -Mr. Miller and Mr. Symington had put another steamboat on the water -that developed a speed of nearly seven knots. None of these experiments -could be called successful of itself; but the experience gained by -them induced Lord Dundas to build the _Charlotte Dundas_ and name it -after his daughter. The _Charlotte Dundas_ was a practical success from -the start; for, in March, 1802, it towed two vessels of 70 tons each -a distance of 19-1/2 miles in six hours, while such a strong wind was -blowing from ahead that no other vessel on the canal tried to move to -windward. - -Whether or not this constituted an actual invention the present author -will not attempt to determine, even in his own mind. It is clear, -however, that it was the direct issue of several inventions, and that -it was the first embodiment in a concrete form of the successful and -practical application of steam power to transportation on the water. - -The next successful application was made by Robert Fulton, who built -the _Clermont_ in 1807. This vessel went into regular service in 1808, -plying between New York and Albany, on the Hudson River. - -The first steamboat to venture on the ocean was the _Phoenix_, that -made the trip from New York to Delaware Bay by sea in 1808. It was -built by Mr. R. L. Stevens, an engineer of Hoboken. If it accomplished -nothing else, it supplied a precedent and gave encouragement to -inventors everywhere. It made "le premier pas qui coute." - -Meanwhile, in June, 1802, Mr. Thomas Wedgwood had published "An Account -of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of making Profiles -by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver," with observations by -Sir Humphry Davy. In the course of his paper, he declared that he had -secured profiles of paintings made on glass by throwing the shadows -of those paintings on paper covered with a solution of the nitrate; -the paper showing the objects delineated in tones that were dark or -light inversely as they were in the painting. He also took profiles of -natural objects by throwing their shadows on the prepared paper: the -parts of the paper covered by the shadows being white, while the parts -outside the shadows became dark. - -This seems to have been an actual invention, in that it followed a -discovery made by Wedgwood that sunlight acted on nitrate of silver, -and was the embodiment of an idea, then conceived by him, to utilize -his discovery in making profile pictures. His invention was far from -perfect, however; the greatest imperfection being the fact that the -pictures could not be fixed; because, unless the paper was ever -afterward kept away from the light, its whole surface would become -dark, and the picture therefore cease to exist. In consequence, it -aroused almost no interest whatever at the time. In 1814, M. Niepce -invented a process that he called "heliography," by which he made -pictures on silvered copper covered with a thin solution of asphaltum. -In 1829, Daguerre and Niepce entered into a copartnership for -developing heliography, and instituted experiments that led Daguerre -to inventing the daguerreotype, made by a process quite new in detail, -but based on the earlier inventions of both Wedgwood and Niepce. The -daguerreotype was followed in 1850 by the present "photograph." - -The invention of electroplating was made by Brugnatelli in Italy -in 1803. The fact that electric currents could decompose certain -liquids had been known since 1800, and also the further fact that -oxygen and hydrogen, acids and alkalies, appeared at the positive and -negative poles respectively of the wires in contact with the liquid. -But Brugnatelli seems to have been the first to conceive the idea of -utilizing these facts in a device whereby he could deposit metals -at will at the negative end of a solution. In the embodiment of his -conception, pieces (say of silver) were hung on rods in connection with -the positive pole of the battery supplying the electric current, while -the articles to be plated with silver were hung on rods connected with -the negative pole. The value of this invention and its extensive use in -the electrodeposition of metals at the present day are well known. - -In the following year, Sir Humphry Davy, working along the general -line of electrical decomposition of liquids, made a number of -super-brilliant investigations. Possibly the most important result was -his discovery of a new metal, to which he gave the name Potassium, -formed at the negative pole by the electrical decomposition of -moistened caustic potash. He followed this by decomposing caustic soda -and discovering another new metal, that he named Sodium. - -During the course of his experiments, Davy noted that when the two -terminal wires from a large Voltaic battery were touched together and -then drawn apart, not only did a spark pass, but a continuous discharge -of great brilliancy, that did not cease until the wires were separated -by a considerable distance. The extent of this distance was found later -to be dependent on the number of cells in the battery. He noted also -that the discharge did not follow a straight line, but was bent into -an arc; and for this reason he gave it the name, "Voltaic arc." This -light is still known by the name "arc light." Its importance does not -seem to have been realized until after the dynamo-machine had been -invented, and means thereby supplied for providing a greater amount of -electric current, and at less expense than Voltaic cells were capable -of delivering. - -Davy's last great invention was his miner's safety lamp, made in 1816. -There had been frequent explosions in the collieries, attended with -great loss of life, and Davy was requested to try to ascertain how they -could be prevented. After visiting the mines, he had samples of the gas -that was found in them sent to him for investigation. He went about the -work with scientific thoroughness and system, and ascertained that the -gas would not explode if it were mixed with less than six times or more -than fourteen times its volume of air; that air rendered impure by the -combustion of a candle would not explode the gas; that, if a candle -were burnt in a closed vessel, with small openings near the flame, no -explosion would take place, even if the vessel were introduced into an -explosive mixture; and that the gas from the mines would not explode -inside a tube less than 1/8 inch in diameter. These data being secured, -Davy conceived the idea of making a lamp in which a small oil light -should be fixed and surrounded with a cylinder of wire gauze. He then -embodied his conception in a concrete form, and the "Miners' Safety -Lamp" resulted. - -This was an invention of the first order; original, concrete and -highly useful. After meeting the customary chorus of prejudice and -opposition, it justified its existence by a quickly established record -of effectiveness, and took its place among the useful adjuncts of the -machine of civilization. - -Meanwhile, several other adjuncts had appeared. Among these was the -steel pen, a process of making malleable iron castings, the planing -machine, a fireproof safe, the knitting machine and the band wood-saw. - -In 1726 Dr. Hales had announced that a gas capable of burning, and -giving light while burning, could be distilled from coal. This -announcement created great interest, and led to a long series of -scientific investigations as to the possibility of utilizing it for -house and street illumination, especially by a Mr. Murdock in the -latter decade of the century. In 1802 Mr. Murdock made a public display -of the result of his labors, by illuminating a factory with gas. In -the year 1803-1804 the Lyceum Theatre in London was so lighted, and a -year later some extensive cotton mills in Manchester. Public interest -was so roused that investigations on a larger scale ensued, which -resulted in lighting Westminster Bridge with gas in 1813, and the town -of Westminster the following year. In 1816 street lighting by gas was -common in London. The lighting of houses by gas followed later, but -very slowly. - -It is a little difficult to see that there was much invention of an -original or brilliant kind involved in the gradual development of the -art of illuminating by gas; but it cannot reasonably be denied that a -considerable amount of invention must have been done in the aggregate, -for the reason that a wholly novel art was created. If it was not -invented, how was it brought into being? The best answer probably is -that the art was not the result of one brilliant invention followed by -others that improved upon it, but was rather the aggregate work of a -number of minor inventions, each one of which carried the art forward, -but by only one short step. - -Other minor inventions produced the locomotive and the railroad. The -first steam engines were stationary; but portable engines, now called -locomotives, gradually came into being. They were engines mounted -on platforms resting on wheels that, in turn, rested on the ground; -the revolutions of the engines turning the wheels, and causing the -advancement of the whole. In 1807 a wagon-way was laid down on which -cars were run to and from a colliery, and this wagon-way passed close -in front of a house in which lived a poor family named Stephenson, -a member of which was a boy whose Christian name was George. In the -following year, the wooden parts were taken up and replaced by a -single line of iron rails with sidings. In 1811 a portable engine -was constructed for running on these rails, and this was followed by -another in the following year. George Stephenson made a locomotive for -running on rails in 1814, and followed it by another in 1816, both for -hauling coal. - -It was now so obvious that locomotives could haul other things than -coal, that a railroad was laid down between Manchester and Liverpool, -and a prize of £500 was offered for the best engine. On October 6, -1829, the competition was held, though only three engines appeared. The -prize was won by Stephenson's locomotive, the _Rocket_, which attained -a speed of 29 miles per hour. - -With the locomotive, as with illuminating gas, it is impossible to -see any one original or brilliant invention. We do see, however, the -result of the superposition on one brilliant invention (that of Hero's -steam engine) of a number of minor inventions, and much constructive -ingenuity and initiative. - -An invention of a higher order had signalized the latter part of the -eighteenth century, in the form of a printing press in which the speed -of printing was greatly increased by the use of revolving cylinders; -one holding the type on its outer surface, and the other covered -with leather, the paper passing between, and receiving the printed -impression by the pressure exerted between the two cylinders. In order -that the type should fit on the curved surface of the cylinder, they -were made narrower toward the bottom. The machine was invented by an -Englishman named Nicholson. It was never put into practical use; but -a machine embodying the revolving cylinder for receiving the force of -the impression communicated to the paper, was invented and put into -successful use later by a German named König. The type, however, was -not put on a cylinder in this machine, but on a flat plate that passed -back and forth under the revolving impression cylinder. Two of König's -presses were bought for the _London Times_; and on November 28, 1814, -one made 1,100 impressions per hour, a marvelous advance over speeds -previously attained. From the standpoint of pure invention, it was -not so admirable as Nicholson's; but being a later product, and being -based on Nicholson's principle, it was naturally an improvement in -construction and mode of operation. - -In 1814 Sir David Brewster, while experimenting on the polarization of -light, made an invention of the most original and concrete type, which -required a high grade of scientific knowledge for its conception and -development, but which was not intended for any utilitarian purpose, -and yet was of too serious a character to be called a scientific toy. -This was his famous kaleidoscope; an instrument described accurately -by its name, for it enabled one to see beautiful things. It was very -simple in construction and principle, and seems to have fallen short -of greatness in only one element, that of usefulness. By a careful -adjustment of two prisms at a definite angle to each other, Sir David -showed that geometrical images of the utmost beauty and variety could -be made of objects placed between the mirrors, especially if those -objects were small objects, and if they were of different colors, -like bits of colored glass. Knowledge of this escaping, thousands -of kaleidoscopes were soon put on the market, and sold in all the -principal cities, before Sir David had had time to get a patent. -Though the instruments were unscientifically made, they gave beautiful -pictures nevertheless; but the result was that the kaleidoscope was not -appreciated at its full value. The inventor improved the instrument -greatly, and developed it into one of the most beauty-producing -appliances known, and one of the most extraordinary and unique. The -most remarkable fact connected with it is that no real usefulness for -it has ever yet been found. The present author ventures to predict that -a clear field of usefulness will some day be found by some fortunate -inventor. - -Meanwhile, the ill-clad captain of artillery who had invented the plan -by which the British were pushed out of Toulon with so much neatness -and despatch, had nearly turned the civilized world upside down. No man -save Alexander ever accomplished so much of that kind of work in so -short a time. His work consisted of a number of acts performed by him, -each of which was like his act at Toulon, in that it began with the -conception of a brilliant idea, proceeded with the embodiment of the -idea in a concrete plan, and ended with the carrying into operation of -that plan. Napoleon was great in each of these lines of work. He had -a brilliant and yet correct imagination, that enabled him to conceive -ideas of extraordinary brilliancy, and also to select from them the -ideas that were the most susceptible of being made into concrete plans -of the kind that could be carried out successfully. He possessed great -constructiveness, that enabled him to construct mentally a plan in -which all the means available for his use were seized upon and put to -their special tasks. He possessed finally great ardor, industry and -courage, that enabled him to start his plan to going very quickly, and -keep it going very rapidly, until it had performed its task. It would -be idle to discuss at which of these three stages of the work he was -the greatest, or to try to decide which stage of the three was the most -important; because the three were links in a continual chain, and the -chain depended on each equally for its strength:--as any chain does on -its links. - -It may be interesting, however, to realize that mere imagination is -possibly the most elementary activity of the mind; mere imagination -is evidenced by savages, for instance, and by children, more than by -highly educated men. Constructiveness, on the other hand, is little -to be found in savages or children, and is a product of education, -and a result of the training of the reasoning faculties. Courage and -impulsive energy again are elemental faculties, and are observable -more in savages than in the civilized. It seems to be the effect of -civilization, therefore, to develop the reasoning faculties, at the -expense of both imagination and courage. In fact, it is clearly the -effect of civilization to develop a cold and calculating materialism. -Men are rare therefore, and have been rare in every age, who combine -the three qualities of imagination, constructiveness and courage. -Napoleon combined all three in harmonious proportions; and he possessed -each one in its most perfect form. - -His performance at Toulon was so spectacular that it attracted -attention at once, and caused his promotion to the command of the -artillery in Italy. Here he was able to suggest projects that received -approval and brought successes. One plan conceived and developed by -him, however, was disapproved. It consisted essentially of dividing the -Piedmontese and Austrians, crushing the Piedmontese, and then driving -the Austrians out of Italy into Austria and following them thither. -Later, this plan was approved, and he himself was put in command in -Italy. It was this plan, executed by the Bonaparte of those days, that -began the career of the Napoleon of history. So original and brilliant -had been the conception, so mathematically correct and practically -feasible had been the plan which Bonaparte developed from it, and so -furiously energetic were his operations in carrying out the plan, that -the sluggish Piedmontese were defeated before they quite realized that -war had been begun. A like catastrophe happened to the equally mentally -and physically sluggish Austrians; then another catastrophe, and then -another, and then still others; and in such rapid and bewildering -succession, that in a year and a month after his arrival in Italy he -had driven the Austrians out completely, formed the Cisalpine and -Ligurian republics in the north of Italy, and signed the armistice of -Leoben with the Austrians, within fifty miles of Vienna. - -Napoleon's next invention was a project for ruining England by -attacking her East Indian possessions by a campaign beginning with an -invasion of Egypt. Everything proceeded in substantial accordance with -the plan developed, until August 1, 1798. In the evening of that day -the whole project was destroyed by Horatio Nelson. - -It was destroyed in a battle near the mouth of the river Nile, that was -decided in fifteen minutes, though it was not wholly concluded until it -had been raging for nearly four hours. In fifteen minutes, the French -fleet on which depended Bonaparte's communications with Europe, had -been so severely damaged that the failure of Bonaparte's project was -decided. - -Nelson was a man like Bonaparte in certain qualities; in the qualities -that are essential to great leadership, imagination, constructiveness -and executiveness. The first clear evidence of these qualities he had -displayed startlingly at the battle of Cape St. Vincent on February 14, -1797;--when, swiftly realizing that two separated parts of the hostile -Spanish fleet were about to join, he suddenly conceived the idea of -preventing the junction by committing an act that--unless it brought -success--would probably cost him his commission and perhaps his life. -Now, the mere conception of an idea so revolting to professional ethics -would not occur to an unimaginative man: and still less would it be -retained. But it did occur to Nelson; and Nelson retained it and looked -it squarely in the face. To embody his idea in a practicable plan was a -simple matter to his active and trained intelligence, while to execute -the plan was an act so natural as to be almost automatic. Much to the -amazement of the Commander of the fleet and all the officers and men in -both the fleets, the little division commanded by Commodore Nelson was -seen actually to leave the line of battle! Nelson had taken his life, -his fortune and his sacred honor in his hand, and staked all on an -endeavor to get between the two separated parts of the Spanish fleet. -The British Commander quickly realized what his daring subordinate -had in mind, and speedily came to his relief. A brilliant, though -not materially decisive, victory was won. The already distinguished -Commander-in-Chief was then made Earl St. Vincent, and the hitherto -obscure Horatio Nelson brought into the forefront of naval heroes, with -the rank of rear-admiral, a gold medal and a knighthood. - -Now, Nelson had not appeared at the mouth of the Nile because of any -accident, or any chain of fortuitous circumstances; he did not fight -the epochal battle there because of any accidental occurrences or -conditions, and he did not gain the victory because of any similar -causes. Nelson appeared at the mouth of the Nile in accordance with a -plan that he had conceived as soon as he heard of Bonaparte's departure -from Toulon on a destination carefully kept secret, but which Nelson -divined as Egypt. He so divined it, by imagining himself in Bonaparte's -place, and imagining for what purpose he, Nelson, would have left -Toulon under the conditions prevailing then in France. He engaged the -French fleet when he did, and he fought the French fleet in the way he -did, in accordance with a plan that he had conceived long before. No -men were ever more cautious, more solicitous about the future, more -painstaking, more prudent, more insistent against taking undue risks, -than those reputedly reckless devil-may-cares, Napoleon Bonaparte and -Horatio Nelson. - -Napoleon realized at once that his brilliant scheme had been shattered; -but he could not now even take his army home, because the British fleet -was in the way. Finally, he succeeded in making the trip himself, with -only a few of his staff. Events ran rapidly then; and on the sixth of -May, 1800, we see Napoleon leaving Paris to undertake a campaign in -northern Italy, in accordance with a plan embodied to carry out an idea -conceived in his fertile mind, of taking his army through the great St. -Bernard pass, dragging his cannon with him through the snow. This plan -(like most of his plans) was so brilliantly conceived, so skillfully -planned, and so energetically executed, that when Napoleon suddenly -appeared with his army in the North of Italy, the Austrian general was -bewildered with amazement. The natural result developed quickly, and -the Austrians retired beyond the Mincio River. - -By this time affairs in Europe were vastly complicated, because of the -fact that the maritime enemies of France (which meant virtually all -the other maritime countries of Europe) became exasperated at one of -their number, Great Britain, in consequence of what they considered -her unreasonable insistence on certain doctrines concerning maritime -affairs. A League of Armed Neutrality against her was finally formed, -that soon assumed menacing proportions. This league was completely -broken by the same Horatio Nelson in a naval battle off Copenhagen on -April 2, 1801. This battle was the direct result of a plan conceived -by Nelson, that was so original and so daring that for a long time -he could not secure the consent of his Commander-in-Chief to its -execution. The battle resulted in a victory that was brilliant in -the highest degree; but it was brilliant only because the original -idea was brilliant, and because it was developed into a plan that was -constructively correct and skillfully carried out. - -Meanwhile, a brief campaign had been going on between the French and -the Austrians in Austria. It was carried on with great brilliancy of -conception and skill of execution by Moreau, and ended with the battle -of Hohenlinden and the disastrous defeat of the Austrians. The treaty -of Lunéville followed in February, 1801, and left Great Britain as -France's only antagonist. - -The victory of Copenhagen having broken the strength of the Confederacy -of Neutrals, and Napoleon seeing the folly of attempting further to -ruin British commerce then, the Treaty of Amiens between Great Britain -and France followed in March, 1802. - -As part of this treaty, Great Britain agreed to give up Malta. For -various reasons that do not concern this discussion, Great Britain did -not do so, and war followed in May, 1803. - -Before that time, Napoleon had realized that his principal enemy was -England. He now conceived the project of sending an invading army -across the English Channel, knowing that if he could accomplish that, -he could march to London, and dictate his own terms of peace. But how -could he get across the channel, in the face of the British fleet? -From the numberless pictures conjured up in his brilliant imagination, -Napoleon selected the one which showed a French fleet threatening -British possessions in the West Indies, a British fleet rushing to -the West Indies to save them, the French fleet returning and joining -with another French fleet waiting for it, then the combined fleets -securing the mastery of the English Channel from the depleted British -fleet remaining, then a French flotilla of transports with an invading -army forthwith starting across the channel, then a landing against an -opposition easily overcome, then a march to London, then a capture of -London: and finally, he, Napoleon, riding in triumph through London -streets and sleeping in the palace at London--as he had slept in other -palaces on the Continent. - -It was a beautiful vision;--a beautiful series of moving pictures -presented to his imagination. To embody all these pictures in realities -became the pre-occupation of his waking and his sleeping hours. By -dint of herculean exertions, he finally collected near Boulogne about -200,000 troops and 1,500 transports. At the proper time, Villeneuve, -with a powerful fleet, was sent to the West Indies to threaten the -British possessions there. - -But the same man who had spoiled his India project by the battle of -the Nile, and who had spoiled his project of ruining British commerce -by the battle of Copenhagen, spoiled his present project: the same -man, Horatio Nelson. Nelson had some imagination himself; and he -imagined (correctly as usual) that Villeneuve had sailed for the West -Indies--and away he went in pursuit. Arriving there, and finding that -Villeneuve had been in the West Indies but had left, Nelson left also. -He imagined that Villeneuve had sailed for Europe; and so Nelson sailed -for Europe also, sending a fast frigate to inform the Admiralty of all -that he had learned, and of all that he inferred. The frigate made such -speed, and the First Lord of the Admiralty, Admiral Lord Barham, acted -with such sailor-like energy and skill, that a large British fleet -intercepted Villeneuve on his return, brought him to action near the -coast of Spain, and handled him so roughly that he went for repairs to -Cadiz. He arrived there on August 20. - -The news of this, reaching Napoleon, wiped all the beautiful pictures -out of his mind. But he had other pictures in the background. These -he put promptly into the foreground, and started off with incredible -swiftness toward Austria. On October 19, he brought the Austrians to -battle near Ulm, and achieved one of the most decisive victories of his -career. The victory was mainly due to the clearness and correctness -of Napoleon's conceived idea, and the amazing speed and certainty of -his movements in carrying it into execution. The Austrian General Mack -was so wholly taken by surprise that he found his army was completely -surrounded before he had had time to take any preventive measures. - -Napoleon had correctly judged the import of Villeneuve's interception -by the British fleet, and realized that it would be mere folly -afterward to attempt to cross the channel then. Still, the situation -was not wholly bad for him, and the victory at Ulm made it beautiful. -For, though England was still greater on the sea than France, France -was also great, and was still a powerful weapon which he could wield -against England, with all the power of genius. But, two days after -the victory of Ulm, came the disaster near Cape Trafalgar, when Nelson -defeated the combined French and Spanish fleets, and thereby secured -for England a superiority at sea, vastly more pronounced than it had -been before. This victory, by making Napoleon helpless at sea against -Great Britain, ruined all Napoleon's chances of dominion, except upon -the Continent. - -Napoleon made two brilliant campaigns after this, that brought him to -the summit of his career. Had he been content to stop there, had he -not tried to climb still higher, his descendants might now sit on the -throne of France. But the intoxicating fumes of success seem to have -clouded that brilliant mind, and to have prevented those clear and -correct pictures from forming there that had formed before. The result -was that he embarked on a new project for ruining England that began -with an invasion of Portugal and Spain, which brought on a war with -Austria. It is true that, by a brilliant campaign, Napoleon worsted -Austria and made an advantageous treaty with her, and then married -the daughter of the emperor: but the continuance of the policy that -underlay the war with Austria, brought on later a war with Russia that -sent Napoleon to Elba, an exile. - -We see the key to Napoleon's successes in the quality of his mind at -the time of those successes, and we see the key to his failures in a -lowering of the quality of that mind. Military writers tell us that his -mind was not of the same quality when he planned his Russian campaign -as it had been when he planned his early campaigns. Now the reasoning -faculties do not grow dull when one approaches middle age; but the -imaginative faculties do--(in most people). It is an old saying that -"one cannot teach an old dog new tricks." Clearly, this cannot be -because of any failing of memory, though memory fails with age; because -the memory is not involved, save slightly. It must be therefore -because of failing impressionability and receptivity. We all speak -of the "receptive years," meaning the years of childhood and then of -youth; and it is a common saying that young people are more receptive -than old people. Of what are they receptive? Clearly, of mental -impressions. Parents and teachers are warned not to forget that the -minds of young people are very impressionable, and to be careful that -their minds receive good impressions only, so far as they can compass -it. Napoleon, when he made his Russian campaign, was only 43 years old -in years; but he had lived a life that was far from normal or hygienic -physically, and extremely abnormal and unhygienic mentally. - -The intention of the last sentence is to point out that mental health -cannot be long preserved amid surroundings mentally unhealthful, any -more than physical health can be long preserved amid surroundings -physically unhealthful; and that the highest qualities of our nature -are the most difficult to maintain and therefore are the first to -fail, under unhealthful surroundings. The spiritual faculties fail -first, then the moral, then the mental and lastly the physical. Now the -imagination, while a mental quality, rather than a moral one, partakes -in a measure of the spiritual, and is one of the highest of the mental -attributes. For this reason imagination is one of the first to be -impaired. - -The especial picture of the imagination that becomes faulty under -certain conditions, is the picture of one's self. Under conditions such -as Napoleon had lived under for several years, the picture of himself -in his mind had become unduly magnified in relation to the pictures of -other men. Now is there any one thing more dangerous to a man than to -carry in his mind an incorrect picture of himself? - -In Napoleon's case, it led him to the unforgivable military crime; -that of underestimating the enemy. His imagination, by presenting a -magnified image of himself, presented relatively dwarfed images of his -antagonists. The very faculty (imagination) which started Napoleon on -his great successes, started him now on his great reverses. The actual -beginning of these was in his carelessly planned campaign in Russia. -His invention seems to have failed him both in planning the campaign -and in meeting situations afterwards; because his imagination failed to -picture each situation to him exactly as it was. - -But the Russian campaign did not wholly ruin him. Even after that, -even after Elba, situations were sometimes presented to him, such -that (although Trafalgar had prevented him from achieving European -domination), yet, if he had been able to see them as clearly as he -had seen situations in his unspoiled days, he might, at least have -saved himself from ruin. But his imagination had become impaired and -therefore his powers of invention also. - -Napoleon as general, and Nelson as admiral were what we may term -"opportunistic inventors," who made inventions for meeting transient -situations with success, as distinguished from inventors like Newton -and Watt, who made permanent contributions to the welfare of mankind. -Napoleon as statesman, however, made contributions of a permanent -character. - -A supremely valuable contribution of this kind was the stethoscope, -which was invented about 1819 by Dr. Laennec in Paris, and by means of -which the science and art of diagnosis were given an amazing impetus -almost instantly. Possibly one cannot find in the whole history of -modern invention any instrument so small and so inexpensive that has -been so widely and definitely useful. A painful interest hangs to it in -the fact that by means of his own invention, Laennec discovered that -he himself was dying of tuberculosis of the lungs. - -In July, 1820, a discovery of a vastly different character was made by -Oersted in Copenhagen; the discovery that if a current of electricity -be passed over or under a magnetic needle, the needle will be deflected -in a direction and to a degree depending on the strength and direction -of the current and the position of the conducting wire relatively to -the needle. Now Laennec invented a simple and little instrument that -began virtually perfect, and that exists today substantially as it -started. Oersted did something equally important, that ultimately -initiated intricate inventions of many kinds, and yet he did not -really invent anything whatever. The importance of his discovery was -recognized at once; so quickly, in fact, and by so many experimenters -and inventors, that Oersted soon found himself in the extraordinary -position of being left behind, in an art to which himself had almost -unknowingly given birth! That some relation existed between magnetism -and electricity had long been evident to physicists; but what that -relation was they did not know until Oersted told them. They seized on -his information with avidity, with results that the whole world knows -now. - -The first man heard from was Ampère, who communicated the results of -his experiments in the new art to the Institute of France as early as -September 18th. Almost immediately afterward, Arago discovered that, -if a conducting wire were wrapped around iron wires, those iron wires -became magnets and remained magnets as long as the electric current -continued to pass. Thereupon, Arago made and announced his epoch-making -invention, the electro-magnet. The influence of this invention on the -subsequent history of the machine of civilization, it is hardly needful -to point out. - -The experiments of Oersted gave rise at once to much speculation as -to the nature of the action between electric currents and magnets, -and also to considerable experimental and mathematical research. -As had been the case for many thousand years in other endeavors, -speculation accomplished little, but experimental research accomplished -much. By this time mathematics had been highly developed, not only -as an abstract science but also as an aid to physical and chemical -research. The man who attacked the problem in the most scientific -manner was Ampère, who in consequence solved it in the following year, -after a series of mathematically conducted experiments of the utmost -originality and inductiveness. As a result in 1820, he showed that -all the actions and reactions of magnets could be performed by coils -of wire through which electric currents were passing, even if there -was no iron within the coils:--but that they were more powerful, if -iron were within. From this and kindred facts, which he developed by -experiment--(especially the fact that electric currents act and react -on each other as magnets do), he established a new science to which he -gave the name electro-dynamics. In recognition of his contributions to -electricity, the name given many years later to the unit of electric -current was ampère. - -In the following years, while pursuing a series of investigations into -the new science, Faraday invented the first electro-magnetic machines. -In the first machine, a magnet floating in mercury was made to revolve -continuously around a central conducting wire through which an electric -current was passing; in the second a conductor was made to revolve -continuously around a fixed magnet; in a third machine, a magnet so -mounted on a longitudinal axis that an electric current could be made -to pass from one pole half way to the other pole, and then out, would -revolve continuously as long as the electric current was made to pass. -Faraday invented the first machines that converted the energy of the -electric current into mechanical motion; though Oersted was the first -who merely effected the conversion. It can hardly be said that Oersted -invented a machine; but Faraday certainly did. - -The first utilization of Oersted's discovery in a concrete and -practically usable device was the galvanometer, invented by Schweigger -in 1820. It was a brilliant invention, and solved perfectly the -important problem of measuring accurately the strength of an electric -current. The apparatus consisted merely of a means of multiplying the -effect of the deflecting current by winding the conductor into a coil, -the magnetic needle being within the coil. The galvanometer (named -after Galvani) was an invention of the utmost value, and it is in use -to this day, though in many modified forms. When one realizes how -obvious a utilization of Oersted's discovery the galvanometer was, and -that Schweigger did not invent it until two years later, he wonders -why Oersted himself did not invent it. But the history of invention is -full of such cases and of cases still more amazing. Why did the world -wait several thousand years before Wise invented the metal pen? Why are -we not now inventing a great many more things than we are? Nature is -holding out suggestions for inventions to us by the million, but we do -not see them. - -In the year before Schweigger's invention, in 1821, the important -discovery had been made by Seebeck in Berlin, that if two different -metals are joined at their ends, and one junction be raised to a -higher temperature than the other, a current of electricity will be -generated, the strength of which will vary with the metals employed -and the difference in temperature of the junctions. The discovery was -soon utilized in Nobili's invention of the thermopile in which the -current was increased by employing several layers of dissimilar metals -(say antimony and bismuth) in series with each other. The main use of -the thermopile has been in scientific investigations, especially in the -science of heat. - -One of the results of the increased use of mathematics, especially -arithmetic, was the invention of Babbage's calculating machine in 1822. -The usefulness of this invention was so apparent that it was not long -in coming into use, or long in causing the invention of improvements on -it of many kinds. The calculating machine was a distinct contribution -to civilization. - -Another contribution, but of quite a different kind, was made -by Faraday in the following year (1823) when, after a series of -experiments, he announced that he had succeeded in liquefying many -of the gases then known by the combined action of cold and pressure. -The possibility of doing this had long been suspected by physicists -reasoning from known phenomena; but the actual accomplishment of -the liquefaction of gas was none the less a feat of a high order of -brilliancy and usefulness. In experiments subsequently made, Dewar -received the gases in a vessel of his invention which had double walls, -the space between which he had exhausted of air, and thus made a -vacuum--which is a non-conductor of heat. The "thermos bottle" of today -was invented by the great chemist Dewar, and is not therefore a new -invention. - -Meanwhile, the steam engine had been undergoing rapid development, -though the use of locomotives for drawing passenger trains does not -seem to have come into regular use until the Liverpool and Manchester -Railroad was opened in 1830. In 1828, the Delaware and Hudson Canal -Company constructed a short railroad, and sent an agent to England to -buy the necessary locomotives and rails. In the four years following -twelve railroad companies were incorporated. The Baltimore and -Susquehanna began actual operations in 1831. - -The inventions of Hero, Branca, Worcester, Savery, Papin and Leupold, -brought to practicality by Watt, had now come to full fruition, and -entered upon that career of world-wide usefulness that has advanced -civilization so tremendously and still continues to advance it. - -But the most decisive triumph of the steam engine had come more than -a decade before, when in 1819 the American steamship _Savannah_ -crossed the Atlantic ocean in 26 days, going from the United States to -Liverpool. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -INVENTIONS IN STEAM, ELECTRICITY AND CHEMISTRY CREATE A NEW ERA - - -When the nineteenth century opened, George III was King of England, -Napoleon was First Consul of France, Francis II was Emperor of Germany, -Frederick William III was King of Prussia, Alexander was Czar of Russia -(beginning 1801), and John Adams was President of the United States. - -By this time the influence of the inventions of the few centuries -immediately preceding, especially the invention of the gun and that -of printing, was clearly in evidence. The Feudal System had entirely -vanished, the sway of great and powerful sovereigns had taken the place -in Europe of the arbitrary rule of petty dukes and barons, the value -of the natural sciences was appreciated, and a fine literature had -developed in all the countries. - -A terrible war was raging, however, that was not to end for fifteen -years and that involved, directly or indirectly, nearly every -European nation. The war had started in France, where the tremendous -intellectual movement had aroused the excitable people of that land to -a realization of the oppression of the nobility and a determination to -make it cease. - -The wars that ensued were not so different from the wars of the -Egyptians and other ancient nations as one might carelessly suppose, -because the weapons were not very different. The only weapon that -was very novel was the gun; and the gun of the year 1800 was a -contrivance so vastly inferior to the gun that exists today as not -to be immeasurably superior to the bow and arrow. It had to be loaded -slowly at the muzzle; and the powder was so non-uniform and in other -ways inferior, that the gun's range was short and its accuracy slight. -Even the artillery that Bonaparte used so skillfully was crude and -ineffective, according to the standards of today. The cavalry was not -very different from the cavalry of the Assyrians, and the military -engineers performed few feats greater than that of Cæsar's, in building -the bridge across the Rhine. There were no railroads, no steamships, no -telegraphs, no telephones. There was less difference between the armies -of 1800 A. D. and those of 1800 B. C., than between the armies of 1800 -A. D. and those of 1900 A. D. - -The same remark applies to virtually all the material conditions of -living. There was less difference, for instance, between the fine -buildings of 1800 B. C. and 1800 A. D. than between the fine buildings -of 1800 and 1900 A. D. The influence of the new inventions on the -material conditions of living was only beginning to be felt; for the -twin agencies of steam and electricity, that were later to make the -difference, had not yet got to work. It was the power of steam that -was to transport men and materials across vast oceans and across great -continents at high speed, and place in the hands of every people the -natural fruits and the foods and the raw materials and the manufactured -appliances of other lands; it was the subtle influence of electricity -that was to give every people instant communication with every other. -It was the co-working of steam and electricity that was to make -possible the British navy and the British merchant marine, and the -relatively smaller merchant marines and navies of other countries, and -to bring all the world under the dominance of Great Britain and of the -other countries that were civilized. - -The opening of the nineteenth century, therefore, marks the opening of -a new era. In 1800 the steam engine was already an effective appliance, -but it was not yet in general use. Electricity was a little behind -steam; and though Franklin and the others had proved that it possessed -vast possibilities of many kinds, and also that it could be harnessed -and put to work by man for the benefit of man, electricity had as yet -accomplished little of real value. - -Under the stimulating influence of the quick communication given by the -art of printing, literature had blossomed especially in Great Britain, -France, Germany and Italy; but in 1800 one has to notice the same fact -as in previous years--literature had not improved. The literature of -1800 A. D. was no better than the literature of Greece or Elizabethan -England--to state the truth politely; and no such poet lived as -Homer, Shakespeare or John Milton. It seems to be a characteristic of -literature, and of all the fine arts as well, that each great product -is solely a product of one human mind, and not the product of the -combined work of many minds. To the invention of Watt's steam engine, -numberless obscure investigators and inventors had contributed, besides -those whose great names everybody knows: but how can two men write a -poem or any work of fiction, or paint a picture or carve a statue? It -is true that each of these feats has been performed; but rarely and not -with great success. - -For this reason, it is not clear that mere literature as literature, or -that any of the fine arts as such can exert much influence on history, -and it is not clear that any of them have done so. That they have had -great influence in conducing to the pleasure of individuals there can -be no question; but the influence seems to have been transient. History -is a record of such of the doings of men as have had influence at -the time, or in the future. Of these doings, the agency that has had -the most obvious influence is war, and next to war is invention. War, -next after disease, has caused the most suffering the world knows of; -but out of the suffering have emerged the great nations without which -modern civilization could not exist. The influence of invention is -not so obvious, but it is perhaps as great, or nearly so; the main -reason being that invention has been the agency which has enabled -those nations to emerge that have emerged. Without the appliances that -invention has supplied, the civilized man could not have triumphed over -the savage. - -Now literature and painting and sculpture and music, while they have -made life easier and pleasanter, have contributed little to this -work, and in many ways have rather prevented it from going further by -softening people, physically and mentally. This statement must not -be accepted without reservations of course; for the reason that some -poems, some works of fiction, and some paintings and (especially) some -musical compositions have tended to strengthen character, and even to -stimulate the martial spirit. But a careful inspection of most works of -pure literature and fine art must lead a candid person to admit that -the major part of their effect has been to please,--to gratify the -appetite of the mind rather than to inspire it to action. - -The author here requests any possible reader of these pages, not to -infer that he has any objection to being pleased himself, or to having -others pleased; or that he regards the influence of literature and the -fine arts as being detrimental to the race. On the contrary, he regards -them as being valuable in the highest degree. He is merely trying to -point out the difference between the influence of inventions in the -useful arts and those in the fine arts. - -A like remark may be made concerning inventors and other men; the word -inventors being here supposed to mean the men who make inventions of -all kinds. These men seem to have been those who have brought into -existence those machines and books and projects of all kinds that -have determined the kind of machine of civilization that has now been -produced. These men are very few, compared with the great bulk of -humanity; but it seems to be they who have given direction to the line -along which the machine has been developed. - -This does not mean, of course, that these men have been more estimable -themselves than the men who kept the machine in smooth and regular -motion, and made the repairs, and supplied the oil and fuel; but it -does mean that they had more influence in making its improvements. -Naturally, their work in making improvements would have been of -no avail, if other men had not exerted industry and carefulness -and intelligence and courage, in the countless tasks entailed in -maintaining the machine in good repair, in keeping it running smoothly, -and in receiving with open minds and helping hands each new improvement -as it came along. And it was not only in welcoming real improvements, -but in keeping out novelties which seemed to be improvements but were -not improvements that the work of what may be called the operators, -as distinguished from the inventors, was beneficent. Nothing could be -more injurious to the machine than to permit the incorporation in it of -parts that would not improve it. There has been little danger to fear -from this source, however; for the inertia of men is such that it is -only rarely that one sees any new device accepted, until it has proved -its value definitely and unmistakably in practical work. - -Possibly the greatest single impetus given to progress about the year -1800 was that given by Lavoisier shortly before, which started the -science of chemistry on the glorious career it has since pursued. As a -separate branch of science, chemistry then began, though it had been -the subject of investigation for many centuries, beginning in Egypt -and the other ancient countries of the East. In the Middle Ages, it -was known in Europe by the name Alchemy. Originally, and in all the -long ages of its infancy, the investigations of the experimenters were -carried on mainly to discover new remedies in medicine, or to learn -methods to transmute base metals into precious metals; though there -was a considerable degree also of pursuit of knowledge for its own -sake. As a result of the investigations, many startling facts were -developed, and many discoveries were made; but, for the reason that the -investigations were not conducted on the mathematical or quantitative -lines that had led to so much success in developing physics, alchemy or -chemistry did not rest on any sure basis, and therefore had no fixed -place to start from. It was in the same vague status that some subjects -of thoughtful speculation are in today, such as telepathy, which may -(or may not) be put on a basis of fact some day, and started forward -thence, as chemistry was started. - -What gave chemistry its basis was the methods introduced by Lavoisier -who was a practiced physicist. He introduced the balance into the study -of chemistry, and raised it instantly from a collection of speculations -to an exact science, capable of progressing confidently and assuredly -thereafter, instead of wandering in a maze. Lavoisier gave chemistry a -mathematical basis to start from, and sure beacon lights to guide it; -and though many changes in its theory have been made from time to time, -they have been due only to increase of knowledge and not to departure -from fundamental principles. Finding that a substance was not an -element, but was a compound of two elements, or more than two, did not -require any rejection of accepted principles, but merely a readjustment. - -We now see that it was impossible because of the exact nature of -the way in which the various elements combine, that chemistry could -have become a science until the balance had been used to weigh the -substances investigated; and we also see that it was impossible that -the balance could have been so used until physics had been developed -to the point permitting it, and men skilled in exact measurements had -been brought up by practice in physical researches. Lavoisier himself -had served a long apprenticeship, and his earliest claim to fame was -his mathematical researches on heat, embodied in an essay, written in -connection with Laplace, and published in 1784. Even after an enormous -mass of facts had been collected and announced, chemistry could not -take her place by the side of physics, and Bacon's teachings could not -be followed, until those facts had been mathematically investigated, -and their mathematical relations to each other had been established. -This Lavoisier and his followers did. - -No better illustration of the influence of invention on history can -be found than the fact that chemistry hovered in the dim twilight of -speculation, guess-work and even superstition, until Lavoisier brought -to bear the various inventions made in physics. Then, presto, the -science of chemistry was born. - -We must not let the fact escape us, however, that Lavoisier would have -left mankind none the wiser, if he had merely brought mathematical -research to bear and discovered what he did, and then stopped. If he -had stopped then, his knowledge would have remained locked inside of -his own mind, useless. The good work that Lavoisier actually did was -in actually producing an invention; in conceiving a certain definite -method of chemical research, then embodying it in such a concrete form -that "persons skilled in the art could make and use it," and then -giving it to the world. - -The first important effect of Lavoisier's work was the announcement by -Dalton about 1808 of his Atomic Theory, which has been the basis of -most of the work of chemistry ever since. Dalton's earlier work had -been in physics, and its principal result had been "Dalton's Laws" in -regard to the evaporation and expansion of gases, announced by him -about 1801. These investigations led his mind to the consideration -of the various speculations that had been entertained concerning -the nature of matter itself, as distinguished from the actions and -reactions between material objects that physics studies; and they -brought him to the conclusion that there are certain substances or -elements which combine together to form compounds that are wholly -different from each of the elements (oxygen and hydrogen, for instance, -combining to form water); and that those elements are made up of units -absolutely indivisible, which combine with each other in absolutely -exact proportions. The units he called atoms. He built up a theory -wonderfully convincing and coherent, that explained virtually all the -chemical phenomena then known, and supplied a stepping-stone following -Lavoisier's, from which chemists could advance still further. Dalton -classified certain substances as elements which we now know are not -elements, because they have been found since to be compounds of two or -more elements; but this in itself does not disprove his theory, because -he himself pointed out that means might be found later to decompose -certain materials that seemed then to be elements, because no means had -then been found to decompose them. - -It may be instructive to note here that Dalton was not the first to -imagine that certain forms of matter were elemental, or that matter was -indivisible beyond a certain point, or that substances entered into -combination with each other in definite proportions. Speculation on all -these points had been rife for many years, but it had not produced the -invention of any workable law or even theory. Similarly, many men later -speculated on the possibility of devising an electrical instrument that -would transform the mechanical energy of sound waves into electrical -energy, transfer the electrical energy over a wire, and re-convert it -into sound; but no one succeeded in producing such an instrument, until -Bell invented the telephone in 1876. - -History is a record of acts, and not of dreams. And yet the greatest -acts were dreamed of before they were performed. Every process, -no matter how small or how great, seems to proceed by three -stages--conception, development and production. Most of our acts are -almost automatic, and the three stages succeed each other so quickly -that only the final stage itself is noted. But the greatest acts, from -which great results have followed, have begun with the conception of -a picture not of an ordinary kind, such as a great campaign, a new -machine, a novel theory, a book, painting, statue or edifice:--then a -long process of development, during which the conception is gradually -embodied in some concrete form, as, for instance, a statue, a painting -or an instrument;--and then production. _Finis opus coronat, the end -crowns the work_; but the work is not crowned until it is finished, and -a concrete entity has been brought forth. - -Lavoisier finished his work. Not only did he dream a dream, but he -embodied his dream in a definite form, and gave it to mankind to use. -Dalton did similarly. This does not mean that their work was not -improved upon thereafter, or that they invented the chemistry of -today. They merely laid the foundation of chemistry, and placed the -first two stones. - -A remarkable exemplar of the meaning of this declaration was Benjamin -Thomson, who was an American by birth, but who entered the Austrian -Army after the War of the Revolution, and made an unprecedented record -in the application of physical and chemical science to the relief -of the distressed and ignorant and poor, especially the mendicant -classes. For his services he was made Count Rumford. His researches -were mostly in the line of saving heat and light, and therefore saving -food and fuel. He ascertained by experiments of the utmost ingenuity -and thoroughness that the warmth of clothing was because of the air -entangled in its fibers; he investigated the radiation, conduction -and convection of heat, analyzed the ways in which heat could be -economized, and invented a calorimeter for testing the heat-giving -value of different fuels. In 1798 he had noted the fact that heat was -developed when cannon were being bored. He immediately conceived the -idea that the heat developed was related to the amount of work expended -driving the boring tool, and invented a means of measuring it. This -consisted simply of a blunt boring tool that pressed into a socket in -a metal block that was immersed in water, of which the temperature -could be taken. To get a basis for his investigations into the problem -of lighting economically the dwellings of the poor, Rumford invented -a photometer for measuring illumination. No man in history shows more -clearly the co-working of a high order of imagination, and a careful -and accurate constructiveness; and no man ever secured more intensely -practical and beneficent results. In the hospital at Verona he reduced -the consumption of fuel to one-eighth. - -In 1827 a valuable improvement was made to the machine of civilization -by Ohm, who announced the now famous Ohm's Law, that the strength of an -electric current in any circuit is equal to the difference in potential -of the ends of the circuit, divided by its resistance. This is usually -expressed by writing C = E/R. - -Can anything be less inspiring than C = E/R? Yes:--few things have -been more inspiring. Few things have inspired more zeal for work than -that simple formula. That simple formula evolved order out of chaos in -the little but super-important world, in which physicists and chemists -were trying to solve the riddles that the utilization of electric -currents presented. It gave them a basis from which to start, and a -definite rule to work by. No oration of Demosthenes, Cicero or Webster -has imparted more inspiration, or supplied a greater stimulus to high -effort, or done more for human kind than C = E/R. - -In 1827 Walker in the United States invented friction matches. It -seems strange that someone had not invented matches before. The usual -way of getting light was with the flint and steel and tinder-box,--a -most inconvenient contrivance. It was quite well known that certain -substances would ignite when rubbed, and yet men waited until 1827 to -utilize the fact in matches! - -In the following year Wöhler succeeded in reducing aluminum, thus -contributing a valuable new factor to human knowledge and a valuable -new metal to human needs. In the same year Neilson took out a patent in -England for "an improved application of air to produce heat in fires, -forges and furnaces," in which he proposed to pass a current of heated -air through the burning fuel. His invention met with opposition of all -kinds, but eventually proved its usefulness. Another invention produced -in the same year was Woodworth's machine for planing wood. Still -another, was the tubular boiler for locomotives. - -In 1829 the first steam locomotive was put into use in the United -States. No especial invention seems to have been expended on this -device; but there was considerable invention of the kind that I have -ventured to call "opportunistic" involved in conceiving the idea of -getting the locomotive, and then in actually getting it, and then -putting it to work. In the following year Braithwaite and Ericsson -in London brought out the first portable fire-engine. There was a -great deal of invention of the practical kind involved in the design, -construction, production and successful employment of this novel -device; and an important step was taken in the means of protecting life -and the material products of civilization from destruction by fire. - -In 1831 Faraday in London made one of the most important discoveries -in physical science ever made, the discovery that if a current of -electricity is changed in strength, or if a conductor carrying a -current be moved, an instantaneous magnetic effect is felt in the -vicinity; and that this magnetic effect will cause an instantaneous -current in any closed conducting circuit that may be near. Faraday also -discovered that a similar instantaneous current will be set up in a -closed circuit if a magnet be moved in its vicinity. This discovery is -usually spoken of as the discovery of electro-magnetic induction; and -the instantaneous currents are said to be "induced." - -About the same time Professor Henry in Princeton discovered that an -electric circuit will act not only on other circuits in its vicinity, -but on itself; that the fact of being increased or decreased will -set up instantaneous currents that tend to oppose the increase or -decrease. Thus, while Faraday is credited with the discovery of -electro-magnetic induction, Henry is credited with the discovery of -self-induction. It has been claimed by some that Henry discovered -electro-magnetic induction before Faraday did. This question is of -great interest but it is outside the scope of this modest volume. - -While both discoveries were of prime importance, and were also -analogous, that of electro-magnetic induction has played the more -conspicuous part. With it began the endeavor to develop electric -currents by the relative motion of coils of wire and magnets, that -resulted in the invention of the dynamo, and the later invention of -electric lights and motors. - -In the same year the discovery (or was it the invention?) of chloroform -was made by Guthrie in America, Soubeiran in France and Liebig in -Germany. A curious fact connected with the early history of chloroform -is that, although its anæsthetic properties were known in general, and -although the idea of using gases and vapors and medicines to deaden -pain was many centuries old yet nevertheless, chloroform was not put to -practical use until about 1846 when Dr. Morton, a dentist, of Boston, -adopted it as an anæsthetic. Of all the single inventions ever made, -chloroform has unquestionably done more than any other, invented till -that time, to give relief from agony. - -In 1832 the electric telegraph was invented by Morse, though he did -not patent it until 1837. The influence of the electric telegraph -on subsequent history has been so great that the influence of no -contemporary invention can reasonably be declared to be greater. As -with many other inventions, one is tempted to wonder why it had not -been invented before; for the fact that electricity could be sent along -a conductor and made to cause motion at the other end had been known -since Guericke had demonstrated the fact in the closing years of the -seventeenth century. The original invention of the electric telegraph -is claimed by some for Henry, who had a wire run between his house and -his laboratory at Princeton, over which he sent messages, by opening -and closing the circuit and thereby actuating an electro-magnet at the -receiving end. - -The first machine to put Faraday's discovery of magneto-electric -induction to practical use was invented by Pixii in France in 1832, -and exhibited before the Academy of Sciences. It consisted of a -powerful magnet that was made to revolve with great rapidity before -a bar of soft iron that had wrapped around it a coil of insulated -wire about 3,000 feet long. The north and south poles taking position -in succession in front of the coil, currents were induced that -alternated in direction, twice in each revolution. If a man grasped -two wires in the circuit he received a series of sharp electric -shocks; but such effects as decomposing water that were produced by -the continuous currents of Voltaic batteries could not be produced by -these alternating currents. To secure such effects, Siemens and others -made machines in which the magnet in the form of a U was stationary, -two coils of wire revolved in front of the poles, and a two-part -"commutator" was used. When this was placed on the axle, and the axle -was revolved, the change in direction of the current was obviated, -though a smooth and uniform current was not produced. The reason was -that the current fell to zero twice in each revolution. - -The magneto-electric machine, as it was called, remained virtually -in this form for many years. It was not sufficiently effective -or efficient to be of much practical usefulness in any art, and -was considered more of a scientific toy than a machine of serious -importance. Still, the probability was realized by many investigators -that a new discovery or invention might be made at any moment, that -would put it in the forefront of the useful inventions of the age. (The -invention was not made till 1862; it was made by Pacinnotti in Italy -and will be mentioned later.) - -The influence of the magneto-electric machine, therefore was not -direct, but indirect. It was a basic invention; and like many basic -inventions, it formed the hidden foundation on which a conspicuous -superstructure was later to be reared. One of the lessons of history is -that it is the men and the methods and the other things which are in -evidence when some important occurrence happens, that are identified -with it in the minds of people not only at the time, but afterward. -An invention that may have cost its creator the toil and struggle -of a lifetime may not gain success simply because of some existing -unfavorable conditions of some kind. Suddenly the conditions become -favorable. John Doe takes advantage of all the work that other men have -done, adds some slight improvement, achieves "success" and dons the -laurel wreath. - -We see at this time (1832) very clear signs of an increasing number -of inventions per year, an increasing speed of invention. We see an -acceleration in invention which we cannot help associating in our minds -with the acceleration which any material object gets, when continuously -subjected to a uniform force, like that of gravity. One almost feels -that there must be a continuous force impelling men to invent; so clear -is the increase of the speed of inventing. - -Following the magneto-machine in 1832 came the invention of a rotary -electric motor by Sturgeon, the discovery of chloral-hydrate by -Liebig, the production of the first large American locomotive by -Baldwin and the invention of link motion by Sir Henry James. The -last was an exceedingly important and ingenious contribution to the -steam engine, especially in locomotives and ships; for it gave a very -quick and sure means of reversing its direction of motion, and of -regulating the travel of the valve and the degree of expansion of the -steam. In the following year came Stephenson's steam whistle; and in -the year following (1834) came the McCormick reaper. Few inventions -have had a greater or a more immediate effect on the trend of modern -progress, which is to influence men to live in large communities. For -the McCormick reaper could do so much more work, and so much better -work, than men could do without it, that the cultivation of extensive -areas of land could be undertaken with the assurance that large crops -of grain could be secured. This not only secured more grain for the -country, but liberated many men from toil on farms, and permitted them -to migrate to the cities. - -The author does not wish to be understood as meaning that migration to -cities is wholly desirable; for he is familiar with its disadvantages -and dangers. But whether it be desirable or not is beyond the scope -of this book. This book is merely a modest attempt to point out the -influence of invention in making the world what it is today. Perhaps it -would have been better if men had had no invention and had remained in -a state of savagery. Some men say so sometimes; but even those men (or -most of them) like to sit by a warm fire in a cozy room when it is cold -outdoors. The consensus of opinion seems to be that civilization in the -main has been a blessing to men, though not an unmixed blessing, and -though men must keep on their guard against certain manifest dangers -which civilization entails. - -In the same year, 1834, Jacobi invented an electric motor and Runge -made the important discovery of carbolic acid. In 1835 Burden invented -a horse-shoe machine. In 1836 four important inventions added four -important parts to our rapidly growing Machine. - -The first was the "constant battery" invented by Daniell. Before this -time a Voltaic cell, or battery, soon lost its strength, because of -various chemical actions inside the cell which need not be detailed -here. Daniell overcame this difficulty almost wholly by inventing a -battery, in which there were two liquids instead of one, and the two -liquids were in two separate compartments but separated only by porous -material. This invention was successful from the start, and immediately -increased the usefulness of Voltaic batteries and the means of -utilizing electric currents. - -The second great invention in 1836 was that of acetylene gas made by -Edmund Davy. It is still the most brilliant illuminating gas we have, -and is rivaled by the electric arc-light only. The third invention was -that of the revolver, made by Samuel Colt. - -It may be objected by some that the revolver did not contribute -anything valuable to the Machine of Civilization because it was merely -an improvement on the pistol, and enabled one to kill more men in a -given time than he could before. Such an objection would have much to -justify it; but it may be pointed out that the Machine must be made -self-protective as far as possible; and that anything which increases -the power of civilized man as against the savage, or barbarous, or -semi-barbarous increases its power of self-protection. It is true -that a savage can use a revolver, if he be instructed; but the more -complicated a weapon is the more difficult it is for a savage, as -compared with a civilized man, to use it effectively. This is not -an argument in favor of complication for its own sake; but it is -an argument in favor of accepting complication in a weapon, if the -complication renders greater effectiveness possible. - -The last invention was the most important of the four, the application -of the screw propeller to navigation made by John Ericsson. The author -is aware of the fact that this invention was claimed by others, and -is claimed for others now. The weight of testimony, however seems -to be on the side of Ericsson; and as has been pointed out before, -the question of the identity of the inventor is not important to our -discussion. The first ocean steamship to be propelled by a screw was -the _Stockton_, which was built in England under Ericsson and fitted -with his screw. The first war-ship to be fitted with a screw was the U. -S. S. _Princeton_ in 1841. Its screw was designed by Ericsson. - -In 1837 Crawford invented a process for "galvanizing" iron; for -electro-plating it with a non-oxidizable metal. The value of this -invention in preserving iron wire and iron articles in general needs -not to be pointed out; it was a contribution to the permanency of the -Machine. In the same year, Cooke and Wheatstone in England invented -their famous "Needle Telegraph," in which a magnetic needle was made to -deflect quickly to the right or left when one of two keys was pressed -by an operator and letters thereby signaled. This invention was a -valuable contribution; but it was eventually superseded by Morse's -telegraph, after that system had established itself in the United -States and on the Continent. - -In 1839 Babbitt invented his celebrated Babbitt metal, which has been -successfully used ever since in the bearings of engines and in moving -machinery generally, for reducing friction; and in the same year -Goodyear made an invention even more important, the art of hardening, -or "vulcanizing," rubber by means of sulphur. This invention was a -great boon to mankind, but not to Goodyear; for the jackals who lie -in wait for great inventions eager to wrest unearned profit for -themselves from the men who have truly earned it, made Goodyear's -life miserable for many years. Before he died, however, his wrongs -were righted at least in part. In the same year Jacobi, in Germany, -propelled a boat by electricity using an electric motor of his own -invention. - -But the great contributions made in 1839 were to the art of what we now -call photography. About 1834 Talbot had succeeded in taking pictures -in a camera by the agency of light on paper washed with nitrate of -silver and also in fixing them. Later, he was able to obtain many -copies, or "proofs," from one picture or negative. It seems that he -did not publicly announce his invention till 1839. To it was given the -name "calotype." In May of that year Mr. Mungo Ponton announced that -he had been able to copy pictures of engravings and of dried plants on -paper that he had soaked in bichromate of potash. A number of other -investigators forthwith announced similar feats, using various chemical -solutions. - -In 1840 Draper published the result of certain important experiments -made by him in photographing celestial bodies. In 1841 pneumatic -caissons were invented by Triger in France. In 1842 Long discovered -the usefulness of ether as an anæsthetic, and Seytre invented the -automatically played piano. In the same year, Selligne discovered a -method of utilizing water-gas, made by decomposing water and producing -a new illuminating agent that could be used by itself or in combination -with coal gas. In the same year James Nasmyth in Scotland invented the -steam hammer--a simple appliance by means of which steam was able to -make a hammer give blows much heavier than the human arm could give. -This invention belongs to the class in which the human muscles are -assisted in doing work which the brain directs them to do, but which -they are not strong enough to do effectively. - -The self-playing piano belongs in a class closely allied, in which the -machine invented merely assists the muscles: the assistance in this -class being not in supplying power in order to do more work, however, -but in supplying what may be called auxiliary physical agencies. In the -player piano, the fingers are replaced by little mechanical hammers; in -the steam hammer the arm is replaced by a piston actuated by steam. One -secures quickness, the other secures force. - -But the self-playing piano and the steam hammer are in very different -classes, when viewed from the standpoint of their influence on history. -The influence of the piano is scarcely discernible, while the influence -of the steam hammer stands out in enormous letters of steel. The piano -seems to be in the same category as are literature and poetry and music -in general: it serves to please. The steam-hammer, on the other hand, -has had so great an influence on history subsequent to its invention, -that we know that subsequent history could not have been as it has -been, if the steam hammer had not been invented. - -It has been the steam hammer and the ensuing modifications of it that -have made possible the making of large forgings of iron and steel. It -has been the large forgings of iron and steel that have made possible -the use of large solid masses of those metals in the construction of -engines, guns, shells, houses, bridges and ships. It is the ability -to use large and solid masses of iron and steel, free from holes and -seams, that has enabled constructors and engineers to produce the -tremendous engineering structures that characterize today. _The main -element in the progress of the race has been its triumph over the -forces of material Nature._ This triumph has been gained by inventors, -who conceived of certain methods and devices (clothing, for instance) -by means of which materials provided by Nature could be utilized by man -to protect himself against her attacks upon him--attacks by cold, for -instance. Inventions of the useful kind have had a history of their -own, as definite as the history of any other thing or things, in which -it is shown that every useful instrument or method has been succeeded -by another and better; so that the history of useful inventions may -be compared to a picture of men mounting a flight of stairs toward -civilization, the steps of the stairs being the successive useful -inventions of different kinds. - -The paragraph just written is not intended to mean that inventions -which please have no value, but merely to point out the difference -between what are aptly called the fine arts and the useful arts. There -would be little happiness given to man by toilsomely climbing the -stairway to civilization, unless he were occasionally cheered on the -way by a strain of music, or a beautiful painting, or a poem, or a -brisk walk in northwest weather, or a gladdening glass of wine. It may -be argued that these are the things that really give happiness; it may -be claimed that these things go direct to the seat of happiness in the -brain, but that steam hammers merely provide a material civilization, -which continuously promises to make men happier some day, but never -makes them happier. - -Verily, verily, the way to happiness is not so clearly marked, that -anyone can walk in it all the time, or even for five minutes, except -on rare occasions. The consensus of opinion seems to be, however, that -the civilized man is, on the whole, happier than the savage; that -civilization is preferable to savagery. It is the purpose of this book, -moreover, merely to point out that that structure of civilization has -become so complicated and is moving so fast that it is now a veritable -machine and to indicate the part that invention has taken in building -it. - -Not only is it a veritable machine, it is the largest, the most -powerful, the most intricate machine we know of--except the solar -system and the greater systems beyond it. And not only is it powerful -and intricate--it is, like all powerful and intricate machines, -extremely delicate. Extreme delicacy is a characteristic of all -machines; it is inherent in every machine, simply because the good -working of every part is dependent on the good working of every other -part. An organism is a machine of the highest order, and therefore -possesses this characteristic of inter-dependability in its highest -form. A club is not an organism, or even a machine, and does not -possess it. If a man injures one end of a club the other end is just as -good as before; but if a club injures one end of a man, the other end -is injured also. A severe blow on the head will prevent the effective -use of the foot, and a severe blow on the foot will prevent the -effective use of the head. - -Similarly, in this great Machine of Civilization, a war between any -two nations affects every other nation in the realm of civilization, -though it may not affect appreciably the savages of Australia. A strike -in the coal mines affects every person in the United States;--and even -a threat to strike by the railway employees affects not only the whole -United States, but, to some degree, all Europe. - -This brings us to realize that, while the Machine of Civilization -itself has improved tremendously, it is only as a machine, and only -because it is a machine. It should make us realize also that the mere -fact that a machine is good or useful is no bar to its being destroyed. -It should make us realize besides that the finer a machine is the -greater danger there is of its being injured and even destroyed, by -careless or ignorant handling. These facts are clearly realized by all -engineering companies of all kinds; and the result has been that highly -competent engineers have been trained to care for and handle their -engines. There are no more highly competent men in any callings than -are the engineers in every civilized country. One might declare without -much exaggeration that, of all the men in business or professions, the -engineers are the most competent for their especial tasks; and the -reasonableness of the declaration might be pointed out on the ground -that the very nature of the engineering profession (unlike that of -most other professions) makes it impossible for an engineer to be -incompetent, and yet maintain his standing. - -But the Machine of Civilization is composed not only of material -parts, such as come within the province of the engineer, but also of -immaterial parts; in fact, the principal parts are men, and especially -the minds of men. It is the office of the Machine of Government to -handle the men. It is also its office to direct their minds; because -unless those minds view things correctly, the Machine of Government -cannot work with smoothness. Now, men are inferior to machines in one -important way:--men, as men, cannot be improved. It therefore devolves -on Government continuously to instruct and train men to handle the -Machine of Civilization skillfully, because the machine is being made -more and more complicated, and more and more in need of intelligent -care, with every passing day. - -Is this fact realized? I fear not. No sign is visible to the author of -these pages that the people in any country realize or even suspect that -there is any need for looking out for the integrity of the Machine as -a whole. The closest approximation to it is a belated realization that -the Bolsheviki are a danger to "society." The people do not seem even -to realize the necessity of having competent experts at the head of -governmental affairs. - -The Machine of Civilization had been developed to a very high stage -when Trajan ruled the world about the year 100 A. D. For three-quarters -of a century afterward, it continued to run with smoothness, under -intelligent care; but in the year 180 A. D. Commodus came to the -throne, and soon after began to abuse it. For two hundred years -thereafter, the Machine suffered from such abuse and neglect, that by -the year 395, it had become so unwieldy, that it was divided into two -parts, one administered from Rome and the other from Constantinople. -The two parts soon became two separate Machines, the Roman Machine -being at first the better, but gradually becoming more and more -ineffective under the unfavorable conditions of abuse and neglect. In -476, the Roman Machine broke down completely, and the barbarian chief, -Odoacer, sat himself on the throne of Octavius Cæsar. - -A ruin more complete, it would be hard to realize. The vast structure -of Roman civilization, built on the civilization of Greece and Assyria -and Babylonia and Egypt, was hurled to the ground; and its fine and -beautiful parts were scattered to the winds by barbarians who hated -civilization because they were barbarians. The progress of science -and literature and art stopped. The marvelous inventions of the past -were forgotten and disused. A condition of semi-barbarism passed into -Europe, and continued for a period of five hundred years, to which the -name Dark Ages has been aptly given. A feeble light began to glow about -800 A. D. as a result of the activities of Charlemagne, but it almost -expired when he did. It began again when the Crusaders came back from -the Orient with knowledge of the civilization that still persisted -there; and shortly after came the first effort of the Renaissance. -Then followed the invention of the gun, and then the invention of -printing:--and presto--the making of another Machine of Civilization is -begun. - -Now let us realize three facts: one fact is that the Machine of -Modern Civilization, though bigger and more complicated than the one -of Trajan's time is not nearly so strong; another fact is that the -Roman Machine was destroyed because it had become ineffective through -carelessness and abuse; the third fact is that because in a measure, -"history repeats itself," the Modern Machine may be destroyed, as the -Roman was. - -The Machine of today is vastly weaker than Trajan's. Trajan's Machine -was operated by a powerful empire that controlled the whole world -absolutely. No rival of Rome existed. The structure of society was -simple, homogeneous and strong. It was almost wholly military. It -rested on force; but that force rested on reason, moderation, skill and -patriotism. Rome had many foes; but they were so weak compared with -Rome, that she had naught to fear from them--so long as she kept her -Machine in order. - -The Machine of today is not only more complicated than that of Trajan, -and therefore more liable to derangement from that cause alone--but -it is supported by no government that dominates the world. On the -contrary, the control is divided among a number of different nations -that have diverse interests. The influence of this condition can be -clearly seen in the fact that every great war has set back the progress -of civilization for a while in all civilized countries, even though -in some ways it has advanced it. The World War just finished, for -instance, shook the very foundations of society; and we do not yet -know that it did not impair them seriously. Certainly the Machine has -not yet begun to run smoothly again. Certainly, the Bolsheviki are -threatening it as seriously as the barbarians began to threaten Rome -not long after Trajan's time. The Romans did not regard the barbarians -then any more seriously than we regard the Bolsheviki now. - -The barbarians finally succeeded in destroying the Roman Machine, but -not for the reason that they had become any stronger. They had not -become any stronger, but the Roman Machine had become weaker. It had -become weaker for the reason that the men in charge of it had not taken -the proper care of it. They failed to take proper care of it, for the -reason that they were not the proper kind of men to have charge of that -kind of machine. The reason for this was that the Roman people did -not see to it that they put the proper kind of men in charge of their -Machine. - -Someone may say that Rome was an autocracy, and that there are no -autocracies now. True, but republics have been inefficient, just as -often, and in as great a degree as autocracies have. The United States -under President Buchanan, for instance, was excessively inefficient; -while the Roman autocracy under Octavius was exceedingly efficient. -But whether a government is autocratic or democratic, the degree of -civilization must depend in the main on the people themselves. Even -the power and genius of Charlemagne could not at once make Europe -civilized; and even the power and bestiality of Commodus could not at -once make Rome uncivilized. In every nation, the rulers and the people -re-act upon each other, and each makes the other in a measure what they -are. A people that are strong and worthy will not long be governed -by men who are weak and unworthy. If a nation continues to have weak -and unworthy rulers, it is because the people themselves are weak and -unworthy. - -Therefore, it is an insufficient explanation of the breaking down of -the Roman Machine to declare that the Roman emperors were what they -were. The Roman emperors reflected the Roman people, or they would not -have remained Roman emperors. If the Roman people had been as strong -individually and collectively as they were in the days of Octavius -and Trajan, no such emperors as later sat on the throne would have -been possible. But the Roman people gradually deteriorated, morally, -mentally, and even physically; and inefficient government was one of -the results. - -What caused the deterioration of the Roman people? The same thing that -has caused the deterioration of every other great people that have -deteriorated--the softening influence of wealth and ease. - -Thus, Rome did not fall because of the barbarians, but because of -herself. She fell because her people allowed the Machine which she had -built up, in spite of the barbarians outside, at so much cost of labor -and blood, to become so weak that it could no longer protect itself. -Can this happen to our Machine? Yes, and it will happen as surely as -effect follows after cause, unless means be taken to see that men are -trained to care for the Machine more carefully than they are trained -now. _In no country is there any serious effort made to train men to -operate the Machine of Government_, except those parts of the Machine -that are called the army and the navy:--though some tremendous efforts -are made in private life to train men to handle corporations and -business enterprises, and to learn all that can be learned in medicine, -engineering, the Law and all the "learned professions." And even the -efforts made to train officers to handle armies and navies are in great -part neutralized by placing men at the head of those armies and navies -who are not trained in the slightest. - -The Roman Machine fell with a crash that was proportional to the -magnitude of the Machine. The Machine of today is much larger and -heavier than the Roman. If it falls, as it may, the crash will be -proportionally greater. What will follow, the mind recoils from -contemplating. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -CERTAIN IMPORTANT CREATIONS OF INVENTION, AND THEIR BENEFICENT INFLUENCE - - -In 1843 Charles Thurber invented the typewriter. Few inventions are -more typical. In 1843, the conditions of life were such that the first -stage in inventing the typewriter must have been the conception of an -extremely brilliant and original idea. After that, the difficulties of -embodying the idea in a concrete form must have been very great; for it -was not until about 1875 that instruments of practical usefulness were -in general use. Since then, typewriters have penetrated into virtually -every office in the civilized world. - -Though the typewriter is a very simple apparatus in both principle -and construction, yet few machines stand out more clearly as -great inventions. Few inventions also have exerted a greater -influence--though the influence of the typewriter has been auxiliary, -rather than dominant; it has merely enabled a greater amount of -business to be transacted than could be transacted before. If anyone -will go into any business office whatever, and note the amount of work -performed in that office by means of one typewriter that could not be -performed without it, and will then multiply that amount by the number -of typewriters in the world, he will come to a confused but startling -realization of the amount of executive work that is being done in a -single day through the agency of the typewriter, that otherwise would -not be done. If he will then go a step further, and multiply the number -of days that have gone by since the typewriter was first employed, by -one-half, or even one-tenth, of the amount accomplished by means of -all the typewriters in a single day, he may then be able to appreciate -in a measure the enormous influence on progress which the invention -of the typewriter has already had. One would not make an exaggerated -statement if he should declare that if the typewriter had not been -invented, every great business organization in the world today would be -much smaller than it is; the great industries would not exist in their -present vastness; and all the arts of manufacture, transportation and -navigation would be far behind the stage they now have reached. - -The electric telegraph was patented by Morse in 1837, but the first -telegram was not sent till 1844, along a wire stretched from Washington -to Baltimore. It is said that the first official message was "What hath -God wrought!" This message shows a realization of a fact which some -people fail to realize: the people who say, "God made the country, but -man made the city." The message showed a realization that God inspires -the thoughts of men, as truly as He provides them with things to eat. -It is inconceivable that it was intended to call attention to the fact -that God wrought the wire along which the message ran, or the wooden -poles that carried the wire, or the material zinc and copper of the -battery. The only new thing evidenced in the telegraph so far as anyone -could know, was the invention itself. God had wrought that through the -agency of Morse. It is a known fact that no human mind, no matter how -fine it may be, or how brilliant and correct its imagination, can have -any images or ideas that are not based in some way on the evidence of -the senses. We can imagine things, and even create things, that have -never existed before; but those things must be composed of parts whose -existence we know of through the evidence of our senses. So Morse, -although he invented a thing that was wholly new, although he created -something--did not create any of the parts that composed it. He used -such well-known things as wire, iron, zinc and copper. Even in the -creation of man, the Almighty himself used common materials: "And the -Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his -nostrils the breath of life: and man became a living soul." (Genesis, -Chapter II.) - -If the Lord God breathed the breath of life into Adam, He inspired him -according to the original meaning of the word inspire. If He inspired -Morse with the conception of the electric telegraph, He inspired -him according to the modern meaning of the word, which is not very -different from the original meaning, and which is not at all different -from the meaning according to which He is said to have inspired the -prophets of old. - -To bring before us clearly the whole influence of the telegraph on -history would require a book devoted to no other subject; yet the -telegraph belongs in the same class with the typewriter, in the sense -that its main office is to assist the transaction of business. The -telegraph does not of itself produce results. It is not in the class -with the fist-hammer, or the weaving machine, or the gun, or the steam -engine, or the electric light, or chloroform, or the telescope, or the -discovery of America. It owes its reputation largely to the spectacular -way in which it first appeared, and to the seeming wonderfulness of its -success. Yet the telegraph seems no more wonderful than the typewriter, -to a person who knows even a little of electricity; and the task -of making it practicable was much easier. A very simple and crude -apparatus sufficed for the telegraph: but a highly perfect mechanism -was needed for the typewriter. - -It is probably true, however, that the telegraph has had a greater -influence on history than the typewriter, though modern civilization -would not be even approximately what it is, if either had not been -invented. And if by any combination of circumstances, either one -should now be taken from us, the whole Machine would be thrown into -inextricable confusion. - -It may be objected that if Morse had not invented the telegraph, -or if any inventor whoever had not invented whatever thing he did -invent, some other man would have done so; and that therefore those -inventors do not deserve to be placed in any especial niche of honor. -There would be considerable reasonableness in such an objection, as -is evidenced by the fact that in many cases two or more men have -invented the same thing at about the same time. It may be pointed out, -however, that while this has often happened in regard to improvements -on basic inventions, it has not happened very often in regard to the -basic inventions themselves; and also that, even if we include all -the inventors the world has ever heard of, we find that there have -been surprisingly few. Therefore, it really makes little difference to -the race as a whole whether Smith or Jones made a certain invention, -or whether Smith would have made it, if Jones had not made it. "The -man who delivers the goods," receives, and as a rule deservedly, the -recognition of mankind. Furthermore, this book, as has been stated, is -not concerned mainly with inventors, but with inventions. - -In 1844, the use of nitrous oxide gas (laughing gas) as an anæsthetic -was introduced by Dr. Wells. It cannot be said that this invention has -had any direct influence on history itself, though it has had a great -deal of influence on the history of some individuals. It contributed a -new and distinct part to the Machine, however, and certainly helped to -ameliorate the conditions of living. Besides, it seems to be one of the -lessons of history that most new and distinct creations, even if no use -has been found for them for a long while, have ultimately found a field -of usefulness. Furthermore, every new and useful thing, like nitrous -oxide gas, attracts the attention of men to the advantages that the -study of physical sciences and the prosecution of invention offer, and -gives inspiration for further study and endeavor. - -In the same year, Léon Foucault invented the first practical electric -arc-light. Davy had made the basic invention of the Voltaic arc in -1808; but his invention was in the class just spoken of, in that it -was not utilized for many years. Even the arc-light that Foucault -produced in 1844 was not utilized then. In both cases, the cause of -slowness of utilization did not rest so much in the invention as in -the stage of civilization at the time. The world was not yet ready -for the arc-light. In fact, it did not become ready, and it could not -become ready, to use the arc-light in real service, until a cheaper -means of producing electric current had been invented. This did not -happen until the dynamo-electric machine had been invented and had been -brought to such a point of practical development that it could supply -electric current, not only adequately and economically, but reliably. -A necessary step toward the utilization of the arc-light was made in -1845, however, by Thomas Wright, who invented a means whereby the -carbons could be kept automatically at the correct distance apart for -maintaining a continuous and uniform light. - -In 1845, Robert Hoe made an important contribution in his -double-cylinder printing press. In the same year, R. W. Thompson -invented the pneumatic tire. This invention belongs distinctly in the -class just spoken of, for the pneumatic tire did not come into general -use until the bicycle did, about 1890. It may be asked if there is any -use in inventing appliances long before they are needed. So far as the -inventor is then concerned--no: so far as the public is eventually -concerned, yes. All inventions made and patented are described and -illustrated in the Patent Office Gazette; and many of them are -described and illustrated in magazines and newspapers, even if they are -not used in actual practice. These records form part of the general -knowledge of mankind, just as much as do the facts of geography and -history and arithmetic; and they can be drawn upon by investigators and -inventors, and made to assist them in their work. - -In 1846, an invention was made by Elias Howe, that does not belong -at all in the same category as that of the pneumatic tire, because -it was utilized almost immediately. This is usually spoken of as the -sewing-machine; but the essence of the invention was not a machine, but -merely an instrument; for it consisted of a needle in which the eye was -near the point, instead of at the other end, as in existing needles. -The machine afterwards produced was merely an obvious means for using -the new kind of needle. - -The invention of the sewing-machine was one rich in influence on -subsequent progress; and all the story connected with it is interesting -in many ways. But the most wonderful fact connected with the invention -is that it was not made before! Many inventions have not been made -because the conditions at the time did not demand them, or make -their successful utilization possible: and yet some inventions, -like the Voltaic arc, were made despite the unfavorable conditions. -But what conditions were unfavorable to the utilization of Howe's -sewing-machine, even as far back in history as the days when the -pyramids were built? The Howe sewing-machine was not so complicated -an apparatus as the ballista, or the chariot, used by the Assyrians -and the other nations in the "fertile crescent," that curved from -Alexandria to Babylon; and it was much easier and cheaper to make. -Its construction required immeasurably less scientific knowledge and -carefulness than the printing press, the gun, the telescope and the -microscope, and a score of appliances that had preceded it by several -centuries. Why was the sewing-machine not invented before? Why, why? -This question continually presents itself to the mind, when certain -simple inventions appear, that (so far as we can see) could have been -invented and ought to have been invented, long before. - -In 1846, the printing-telegraph was invented by House. No such question -as that just discussed is presented to our minds by this invention, -because we realize that it could not have been invented before some -means of generating continuous electric currents had been invented. The -printing-telegraph was not an invention of the same order of influence -as the sewing-machine; but it has assisted the work of the telegraph in -supplying news, especially in reports of stock fluctuations. - -In the same year, De Lesseps started his project of building the Suez -Canal, and joining the Mediterranean to the Red Sea; so that ships -could proceed to India from Europe by a direct route. Many centuries -before, a canal had been cut and generally used that ran from the Nile -River to the Red Sea. The canal that De Lesseps proposed was to be -larger, and the engineering difficulties greater. The vast enterprise -was finally carried out, at a cost of about $100,000,000. It seems -to have passed through the three successive stages of conception, -development and production. The idea of building a canal did not -originate in 1846, or in the brain of De Lesseps; for the idea was very -old, probably older than recorded history. But the only man who formed -the mental picture in his mind and afterwards developed it into a -concrete plan was De Lesseps. He did this; and his plan was so complete -and coherent, and so evidently practical, that he finally succeeded in -convincing engineers and capitalists of the fact, and forming a large -company. The execution of the concrete plan was not begun until 1859, -and it was De Lesseps who began it. Thus De Lesseps, though he did -not conceive the basic idea, conceived and combined the various ideas -necessary to embody the basic idea in a concrete plan, then constructed -the concrete plan, and then produced the actual instrument. - -This instrument (the canal) was a very useful instrument. An -instrument, according to the _Standard Dictionary_, is "a means by -which work is done." By means of the Suez Canal, the work of direct -water transportation between the Far East and Europe was done; and it -could not have been done, except by means of that instrument. It has -been done by that instrument ever since, and at an increasing rate. The -canal was completed in 1869, and widened and deepened in 1886. It has -shortened the water distance between England and India by about 7600 -miles, and has had a tremendous influence on history, especially on -Great Britain's history. One of the largest stockholders is the British -Government; three-fourths of the ships passing through it have been -British; and though the whole world has benefited, the greatest single -beneficiary has been Great Britain. - -Yet De Lesseps was a Frenchman! This calls to our minds the fact -that although some of the greatest names in History are French, yet -the French nation, as a nation, has never shown the same concerted -national purpose as the British. In this respect, the French seem to -have borne somewhat the same relation to the British, as the Greeks -did to the Romans: and yet the French are more nearly allied by blood -and language to the Romans than are the British. The Greeks and the -French aimed to make life pleasant, by the aid of the fine arts and a -general utilization of all that is delightful; while the Romans and -the British, early in their careers, conceived the idea of dominion, -embodied the idea in a concrete plan, and proceeded to carry the plan -into execution. The plan was continually accommodated to the changing -conditions of the times, and the means of execution were continually -accommodated also. The result has been that Greece and France never, -as nations, acquired dominion even approximately; while Rome did -completely, and Great Britain did, approximately. - -The author does not wish to be understood as approving of the idea of -acquiring dominion, or as failing to realize the sordidness of such -an ambition, and the evil that men and nations have done, in order to -achieve it. He begs leave to point out, however, that the Machine could -not have been built, except under the stable conditions that large -nations permit better than small nations do; and that it has been the -endeavor to achieve dominion by aspiring tribes and nations, and the -consequent endeavor to gain strength in order to prevent it, by other -aspiring tribes and nations, which have caused the gradual building up -of the great nations of today, with the comfort, security and culture -that their existence permits. - -In the same year, 1846, artificial limbs were invented, and so was the -electric cautery. Neither of these inventions had a profound influence; -but each was a new creation, and each formed a useful and distinct -addition to the Machine. But another invention was made in 1846, that -has had great influence. - -This was the invention of gun-cotton, made by Schonbein in Germany -by the action of nitric and sulphuric acids on cotton, or some other -form of cellulose. It was the first practical explosive that depended -for its usefulness on the decomposition of a chemical compound, and -not on the combustion of a mechanical mixture, like gunpowder. The -explosive power of gun-cotton was declared by the chemist Abel to be -fifty times that of an equal weight of the gunpowder of that day; but -this does not mean that it possessed fifty times the energy. The action -of gun-cotton is very much more sudden than that of gunpowder; and for -that reason, it exerts a much greater force for an instant, and has -much greater efficacy for such purposes as breaking into structures, -bursting shells, etc. On the other hand, the very fact that its energy -is developed with such suddenness, causes its force to fall to zero -very soon, and makes it useless for such purposes as gunpowder fulfils -in firing projectiles from guns. In a gun, especially in a long gun, -the endeavor is made to keep down the pressure of the gas and prolong -its continuance; so that the projectile will receive a comparatively -gentle but prolonged push, that will start it gradually from its seat, -and will continue to push it, and therefore to increase its velocity, -all the way to the muzzle. - -Gun-cotton does not belong in the class with the typewriter and the -telegraph, that merely assist men to transact business: gun-cotton -transacts business "on its own account." Gun-cotton belongs in the -class with the gun; and its main influence has been to increase the -self-protectivity of the Machine. It has done this mainly by increasing -the power of the submarine torpedo against the hulls of warships. It -may be objected that both sides in a war between civilized nations -would use torpedoes, that no persons except organizations controlled by -civilized nations (such as those in warships) would use torpedoes, and -that therefore, whatever effect the torpedo might have on the Machine -is neutralized by the fact that two civilized bodies use it against -each other. True; but the fact that the torpedo and the gun-cotton -in it require a high degree of civilization in the people who use -it, gives civilized people an immediate and tremendous advantage -over uncivilized people; and furthermore, the fact that the torpedo -and the gun-cotton in it depend for their ultimate effect not only -on their being used, but on the degree of knowledge and skill with -which they are used, gives an advantage to which every nation in any -war is willing and able to utilize the most knowledge and exert the -most skill. That is, the torpedo and the gun-cotton in it combine to -give the advantage to the nations possessing the highest degree of -civilization and willpower. They enable the Machine of the most highly -civilized nation to protect itself if it will against the Machines of -less highly civilized nations. - -In the year following the invention of gun-cotton, came Sobrero's -invention of nitro-glycerin, made by the action of nitric acid on -glycerin (1847). The new explosive was more powerful than gun-cotton, -but much more dangerous to handle. By reason of its extreme -sensitiveness and the consequent danger of handling it, the use of pure -nitro-glycerin has never been great. - -In the same year, 1847, the time-lock was invented by Savage. This -invention was in the class with the gun and gun-cotton, in the sense -that it enhanced the self-protectiveness of the Machine. It did not -enhance its self-protectiveness against a few great, open, external -foes, however, but against a myriad of small, secret, internal foes. -The Machine is very expensive to maintain in operation, and so is -every one of the little mechanisms of which it is composed. And each -one of these little mechanisms, each bank, its business corporation, -each company, each department store, each little shop, requires that -its money be kept safe from the burglar and the pilferer. Inasmuch as -the time-lock assists in doing this, the time-lock has been a valuable -contribution to the Machine, and has exerted a good influence on -history since it was invented. - -In the same year, 1847, R. M. Hoe invented his great printing press, -that could make 20,000 impressions per hour. As it was a long step -forward in the improvement of printing, this invention deserved the -applause which it received; and the inventor deserved the financial -reward which he received. - -In 1848, Dennison invented a machine for making matches. This was a -most useful contribution; but one is inclined to wonder why twenty -years elapsed between the invention of matches and the invention of a -machine for making them. Inventing was not going ahead so fast then as -it is now. Surely, no such interval is allowed to pass unutilized, in -the present inventing days. - -In 1849, the "interrupted thread" screw, for use in closing the -breeches of guns was invented. Many men have claimed the honor of -this invention. Regardless of who the particular inventor was, the -invention itself must be regarded as one of a very high order, from the -standpoints of originality, constructiveness and usefulness. Though the -screw itself was a very old contrivance, the idea of cutting a long -slot lengthwise, so that the screw could be pushed forward quickly -without the slow process of continuously turning it around, yet so -arranged that the screw could be turned when near the end of its -travel, and the force-gaining power of the screw-thread thus secured, -seems to have been entirely new. Certainly the idea was original and -brilliant and useful. To develop the idea into a concrete plan was not -difficult, and neither was it difficult to carry the concrete plan -into execution. This invention falls into the happy class of which the -stethoscope is typical, in which the idea originally conceived was so -perfect, that little else was needed. The main use of this invention -has been that for which it was first intended, to close the breeches of -guns. It is used in most of the navies and armies. Its principal rival -is the famous sliding breech-block of Krupp. - -In 1849, came an invention in the gun class, the magazine gun, made by -Walter Hunt. This invention also seems to fulfil all the requirements -of a real invention, in originality of conception, constructiveness of -development and ultimate usefulness. But in this case, the original -idea can hardly be declared as brilliant and spectacular as that of -the "interrupted thread"; and certainly the labor of developing it was -incomparably greater. The author feels the temptation of declaring -that the more brilliant and valuable a conception is, the less will be -the difficulty of developing it. He refuses to declare it, however, -realizing that it would not be wholly true; and yet he wishes to point -out that if a conception be wholly erroneous, it cannot be developed -into any concrete plan whatever; and that many of the most brilliant -conceptions, such as the fist-hammer, the flute, the telescope, the -telegraph and the telephone were very easily developed into forms -sufficiently concrete to make them practically usable. An idea itself -is an extremely simple thing, even if it be developed ultimately into -a highly complex machine. The idea of the steam engine, for instance, -the idea which Hero conceived was, of itself, extremely simple; but see -into what complex forms it has been developed! The original idea of -Hero was easily developed into "Hero's engine." The improvements that -have been made upon it have been the developments of separate ideas -that were conceived later. Not one of these ideas has been nearly so -brilliant as Hero's, and few of them have been so easily developed. - -In 1849, Bourdon invented the steam pressure gauge that still bears -his name, and made a contribution of distinct and permanent value, -by which ability to keep track of the steam pressure in boilers was -increased, and safety from explosion increased proportionately. In the -same year, Sir David Brewster invented his lenticular stereoscope. In -this beautiful instrument two separate pictures of the same object -are put on one card, one picture showing the object as it would -look to the left eye from a given distance, and the other picture -showing the object as it would look to the right eye. The two eyes of -an observer look at the two pictures through the two halves of two -convex lenses, that are so shaped that the two pictures are seen as -one picture, but so superposed as to represent the object in relief, -as the actual object appears to the two eyes. Like the kaleidoscope, -this later product of Sir David Brewster's brilliant imagination has -had little influence thus far, except possibly to lead the way toward -stereo-photography and the stereopticon: but it seems hardly probable -that an important field will not be found some day for an invention so -suggestive. - -In the same year, Hibbert made an important improvement on the -knitting machine, and Corliss invented his famous engine cut-off, -which vastly economized fuel. Neither invention was especially novel -or brilliant, but both were highly practical and useful contributions -to the improvement of the Machine. In the same year also came Worm's -improvement on the printing press, that concerned the making of -"turtles" which held type in a curved shape, so that they could be -secured to the cylinder of the press. - -In 1850, Scott Archer succeeded in using collodion to fix silver salts -on the surface of glass plates in photography. He cannot be credited -with the basic invention, because the idea of doing this had been -suggested long before. The invention made an important contribution to -the growing art of photography, mainly by supplying a stepping stone -for further advances. In the same year, an important improvement was -made in watch-making by inventing a watch-making machine. This was -one of the first of those distinctly American inventions, by which -machine-work replaced hand-work, with great increase in speed of -production and lessening of cost, but without decrease in accuracy of -workmanship. - -The influence of this invention has escaped the notice of many of us, -for the reason that it has spread so gradually, and has been of such -a character as to fail to strike the imagination from its lack of -spectacularity. But the idea of what we now call "quantity production" -has spread to all the fields of the manufacturing world, and is the -basis of much of the enormous industrial progress of the last half -century. It is rendered possible mainly by making the machinery -automatic, or nearly so. Without such exaggeration, America may justly -claim the contribution of automaticity to the Machine of Civilization. - -In 1851, Dr. Charles G. Page produced the first electric locomotive. -Like many pioneers, it did not achieve practical success itself, -but it supplied a stepping stone to further progress. In the same -year, Seymour produced his self-rakers for harvesters, and Gorrie -invented the ice-making machine. Two more important inventions were -the ophthalmoscope, invented by Helmholtz, and the "Ruhmkorff coil," -invented by the man whose name still clings to it. - -The ophthalmoscope reminds one of the stethoscope; so simple it is, -so perfect and so useful. It consists merely of a small concave -mirror with a hole in it, a lamp and a small convex lens: the mirror -being held so that one eye of a physician can look through it, and -the lens being placed conveniently by the physician near the eye -of a patient. The mirror reflects light from the lamp towards the -patient's eye, and the convex lens concentrates them on whatever is to -be examined--usually the interior of an eye. This instrument belongs -in the small class of inventions already spoken of, in which the -original conception was so perfect, that the acts of developing it into -a concrete instrument and then producing the instrument were easily -performed. - -The Ruhmkorff coil is in the same class; for it consists merely of two -coils of wire; one "primary" coil being of coarse wire and connected -with a source of electric current, and the other "secondary" coil of -fine wire placed around the coil of coarse wire. If the current in -the primary coil be made or broken or changed in force or direction, -currents are "induced" in the secondary coil; the strength of the two -currents varying relatively according to the sizes and lengths of the -wires in the two coils. This invention has an interest apart from -its usefulness, in the fact that Ruhmkorff invented it for purposes -of scientific study, and that no utilization of it for everyday life -occurred until nearly half a century later. Then Ruhmkorff coils were -made into "transformers" for use in "stepping down" the small high -voltage currents needed for transmitting electric currents over long -distances, into the larger but lower voltage currents needed for -actuating electric lights and motors. - -In the following year, 1852, Channing and Farmer invented the -fire-alarm telegraph, an important contribution to the safety of the -Machine, though it did not come into general use for several years. In -the same year, Fox Talbot made another of his epochal contributions to -photography, by inventing a process by which photographic half-tones -could be produced. In the following year, a process was invented for -making from wood a pulp that was very valuable as the basis of making -paper,--and Faraday made three important discoveries. These were the -laws of electro-magnetic induction, the relations of the dielectric -to the conducting bodies in electro-static induction, and the laws of -electrolysis. - -These discoveries of Faraday were all inventions, in the sense in which -the word invention is used in this book. Each one was the outcome -of a series of careful and mathematically guided experiments, and -the outgrowth of an idea. In the following year, Melhuish invented -photographic roll films, and Herman invented the rock drill. The latter -invention has been of the utmost practical value in blasting operations -of all kinds, and must be regarded as a very distinct addition to the -Machine. - -In the same year, appeared the Smith & Wesson revolver; not a great -invention, but an improvement in many ways over Colt's; Mr. A. B. -Wilson brought out his four-motion feed for sewing-machines, and R. A. -Tilghman invented his process for decomposing fats by hot steam. In the -following year (1855), Lundstrom made the highly important invention -of safety matches. When one reflects (as every one must at times) how -great and absolutely irretrievable are the losses caused by fire each -year, how the amount of possible destruction grows each year exactly as -fast as the Machine grows, and realizes how large a fire many a small -match has caused, he feels inclined to give a mental salute to Mr. -Lundstrom of Sweden. - -In the same year, iron-clad floating batteries were used in the Crimean -War. This was not the first time that iron-clad vessels had been -employed, for vessels protected on the sides with sheets of iron and -copper had been used by the Coreans in their victorious war against -the Japanese about three hundred years before; but it was the first -time that such vessels had appeared in Europe. Cocaine was invented the -same year, and one of the most valuable anæsthetics yet known was then -produced. - -But the most valuable contribution to the Machine in 1855 was Henry -Bessemer's epochal invention of making steel by blowing air through -molten cast iron, until enough of the carbon had been burnt off to -leave a steel of whatever quality was desired. This invention reduced -the cost of making steel, and the time required, in so great a degree -as to place the manufacture of steel on a basis entirely new, and to -extend its field of employment greatly. And, as with many previous -great inventions, this one paved the way for still other inventions, by -indicating the possibility of still wider fields. The Bessemer process -is not in the class with the typewriter or the telegraph, but in the -class with the gun; for it does things itself. It would be difficult -to specify any invention (except one produced at a much earlier time) -that has had more influence, and more good influence, on history than -Bessemer's. No one can look out of his window in any town or city, -without seeing some of the innumerable products of Bessemer's idea. - - * * * * * - -Our record has now brought us to the middle of the nineteenth century. -The conditions of living in 1850 were greatly different from those -of 1800. In fifty years, the physical conditions of living and of -carrying on business of all kinds, had improved more than in the -century between 1700 and 1800, more than in the two centuries preceding -1700, and more than in the ten centuries from 500 and 1500. Rapid -transportation over the land in railroad trains for both passengers -and freight had largely replaced the slow transportation methods of -1800; and, in an almost equal degree, steam transportation at sea had -replaced transportation by sails. The printing press had been developed -from a crude and slow contrivance, worked by a hand, to a magnificent -mechanism worked by steam: the electric battery had been improved -into an appliance of the utmost reliability and usefulness; telegraph -lines stretched over the continents, and messages were sent surely -and instantaneously over hundreds of miles of land; and the science -of chemistry had arisen from the ashes of alchemy. As a result of -this, the science of photography had been born, and had already begun -its work, so varied and so useful. Physics had grown so surely and so -greatly, that it had been divided into the separate but allied sciences -of heat, light and electricity--including magnetism: the science of -engineering had expanded so widely, that it also had been divided into -other sciences--civil engineering, mechanical engineering, hydraulic -engineering and electrical engineering: the science of medicine, -because of the advances in chemistry and physics, had advanced at -an equal rate: the gun had been so greatly improved, and gunpowder -also, that such a degree of precision and range had been attained -as to make the gun of 1800 seem crude indeed; and the improvement -had been inevitably caused by the greater knowledge placed at the -disposal of ordnance officers, by the advances in chemistry, heat, -light, electricity, magnetism and the various engineering arts. The -introduction of illuminating gas, the improvements in forging, casting -and turning metals, had made possible the building of edifices, and the -fabrication of better and cheaper utensils of every kind: improvements -in the means and methods of spinning, knitting and weaving had bettered -the materials that people wore upon their persons: improvements in -rubber manufacture had made possible the use of waterproof garments; -crops could be gathered more quickly and surely: safety from fire had -been increased: methods of heating houses had been vastly improved: and -the discovery of anæsthetics had relieved civilized man in great degree -from his most distressing single enemy. As a result, the people of -every civilized country lived under conditions of comfort far greater -than had ever been known before in similar climates. - -The facts and conditions detailed above relate almost wholly to the -material conditions of living, and show that, for most people, they -had been enormously improved: though it is noteworthy that for the -very poor, they had not improved in many cases, and had been altered -for the worse in other cases. The unfavorable changes were mainly -those produced by "factory life" which in 1850 must have been worse -than country life for the same class of people. These cases were so -greatly in the minority, however, as not to affect the main proposition -that the advance in civilization from 1800 to 1850, caused by new -inventions, had improved the material conditions of living for the -great majority of the people affected by them. - -That it was desirable that these conditions should be improved, some -people may be disposed to deny; pointing out that the improvement -tended to develop "luxury, thou cursed of Heaven's decree." One of the -effects of increasing material prosperity is undoubtedly a tendency -toward luxury. But the number of people thus affected was so very small -in the period from 1800 to 1850, and the degree of luxury attained -then was so slight, that this question need hardly be discussed, at -this point. - -But the mental condition of the people had changed as greatly as the -physical conditions of their environment. The immediate cause of -this change was, of course, the printing press, which disseminated -the thoughts of thinking men broadcast, and told of events that were -occurring not only in places near, but also in places distant. This -gave an enormous stimulation to the minds of the people by exciting -their interest: and it also gave to their minds both "food for thought" -and almost unlimited opportunity for exercise. Before this period, only -a small part of the population had a wide range of knowledge, or a -large number of subjects to think about. Their lives were exceedingly -monotonous, and would have been exceedingly dull, had it not been for -the continuous necessity of combating the inconveniences of every-day -life by continual toil of one kind or another. There were very few -subjects of conversation. - -But the printing-press told the people of other things besides the -events that were taking place; it told them also of new discoveries -and inventions that were being made, and of the effects they would -produce. The news of a great discovery or invention must have created -more excitement in 1831 when the discovery of chloroform was announced, -than almost any discovery would now, because we are so accustomed -to new discoveries as almost to be sated. We know what excitement -the first successful railway trips created. The coming of these new -discoveries and inventions gave mental exercise in four ways:--first by -stimulating the imagination with a picture it had never seen before, -and whose possibilities reached no one could guess how far; second -by stimulating the logical powers to reason out and understand the -principles underlying each discovery or invention; third by stimulating -the memory to engrave upon its tablets certain new and important facts; -and fourth, by stimulating the inventive faculties, to carry inventions -further. - -Thus, the influence of new inventions was to change a man's -environment, both physical and mental. Now every man is said to be the -product of his environment and his heredity; so that the influence -of these new inventions was to change men to a degree proportional -to the degree by which they changed their environment. This does not -mean that inventions have changed man biologically, or even changed -him so much that he will act very differently from a savage, under -abnormal conditions. It does mean, however, that they have caused men -so to adapt themselves to the new environment which inventions have -created, that, while in that environment, they will for all practical -purposes, be very different from savages. It means that under nearly -all the conditions of living, a gentleman in civilized society will -be a gentleman--courteous, refined, law-abiding and moral. It does -not mean that he will be perfect, but that he will be very much more -courteous, refined, law-abiding and moral than a savage; and it means, -in consequence that the society of civilized people in general will -possess these characteristics much more than any society of savages -does. - -Not only, however, have these inventions changed the environment of -civilized man, they have changed his heredity also; because they had -previously changed the environment of his parents, grandparents and -other ancestors. The graduate of Oxford of 1850, the son of an Oxford -graduate who was also the son of an Oxford graduate, though he was -biologically the same as his barbarian ancestors of ten thousand -years before, was nevertheless a much more refined, intelligent and -courteous gentleman. Under certain abnormal conditions, such as -intense thirst, hunger, jealousy, passion or unlooked-for temptation -he might act as badly as a savage:--in fact such men sometimes do. -But nevertheless, the fact that in 99% of the conditions under which -he lives he acts as a gentleman and not as a savage makes him 99% a -gentleman, and only 1% a savage, during his mortal life. - -Thus inventions, while originating (or seeming to originate) in the -minds of men, change the environment of men, and this changes the -men. Of the two changes, it would be easy to say that the change made -in the men is the more important; but would it be truthful to say -so? We have already noted the curious fact that inventions have the -faculty of self-improvement to a degree far greater than men have it; -for the reason that each new man must begin where his last ancestor -began, whereas each new invention begins where his last ancestor -finished. This suggests that the changes produced in environment are -more profound than the changes produced in men; that in fact the -changes in environment are very profound, and the changes in men quite -superficial. That this is really the case is indicated by the very long -time needed to build up the environments of civilization, and the very -short time needed for men to adapt themselves to those environments, -or to any changed conditions. The fact has often been noted (sometimes -with chagrin) that highly refined gentlemen adapt themselves with -extreme facility to the often primitive environments of hunting or -campaigning, and history shows in many instances how quickly barbarians -have adapted themselves to civilization. - -This leads us to suspect that the Machine which inventions have built -up may not be of so much permanence as we are prone to think, and -makes us realize that it is not a natural production but one wholly -artificial. Now nothing that is wholly artificial can reasonably be -expected to be permanent, unless adequate and timely measures are taken -to insure it. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -INVENTION AND GROWTH OF LIBERAL GOVERNMENT, AMERICAN CIVIL WAR - - -While the period from 1800 to 1850 was alive with inventions of many -sorts, it was alive also with the economic changes which the inventions -caused and with political changes also. It was in the United States -of America that the greatest changes of all kinds came. This was to -be expected from the fact that before 1800 the United States were -considerably behind the countries of Europe from which their own -civilization had been derived; whereas in 1850, they had been able to -get abreast of them, by reason of the quickness of transportation and -communication that ocean steamers gave, and the energy and enterprise -of the new American nation. During the period from 1800 till 1850, -the United States went through three successful wars; one with Great -Britain, one with Algiers and one with Mexico. They expanded also over -a considerably greater territory, acquired a much greater population, -added new states, and showed such aptitude in scientific discovery and -invention as to achieve a place in the first rank of nations in this -particular. - -The Constitution of the United States may be characterized as a great -invention, in the meaning of the word which is used in this book; -and until 1850, it had worked with a success that surprised many of -the statesmen and scholars of Europe. The problems placed before the -nation had been many, various and difficult; but all had been solved -with a sufficient degree of success for practical purposes; and the -resulting situations had, on the whole, been met with courage, energy -and intelligence. The Monroe Doctrine had been treated with respect, -if not with entire acquiescence; the conduct of the Navy in the War of -1812 had demonstrated to Europe the fighting ability of our people; -our scientific men, such as Franklin and Henry, ranked as high as any -who had ever lived in any country; certain of our statesmen such as -Franklin, held equal rank with statesmen anywhere; and the invention -and first use of the electric telegraph had put America ahead of every -other country in inventions of a basic kind. - -When we realize the rapid growth of the United States in the half -century 1800-1850, and realize also that it was a growth almost _ab -initio_, and note that the engineering materials of all kinds and -all the knowledge of science in the country had come from Europe, we -must admit that it is to the influence of invention, more than to any -other one thing, that we owe the rapid progress of our country. As -is the case with individuals, nations are prone to extol their own -successes, and to take the entire credit for them. Americans are apt -to thank themselves only for their amazing progress; but, in fairness, -they should admit that without the inventions made in Europe and by -Europeans, they would have had no means for even starting. The first -locomotive used in the United States was brought from England. - -In Great Britain, the wars with France were under full headway in 1800, -and her statesmen knew that she was faced with a danger so great that -only the most strenuous exertions, and the utmost naval and military -skill could overcome it. This danger was not overcome till the Battle -of Waterloo in 1815. Thereafter, the progress of the nation was fairly -quiet and assured, the main difficulties centering in the deplorable -condition of the working classes, serious disturbances in Ireland and -the mutiny in India. - -In few matters has the influence of invention been greater than in the -relations between Great Britain and India. In 1564 a company called the -Merchant Adventurers had been formed for competing with the merchants -of Spain, Venice, Holland and other countries. A company coming into -existence shortly afterward was the East India Company, formed for -trading with India, Persia, Arabia and the islands in the Indian -Ocean. The company was chartered by the Crown and had a monopoly of -a certain territory. The object was that the company should not only -make money for itself, but promote the welfare of Great Britain and -her subjects, by taking out manufactured goods, and bringing back raw -materials and coin. During the seventeenth century, naval wars took -place with Holland, and in the eighteenth century with France; both -originating in commercial and colonial rivalry--especially in regard -to India. Both wars were won by Great Britain. The Seven Years' War in -particular ended to the advantage of Great Britain, as regards India; -for France was left with only a few trading stations. By 1773, the East -India Company was in virtual control of India; but in 1784 William Pitt -secured political control of it by the Government. Napoleon realized -the importance of India and sent an army there to recover control, but -without success. The Crimean War that began in 1853 between Russia and -Turkey was joined by Great Britain in 1854 because she feared that -Russia would flank the British route to India through the projected -Suez Canal. This war ended to the advantage of Great Britain, and the -danger to India was removed. - -Now the whole area of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland -is only about 121,000 square miles, while that of India is about -1,803,000, nearly fifteen times as great. The population of the United -Kingdom in 1917 was about 45,370,000, while that of India was about -315,156,000, or nearly seven times as great. Yet Great Britain has -secured the complete mastery of India! How has she been able to do -it? The easiest answer would be that the British are a "superior" -people. Even if they are, such an answer would explain nothing, unless -the means be indicated by which the superiority was made effective -in conquering India. The superiority evidently did not consist in -courage or physical strength, which were obvious factors in achieving -the victories in the field that were necessary, for those qualities -were shown equally by the Indians. But if we should answer that the -British succeeded for the reason that they could bring to bear superior -weapons, equipments, means of transportation, means of communication, -methods of organization and methods of operation, we evidently would -explain what happened adequately and convincingly. Now all these -facilities the British had available; they had been invented and were -ready. - -One of the important influences of invention on history therefore, has -been to give Great Britain control of India. - -In France, the changes in economic and political conditions rivaled the -changes that one sees take place in Sir David Brewster's kaleidoscope. -In 1800 Napoleon had been First Consul, in 1804 emperor, in 1814 an -emperor and then an exile, in 1815 an emperor and then an exile. France -was a kingdom from then until 1848, and then a republic till 1852, when -she again became an empire, under Napoleon III. The virtual anarchy -following the Revolution had been crushed out and replaced with order; -and the menace to republican institutions had been removed by the -genius of Napoleon I, who then established an autocracy of a kind that, -though arbitrary, was so wise and broad-viewed as to be beneficent -on the whole. The result of all was that in 1850, France was in a -condition of civilization and prosperity that was amazing to one who -remembered the conditions of 1800. - -When we analyze the causes of the evolution of order and prosperity out -of the conditions of 1793, and the later conditions of 1800, we can -hardly fail to realize the greatest single cause was the same cause -as that of Napoleon's victories. It was the mind that conceived and -developed and brought forth; the mind that invented so amazingly. - -That many other causes may be named need hardly be pointed out. In -the complex affairs of human life, every result is the resultant of -many causes; but in most of those affairs, most of those causes are -always present; so that we have to find an unusual cause to explain an -unusual condition or event. It would be easy to say that the cause of -France's return to a condition of law and order was that the condition -of anarchy was abnormal; and that France simply returned to her normal -state, as a wave does after it has risen above or fallen below the -level of the sea. But would this be true? Is the condition of anarchy -more abnormal than the condition of law and order? Which was the -condition of primitive man? Which is an artificial product of man's -invention? Is it not logical to conclude from the record of invention's -influence that it was man's inventions that brought into existence the -artificial condition of law and order which existed in France prior to -1793, and that it was also man's inventions that restored it afterward? -Three ideas were conceived in France and developed into the Revolution: -these ideas were the principles of equality, of the sovereignty of -the people and of nationality. After the overthrow of Napoleon, the -Congress of Vienna met to readjust the affairs of Europe. The Congress -seems to have conceived the idea of preventing the carrying out of -those principles as their first starting point, and to have developed -that idea with fixed determination. The Commissioners endeavored -to restore everything to its condition before the Revolution, and -to discredit the principles conceived and developed in France. -They succeeded in accomplishing their intent, so far as remaking -political boundaries, etc., was concerned; but they did not succeed in -discrediting the principles. A great picture had been made in the minds -of men, and the Commissioners could not wipe it out. As a result, three -revolutions took place in 1820, 1830 and 1848, of which the second was -more important than the first, and the third was more important than -the second. - -Shortly after the fall of Napoleon, the Czar Alexander, with the -emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia, invented the Holy Alliance. -It was in pretense an alliance to advance the cause of religion, and to -reduce to practice in political affairs the teachings of Christ; but -it was in intention a league against the spread of the ideas embodied -in the French Revolution. The League was not successful in the end, -for the picture of liberty made in the minds of men was too brilliant -and too deeply printed to be wiped out. One of the results of the Holy -Alliance was the invention by the United States of the Monroe Doctrine -which was made to prevent that intervention in affairs on the American -continent which the proceedings of the Alliance foreshadowed. - -Italy was very harshly treated by the Congress of Vienna, two of her -largest provinces in the north being given to Austria, who forthwith -proceeded then to try to control the entire peninsula. In 1820, a -revolution broke out in Italy, but it was soon suppressed. Another -broke out in 1830, simultaneous with that in France; and this was also -suppressed. The third, in 1848, met a similar fate. But the revolutions -in France were successful; the one of 1848 resulting in the formation -of a republic. At the same time, a sympathetic revolution in Germany -was in a measure successful also. - -In Germany, the formation of the German Confederation in 1815 by the -Congress of Vienna was the formation of a kind of political body that -has never lasted long; for no political body has ever lasted long, -except an actual and definite nation. The various components of the -German Confederation were too loosely bound together. This invention, -like others of mechanical machines, was not a practical invention -because the machine invented was too easily thrown out of adjustment. -The Customs Union was invented in 1828 to supply the necessary element -of coherency. It was hardly adequate for its task, at the time; but -it made the people think of national union; an idea that was finally -developed in 1871. - -In Russia, considerable progress was made from 1800 to 1850, though -not so much as in the countries farther west. An adequate reason would -seem to be that there were too few minds, in proportion to the entire -population, that were able to conceive and develop the ideas that are -needed to make progress. - -During this half-century, while the names of many men stand out as -having done constructive work in invention and discovery, and while -many great statesmen existed, the names of three statesmen stand out -more brightly than the rest: Pitt, Talleyrand and Metternich. Each -had the mind to conceive, develop and produce; and each did conceive, -develop and produce. Of the three, William Pitt was, according to -almost any accepted standard by far the greatest, and Talleyrand was -second. Without the force and guidance of such a mind as Pitt possessed -and utilized, it is hard to estimate what would have been the rôle of -England in the Napoleonic wars, and what would have been her fate. In -the actual course of events, it was England that announced the "mate in -four moves" to Napoleon at Trafalgar, and that finally checkmated him -at Waterloo. True, Pitt died long before Waterloo; but the policy which -he conceived and developed was the policy which was followed; and the -influence of his mind lived in almost unabated strength after his poor, -frail body had ceased to live. - -Talleyrand seems to have been what I have asked permission to call -an "opportunistic inventor"; quick to conceive, develop and produce -plans for meeting difficult situations as they arose, but without -any ultimate objective, or any moral or other principles of any -kind. Metternich, on the other hand, though lacking the brilliancy -of Talleyrand, exerted his talents devotedly to the interests of his -country, as he saw them. But he failed to realize how deep the ideas -of the French Revolution had been engraved in the minds of men, and -finally saw the Machine of the Austrian Government almost destroyed -in 1848. He himself was forced to flee; and the Emperor was forced to -abdicate in favor of his nephew, who granted the people a Constitution, -in order to save the Machine. In Prussia, affairs went almost as far -as in Austria, though not nearly so far as in France. The Machine in -Prussia was saved by the promise of the granting of a constitution. - -The main ultimate political result of the agitations of all kinds -during the half century 1800 to 1850, was the granting to greater -numbers of people of a part in directing the affairs of State. In -France, the whole Machine of Civilization had been menaced with -destruction in the years just previous to 1800; but destruction had -not resulted, and actual improvement had been begun by 1800, though in -an experimental and tentative way. During the fifty years now under -consideration, the idea conceived and developed in France spread to all -other civilized countries; and in all those countries it exercised its -benignant influence, especially in the new nation across the Atlantic, -the United States of America. Reciprocally, the news of the formation -of that republic, and the adoption of its Constitution in 1787, had -exercised considerable influence in giving support to the idea of the -people of France, although the United States of America was very far -away indeed, and her experiment in government was as yet untried. -Then, as the years went by, between 1800 and 1850, and as the American -experiment became increasingly successful, and as the ocean steamships -brought prompt and adequate information about all of its developments, -the American idea joined with the French idea, to advance the cause of -government by the people. - -It may be pointed out here that the discoveries in the physical -sciences and the utilization of those discoveries in the invention of -material instruments and mechanisms were more fruitful in creations -of a permanent and definite character than were the achievements of -statesmen, generals, admirals and "opportunistic inventors" in general. -The same remark is true of discoveries and inventions in systems of -government, ethics and religion. These also have developed monuments -of extraordinary permanency; witness, for instance, the inventions -of the kingdom, of democracy and of the Buddhist, Shinto, Taoist, -Jewish, Christian and Mohammedan religions. The distinctive feature in -securing permanency seems to have been the intent to secure it. The -sudden conception, development and production of a campaign, political -maneuvre or business enterprise, seems to have produced a creature -that was merely a temporary expedient, adapted only to meet emergencies -that themselves were temporary. - -This does not mean that the influence of these temporary expedients -has not sometimes been great: it does not mean, for instance, that the -influence of the victory at Salamis was not great. It does not mean -to deny the plain fact that it has been the succession of the results -of temporary expedients that has brought affairs to the condition in -which they are today. It does mean, however, that the actual pieces -of the existing Machine of Civilization are the permanent inventions -which have been made; while the opportunistic inventions have in some -cases prevented, and in other cases have furthered, the making of -those inventions, and the incorporation of them in the Machine. The -invention of printing, for instance, produced an actual part of the -Machine; while the successful wars waged by civilized nations with -the gun against savages, barbarians and peoples of a lower order of -civilization, made possible the further development of printing, -and its continual use in upbuilding the Machine. The use of the -opportunistic inventions seems to have been in assisting the inventors -of permanent creations and in directing the efforts of the operators of -the Machine. - -An analogue can be found in the case of the invention, development and -operation of the smaller machines of every-day life: the inventor of -each machine merely invents that machine; when he has done this his -work is virtually finished. When his machine is put to work (say, an -electric railroad) the operators carry on the various routine tasks; -just as the president of a bank operates his bank, or the president -of a nation administers the affairs of the nation. But there arise -occasions when something goes wrong, when something besides supplying -coal and oil and electricity is necessary for the successful running -of the railroad, when something more than routine administration is -required of the president of the bank, or the president of the nation. -Then the ingenious and bright mechanic or electrician invents a -practical scheme for circumventing the difficulty with the railroad; or -Napoleon invents a campaign to save the French Republic. - -In 1855 Taupenot made the important invention of dry-plate photography, -by which dry plates can be prepared and kept ready for use when needed, -and Michaux invented the bicycle. Both of these were fairly important -contributions of a practical kind; so was Woodruff's invention of the -sleeping-car, and so was Perkins's discovery of aniline dyes, both of -which came in 1856. None of these was a brilliant invention, though -each was a useful one. But they were immediately followed by one of -a high order of brilliancy and usefulness, Siemens's regenerative -furnace, in which the waste heat of the combustion gases was utilized -to heat the air or gas just entering. In the same year, Kingsland -invented a refining engine for use in making paper pulp. In the -following year the first ocean-going iron-clad ship of war, _La -Gloire_, appeared, and in 1858 the first cable car, invented by E. A. -Gardner. - -In the same year Giffard invented his famous injector, which performs -the feat (seemingly impossible at first thought) of using steam at -a certain pressure in a boiler to force water into that same boiler -against its own pressure! The explanation of course is that the area -of the stream of water that enters the boiler is less than the area of -the stream of steam that leaves the boiler. This invention was one of a -very high order of brilliancy of conception, excellence of construction -and usefulness of final product. It was a valuable contribution to the -Machine. - -In the same year Cyrus Field of New York succeeded in laying the first -Atlantic cable between Ireland and Newfoundland. It is difficult to -declare whether this achievement constituted an invention or not, and -it may not be so classed by many people. Nevertheless, it created -something that had not existed before, and it progressed by the same -three stages of conception, development and production by which all -inventions progress. It was a contribution of enormous value to the -Machine, moreover; for though the first cable was not a practical -success, and though the second cable broke while being laid in 1865, it -was recovered and re-laid and afterward operated successfully. Since -that time, submarine cables have been multiplied to such an extent -that there were more than 1800 in operation in 1917, and they formed -a network under all the seas. Such important parts of the Machine of -Civilization have these submarine cables become that the Machine as it -is could not exist without them. That is, it could not have existed -before the wireless telegraph came. The wireless telegraph has made the -Machine less dependent on submarine cables than it was before, and yet -not wholly independent. - -In 1858 the _Great Eastern_ was launched, the largest steamship built -up to that time. The case of the _Great Eastern_ is interesting from -the fact that she was too large to fit in the Machine as it then -existed, and that by the time that the Machine had grown large enough -the _Great Eastern_ was obsolete! - -About 1859, Kirchhoff and Bunsen invented the spectroscope, an optical -instrument for forming and analyzing the spectra of the rays emitted -by bodies and substances. In 1860 Gaston Planté invented his famous -"secondary battery," formed by passing an electric current through -a cell composed of two sheets of lead immersed in dilute sulphuric -acid, the two sheets separated by non-conducting strips of felt. The -acid being decomposed, hydrogen formed on one plate, while oxygen -attacked the other plate and formed peroxide of lead. There being -now two dissimilar metals in an acid solution, a Voltaic battery had -been created, that gave a current which passed through the liquid in -a direction the reverse of the current ("charging current") that had -caused the change. Planté's secondary battery was an important and -practical contribution to the Machine; but the credit for the basic -invention does not belong to Planté, but to Sir William Grove, who -had invented the "Grove's gas battery." In this battery, two plates -of platinum were immersed in dilute acid, and submitted to a charging -current that decomposed the liquid and formed an actual though -practically ineffective "secondary battery"; the two elements being -oxygen and hydrogen. - -In the next year Philip Reis invented the singing telephone, by which -he could transmit _musical tones_ over considerable distances. Whether -or not Philip Reis invented the speaking telephone has been a much -controverted question, for the reason that speech was occasionally -transmitted over Reis's telephone,--though not by intention. The -invention that Reis conceived, developed and produced was a singing -telephone only; the apparatus by which he sometimes transmitted speech -was his singing telephone, slightly disadjusted. That Reis should have -failed to invent the telephone is amazing, in the same sense that it is -amazing that Galileo did not invent the thermometer and the barometer; -and the fact is extremely instructive in enabling us to see distinctly -what constitutes invention. To make an invention, a man must himself -create a thing that is new, and produce it in a concrete form, such -that "persons skilled in the art can make and use it." Reis did not -do this: and yet Philip Reis's telephone could be made to speak in -a few seconds, by simply turning a little thumb-screw! Reis did not -know this, and consequently could not give the information to "persons -skilled in the art." Reis did not invent the speaking telephone, -for the fundamental reason that his original conception, although -correct for his singing telephone, was wholly incorrect for a speaking -telephone; because the speaking telephone requires a continuous -current, while Reis's conception included an intermittent current. - -Apologies are tendered for going into what may seem a technicality -at such great length; but the author wishes to utilize this example -to emphasize the importance of the original conception, the image -pictured on the mind by the imagination. This original conception is -of paramount importance in making inventions, not only of material -mechanisms, but of all other things that can be invented, such as -religions, laws, systems of government, campaigns, books, paintings, -etc., etc. The final product cannot be better than the original -conception, except by chance; for even if the development be absolutely -perfect, the invention finally brought forth can be only equal to the -original conception. It is obvious that the simpler the invention -is the more easily it can be made equal to the original conception, -and vice versâ. For this reason the stethoscope is a more efficient -embodiment of the original conception than is that very inefficient -product--the steam engine. - -The fact that the final product cannot be better than the original -conception (except by chance) is the bottom reason for placing men -of fine minds at the head of important organizations. It is the -ideas conceived by the man at the head in any walk of life, that are -developed by his assistants: at least, this is the intention, in all -organizations, and the only efficient procedure. We see an analogue in -the actual life of every individual. Now the conception is the work -of the imagination, and not of the reasoning faculties: the reasoning -faculties develop and construct what the imagination conceives. It -is because of this that men of fine mentality sometimes devote their -talents to evil ends: their imaginations have conceived evil pictures. -Sometimes this is the result of a bad environment in childhood. The -environment of Talleyrand's childhood, for instance, caused the -conception in his imagination of evil aims. - -In 1860 Carré made the important invention of the manufacture of ice -with the use of ammonia. In 1861 Craske improved stereotyping by -making it possible to reproduce curved printing plates from flat forms -of type. Green invented the driven-well in the same year, and McKay -invented the shoe-sewing machine. - -The most important event of 1861 was the outbreak of the Civil War in -America, when the invention of the American Constitution was put to -its severest test. It had been known ever since the adoption of the -Constitution that the instrument was faulty in not defining clearly the -relative rights of the Federal Government and the separate states; but -it had been found impossible to secure the assent of a sufficiently -large body of citizens to any proposition that defined them clearly; -and so the machine of Government had operated for nearly three-quarters -of a century, with the disquieting knowledge in the minds of its -operators that conditions might put it to a test that would break it -down, and perhaps destroy it totally. The most dangerous condition -was seen to be the one associated with the question of slavery in -the Southern States. This question, and the consequent condition of -antagonism between the North and the South, became rapidly worse during -the period from 1846 to 1861, when war between them finally broke out. - -The war was ultimately decided in favor of the North, despite the fact -that the South was much the better prepared; in fact, that the North -was wholly unprepared. The main weakness in the Confederate situation -was the fact that cotton was virtually the only product with which she -could raise money for feeding and equipping her army, that she had to -get the equipments from Europe, and that the line of communication to -Europe was across the Atlantic Ocean, 3000 miles wide. The weakness -seemed, during a period of about twenty-four hours, to be removed by -the invention of the iron-clad _Merrimac_; for the _Merrimac_ destroyed -the _Cumberland_ and _Congress_, two of the finest warships on the -Union side, without the slightest difficulty in one forenoon, and -threatened the destruction of all the other Union ships. The Union -ships having been destroyed or made to flee to port, complete freedom -from blockade of the Confederate coast would follow immediately. The -_Monitor_ had been invented years before; but no steps had been taken -to build her, despite the insistence of the great inventing engineer, -John Ericsson. News of the work of constructing the _Merrimac_ had -reached the North, however, and stimulated the northern imagination -to the extent that it was able to see in the _Monitor_ a savior (and -the only savior) from the _Merrimac_. By the exercise of amazing -engineering skill, Ericsson constructed his invention with such speed -and precision that the _Monitor_ was able to meet and defeat the -_Merrimac_ the very day after she had destroyed the Union ships. - -The result was an immediate and absolute reversal of conditions. It -was the North now that controlled the sea and the South that was to be -blockaded. And not only this; for the fact that the North possessed a -warship that was not only the most formidable in the world, but was of -such simple construction that many of them could be launched in a very -short time, showed to those European powers who were deliberating as to -whether or not they should recognize the Confederacy, the futility of -their attempting to carry into effect on the American coast any naval -policy of a character unfriendly to the United States. The victory of -the _Monitor_ was the announcement of the "mate in four moves." Victory -for the South became immediately impossible, no matter how long the -final checkmate might be delayed. We know, of course, that checkmate -was delayed until April 9, 1865, when Lee surrendered to Grant at -Appomattox. - -In few cases has the influence of invention on history shone more -clearly than in the case of the _Monitor_. The _Monitor_ was the -deciding factor in the Civil War. This does not mean that the _Monitor_ -alone won the Civil War. No one event or person or maneuver won the -Civil War: for the Civil War was won by the resultant effect of many -events, persons and maneuvers. It does mean, however, that the victory -of the _Monitor_ made it virtually impossible for the issue to be -otherwise than it eventually was; provided, of course, that a course of -conduct not wholly unreasonable was pursued by the North. All the other -factors in the war were what might be called usual: the _Monitor_ alone -was unusual. The _Monitor's battle was the only battle in which the -light of genius shone, on either side_. - -The _Monitor's_ victory emphasizes a truth previously pointed out -in this book: the truth that the influence of invention has been to -advance the cause of civilization, by giving victory in wars, as a -rule, to the side possessing the higher civilization. This was clearly -the case in our Civil War; for the South was far more an agricultural -and primitive community than the North. It was for this reason that -Ericsson lived in the North. We can hardly imagine Ericsson coming -from England and going to live in the South; for the simple reason that -Ericsson, the dynamic, inventive Ericsson, could not possibly have -lived a life even approximately satisfying to him in the South. There -was no opportunity in the South for him to exercise his powers. It has -been said sometimes that the _Monitor_ might have been produced by the -South, and the _Merrimac_ by the North. Of course, anything is possible -that is not wholly impossible; but history shows that inventions have, -as a rule, been produced by people like those of the North, and not by -people like those of the South. - -The influence of invention on history has been to bring about such -victories as that of the _Monitor_ over the _Merrimac_; and the -influence of those victories has been to enhance the advantages -possessed by the more highly civilized. Furthermore, the victory of the -more civilized has given civilization greater assurance in its struggle -to go still higher, just as defeat has made it pause and sometimes -retreat. The issue of the Civil War, for instance, was more than a -victory over slavery and the tendency to dissipation of energy by a -division into two parts of the forces of the country; for it removed -permanently a highly injurious obstruction and started the rejuvenated -republic along that career of progress which it has followed since so -valiantly. - -In 1861 E. G. Otis invented the passenger elevator. Possibly this was -not an invention of the first order of brilliancy, but certainly it -was an invention of the first order of utility. Can anyone imagine -the New York of today without passenger elevators? The Otis elevator -has not made it possible to grow two blades of grass where one -blade grew before; but it has made it possible to operate hotels -and office buildings of more than twice as many stories as could be -operated before. Few inventions have had more immediate influence on -contemporary history than the passenger elevator. - -In the same year was invented the barbed-wire fence. The production -of carbide of calcium followed in 1862, and also the invention of -the Gatling gun. This was the first successful machine gun, and an -invention of a high order of brilliancy of conception, excellence of -construction and practical usefulness. Few inventions have been more -wholly unique than this machine: so beautiful and harmonious and simple -in principle--though devoted superficially merely to the killing and -wounding of men. Like all inventions in the gun class, it contributed -to the self-protectiveness of the Machine. - -An invention in a similar class, smokeless gunpowder was invented by -Schultze in 1863, for use as a sporting powder. Being based on the -action of nitric acid on cellulose, it was somewhat like gun-cotton, -and therefore a chemical compound; rather than a mechanical mixture -like the old gunpowder. It gave out but little smoke when fired. -Smokelessness would be such an obvious advantage in military -operations, that the study of this powder was prosecuted carefully, -with a view to obtaining a smokeless powder suitable for military -purposes. This was accomplished in 1886 by Vieille in France. The -invention of smokeless powder was not one of a high order of brilliancy -for the reason that it was the result of a long series of painstaking -investigations and not of any luminous idea. It was nevertheless a -contribution of the highest usefulness to the self-protectiveness of -the Machine, and therefore to Civilization. - -In 1864 Behel invented the automatic grain binder, an invention of the -same class of practical and concrete usefulness as McCormick's reaper, -and a distinct contribution to the Machine. It expedited the binding -of grain, tended to insure accuracy and efficiency, and stimulated -the agricultural classes to a study of mechanism, and therefore of -physics and the arts depending on it. In other words, this invention -performed the double service that many other inventions have performed, -of contributing to the material necessities of men, and inspiring their -intellects as well. In the following year, Martin invented his process -for improving the manufacture of fine steel. - -In the same year (1865) Lister brought out his method of antiseptic -surgery. It would be difficult to specify any invention which has -contributed more in half a century to the direct welfare of mankind. -It has effected such a change in surgery as to make the surgery before -Lister's time seem almost barbarous. It made a greater change in -surgery than any change ever made before: one is tempted to declare -that it has brought about a greater change in surgery than all the -previous changes put together. Now, it is interesting to realize -that all these changes, extending over all the civilized world, and -affecting countless human beings, were caused by "a mere idea." They -were caused by a picture made by the imagination of Lister on his -mental retina, that must have covered a very small area of his brain. -It is interesting also to realize that if that part of his brain -had become impaired from any cause, the picture could not have been -imprinted there. And was his brain always in condition to receive -such a picture, or only seldom? Knowing as we do that even the most -brilliant minds are brilliant only rarely, may we not infer that -conditions of the brain permitting such pictures as this of Lister -occur but rarely? - -It was also in 1865 that Bullock invented his web-feeding printing -press, and Dodge invented the automatic shell-ejector for firearms. -In 1866 Siemens and Martin invented the open-hearth process for steel -making, Burleigh the compressed air rock-drill, and Whitehead the -automobile torpedo. - -The Whitehead torpedo was an invention of the highest order of -brilliancy of conception; but, unlike many other inventions of this -class, it has been a matter of the utmost difficulty to develop it. The -possible usefulness suggested was so great that the principal European -nations, especially the Germans and English, went about its development -at once; but the practical difficulties encountered were so many and so -great, and the opportunities of testing out its usefulness in actual -warfare were so few, that it was not until after its successful and -important use in the war between Russia and Japan in 1904-1905, that -the torpedo was accepted as a major weapon. This invention is one of -the most important contributions ever made to the self-protectivity -of the Machine of Civilization; not only because of its immediate -usefulness in war, but because its complexity necessitates such skill -and knowledge in the operators, and its cost is so great, that only -the most wealthy and highly civilized nations are able to use it -successfully. As has been pointed out repeatedly in this book, one of -the influences of invention on history has been to urge nations to a -high degree of civilization, under pain of greater or less subjection -to nations more highly civilized. - -In 1866 Wilde in England and Siemens in Germany invented dynamo -electric machines, in which the magnetic field was made, not by -permanent steel magnets, but by electro-magnets of soft iron that were -energized by the current which the machine itself produced. This was -an invention of the utmost practical value; but who was the actual -inventor does not seem to be exactly known. Its main value is in its -ability to produce a much more powerful current than could be produced -when using permanent magnets; caused by the fact that electro-magnets -can create a "magnetic field" much stronger than steel magnets can. - -In 1867 Tilghman invented his sulphite process for pulp making, and in -1868, Moncrief invented his famous disappearing gun-carriage. This was -an invention requiring a high order of conception and constructiveness; -it resulted in a considerable improvement in the art of sea-coast -defense, and therefore in the self-protectiveness of the Machine, by -keeping the guns safe behind fortifications except when actually being -fired. Moncrief's carriage, although originally very good, has been -improved upon from time to time; whenever the progress of the mechanic -arts has made it possible, and some inventor has realized the fact. - -Attention is here requested to the last clause in the last sentence. As -civilization has progressed and various inventions have been made, the -whole field of possible future invention has been narrowed, but a field -of clear though limited opportunity has been mapped out. Each invention -narrows the field by removing the opportunities for making that -especial invention: after the printing press had been invented, for -instance, the number of possible inventions was reduced by one; but see -what a field for future invention was mapped out, and what immeasurable -opportunities were suggested! Nevertheless, opportunity does not -produce inventions, it merely invites them; and we have occasionally -noted in this book that the opportunity to make a certain invention -had existed for ages before it was realized: for instance, the -sewing-machine and the little stethoscope. - -In 1868 Sholes invented what is usually considered the first practical -typewriting machine. The machine that Thurber had invented in 1843 had -never been developed to a practical stage, and, consequently, it was -not itself a direct contribution to the Machine. Whether it paved the -way for Sholes's is a debatable point; if it did, it was an indirect -contribution, like Hero's engine. Not for several years after 1868 -did the typewriter take its place in the Machine: but now it plays an -exceedingly useful, if not conspicuous, part in making it operate day -after day. - -In the same year Nobel contributed another of his notable inventions, -and called it dynamite. It was the development of an exceedingly -brilliant and original idea; and, as often happens with conceptions -of that kind, it was easily developed into a concrete, usable and -useful thing. It consisted merely in mixing nitro-glycerin with -about an equal quantity of very finely divided earth. The resulting -mixture was much less sensitive to shock and therefore much safer to -handle than nitro-glycerin. It supplied the factor needed to render -the utilization of nitro-glycerin possible, and therefore it was a -valuable contribution to the Machine. In the same year, Mege invented -oleomargarine, a comparatively inexpensive substitute for butter, and -therefore an important factor in furthering the health and comfort of -the poorer classes and a considerable forward step. - -Shortly after 1866, Mrs. Eddy declared to many people that she had made -a discovery which enabled her to cure the sick with Divine aid, and -without the use of drugs. She healed many people and gradually gathered -followers. In a few years, she developed a religion that is now called -Christian Science; and in 1875 she published a book called "Science -and Health, with Key to the Scriptures." Since then, the number of her -followers has increased enormously, and Christian Science Churches -have been erected in all the civilized countries of the world. Though -the doctrines of Christian Science have not been accepted by many -Christians, the great opposition directed toward them at first has now -been largely overcome; and it is admitted by most fair-minded people -that Christian Science seems to have made an important contribution to -the spiritual, mental and physical welfare of mankind. - -In 1868, Westinghouse made his epochal invention, the railway -air-brake. It was the result of a brilliant mental conception that -was put into practical form without very serious difficulty. At first -sight, this invention might not be considered of very great importance, -because one might assume that its only office was to prevent collisions -and consequent loss of life and property. Doubtless that was its only -direct effect; but its indirect effect was to increase the confidence -of the people in the safety of railway travel, consequently the number -of people who traveled, consequently the prosperity of the railway -companies, consequently the faith of people in railway investments, -consequently the number and magnitude of railway projects, consequently -the number and length of railways, consequently the speed and general -excellence of transportation and communication over the land in every -civilized country, and consequently the coherency and operativeness of -the entire Machine. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -INVENTION OF THE MODERN MILITARY MACHINE, TELEPHONE, PHONOGRAPH, AND -PREVENTIVE MEDICINE - - -In 1866, one of the most important inventions of history was put to -test, in a war between Austria and Prussia. The invention was the -Prussian Military Machine, of which the inventor was von Moltke, the -Chief of Staff of the Prussian Army. Moltke was not the original -inventor of the Military Machine, any more than Watt was the original -inventor of the steam engine; but he was the inventor of the modern -Military Machine, just as Watt was the inventor of the modern -reciprocating steam-engine. - -Moltke had been made Chief of Staff in 1858, and had proceeded at once -to embody an idea that his mind had conceived some years before. This -idea was to utilize all the new inventions of every kind that had -been made, especially in weapons, transportation and communication; -and to continue to utilize all new inventions as each reached the -useful stage, in such a way that the Prussian Army would be an actual -weapon, which could be handled with all the quickness and precision -that the products of modern civilization could impart to it. Philip of -Macedon, Julius Cæsar, and Frederick William of Prussia evidently had -had similar ideas; but no one after them, save Moltke, seems to have -realized fully that armies and navies must utilize all the new methods -and appliances that can be made to assist their operations, if those -armies and navies are to attain their maximum effectiveness. It is -true that no very great changes in arms or in methods of transportation -and communication had recently taken place, at the time when Napoleon -went to war; but this only emphasizes the new conditions with which -Moltke was confronted, and the courage and resourcefulness with which -he met them. - -Moltke's Machine was, of course, much more comprehensive and detailed -than the paragraph above would indicate; but almost every machine, -after it has been perfected, is comprehensive and detailed, even if -the original idea was simple. It is true also that the direct means -which Moltke employed to perfect his Machine was to train officers to -solve independently certain problems in strategy and tactics, just as -children at school were taught to solve problems in arithmetic. It -is true also that more attention has usually been fixed on Moltke's -system of training than on his utilization of inventions, and it may -be true that Moltke himself fixed more attention on it. But the idea -of training officers as he did, seems also to have been original with -Moltke; and it is certain that Moltke was the first to develop such a -system, and therefore, that he was the inventor of that system. - -We see, therefore, that Moltke made two separate inventions, and -combined both in his machine. Both inventions were condemned and -ridiculed, but both succeeded. The result was that, when war was -declared in 1866 between Prussia and Austria, a reputedly greater -nation, the Prussian machine started smoothly but quickly when the -button was pressed, advanced into Austria without the slightest delay -or jar, collided at once with the Austrian machine, and smashed it in -one encounter. This encounter was near Sadowa and Königgrätz, and took -place only seventeen days after war began. The most important single -invention that Moltke had utilized was the breech-loading "needle -gun," a weapon far better than the Austrians had, not only in speed of -loading, but in accuracy. The two armies were not very different in -point of numbers: so that, even if von Moltke's other measures had not -been taken, the superiority of the Prussian musket over the Austrian -must of itself have caused the winning of the war, though not so -quickly as actually was the case. - -But in the war with France, Moltke's machine demonstrated its -effectiveness even more completely, because its task was harder. For -France was esteemed the greatest military nation in the world; it was -the France of Napoleon the Great, then ruled by his nephew Napoleon -III. In the usual sense of the word, the French were a more "military" -people than the Prussians. The Empire of Napoleon III was much more -splendid than the poor little Kingdom of Prussia, the army was more -in evidence, there were more military pageants, the people were more -ardent. But the military leaders of the French included no such -inventor as von Moltke, there was no one who conceived any such ideas -as were pictured in Moltke's imaginative brain; and consequently it -never occurred to anyone to utilize strenuously all the new inventions, -or to train officers like school boys, in the practical problems of -war. The result was that Moltke's machine got into France before the -French machine had been even put together. The pieces of the French -machine had not been got together even when the war ended. When war -was declared by France, her military machine was in three parts. Two -of them got together fairly quickly, so that the French machine was -soon divided into only two parts; one under Marshal Bazaine, and the -other under Marshal McMahon. But Moltke's machine was together at the -start, and it stayed together throughout the war. This does not mean -that all its parts stood in the same spot; but it does mean that the -parts were always in supporting distance of each other. The two parts -of the French machine were not in supporting distance of each other, -and the German machine prevented them from uniting. When McMahon and -Bazaine tried to unite, McMahon was defeated at Wörth, and Bazaine at -Gravelotte. McMahon was forced to surrender his entire force, including -the emperor at Sedan; and Bazaine was shut up in Metz. Paris was then -besieged. Bazaine was soon forced to surrender and Paris to capitulate. - -The main immediate result was the establishment of the German Empire. -A later result was the establishment of what is sometimes called -militarism. Of the two, the latter was probably the more important -in future consequences; for the influence of Moltke's conception of -military preparedness has been to make all civilized nations keep up -enormous and highly organized military and naval establishments, under -pain of being caught unprepared for war and beaten to subjection. - -The German Empire has vanished, but militarism has not vanished. There -seem to be no signs that it will soon vanish, for it is simply part -of a general preparedness movement that embraces many fields of life, -that is necessitated by the existence of this cumbrous Machine of -Civilization, and that is advanced by the realization that everyone -must cultivate foresight. The physicians tell us, the financiers tell -us, the lawyers tell us, the clergymen tell us, even the business men -of every day and the housewives tell us that we must continually look -ahead and continually prepare to meet what may be coming. Now this is -what Militarism urges as applied to the coming of war. Militarism is -the doctrine of preparedness for war; it holds the same relation to -national health that preventive medicine does to individual health. -It would make us do many unpleasant things, and refrain from doing -many pleasant things. But to do many unpleasant things and to refrain -from doing many pleasant things is necessary, in order to lead even a -moderately virtuous and prudent life. Militarism may be pushed to an -undue extreme; but so may any course of conduct. - -It may be interesting to note that Moltke was not an "opportunistic -inventor," like most men of action typified by Napoleon, but that -Bismarck was. Moltke made inventions of a permanent nature, but -Bismarck did not. Yet Moltke was a soldier and Bismarck was a -statesman. Bismarck's German Empire has already passed away, but -Moltke's method of preparedness is with us still, and is gathering -more and more prestige as the years go by. Judged by the standard of -permanent achievement, Moltke was a greater man than Bismarck; though -a belief to the contrary was held during their lifetimes, and is -generally held by most men now. - -In 1870, Gramme invented the famous Gramme dynamo-electric machine, -which was so excellent a machine for producing a smooth and -unidirectional electric current, that it gave the start to that -wonderful succession of electrical inventions which established the Age -of Electricity. The main part of Gramme's machine was a modification -of the Pacinnoti ring, invented by Pacinnoti in 1862, which seems -never to have been put to practical use, and never to have been heard -of by Gramme. The Pacinnoti ring consisted of a ring around which -a continuous coil of wire was wound. This ring being rotated in a -magnetic field, the various parts of the wire at any instant lay at -different angles to the lines of force, instead of at the same angle to -them, as was the case with the flat coil of previous dynamo machines. -The result was that some coil was always cutting the magnetic -lines-of-force at the maximum speed, while others were cutting them -at varying speeds, down to zero; so that the aggregate of all was -approximately the same at all instants. The result was that the current -was nearly uniform in strength. The influence of this invention on -subsequent history need hardly be pointed out; for it is impressed on -us every day and every night, in every part of the civilized world. - -In the same epochal year that ushered in the Franco-Prussian War and -the Gramme machine, the Hyatts invented celluloid. The invention was of -the simplest character, involving mainly the compression of camphorated -gun-cotton by hydraulic or other force. This was not a great invention, -but a useful one; making it possible to fabricate many useful articles -at low cost. - -In the following year of 1871, Goodyear invented his welt shoe-sewing -machine and Maddox made his epochal discovery. This was that when -nitrate of silver was added to a solution of gelatine in water -containing a soluble bromide, silver bromide was formed, which did -not subside even after long standing; that the emulsion could be made -quickly and in large quantities, and that by thus substituting gelatine -for collodion on the surface of glass plates used in photography, -greater sensitiveness, and therefore, greater speed could be obtained. -This led to an important improvement, and paved the way to others, and -thus became the basis of rapid photography. - -By 1871 the work of several inventors had produced a press that printed -an endless sheet of paper on both sides and folded it automatically. -In the same year Ingersoll invented his compressed air rock drill. -In 1872, Lyall invented his positive-motion weaving loom, and Clerk -Maxwell propounded his electro-magnetic theory of light. According -to this theory, luminous and electric disturbances are the same in -kind, the same medium transmits both, and light is an electro-magnetic -phenomenon. This was a most important invention in the field of -physical science, and is now accepted by the majority of scientists. It -is not so applicable to the needs of men at the present moment as the -weaving loom; but in the future, it may be more so. - -In the same year, Westinghouse invented an improvement on his original -air-brake that made it automatic under some conditions, and in the -following year Janney invented the automatic car-coupler. Both of these -were brilliant inventions, though not nearly so brilliant as Clerk -Maxwell's. They were immeasurably more important, however, from the -standpoint of material contributions to the Machine. One result was -that the inventors were immeasurably more rewarded in a material way -than was that great mathematical physicist, Clerk Maxwell. - -In the same year of Our Lord, 1873, Willis invented his platinotype -photographic process, in which finely divided platinum forms an image -virtually permanent, and Edison invented his duplex telegraph. This -was the first of those wonderful inventions that made Edison famous; -and it embodied possibly as brilliant an idea as he ever conceived. -The principle was exceedingly simple, and consisted merely in using -currents that increased in strength as the key was pressed to actuate -an ordinary electro-magnet for one message, and using currents whose -direction was reversed when the key was pressed, to actuate a polarized -relay for another message. By combining this scheme with one long -before proposed, of putting the receiving instruments across the arms -of a Wheatstone Bridge, the entire system could be duplicated, and two -messages sent at the same time in each direction. This, of course, -constituted quadruplex telegraphy. - -In the same year, Gorham invented the twine-binder for harvesters, -Bennett improved the gelatine-bromide process of Maddox; and Locke and -Wood invented the self-binding reaper. In 1874, Glidden and Vaughan -invented a machine for making barbed wire, and Sir William Thomson -invented his super-excellent siphon-recorder for receiving messages -over the Atlantic cable. This invention combined the three elements -that constitute a great invention; brilliancy of conception, excellence -of construction and concrete product. It was of immediate usefulness -also, which a great invention may not necessarily be. But Sir William -Thomson was a "canny Scot," a good mechanic, and a man of the world, -as well as a mathematical physicist of the highest order; with the -result that even on his loftiest flights, he held tight to a string -that connected him to the earth, and that kept his flights within -the regions of the practical and immediate. His siphon-recorder was -very much more sensitive to electric currents than any recorder ever -invented before; a quality which made feebler currents utilizable, -decreased induction and therefore increased speed. Coming when it -did, and coming because Sir William Thomson saw a need for it, it -was a great and important contribution to submarine telegraphy, and -therefore to the Machine; for the Machine has now become very large -and complicated, and needed the best possible communication among its -various parts. Some of these parts were far distant from each other. - -In the following year, 1875, Brown invented his cash-carrier. This -was not so brilliant or important an invention as Sir William -Thomson's; but it can hardly be doubted that a hundred thousand -times as many cash-carriers and their children, cash-registers, have -been made as siphon-recorders. In the same year, Lowe invented his -illuminating water-gas; Wegmann his roller flour mills; Smith his -middlings purifier for flour; and Pictet his ice-machine. The last -four inventions were of that distinctly practical kind that contribute -directly to the operativeness of the Machine, by facilitating the -conditions of living in large communities, and make great cities -possible. Of the four, the invention of Pictet was the most brilliant -and scientific, and the least directly useful. - -In 1876, Bell made an invention that is usually conceded to be the most -important of modern times, and that was also of the highest order of -brilliancy of conception, excellence of construction and concreteness -of result. The invention was that of the speaking telephone. - -The telephone is not in the class with the actual doers of things, -like the weaving machine and the gun, but rather in the class with -the telegraph and the typewriter, in being an assistant to the doers -of things: that is, it is an instrument rather than a machine. This -does not mean that a machine is more important than an instrument, -though possibly machines have done more work directly in furthering -civilization than instruments have. A machine does something itself; -an instrument is a means or agency or implement with which men do -something. As a class, machines have probably been more directly useful -than instruments; but this does not mean, of course, that any machine -that one may name has been more useful than any instrument. A machine -(generally speaking) does only one class of work; the sewing-machine, -for instance, does no work save sewing; while such an instrument as -the telephone is an aid to men in directing the work of thousands of -machines. - -It may be pointed out here that, in the broad meaning of the word -instrument, every machine that does actual work is an instrument in the -hands of men for doing that work; but that every instrument is not -necessarily a machine. A machine, by definition, is composed of various -parts that work together to a common end, and it carries with it the -ideas of movement and of power. An instrument, on the other hand, need -not be composed of more than one part; it may of itself be incapable of -moving or exerting power; and yet, in the hands of men and women, it -may be the means of doing the most useful work. A familiar illustration -among many is the needle. - -Now the telephone can hardly be called a machine: it can of itself do -nothing. It is not like an engine that can do work hour after hour, -without external interposition, supervision or assistance. Yet, for -the reason that the only value of a machine lies in the fact that it -is an instrument whereby men can get results, an instrument is not -necessarily in a lower class than a machine. - -The essential value of the telephone seems to lie in the fact that the -Machine has become so complicated, and composed of so many separate -parts, that, without the telephone, those parts would not be adequately -linked together. The telephone, like the telegraph, acts in the Machine -of Civilization as do the nerves in the human organism. The human -organism could not be an organism without the nervous system; and -the present Machine could not exist in its present form without the -telegraph and the telephone. These two instruments have so greatly -improved the Machine as to raise it toward the dignity of an organism. -They have not made it an organism, because they have not endowed it -with life. They have, however, raised it to the dignity of an automatic -machine, by supplying such a ready and sure means of conveying -information and instructions, that a blow to the Machine anywhere is -felt everywhere, and assistance to the part attacked can be summoned -from everywhere. - -Illustrations of this can be seen the most clearly in our large cities, -in which information concerning a fire, or a riot, or an accident is -transmitted instantly to all parts of the city; and fire engines, -police or ambulances are sent in response thereto. Illustrations -covering wider fields come to mind at once; but they are of the same -character, whether the fields comprise single states or continents -or seas, or the whole surface of the earth. Possibly the best single -illustration is that supplied by the events of the recent World War, in -which the nerves of civilization in every land were kept on the tingle -by the news continually received from the fighting fronts, and measures -were continually taken to meet each situation as it occurred. Australia -and New Zealand and America and Canada and South Africa assisted France -to repel the invader from her soil. - -The influence of the telephone on history has been so great that -history would not be at all as it has been, if the telephone had not -been born. Has this influence been beneficent? Probably, because it -has tied the parts of the Machine together, and made it more coherent. -But it may be well to realize that this very fact has had the effect -of permitting other additions to the Machine; with the result that the -Machine is perhaps no more coherent now than it was when the telephone -was added to it. Furthermore, we must not forget that, although the -influence of each new invention is usually to assist civilization -rather than to assist its enemies, yet we cannot assume that 100% -is exerted on that side, for a considerable percentage is always -exerted on the other side. For instance, the printing press is used to -disseminate harmful teachings, as well as beneficent teachings, the -telephone is used for bad purposes as well as good ones, etc. - -We must not restrict our appreciation of the influence of the telephone -by ignoring the stimulation which it has given to study and experiment, -especially in the physical sciences. People of the present day do not -realize the amazement and excitement caused throughout the world by the -sudden realization of the fact that human speech could be transmitted. -Coming as it did so soon after the invention of the Gramme dynamo, -it waked the minds of men with a sudden start, and opened a dazzling -avenue of anticipation of discoveries and inventions yet to come. Young -men, and especially young men of fine ambition, saw ahead a clear -line of useful and brilliant work; and the colleges and technical -schools were soon thronged with eager youth. A new epoch--the electric -epoch--was at hand. - -The most generally noticed herald of the new epoch was not the -telephone, however, but the "electric candle" invented by Jablochkoff -in 1876, which soon afterward came into use in Paris. This candle -consisted of two parallel sticks of carbon separated by an insulating -substance, made of some refractory material, that fuzed as the carbons -gradually burned away. The two carbons were connected to an electric -circuit that passed from the tip of one carbon to the tip of the other, -causing a brilliant electric arc. To prevent one carbon wasting away -more rapidly than the other, an alternating current was employed. This -great invention is now almost forgotten, because it was soon supplanted -by the present arc-light that is better in many ways. Nevertheless, to -Jablochkoff must be accorded the distinction of being the first to make -electric lighting on a large scale practicable, and to demonstrate the -fact. - -In the same year, an invention of more than doubtful beneficence was -made, a machine for continuously making cigarettes; but this was -balanced in the same year by the inventions of the steam saw-mill and -of Portland cement. - -In the following year came an invention fully as brilliant as the -telephone, though not so useful, the phonograph. It is usually -considered as more brilliant; certainly it was more unexpected. The -idea of transmitting speech was very old, many men had worked on it, -and many were working on it at the time when Bell accomplished it; -but the idea of recording speech was almost undreamed of. Up to the -present moment, it can hardly be said that the phonograph has had great -influence on history; for its main work has been in giving pleasure by -the music it has rendered. We can easily imagine the present Machine, -without the phonograph, but not without the telephone. - -And we cannot imagine the present Machine to exist without the gas -engine, invented the same year by Dr. Otto, that made possible the -use of large units of mechanical power, without the need of boilers -or condensers or other external appliances; for the combustion of the -fuel was carried on inside the engine itself. This invention has been -followed by many others during the forty-five years that have since -gone by, in which oil has taken the place of gas. Petrol or gasolene -has been the oil (or spirit) most used; but engines of the Deisel type, -employing heavy oils, have now come into being in large numbers. - -It is easy to underestimate the influence of the gas-engine, or -oil-engine (usually called the internal combustion engine), as is -proved by the fact that most people do so; despite the evidence of its -importance on all sides, in the shape of submarine vessels, automobiles -and similar vehicles. Its most important single effect has been to -make possible the aeroplane, and all the science and art of aviation, -and the consequent conquest of the air. - -In the same year of 1877, Edison made his great invention, the carbon -telephone transmitter, which increased enormously the effect of the -voice in varying the resistance of a telephone circuit, and thereby -increased the loudness of telephone speech. In the same year, Berliner -invented the induction transmitter, which consisted of a primary coil -of small resistance in circuit with the transmitter and the secondary -coil connected to the outside circuit. These two inventions, added -to Bell's original invention, made the telephone of today--in its -essential features. - -In 1878, Edison produced his incandescent lamp, in which a carbon -filament, enclosed in a bulb exhausted of air, was heated to -incandescence by an electric current. The importance of this invention -need hardly be even mentioned. As to the originality of the conception, -there are many opinions; for several experimenters had been working in -this field, and many brilliant results had been achieved. Important as -this invention was, we can imagine the Machine to exist without it, -though not in quite so perfect and complete a form. Its main use is -its obvious use; though there can be no doubt that the improvement it -wrought in the conditions of comfortable living, and the attractions it -offered to ambitious youths enlisted a large army in the study of the -physical sciences, gave impetus to all the mechanic arts, and assisted -in many important ways the upbuilding of the Machine. - -In 1879, Appleby invented the automatic grain-binder, and Sir William -Crookes made his epochal discovery of cathode rays. This discovery, -like many others of a highly scientific character, was not of immediate -practical value; consisting as it did in the fact that if the poles -of the secondary circuit of a Rhumkorff coil were connected to the two -ends of a glass tube from which nearly all the air (or other gas) had -been exhausted, a stream of electrified particles was projected from -the cathode, or negative pole. These particles were evidently projected -with great violence; for if they struck the side of the tube, they -produced a brilliant illumination there; while if they struck a piece -of metal they developed heat. If the metal were sufficiently thin, it -was melted. Later study of these cathode rays developed the fact that -the stream of charged particles could be deflected by magnetic and -electric fields, thus showing that they had actual physical mass; and -still later studies resulted in that mass being determined, and also -the amount of the electric charges on them. To an individual particle -the name electron was given; and the interesting fact developed that -the mass of an electron is only about one-thousandth that of an atom of -hydrogen. - -This is not very exciting news to men whose time is consumed in the -engrossing occupation of earning a living; but scientific facts have -a curious habit of lurking in the background, sometimes a long while, -and then suddenly stepping up to the footlights in the form of facts -or inventions of a kind that are exceedingly important,--even from the -standpoint of making a living, or at least of enduring the conditions -of living. The study of electrons, for instance led the way to the -discovery of the beneficent X-rays, made in 1895 by Röntgen. - -The first electric railways, like the first railways of any kind, were -laid in mines; for the superiority of electricity over steam for use in -the unventilated spaces of mines was obviously greater than in the open -spaces on the surface. The first one was in the mines at Zankerode in -Germany and was constructed by the famous Siemens Brothers. The first -electric surface railway was built at Berlin in 1879. It was about -three hundred and fifty yards in length, and laid upon wooden sleepers; -an auxiliary rail being fixed midway between the two main rails. The -auxiliary rail carried the electric current, which was taken off by a -brush connected to the electric motor on the car, from which it went -to the rails that acted as the "return." The similarity between this -system and that now used in all our cities is striking, and shows how -practically and scientifically good the first electric railway was. - -To estimate correctly the influence of the invention of the electric -railway would be, of course, impossible, especially on partially -developed countries; for the electric railway assisted greatly in -developing them. It seems possible, however, that the electric -railway may be of not very long life, for the reason that the -internal-combustion-engine possesses the same great advantage of -smokelessness that the electric motor does and makes possible the use -of a much simpler system than electric railways necessitate. The fact -that any invention is displaced by a later one does not, of course, -detract from the merit of the invention displaced, in having supplied -the needed stepping-stone for the other one to rise from. - -In the same year, Foy invented the steam plow, and Lee invented his -magazine rifle. In the following year (1880) Blake invented his -telephone transmitter, an improvement of a practical character over -preceding ones, Greener invented his hammerless gun, and Faure invented -his electric storage battery. - -The Faure storage battery was a very important invention, but not -nearly so important a one as was at first supposed. It was an -improvement on Planté's battery, and consisted mainly in applying red -lead and litharge directly to the positive and negative lead plates, -before sending any charging current through the liquid; thus expediting -the making of the battery very greatly. The invention was hailed with -extravagant rejoicings, even Sir William Thomson being carried away -from his habitual equanimity; but serious practical difficulties soon -developed that are familiar to most of us, and that have never yet been -overcome. - -In 1880, Koch and Eberth isolated the typhoid bacillus, and Sternberg -the pneumonia bacillus. The importance of these two discoveries is not -usually appreciated by any but physicians and those who have suffered -from these diseases and been cured. Even those who have been saved from -having them, especially those in armies who have been saved from having -typhoid fever, fail to realize their debt. But the almost perfect -immunity from typhoid fever enjoyed by all the enormous armies of the -vast World War, compared with the frightful distress and mortality -caused by typhoid fever in previous wars, bears eloquent witness to the -influence of the great discoveries of those tireless investigators. - -It may be pointed out here that of all the inventions and discoveries -ever made, those made in medical and surgical science, especially in -preventive measures, have had more direct and immediate influence on -history than contemporary inventions in any other field, save possibly -religion. For what is history but the life-story of the human race; and -what greater influence can be had than influence upon the health of its -component members? The discoveries and inventions made in the field of -bacteriology especially, by gaining knowledge concerning the unseen and -unheard foes that attack us from within, have lifted civilized man up -to a condition of cleanliness and purity, in comparison with which the -conditions under which our forefathers lived seem almost repulsive. - -It is true that many of these conditions were outcomes of civilization -itself, and that for some of them medicine has merely found the -antidotes. Yet the fact that medicine has found antidotes shows -that medicine has been keeping pace with progress and has invented -measures for preventing the Machine from poisoning itself by a sort -of auto-intoxication. That the Machine is in danger of disruption -by outside and inside forces has been suggested frequently in this -book; so that what seems to be indicated as desirable is a series of -discoveries and inventions that will prevent it. But, in attempting -this, we must not forget that each new discovery or invention adds -another part, that safety devices are sometimes so intricate as to -increase the danger element rather than lessen or prevent it, and that -safety appliances themselves are apt to get out of order, and thus lead -to a false sense of security. These reflections force on our attention -the fallibility of the human, the necessity for continuous study of -all situations as they successively develop, and the solemn fact that -progress is not beneficial of itself; for it may be in the wrong -direction. - -One obvious fact that we have always realized, startles each one of -us occasionally; the fact that "people do not know what is good for -them." The appetites and instincts of undomesticated brutes are said to -be much more trustworthy as guides than those of domesticated brutes -and human beings. We, by cultivating our imaginations and reasoning -powers, and the brutes by being given food and shelter that they -themselves do not have to get, seem to have lost a considerable part -of the instinctive abilities with which we were originally blessed. -With human beings, many objects that most of us aim for are extremely -artificial, and some of them are extremely harmful. An illustration is -the craving for much food and little physical labor,--a craving that is -gratified almost at once by most people suddenly achieving wealth, with -consequences that are always deplorable and are frequently distressing. - -Of course this comes from excessive yielding to our appetites; but -the brutes seem to feel no temptation to excessive yielding; an -undomesticated brute seems to know when he has had enough. We not only -yield, we go further and force our appetites. Possibly this is only -an illustration of the fact that our minds have a sort of inertia, -comparable to the inertia of physical objects; so that when we move -in any direction, we are apt to go too far. That it is a tendency of -human nature to go too far in any line of conduct, when once it is -entered on, the facts of daily life continually testify. What reformer -in public or private life ever knew when to stop; what money maker ever -realized that he had enough money and ceased his efforts to get more? A -small percentage have, but only a small percentage. - -For this reason and others, the human machine and the Machine of -Civilization do not get along together as harmoniously as might be -wished. Though many inventions, especially the basic ones, have been -actually uncontrollable acts of self-expression, many others have been -inspired by motives largely selfish, such as the wish to gain fame, or -power or money (or fame _and_ power _and_ money); and the result is a -Machine that contributes more to man's material well-being than to his -moral, mental or spiritual well-being, and a consequent civilization -that is necessarily artificial. The net effect, however (unless all our -standards are wrong), has been beneficial; for it cannot truthfully -be denied that physically, mentally, morally and spiritually, the -civilized man is better than the savage, and to a degree commensurate -with the degree to which he is civilized. - -Probably most civilized men would agree to this proposition. Probably -most of them would also agree that civilization brings its evil -influences as well as its good influences, that the Machine has been -found vulnerable to destructive influences in the past, that the -ultimate effect must be judged from its influences on human beings, and -that the most beneficent inventions and discoveries have been those -that tend to the safety of the Machine itself and the spiritual, moral, -mental and physical health of the individual humans who comprise its -principal parts. They will therefore applaud such discoveries as those -of Eberth, Koch and Sternberg of 1880, and also another one of Koch and -one of Pasteur two years later. Both of these benefactors then isolated -deadly microbes of disease: Koch the bacillus of tuberculosis, and -Pasteur that of hydrophobia. - -In 1881, Reece invented a button-hole machine and Schmid a hand -photographic camera. Both of these were useful inventions if not -brilliant. It would be interesting to know the amounts of money -realized by their inventors, compared with the amounts received by -Koch, Pasteur and Sternberg. In 1884, by the way, Koch made another -epoch-making and beneficent discovery, and isolated the bacillus of -cholera. Loeffler did the same thing, in the same year for diphtheria, -and Nicolaier for lockjaw; while Kuno produced antipyrene. - -In reflecting on what these great men accomplished, it is interesting -to point out to ourselves that the consensus of opinion seems to be -that, for most people, "the pursuit of happiness" is the main business -of life. Whether this ought to be or not, should not distract our -attention from the fact that it really is. To most of us--at least -to those of us who are young--happiness seems to lie in the thing -pursued, provided the pursuit succeeds. We all seek the crock of gold -at the end of the rainbow, and imagine that if we get it, we shall -get the _summum bonum_ of everything--happiness. Yet all one has to -do is to remember how happy he was one day when he was feeling well -physically, morally, mentally and spiritually (as we all have at rare -intervals), to realize that happiness is merely a condition,--and -that it is a condition that depends more on _the condition of his own -machine than on all other things put together_. When one observes the -action of a fine trotting horse, the smooth and noiseless motion of -a large steam-engine, or the majestic setting of the sun; or when he -hears the harmonies of some great musical composer, or the grander -harmonies of the ocean-breakers on the beach; or when he ponders on the -inconceivably swift but God-like regularity of the stars and planets, -he may get a faint and brief conception of what it means for a machine -to be in order. Our human machines are rarely in this condition: but -sometimes, without any assignable cause whatever, one takes a deep, -full breath, and says, "It is good to live." - -The men just spoken of, and the great teachers of truth in all ages, in -even a higher degree, admonish us to keep our machines in order, and -tell us how to do it. - -How not to do it, the world and the flesh and the devil tell us -unceasingly; beguiling us, as the serpent beguiled Eve, to eat; to -gratify one and all the appetites of the senses, regardless of the -effect on the machine inside. For we know those senses ought to guard -our intake valves, but do not. - -Why cannot some one invent a device that will automatically regulate -our intake valves? Such an invention would prevent us from eating too -much, drinking too much, and smoking too much, and also from eating, -drinking and smoking things detrimental to the machine, and injurious -to our happiness; and even from taking in sights and sounds and -thoughts of an unhealthful kind. This might be followed by another -invention that would regulate our outgo valves, and put a brake on our -speech, our ambition, our acquisitiveness, etc. But would not these -take from us our God-granted free will? Yes, in great measure. But -such is the effect of the Machine of Civilization. The primeval savage -lived--(and the primeval savage still lives) in a condition of almost -perfect liberty, as do the beasts that perish: but in the vast Machine -of Civilization, we are only tiny parts. Each of us, it is true, has a -little freedom of motion; but it is like the "lost motion" of a loose -part in a crude or ill-constructed engine; and it seems to be growing -smaller and smaller, as the Machine grows larger and improves. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE CONQUEST OF THE ETHER--MOVING PICTURES--RISE OF JAPAN AND THE -UNITED STATES - - -In 1884, Mergenthaler invented the linotype machine, in which matrixes -for casting different type were moved successively into line, by -pressing the corresponding alphabetically marked keys on a keyboard, -and the whole line then moved to the casting mechanism and cast. This -was an invention of the most clean-cut and perfect character; following -clearly the processes of conception, development and production, and -resulting in an improvement in the art of printing of a most important -kind. Few inventions embody such a brilliant and original conception, -such excellent constructiveness and such a useful product. So perfect -was the result, and so clear was the conception that preceded it, -that one marvels that some one had not invented it before. Why make -matrixes for type, then cast the type, then space the type individually -one after the other in line, and then stereotype them as they stand -in line, when it is so much easier simply to place the matrixes in -line and then stereotype the matrixes? The influence of this invention -is of the same kind as the influence of the invention of the art of -printing from movable type, because it is an improvement in that art. -All over the world this invention, or inventions suggested by it, are -used by the newspaper and book publishers, with the result that the -quickness and accuracy of printing are much enhanced, and the work of -co-operating the parts of the Machine thereby facilitated. - -In the same year Marble increased the safety of the bicycle by his -invention of the rear-driven chain, and Schultz invented his chrome -process of tanning leather. Both of these were important in their way; -but in 1885 Cowles made a more important invention, that of reducing -(and thereby producing) the metal aluminum from its oxide, called -alumina, the chief constituent of clay. The usefulness of aluminum lies -largely in its extreme lightness, and in the fact that when combined -with certain metals, notably copper, it forms important alloys. - -During the same year, Welsbach invented his gas mantle, a valuable -contribution to gas-lighting, and Bowers invented his hydraulic dredge, -in which the act of dredging a channel or harbor was accomplished by -hydraulic power. In the same year, Van Depoele invented a practical -contact appliance for use in taking off the current from the overhead -wires of electric railways. In 1886, Bell and Tainter invented the -graphophone, an important improvement on the phonograph, and Elihu -Thompson invented electric welding. This was an epochal invention, -inaugurating as it did an entirely new art, and contributing enormously -not only to the quickness of welding, but to its accuracy and strength. -Many improvements have been made on this invention during the past few -years, that have increased its scope and value. Many articles are now -made in one piece that is really solid, though composed of several -parts: for those parts are so firmly welded together that the joints -cannot be seen and are as strong as any other parts. - -In the same year, Matteson invented his combined harvester and -thresher. In the following year, Prescott invented his band wood saw, -and McArthur and Forrest invented their process of extracting metals -(especially gold and silver) from ores by the use of a solution of -potassium cyanide, and greatly cheapened the work. In the same year, -Tesla invented his system of multi-phase electric currents, which -rendered possible the economical transmission of power over long -distances, of which the first use was made in transmitting power -derived from Niagara Falls. This was another invention of the first -order of merit in brilliancy and originality of conception, excellence -of constructiveness and usefulness of result. Its value has been only -dimly appreciated by most men, because the invention does not stand -continually before our eyes, like the telephone and electric light; for -it cannot be seen at all. It is not a machine or instrument (in the -common use of those words) but a system, actually invisible of itself, -that governs the method of design, construction and operation of the -visible dynamos, motors and conductors. Like the germ of life, we see -not it, but only its manifestations. - -In the same year, Welsbach brought out an improvement on his -incandescent gas-mantle that was valuable for cases in which a -brilliant illumination was desired, that leaped almost immediately into -public favor. In the following year of 1888, Sprague made the first -installation of street electric railways in the United States, and the -first in the world in which the conditions of operating were difficult. -The success of Sprague's system was largely due to the excellence of -Sprague's electric motor, which had the curious property of being -designed on principles which the scientific men of those days declared -to be wholly wrong. Sprague's reputation rests mainly on his electric -railway; but, from the standpoint of the inventor, Sprague's invention -of his electric motor was of a higher order than that of his electric -railway. - -In 1888, Harvey invented his process of making armor-plate. In the -same year, Eastman and Walker invented the kodak camera, in which the -novelty consisted mainly of a continuous roll of sensitized film, -on which photographs could be successively made; and De Chardonnet -invented his process of manufacturing artificial silk from threads that -were made by forcing collodion through very small holes. These were -important in fact; but in comparison with the discoveries in the realm -of the actual ether made in the same year by Hertz, they were quite -trifling. - -These discoveries resulted from experiments with electric apparatus -of the simplest and most inexpensive character, in a space near which -sparks were passing between the two terminals of a Rhumkorff coil. -It had been known before that each spark accompanied and therefore -represented an establishment of equilibrium between the two oppositely -charged terminals, and that each discharge was of an oscillatory -character--as any readjustment of equilibrium always is. By means of -a mere single wire, curved into a circle, except that the two ends -were not quite joined, Hertz discovered that the space was filled with -electric waves that were propagated in straight lines from the source -(as light is) and accompanied with vibrations at right angles to the -direction of propagation (also as light is); and also that the electric -rays were refracted, reflected and polarized, as light rays are. -Subsequent experiments with modified apparatus measured the velocity of -the propagation of electric waves, and found that it was virtually the -same as that of light. - -To some, this may not seem a very important discovery, "from a -practical standpoint"; and doubtless it is not, from the "practical -standpoint" of some people, because it does not affect the amount of -their worldly possessions, or their ease, comfort and pleasure. It -was hailed with delight by scientific men, however; because not only -did it support the electro-magnetic theory of light, but the course of -Hertz's work had demonstrated the suspected fact that the "receiver" -of electric waves must harmonize in its electric dimensions with the -transmitter, in order that the greatest amount of electric energy -may be developed in the receiver; and it had thus given assistance -to investigations then in progress on what we now call "wireless -telegraphy." - -Many investigators were now in the field, among whom was the humble -author of these pages. Little real progress was made until, in 1891, -when Branly announced his amazing discovery and utilized it in his -amazing invention, called the "coherer." His discovery was that, if a -tube containing metal filings be placed in the "field" of the spark of -an electric machine, Leyden jar, or Rhumkorff coil, it (the filings) -will become a conductor of electricity when hit by the electric waves; -and that it will revert to its normal state as a non-conductor, if -smartly tapped: the effect of the waves being to cause the separate -particles to co-here and form a continuous metal conductor; while the -effect of the tapping was to jar the particles apart. The first use -of this coherer was in place of the ring that Hertz had used; but its -value as an instrument of practical usefulness in achieving electric -communication without wires was almost immediately perceived--and -demonstrated. - -The career of the wireless telegraph since Branly's great discovery -has been as rapid, widespread and important as any other new agency -has ever enjoyed, and possibly more so. That wireless telegraphy was a -distinct invention may perhaps be questioned. If it was, who was the -inventor? It is true that an invention does not have to be associated -with any one inventor in order to have the right to be characterized -as an invention; but in the case of the wireless telegraph, it seems -safe to say that, although some of the separate steps toward its -achievement were inventions, the final step was merely the adding -together of these separate steps in a way that was perfectly obvious, -and that several men accomplished almost simultaneously. As soon as -Branly produced his coherer, the problem was thereby automatically -solved. Every experimenter realized that it was merely necessary to -use Branly's coherer, in place of any receiver previously used, and to -"tune" the transmitting and receiving circuits into harmony. - -The first man to make a practical wireless installation seems to have -been Marconi, in 1896. As is well known, the distances over which -messages can be sent has been increasing rapidly ever since, and so has -been the number and the importance of the organizations using it, of -which the largest are the various national governments themselves. The -vast influence of wireless (or radio) telegraphy on the history of the -great World War is too recent to need detailing, but possibly it may -be well to call to mind the fact that the ocean cables were virtually -all under the control of the Allies, and that "the wireless" was almost -the only means that Germany had for receiving information quickly and -sending instructions quickly beyond her own coast line. It was used by -the Allies, however, almost continually in the controlling of their -multitudinous naval units on the sea, and among those units themselves; -and it made possible that prompt and harmonious action among numerous -widely separated groups, that distinguished this war from all preceding -wars. It would be difficult to determine whether the wireless -lengthened the war by the assistance it gave to Germany, or shortened -it by the assistance it rendered the Allies. In the early part of the -war, when Germany was directing ships that were far away, it helped -Germany more than it helped the Allies; but in the last years, when -the Allies were fighting the submarines in the Mediterranean and North -Seas, it helped the Allies more. In the main, it probably shortened the -war considerably, by accelerating the operations. - -This reminds us of the fact that the general effect of invention -has been to make wars more terrible but more brief; and that the -abbreviating effect is especially noticeable in inventions that -increase the speed and safety of transportation and communication. -Another effect of invention has been to make wars more widespread; for -the reason that it links some nations together and creates antagonism -between other nations, even if they are far apart. Larger and larger -organizations are thus brought into being, not only as nations but -as allies and confederates. In this way, Japan fought in Asia, in -co-operation with her allies in France. - -On the supposition that the Machine is going to continue to increase -in size and strength and excellence, on the further supposition that -the more highly civilized nations will continue to control the less -civilized nations increasingly, the time may not be many generations -distant when all the nations of the world will be divided into a very -few groups, each dominated by one great nation; as the Middle Europe -nations were dominated by Germany in the last war. As all the known -world was once divided into two groups headed by Assyria and Babylon; -at another time by Assyria and Persia; at another time by Greece and -Persia; at another by Rome and Carthage, etc., and as at various times -Europe also has been divided into two opposing groups of nations, so -the whole known world may again be divided into two opposing groups of -nations:--possibly the white and the yellow nations. - -The clash of the fighting machines of two such vast organizations, -perfected in power and speed as they doubtless will be as the years go -by and inventions succeed each other, will surpass in grandeur anything -yet dreamed of. It may never occur. _Never?_ It may never occur; but -something approximating it will occur, if history is to be as much like -past history as history usually has been. - -In 1889, Schneider invented his process of making nickel steel, and -thereby effected an improvement in steel that was first utilized in -making armor, and afterward in making other articles of many kinds. -Hall invented a process of making aluminum during the same year. In the -following year, Stephens invented his electric plough, and Mergenthaler -made an improvement on his linotype machine. About the same time, -pneumatic tires were attached to bicycles; and an invention of a most -important kind, that had lain dormant for many years, was put to work -at last. The inventor had long since died. Does he know that his -invention is now used all over the civilized world? If so, does the -knowledge give him pleasure? - -One of the most unsatisfactory parts of an inventor's experience is the -difficulty he has in making other men see the value of his inventions, -combined with the fact that when the invention is finally adopted, his -part in it is often forgotten, and sometimes intentionally ignored. -This applies especially to inventions of a high order of originality, -that are a little in advance of the requirements and knowledge of most -men at the time, and that are looked upon as visionary and do not -come into use for a considerable while. Many an inventor has endured -a purgatory while trying to get a hearing for his invention, and yet -been wholly forgotten when it was finally adopted. To make the matter -worse, he has often been branded for life as a visionary, and remained -so branded, even after the invention had been adopted because of which -he had been branded. In other cases, manufacturers have stolen his -invention and denied his claims, knowing that he was too poor to fight -against them with all of their resources. In other cases, business men -and lawyers have combined to induce him to sign papers of a highly -advantageous character to the business men, but contrariwise to the -inventor. In all of these cases, the matter has usually been the worse -for the inventor in proportion to the high order of the invention: for -the real inventor, like the real artist, is usually so absorbed in his -thoughts that he cares but little (too little) for material gain. The -case of the inventor who makes a business of inventing is somewhat -different. He usually confines his efforts to making inventions that -will bring in money, becomes an expert on nice points in patent law, -discerns chances for circumventing existing patents while utilizing -their basic principles, perceives opportunities for making the little -improvements in detail that promote practicability, and becomes the -kind of inventor who owns a limousine. - -In 1890, Krag-Jorgensen invented the famous rifle of that name. In the -following year, Branly invented the coherer mentioned on page 305, and -Parsons invented his rotary steam turbine. The steam turbine was an -improvement over the reciprocating steam engine for many classes of -work, great and small. The first steam engine invented by Hero was a -rotary engine, but it was of course, most uneconomical of steam. The -first steam engine that was really efficient was the reciprocating -engine produced by Watt. The greatest single defect of rotary engines -has always been the loss of steam in going by the rotating parts -without doing any work, a defect existing in only a small degree with -the closely fitting pistons of reciprocating engines. In the turbines -invented by Parsons and others about the same time, wastage of steam -was prevented by various means that need not be detailed here, and -smooth motion of the rotary engine at the same time secured. The -greatest benefit accrued probably to ocean steamships, in which the -absence of vibration, and the saving in weight, space and number of -attendants required were features of great practical importance. - -About 1890, Edison invented the kinetograph and kinetoscope, after -a long series of investigations and experiments. These followed the -experiments made by Dr. Muybridge some years before, in which he had -taken many successive pictures of horses at very short intervals, by -means of as many separate cameras, (twelve pictures in one stride -for instance), and afterwards reproduced them in such a way as to -show horses in rapid motion. They came also after Eastman's kodak, -in which pictures could be taken successively, on a traveling film. -In the kinetograph, only one object glass was used; and the film was -drawn along behind it in such a way that, at predetermined intervals, -the film was stopped and a shutter behind the object glass or lens -was moved away, and a picture taken. The moving mechanism (at first -the human hand) continuing in motion, the shutter was closed and the -film was moved along a short distance, so as to bring another part -behind the object glass. Then the same operation was repeated--and -so on. In the kinetoscope, the operation was reversed, in the sense -that the pictures taken were presented successively to the eye of the -observer. In the first form, the observer looked at them through a -peep-hole: but in the latter forms, the pictures have been thrown upon -a screen--somewhat as from a magic lantern, and become the "movie" of -today. - -Here, again, we see an invention of the highest order in each of -the three essentials--conception, development and production. No -invention exists of a higher order. As to their use and usefulness, -we are most familiar with them in moving pictures. Whether it is for -the public good to produce so many shows for idly disposed men and -women to spend their time in looking at, is perhaps a possible subject -for enlightening discussion. But the moving picture is used for many -purposes, especially for purposes of education and research, besides -that of mere amusement, and will unquestionably be so used, more and -more as time goes on. One of its most obvious spheres of usefulness -is in making photographs of movements that are very rapid, and then -analyzing and inspecting those photographs when presented very slowly, -and when stopped. Another is in taking photographs of successive -situations that have occurred at considerable intervals of time, and -then presenting the pictures quickly, and thus showing a connected -story. By dealing in this way with historical incidents, we can get -a realization of the interdependence of those incidents that we -cannot get in any other way, and see how cause has produced effects, -and effects have come from causes. Similarly, the work of building -any large structure can be shown by presenting rapidly a series of -photographs taken at different stages; and so can the growth of a plant -or animal, and almost any kind of progress. - -Let us impress on our minds the fact that if we read any book, or -witness any occurrence, or listen to any argument, or receive any -instruction of any kind, the only value comes to us from the pictures -made on our mental retinas and the permanence and clearness of the -records impressed. Thus, any means that can impress us quickly with -the most important pictures must be of the highest practical value, -both in prosecuting studies of events, and in gathering conclusions -from them. In fact, the kinetograph and the kinetoscope are simply -Edison's imitation of the operations carried on inside the skull of -each of us; for we are continually taking moving pictures of what -we see and hear and read and feel; recording them on our own moving -sensitized films, and bringing them before our mental gaze at our own -volition and sometimes in spite of it. - -In 1890, the author of this book patented "A Method of Pointing Guns -at Sea" that has been adopted in all the great navies, under the name -"Gun Director System." In 1891 he patented a modification under the -name "Telescopic Sight for Ships Guns." These two inventions are used -in every navy in the world, have increased the effectiveness of naval -gunnery immeasurably, and have, therefore, been important contributions -to the self-protectiveness of the Machine. - -In 1893, Acheson invented his process for making carborundum, a -compound of carbon and silicon, made in the electric furnace, and -used for abrasive purposes; and in the same year Willson made carbide -of calcium from carbon and quick-lime, also in the electric furnace. -In 1895, Linde invented his process of liquefying air, and the first -installation of great electric locomotives was effected: this was in -the Baltimore and Ohio tunnel. In the same year, Röntgen made the -epochal discovery of what he called by the significant name "X-rays," a -name that still clings to them. - -They were discovered by Röntgen in the course of his researches with -cathode rays. His discovery was in effect that electric rays emanated -from the part of the tube struck by the cathode rays. They were not -cathode rays, though produced by them, and had the amazing property -of penetrating certain insulating substances, such as ebonite, paper, -etc., while not penetrating metals, except through short distances. -Unlike the cathode rays, they were not deflected by magnets; and -neither did they seem to be reflected or refracted similarly. Their -most important property was that of acting photographically on -sensitized plates, even when in closed slides, and wrapped carefully in -black paper. - -The greatest usefulness of the X-rays thus far made has been in -photographing internal parts of the human body; for the rays pass -through certain parts less readily than through other parts; through -bones for instance, less readily than through soft parts. Fractures -or displacements of bones can therefore be readily detected. So also -can the formation of pus in cavities, and the appearance of abnormal -products of many kinds. To this discovery we must give a rank as -high as almost any other that we have noted in this book, though we -cannot tell, of course, how long it will hold it. With mechanical and -scientific inventions, as with books and poems and inventions of other -kinds, the question of permanence of value or of usefulness cannot be -decided until after many years. - -One of the curious properties of X-rays is that of rendering the air -through which they pass a conductor of electricity. So far as the -author is aware, no invention of practical usefulness has yet been -made, based upon this property. - -In 1896, Marconi brought out the first practically successful system -of wireless telegraphy, Finsen demonstrated the usefulness of certain -rays of the spectrum for treating certain skin diseases, and Becquerel -discovered what have since been called the Becquerel rays. In -experimenting with X-ray photography, he found that a sensitized plate, -though covered with black paper, was acted on not only by X-rays, but -also by the metal uranium and certain of its salts; and he also found -that the mere presence of uranium made the contiguous air a conductor, -as did the X-or Röntgen rays. The amazement caused by the discovery of -such undreamed-of properties, especially in so commonplace a substance -as uranium had been supposed to be, can easily be imagined; and it is -plain why strenuous efforts were made at once by scientific people, -to see if other substances did not possess those properties also. As -a result, it was soon found that other bodies did possess them. To -those bodies that seem to possess the quality of radiating activities -of certain kinds, the adjective _radio-active_ has been applied. The -most important radio-active elements are uranium, thorium and radium, -of which the last is immeasurably the most active and important. -Radium was discovered in 1898 by M. and Madame Curie and M. Bémont, -while experimenting with the uranium mineral pitchblende. It seemed to -some people at the time to challenge the theory of the conservation -of energy, and to threaten the destruction of the whole science of -Physics, by emanating energy without loss to itself. It has since been -found, of course, that radium does give up part of its substance; that -it disintegrates in fact, as a result of its emanations. - -How great an influence the discovery of radium is going to exert, it -is now impossible to predict with confidence; but it is manifest that -the three successive and allied discoveries of cathode rays, X-rays -and radium have introduced a new and growing science into the Machine; -and it is seemingly possible that that science may, soon or tardily, -ascertain the nature of the atom, and even teach us to divide it. -It seems that an atom of radium does actually disintegrate, and by -disintegrating give out energy. The energy it gives out is so enormous -in proportion to the mass which gives it out, as to suggest to us an -almost infinite source of available power, if other substances can be -made to disintegrate. It is said that one gramme of radium can emit -a quantity of heat of about 100 calories per hour; that is enough -heat to raise 100 grammes of water a 1° centigrade in temperature, -_by simply existing_. It is true that radium is the most expensive -article in the world; but that is only because of the difficulties of -obtaining it at present. Now if radium is so potentially powerful and -disintegrates so easily, it seems possible that other substances less -easily disintegrable could emit greater energy, if (or when) a means is -discovered for disintegrating them. - -The interesting question now suggests itself of what would happen -if some man should some day discover accidentally a means of -disintegrating--say carbon--and should unintentionally disintegrate -a few tons of coal in Wall Street. We know what has happened at -times when piles of explosives have been accidentally detonated. But -explosives are merely chemical compounds, and, compared to atoms of -radium are relatively microscopic in the energy developed when broken -up. We remember the story of the commotion caused by the monk's -experiment in making powder, when the mixture exploded and hurled the -pestle out of the mortar and across the room. Imagine a few tons of -carbon atoms exploding. - -In 1894 a war, long presaged, broke out between China and Japan. In -1854, when Commodore Perry went to Japan, and gave a virtual ultimatum -that resulted in Japan's opening her seaports to the commerce of the -world, China and Japan were on the same plane of civilization, though -China was many times greater in area and population. But the people -of Japan were different from those of China in the essential mental -characteristic of imagination,--at least their rulers were. For those -rulers, noting the superior power of the foreign war-ships as compared -with theirs, and reasoning from this to the conditions of the countries -that produced those war-ships, and that produced also the implements of -war on board that were so much superior to the Japanese, made a mental -picture of what would happen to Japan some day, when those war-ships -should come to Japan and demand submission. To make such a picture did -not require much imagination, maybe; but the fact seems to be that no -other Asiatic nation, and no African nation, made it. Then the Japanese -made another picture, that required imagination of a brilliant kind; -and that was a picture of Japan learning the arts of the foreign devil, -and then utilizing those arts to keep the foreign devil himself at bay. - -To us, looking back on the perfectly clear record of performance -that Japan has made since then, that performance may seem not very -difficult either to attempt or to achieve. But no other nation in the -history of the world has ever paralleled it, or even approximated -it. To appreciate it, one must exert all the imagination of which he -is capable, and see himself in Japan as Japan was in 1854, amid all -the influences of the history and environment then prevailing, with -all their accompaniments of ignorance, prejudice, inertia and racial -pride. It is the consensus of opinion throughout the world that the -performance of Japan since 1854 has been amazing. It is part of the -humble effort of this book to show that, in all great achievements, the -result should be attributed mainly to the estimate originally formed of -the situation, and the decision (invention) made to meet it. "C'est le -_premier_ pas qui coute": the rest follow as results. - -The war between China and Japan, and in greater degree the result of -that war, give clear and impressive demonstrations of the influence of -invention on history; because the victors were victors simply because -they had taken advantage of the inventions made in Europe and America. -There was no marked difference physically in favor of the Japanese. -Whether there was morally, we have no means of judging. Was there a -difference mentally? We have an excellent means of judging this,--the -fact that the Japanese had made a correct estimate of the situation and -come to a correct decision, while the Chinese had not. - -In the war that occurred ten years later, between Japan and Russia, the -influence of invention was even more clear and striking, for the reason -that Japan was a virtually semi-barbarous country in 1854, while Russia -was one of the five great powers of civilization and Christendom; and -yet in exactly fifty years, Japan demonstrated her equality with Russia -in the decisive court of war on land, and beat her ignominiously in the -equally decisive court of war on sea. - -Why? Because during that fifty years Japan had availed herself of the -aid of invention more than Russia had done; with the result that when -they went before the supreme tribunal, Japan had better methods, better -equipment, better plans, better soldiers, better ships, better _tout -ensemble_. The most important single item was the naval telescope sight -invented by the author. That was the cause of the immeasurably superior -gunnery of the Japanese at the decisive naval battle of Tsushima. - -Concerning Japan's war with China in 1894, the same truths may be -uttered, though not with quite so much emphasis; for the results had -not been so startling. Both wars demonstrate the same principles, -though in unequal degrees of convincingness. Both wars show that -the influence of invention has been to build up a Machine which is -powerful not only for peace but for war; to assist those nations the -most that avail themselves of it with the greatest skill and energy, -and therefore to spur ambitious and far-seeing people to the study of -whatever knowledge the world affords. The study most clearly indicated -is that of the resources of physics and chemistry, and the experiences -recorded in history. - -In 1897, Henry A. Wise Wood invented the autoplate, a machine for -making printing plates previously made by hand, which multiplied -fourfold the reproduction of the type page in printing plates. This -invention facilitated and cheapened the cost of printing, and was -therefore a valuable addition to the Machine. - -In 1898 a war, giving us lessons similar to those of the Japanese wars, -broke out between the United States and Spain. The disproportion of -material resources was great, and was in favor of the United States. -Yet in the early part of the sixteenth century, Spain had been esteemed -by many to be the greatest of all the powers, while the territory later -held by the United States was the wild domain of savages. Why had Spain -fallen so far below a country so new, living three thousand miles away -from the civilization of Europe? Because she had lost her vision; -because she had become infected with the disease of sordidness which -quickly-gotten wealth, especially ill-gotten wealth, has often brought -to nations; because she had ceased to encourage such bright visions as -she had encouraged in the days of Columbus and Magellan, and settled -down in the torpor of unimaginativeness. The United States, on the -other hand, had been seeing such visions and following them to learn -what lay beyond; and had been embodying all that could be embodied in -practical projects and machines and methods and instrumentalities of -all kinds. The United States had been taking all possible advantage of -the potentialities of invention, but Spain had not. - -An important result of this war was the proof, and its utilization on -a large scale in Cuba and other Spanish-American countries, that the -mosquito is a carrier of the infections of yellow fever and many other -diseases. - -Hardly had this war finished, when a war broke out in 1899 between -Great Britain and the Boer Republic in South Africa. It is an evidence -of the important influence of invention that it was possible for Great -Britain to wage effective war so far away, and finally to triumph. She -triumphed mainly because of the superior power of her military machine; -but she had been able to construct and to improve it continually by -her persistent utilization of the possibilities of invention. The -possibilities that she had utilized became especially conspicuous when -the necessity came for transporting the necessary troops and guns and -munitions and supplies over the vast ocean spaces intervening, and -for handling them on a foreign soil; under conditions very novel, and -against a wary and yet skilfull and aggressive foe. - -This war had not closed when the Boxer rebellion broke out in China, -and a lesson even more clearly marked was given to the world. For -the Chinese Government was perhaps the oldest in the world and the -Chinese nation the most numerous. The revolt grew out of a series of -aggressions by certain European powers, especially Great Britain, -Germany, France and Russia, that consisted in virtually appropriating -under various pretexts, certain important positions and valuable pieces -of territory in China. Because of the fact that China had lost her -vision, and had not even been stimulated to realizing facts by the -example of Japan, China was at this time an incoherent aggregation of -separate states and organizations; though she was supposed to be a -coherent nation, under the emperor in Pekin. Because of a lack of such -a nervous system as was given to each civilized nation by its railways, -mails, newspapers, telegraphs and telephones, China was a soft and -almost amorphous mass; with no definite purpose and no strength, either -external or internal. China was not a machine in any proper sense of -the word, and was therefore incapable of any action of an effective -kind. The result was that, although the cause of the Boxers was not -only just but laudable, the whole movement resulted in a series of -pitiful atrocities committed by the Boxers in Pekin, followed by a -forced entry into that ancient capital by a few thousand troops from -the principal civilized nations, and a quick and complete suppression -of the entire revolt. - -There, in Pekin, in the closing days of the year 1900, could be seen, -in two contrasting groups, peoples representing the highly organized -and effective Machine of Civilization on one side and its crude and -ineffective predecessor on the other side. What was the cause of the -enormous difference between the groups? In physical strength and size -and courage, little difference if any was observable;--yet one went -down before the other, like tenpins before a bowling ball. Some may say -that the difference was due to the difference in race. Yet the Japanese -were of the same race as the Chinese, and the Japanese troops were -as markedly superior to the Chinese as were the troops of any other -nation: in fact, it was the consensus of opinion that the Japanese -troops were superior to all the others, except the German. Some may -say it was because of the difference in religions. Yet the Japanese -were of virtually the same religion as the Chinese. Of course, the -paramount difference was in the degree of civilization. What was this -difference in civilization due to? Clearly, it was due to numberless -causes; but there seem to be two causes more important than the others: -a difference in attitude toward the possibilities of invention, and a -difference in what has been called "the fighting spirit." - -But the fighting spirit and a receptive attitude toward invention are -usually found together, though the fighting spirit may sometimes lie -dormant in inventive and enterprising people; may lie dormant, even -for considerable periods, when conditions are peaceful, and prosperity -prevails. But Achilles--(so the legend runs)--dwelt at one time in -hiding, dressed in woman's garb, quiet and unsuspected. Yet when -suddenly the bugle rang, he grasped the sword and shield. So, in 1914, -and for some years before, Great Britain, the United States and France -slumbered under the narcotic spell of pacifism; yet when suddenly -the German War Machine advanced upon them, each nation and all three -nations together rose in quick and yet majestic armed reply, and proved -their fighting spirit was not dead, although it had been sleeping. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE FRUITION OF INVENTION - - -The twentieth century was the fruition of all that invention had -achieved during the ages of the past. When it opened, the world was a -world far different from what it had been, even in times not long gone -by. It was far different from the world of 1850, or even 1875; for many -inventions had been made and utilized during the passing years. - -The last quarter of the nineteenth century, the interval between 1875 -and 1900, has been called the "industrial age," because of the great -advances made in all industrial appliances, and the consequent advance -made in the size and wealth and power of industrial organizations of -all kinds. In especial, the organizations dealing with systems of -transportation and communication, and with manufacturing the many -appliances needed by them had expanded greatly. Other organizations -had expanded also; for the improvement and extension of the means of -transportation and communication rendered possible the existence and -successful operation of organization in many branches of effort, to -a degree impossible before. Cities grew in area and population; the -buildings in size and especially in height; railroads increased in -number, length of route and speed of travel; locomotives and cars -grew commensurately; colleges, hospitals, churches, clubs, scientific -bodies, benevolent societies--all seemed to take a start about 1875 and -to grow at increasing speed, as year succeeded year. But the greatest -single advance was made in ocean transportation; for the sea, by the -year 1900, had become a plane across which steamers moved with a speed -and a certainty and a safety, rivaling that of railway trains on land. - -The factors most immediately and importantly to be credited with all -these advances were the improvements in the steam engine, the electric -telegraph, and the manufacture of steel; also the invention of the -dynamo-electric machine, the electric light and the telephone. These -factors had given such power and certainty and speed to the Machine of -Civilization that the nations which joined it and became contributory -parts of it, advanced rapidly in prosperity and wealth, both actually -and also relatively, as compared with nations that did not. - -In the year 1900, the great nations of the world were Great Britain, -France, Germany, the United States and Japan. Of these Japan had -advanced the most in civilization during the preceding half century, -then the United States, then Germany, then Great Britain, and then -France. The nation that had increased the most in territorial extent -was Great Britain. In 1900, the British Empire, including India, -covered about one-fourth of the whole surface of the earth. It -comprised, besides Great Britain and Ireland, five self-governing -colonies, the Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, the -Union of South Africa, New Foundland and New Zealand, in addition to -the 1,800,000 square miles of British India and her three hundred -million people. France had "expanded" in both Africa and Asia; that is, -she had conquered territory in those partially civilized continents. -Germany had done similarly; and Russia had subjugated the nomadic and -semi-nomadic tribes of Central Asia. The United States had taken only -a little territory, that included in the Philippines and Porto Rico; -for she had expanded her constructive energy and skill in developing -the vast and fertile area within her own boundaries. Japan had expanded -only slightly in actual territory; the exercise of her constructive -talents being urgently required at home. - -It may be declared that invention should not be credited with any of -this expansion, for the reasons that to increase one's possessions is -an instinct of human nature, and that the colonization of savage and -barbarous lands has been a favorite activity with great nations always. -True: but the inventions enumerated in this book, and the agencies -which they supplied for going quickly, surely and safely to places far -away; of taking to those places certain tools of conquest, such as guns -and powder; and of supplying afterward to the conquered people finer -conveniences of living, juster laws and better government of every -kind, have been the effective means to an end that could not have been -attained without them. - -It may be objected that the principal factors in all of these -achievements have been omitted, the commercial enterprise of the -merchants, the farseeing wisdom of the statesmen, the valor and skill -of the strategists, and (back of all) the courage and enterprise -of the original explorers. That these have been omitted, is true; -for the reason that this discussion is intended to point out only -what invention has done. It is obvious that the main incentive of -colonization has been commercial gain, and that the initiators of -colonization schemes have usually been merchants. It is equally obvious -that the statesmen are to be credited with the framing and execution -of the measures needed to make any colonization scheme effective; and -it is equally obvious that strategists and explorers did work without -which no expansion whatever would have been possible. Nevertheless, it -must be clear that the essential difference between the conquerors and -the conquered, by reason of which the uncivilized were conquered by -the civilized, lay in the aids which civilization had supplied to the -civilized. Colonization and conquest have been going on ever since the -beginning of recorded history and before; but from the days of Thutmose -III in ancient Egypt until now, the conqueror and the colonizer have -in almost every case been more civilized than were their victims. It -is true also that savages have sometimes overrun civilized countries, -and even conquered them, for Alaric captured even Rome: but up to the -present time, the fruits of such conquests have not been permanent, -whereas the fruits of colonization have been. - -In 1900, then, the Machine of Civilization was in operation in all -parts of the world; in the dark continent of Africa, the deserts of -Asia, the wild regions of Australia, and even on the ocean. In fact, -it was on the ocean that the Machine was operating with the most -efficiency and effectiveness; for nowhere else are the power and the -harmony of machinery of all kinds, inert and human, seen in such -perfection as in great steamships on the sea. - -We seem safe in concluding, therefore, that while invention was only -one of many factors in bringing about the world-wide conditions -that prevailed in 1900, invention was the initiating factor. It was -invention that suggested to the explorer that he explore; to the -merchant that he launch his enterprise; to the statesman that he -encourage the merchant and assist him with wise laws; to the strategist -that he make such and such plans, to meet the emergencies that arose. -Finally, it was invention that made possible the actual transportation -of explorers and merchants and troops to designated spots, and made -successful the operations which ensued there. - -But the Machine still continued growing. In 1900 Hewitt invented his -beautiful mercury-vapor electric light, and in 1901 Santos-Dumont -invented his air-ship and demonstrated its practicability by going -around the Eiffel Tower in Paris in it and returning to the spot from -which he started. This feat began that great succession of feats with -dirigible balloons with which we are so familiar now, and which promise -to be succeeded by a condition of world-wide transportation through the -air. - -In 1900, the author of this book patented the method of controlling the -movements of vessels, which consists in using radio telegraphy. This -invention has recently been brought to the stage of practicality by the -United States Navy. It was utilized in July, 1921, for steering the -Iowa when bombed by airplanes. - -In 1903 came the first successful flight by aeroplane, which was -made by the brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright at Kitty Hawk, North -Carolina. This was an epochal adventure; it inaugurated an age which is -already called the Aerial Age, and which will bring about changes so -vast that our imagination cannot picture them. - -An interesting and instructive fact connected with this flight, -and with the aeroplane in general, is that the aeroplane was -not practicable and could not be made practicable before the -internal-combustion engine had been invented and developed; because -all preceding engines had been too heavy. This illustrates the -fact occasionally adverted to in this book, that one of the most -important factors in the influence of invention is that each new -invention facilitates later inventions. _The influence of invention is -cumulative._ - -In 1905, Elmer Sperry invented his gyroscopic compass which is -unaffected by terrestrial magnetism and points to the true north. In -1907, he invented his gyroscopic stabilizer which reduces greatly the -rolling of ships, aeroplanes, etc. - -Meanwhile, the endeavor to accomplish photography in color had been -receiving persistent attention from many scientific experimenters, but -without much practical success. The achievements of Becquerel, Lippman, -Joly, Lumière, Finlay and others have doubtless laid the initial -stepping stones; for color-photography by their efforts has been made -an accomplished fact. As yet, however, the art is still in its infancy, -and has not, therefore, reached the stage of maturity that enables us -to estimate what importance it will eventually assume. - -In 1908 Goldschmidt invented the thermit process of welding; thermit -being a mixture of aluminum with some metallic oxide such as oxide of -iron. When this mixture is ignited, the oxygen leaves the iron and -unites with the aluminum, causing an enormous rise of temperature, and -the consequent formation of molten iron. This molten mass being poured -around the ends of two pieces of iron, welds them together at once. In -the following year, Hiram Maxim invented his silencer for fire arms, -by means of which the noise resulting from firing a gun is greatly -lessened. How valuable a contribution this will be to the Machine, it -is impossible at the moment to predict with confidence. - -In 1910, Henry A. Wise Wood invented his printing press that more than -doubled the speed of printing, produced a thousand newspapers of the -largest size per minute, and directly enhanced the solidarity of the -Machine. - -In 1911 Glenn Curtiss produced his epochal flying-boat, Just and -Hanaman invented the tungsten electric light, and Drager his pulmotor, -for reviving persons who have been asphyxiated or partially drowned, -by forcing oxygen into their lungs. The pulmotor has come into use -to a surprising degree, and has already been established as a part -of the Machine with a recognized value. It belongs in the class of -remedial agents, about which nobody questions the beneficence, and for -which everyone recognizes the debt of gratitude owed by mankind to the -inventors. - -In 1912, the author of this book invented the torpedoplane, a simple -combination of the automobile-torpedo with the aeroplane, so designed -that an aeroplane can carry a torpedo to a predetermined point near -an enemy's ship and then drop it, while simultaneously operating the -torpedo's starting mechanism: so that the torpedo will fall into the -water, and then continue under its own power toward its victim. As -the torpedoplane combines the most powerful weapon with the swiftest -means of transportation, many Navy officers think it an invention -of the first rank of importance, that threatens to wipe all surface -fighting vessels off the seas. During the World War, it played only a -subordinate part, though it was used effectively by the British and the -Germans. Our Navy did not use it at all, as Secretary Daniels rejected -it. The British Navy has already adopted it as a major instrument of -war, and constructed two especially designed fast vessels, each of -which carries twenty torpedoplanes. It seems obvious that such a ship, -if sufficiently fast to keep out of the range of a battleship's guns, -could sink her without much trouble. - -In the same year Flexner discovered his antitoxin for cerebro-spinal -meningitis, and Edison invented the kinetophone, a combination of the -phonograph and the kinetoscope. As yet, this has not been made to work -with such complete success as to warrant its introduction into use. The -probabilities seem to be that someone will eventually supply the link -that is evidently necessary, and make the voice and the picture on the -screen cooperate in unison as they should. Two years later, Flexner -isolated the bacillus of infantile paralysis and Plotz that of typhus -fever. - -The World War that broke out in August, 1914, was marked with far -greater utilization of new inventions than had marked any war before, -and foreshadowed even greater utilization of new inventions in the next -war. - -The first evidence of any new appliance was a rain of heavy projectiles -on the tops of the Belgian forts; the forts having been designed to -resist projectiles on their sides. The projectiles, it was discovered -later, came from mortars of a kind the existence of which had not -been suspected. Soon after, the German submarines showed qualities of -endurance and radius of action that bespoke new appliances; and then -came attacks on the Allied troops with poison-gas that almost were -successful. The Allies replied with new inventions, especially in -wireless telegraphy and telephony, mines, "depth-bombs" and "listening -devices;" the latter being employed under water to detect the movements -of submarines. Many other inventions were almost on the point of -practicality when the Armistice was signed, but were not quite ready; -showing what had often been shown before, that inventions for use in -war, like all other preparations for war, should be complete ready for -use, before the war begins. - -As soon as the war broke out in Europe, the present author began to -urge that the United States develop naval and military aeronautics -to the utmost; in order that, when we should finally enter into the -war, we should have available a large force of bombing aeroplanes -and torpedoplanes. When we finally entered into the war, in April, -1917, he urged continually that we develop a great aeronautical force -and send it to Europe to prevent the exit of German submarines from -their bases, to destroy those bases and to sink the ships of the -German fleet. These suggestions were rejected by Secretary Daniels as -impracticable; but subsequent developments have proved that they were -thoroughly practicable; in fact, an expedition was organized in England -to carry them out, when the Armistice was signed. - -It is interesting to consider what would have been the effect on the -war (and, therefore, on all subsequent history) if the United States -had sent a large force of bombing aeroplanes and torpedoplanes to -Europe shortly after we entered the war in the Spring of 1917. This we -easily could have done, if we had started to get them ready, when the -suggestion was first made; or even at a considerable time thereafter. -Certainly, the war would have been greatly shortened, and much -suffering averted. - -The inventions and discoveries made since the Great War began, though -some are evidently important, are so recent that we cannot state with -any confidence what their effect will be; and for this reason the -author craves permission to close his brief story at this point. - - * * * * * - -A noteworthy fact observable in the history of invention is that it has -been confined almost wholly to Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, China, Persia, -Greece, Italy, Germany, France, Great Britain, and the United States, -and to a few men in those countries. Now it is in those countries that -the highest degree of civilization has been developed, and _it is from -them that other nations have drawn theirs_. The almost total absence of -invention in women is more noteworthy still; for Mrs. Eddy and Madame -Curie seem to be the only women who have contributed really original -and important work. - -Another noteworthy fact is that the idea-germs from which all -inventions have been developed have been very few and very tiny. But -what a numerous and important progeny has been brought forth; and how -wholly impossible civilization would be now, had it not been for a -few basic inventions and certain improvements made upon them! We can -realize this, if we try to imagine the effect of removing a single one -of the basic inventions (and even of certain derived inventions) from -the Machine of Civilization. - -Try to imagine what would happen if the invented art of--say -writing--for instance were suddenly lost. Would not the whole civilized -world be thrown into chaos as soon as the fact were realized? A like -disorder would be occasioned, though possibly not so quickly, if men -should suddenly forget how to print, or even how to use the telegraph, -telephone or the comparatively unimportant typewriter. Try to imagine -what would happen in even one city,--say New York--if the typewriter -were suddenly to be withdrawn! Would not all the business of New York -be paralyzed in a single day? Or fancy that all the machines for making -and utilizing electricity for supplying light and power should suddenly -become inoperative. Would there not be a panic within twenty-four hours -or less? Fancy that all the elevators should have to stop. Imagine what -would happen if the steam engine should suddenly cease to operate, and -all the steamships and railroad trains should stop, and the countless -wheels of industry that are turned directly or indirectly by steam -should cease to turn. Imagine that gunpowder should cease to function, -and that savages could meet modern armies on equal terms. - -Some one may declare that this line of argument does not prove as -much as it seems to prove regarding the influence of invention, for -the reason that it includes a sudden change, and that every sudden -change produces results which are caused merely by the suddenness of -the change. So let us grant this, and then imagine that the changes -suggested would not take place suddenly, but very slowly. Imagine, for -instance, that we should discover that the various inventions noted in -this book were gradually to cease to operate, but that they would not -cease altogether for twenty years, or even forty. _Is it not certain -that the human race would revert to savagery, after those inventions -had ceased to operate?_ - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -THE MACHINE OF CIVILIZATION, AND THE DANGEROUS IGNORANCE CONCERNING IT, -SHOWN BY STATESMEN - - -The originating work of inventors of all kinds, and the assistance -rendered by countless wise and good men and women, have built up a -Machine of Civilization that is surpassingly wonderful and fine. - -To keep the great Machine in order and to handle it, large numbers of -men have been educated in specialties pertaining to its various parts. -The first men were probably the warriors, who defended whatever little -Machines the various tribes had built up, in their little villages -and towns. Next, probably, came the kings or rulers who commanded -the warriors; and then, the priests who inculcated in the people the -various virtues, such as loyalty, courage, honesty, etc., that tended -toward the discipline of the individual and the consequent solidarity -of the tribe. Probably agriculturists came next, who tilled the -soil; and then came the inventors, who assisted the warriors and the -agriculturalists by devising implements to help them do their work. -It seems probable that the artisans came next; and that it was by the -co-operative working of them with the inventors, that the conceptions -of the inventors were embodied in implements of practical usefulness -and value. As time went on, and implements were produced that consisted -of two or more parts, the activities of the artisans were enlarged, so -as to take care of those implements and keep them in adjustment. The -bow and arrow, for instance, would not work well, unless the cord were -maintained at the correct degree of tension, the feathers on the arrows -were kept straight, the ends of the cords properly secured to the -bow, etc. Similarly, the mechanisms made for spinning and weaving and -fabricating pottery had to be kept in proper condition and adjustment; -and if we could realize the small amount of mechanical knowledge extant -in primeval days, we would probably also realize that the difficulties -of keeping these crude appliances in good working order were as -great as are the like difficulties now, with the most complicated -printing-press. - -Furthermore, it was not only for keeping mechanisms in good condition -that artisans were needed: a higher degree of skill was needed for -operating them. We are forced to the conclusion that, as soon as -mechanisms were produced, the need of artisans trained to operate them -was felt. Not only this: the fact that the mechanisms were operated, -the facts that flax was spun and textures were woven, and pottery was -fashioned and baked, and that bows and arrows were used in battle, -prove that operators were actually trained to skill in the various -arts. This means that, as soon as the Machine of Civilization was -begun, operators skilled in the kinds of work which that Machine -required were trained in their various parts, and did their appointed -work. - -It was not only machines of brass and iron and wood, moreover, that -required skilled operators: the individual human machines were -continually getting out of order, and men were trained in whatever -knowledge the world contained, to keep them in good order. Hence the -physician came into being. - -The merchant must have been developed shortly after the agriculturist -and the artisan, to act as the agent for placing the products of the -soil and the products of the mechanisms in the possession of the -consumers. - -As a tribe or nation increased in size, laws had to be formed to -regulate the mode of living of its members, decide disputes, punish -offences, and regulate conduct in general. Hence the lawyer was -gradually developed. - -It seems probable, therefore, that even in prehistoric times, warriors, -rulers, priests, physicians, agriculturists, inventors, artisans, -merchants, and lawyers were at work, and that the activities of men -were divided mainly among those classes. - -The activities of men are similarly divided now. In fact, it is by -these separate activities that the _separate parts_ of the Machine are -handled. That these separate parts are handled well, the progress made -in those parts convincingly testifies. - -Despite this fact, however, no book on invention would be complete -which did not point out that the Machine, _as a whole_, is not being -handled well. - -The Machine in each country is, of course, handled by the ruler and his -assistants. Originally the ruler handled it alone; but, as it increased -in complexity and size, the task became too great for one man, and -advisers and ministers were appointed to assist him. Men fulfilling -such tasks and allied tasks we now call statesmen. - -Now it is to the hands of the statesmen of each country that the actual -management of the Machine of Civilization is committed. Yet it is a -well-known fact that although there are but few men in the world so -wise and learned that they know much about the Machine or any of its -parts, yet it is not from the wise and learned class that the great -officials of governments are selected! - -The truth of this statement cannot reasonably be denied. That the -whole safety of the Machine of Civilization is in the hands of men -untrained in statesmanship is incontrovertible. In fact, the whole -status of statesmanship is disconcertingly vague; for in all the -grand progress of mankind, no science of statesmanship seems to have -developed, or any system of training to practice it. There seem to -be no fixed principles of statesmanship, no literature except of an -historical kind, and little activity save of an opportunistic sort. -No special education seems to be thought necessary in a statesman, or -any record of achievement; for in all countries, irrespective of their -form of government, men are placed in positions carrying the utmost of -human power for good and for evil, with little previous experience or -training, and without having to pass any examinations of any kind! - -This fact demands attention. Of what avail is it to train men to handle -the separate parts of the Machine, if the Machine as a whole is to -be handled by untrained men? Of what avail is it to train engineers, -warriors, priests, physicians, lawyers and merchants to handle their -several parts, if the Machine as a whole is to be handled by statesmen -who have not been trained to handle it? It must be obvious that no men -can handle the Machine as a whole, unless they comprehend the Machine -as a whole, and also understand all its parts enough to realize their -relation to the whole. _No man can well handle any machine, be it -large, or be it small, without such knowledge._ No man can be a good -captain of a battleship, for instance, until he has spent many years -mastering the necessary knowledge. Ignorance of the parts and the -whole of a battleship is not permitted in a captain of a battleship. -Why is ignorance of the parts and the whole of their respective -responsibilities permitted in officials occupying higher places in the -governments? - -That there are few men in the world who understand enough of all the -various parts of the Machine to understand the Machine as a whole is -certainly unfortunate; that almost none of these few men are selected -to fill the positions of statesmen is dangerous to the last degree. -For the Machine has grown to be extremely complicated; and it has the -quality, which all machines have in common, that an injury to any -part affects the whole. This quality is highly valuable, in fact it -is essential; but it carries with it a menace to the entire machine, -if it is operated by unskilled men. The Machine of Civilization came -very near to being smashed in the World War; because the statesmen of -France and Great Britain were so inefficient in the most important -part of their work (that of guarding the Machine as a whole) that they -permitted Germany to catch them unprepared. - -The longer this condition continues to prevail, the greater the danger -to the Machine of Civilization will become. The resources of invention -are infinite. The resources of invention are almost untouched. Every -new discovery or invention prepares the road for a multitude of others. -These inventions and discoveries improve and enlarge the Machine; but -they complicate it more and more, and demand greater knowledge in -statesmen; just as increase in complexity of ships demands greater -knowledge in captains. - -It can be mathematically proved by the Theory of Probabilities that, if -there be any chance that a certain accident may occur, it will surely -occur some day if the predisposing causes are suffered to continue; and -that therefore, any machine committed to unskilful handling will be -wrecked some day, if the unskilful handling is suffered to continue. -This establishes the probability that our Machine of Civilization will -be wrecked some day, unless statesmen be trained to handle it. - -An invention seems to be needed that will insure adequate knowledge -in high officials in governments. But such an invention is not really -needed, because it is merely necessary to utilize an invention made -and used in Greece many centuries ago. This invention consisted in -conceiving, developing and producing a system whereby every candidate -for any office was required to show adequate knowledge of matters -coming within the jurisdiction of that office, by passing a rigid -examination. - -Such a system may be deemed impracticable in modern representative -governments. _Why?_ It is followed in all civilized armies and navies. - -If it be really impracticable, then it is impracticable to assure that -wise and able men shall manage the complex Machine of Civilization. -This means, if history has any lessons for us, that sooner or later, it -will again go down in ruin;--as it has gone down at different periods -of the past, in Egypt and Assyria and Babylon and Rome. - -That influences are already at work which impair the functioning of -the Machine in the present and threaten its continuance in the future, -cannot reasonably be denied. Of these, the two most powerful may be -classed under the general heading "bolshevistic" and "pacifistic." -At the bottom of the bolshevistic movement is, of course, the thirst -for wealth and power; the thirst for opportunities for handling and -using the Machine and its various parts, by men who have done no work -in designing, or building, or caring for it. At the bottom of the -pacifistic movement is effeminacy: a desire for mere ease and luxury -and softness, a shirking of responsibility and discipline and sacrifice. - -These two influences, unlike though they are, combine to threaten the -Machine; the bolshevistic by assault, the pacifistic by insuring -weakness of resistance to assault. Of these, the pacifistic is the -more dangerous, because the more insidious; for the same reason that -a disease hidden inside is more dangerous than an attack made openly -outside. The most potent cause of pacifism is the effeminacy caused -by the combination of prosperity and long-continued peace, with its -resulting division of a population into a vulgarly ostentatious rich -minority and a more or less envious poor majority. When a division like -this has come to pass, hostile conflict has usually ensued. Such a -conflict produced the French Revolution, and almost wrecked the Machine -in France. Such a conflict is now in progress in Russia, and threatens -some parts of Europe. - -Unfortunately, the progress of invention, by enlarging the scope and -speed of communication and facilitating the acquiring of superficial -knowledge, has put into the hands of men possessing merely the -natural gift of eloquence the power to influence large numbers of -people, without possessing knowledge or skill in statesmanship. It -has facilitated demagoguery:--and herein lies the root of the danger -to the Machine; for without the demagogue, the bolshevist and the -pacifist would be unable to get their civilization-destroying doctrines -presented attractively to the people. - -Fortunately, the Great War, though it caused tremendous suffering, -broke up many visionary notions that were crystallizing into beliefs, -and brought the world face to face again with realities. And although -the violent disturbance of society's always unstable equilibrium is -still evident in the world-wide unrest among the poorer classes, yet -the unrest seems gradually to be dying down, with the realization that -better conditions of living will be theirs in future. - -And as every nation that is not wholly degenerate, possesses the power -within itself to save itself, and as the great nations of the earth -are very far indeed from being degenerate, we are warranted in assuming -that each nation will take the necessary steps, not only to guard the -Machine of Civilization, but to increase its power and excellence. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -THE FUTURE - - -The fact that invention has not only been increasing during the past -one hundred years, but that its speed of increase has been increasing -and is still increasing, is well recognized. There seems to be a -constant force behind invention that imparts to it an acceleration, -comparable to that of gravity in accelerating the descent of a falling -stone. Such a phenomenon would be thoroughly conformable to modern -theories; and that there is a force, impelling people to invent, must -be a fact; for otherwise, they would not invent. If that force be -constant, the acceleration imparted to invention will be constant. If -the force be variable, the acceleration imparted to invention will be -variable. In other words, the future speed of invention, like that of -every moving body, must be governed by the force behind it and the -resistances opposed. - -At the present moment, the resistance to invention is being gradually -lessened because the benefits coming from invention are being realized. -Simultaneously, the facilities for inventing are being increased. - -These facilities are mainly in instruments of measurements and -research. So many of these are there now, that it would only complicate -matters to enumerate them and describe their spheres. Two of the most -important are the spectroscope and the photographic camera. By means of -the spectroscope, the astronomer can ascertain the chemical elements -of far distant stars, the temperature and pressure under which they -exist, the stage of progress of the star, and its speed and direction -of movement, whether toward us or away. By means of the photographic -camera, not only can records be made of stars so far away and faint -that light-waves from them cannot be noted by the eye, even with the -assistance of the most powerful telescope,--but a virtually unlimited -number of permanent records can be made. - -All fields of research now feel the assistance imparted by new -instruments and methods. Even the chemist realizes the aid of -instruments invented by the physicist; while every physicist welcomes -the aid that comes to him from chemists. The chemists and the physicist -are now working together in harmony and with enthusiasm, engaged in -a friendly rivalry as to which shall help the other most. And, as -discovery succeeds discovery, and invention succeeds invention, they -find themselves--although the domain of each is widening--not drifting -farther apart, but drawing closer together. For it seems to be coming -more and more assured that the Laws of Nature are simpler than we -thought, that chemistry and physics are more alike than we supposed. -Many startling generalizations have been suggested, with much reason; -such as, that matter and energy are one, that space and time are one, -and that even the mind of man may be subjected to physical methods and -analysis. In fact, some of the greatest advances made during the past -twenty-five years have been in psychology, and achieved largely by -the use of physical apparatus. Many subjects, formerly included with -alchemy and astrology in the class of occult if not deceitful arts, -are now being developed apparently toward more or less exact sciences; -as alchemy was developed into chemistry, and astrology into astronomy. -Efforts are even being made to communicate with distant planets and -with the spirits of the dead. - -That much is being attempted that may not be realized is true. But if -we realize that the universe is now supposed to be many millions of -years old, it seems only yesterday that the phenomena of electrical and -magnetic attraction and repulsion were confusing the minds of even the -wisest: and now electricity and magnetism are harnessed together, and -working together in perfect harmony and marvelous effectiveness, for -the good of man. - -That the future of invention is to be as brilliant as its past, -every omen indicates. In what direction will it proceed? Probably in -all directions. But the line of direction that will occur the first -to many, is probably in aerial flight. Doubtless it is in aerial -flight that the greatest advance has been made since flight was first -successfully accomplished in 1903; and doubtless it is in that line -that the greatest progress is being made now. The enormous speeds -already achieved; the growing size of both aeroplanes and dirigibles; -their increasing speed, safety and convenience; the fact that roads -are not needed for aerial transportation as they are for carriages -and railway trains, or deep water channels as for water craft; and -the comparative cheapness with which people and light packages can -be carried swiftly and far, all point to a vast increase in aerial -transportation, and a great modification in all our modes of living in -consequence. - -Akin to transportation is communication:--but in communication, one -may reasonably feel that we have arrived almost at the boundary line, -not only of the possible but even the desirable. For we have almost -instantaneous communication all over the surface of the earth and under -almost all the ocean, by the telegraph and telephone, using wires and -cables; and nearly equally good communication by radio telegraph, using -no material connection whatever. The wireless telephone is following -fast on the heels of the wireless telegraph; and by it we can already -telephone hundreds of miles between stations on land and sea, and carry -on conversation for several miles between fast moving aeroplanes. - -But progress is going on rapidly also in the older fields of invention. -The ocean steamship, especially the battleship, is growing in size, -speed and safety; so is the locomotive, so is the automobile. Because -of the progress in all the useful arts and sciences, buildings of all -kinds are being constructed higher and larger, and more commodious -and safe; civil engineering works of all description--roads, canals, -bridges and tunnels are setting their durable marks of progress all -over the earth; the uses of electricity are growing, and showing every -indication that they will continue so to do; and so are the uses of -chemistry and light and heat. And through all the industrial world, -in manufactures of every kind, we see the same unmistakable signs of -progress, increasing progress and increasing rate of progress. - -In the field of pure science, we note the same signs of progress, -increasing progress, and increasing speed of progress. Naturally, -however, it is far more difficult to predict with confidence the -direction which future progress will take in this field than in the -field of the practical application of pure science, in which invention -usually bestirs itself. The fact, however, that any actual advance has -begun in any new science gives the best possible reason for expecting -that the advance is going to continue. Therefore, we may expect -continuing progress in all branches of pure science: for the near -future, for instance, in biology, psychology and what is loosely called -"psychics," which seems to be a virtual excursion of psychology into -the hazy realms of telepathy, clairvoyance, spiritualism, and so forth. - -That invention and research are concerning themselves more and more -with immaterial subjects is a fact that is not only noticeable but of -vital importance to us, for signs are not lacking that man's material -comfort is already sufficiently well-assured; in fact, that perhaps -he is already too comfortable for his physical well-being. Already we -see that labor saving and comfort-producing appliances are impairing -the physical strength of men and women, and to such a degree that -artificial exercises are prescribed by doctors. Inasmuch as "the mind -is its own place, and in itself can make a heaven of hell, a hell of -heaven," it seems probable that the direction of effort in which the -greatest real benefit can be attained is in research and consequent -invention concerning the mind itself. But, for the reason that this -is probably the most difficult road, it seems probable that success -in it may come the latest. It seems probable also that even in that -road, progress will be achieved by means analogous to those by which it -has been achieved in other roads; that is by the use of physical and -chemical instruments and methods. Much has been done already by their -aid in psychology, and much more is promised in the not distant future. - -The idea of influencing the mind directly to states of happiness, -and guarding it from unhappiness, is far from new; for what were -the epicureans, stoics, and others trying to do but that? Such -attempts, many systems of philosophy and many mystic sects distinctly -made. Of these sects, one of the most interesting was that of the -omphalopsychites, who were able to raise themselves to high states of -happiness by the simple and inexpensive process of gazing at their -navels. Some advantages of their system are obvious. Certainly it was -less costly than other means of gaining happiness, such as wearing -narrow-toed shoes, chewing tobacco, smoking cigarettes and drinking -whiskey; and there is no evidence that it ever caused ingrowing -toe-nails, delirium tremens, or Bright's disease. - -That invention and progress have produced and may be relied upon to -continue to produce prosperity, may reasonably be predicted. But will -they together produce happiness? - -The author respectfully begs to be excused from answering this -question. He requests attention, however, to the manifest facts that -invention is a natural gift, that the impetus to invention has always -been the desire to achieve prosperity of some kind, and that to employ -our natural gifts to satisfy our natural instincts can reasonably be -expected to further our happiness; unless, indeed, we suspect Nature of -playing tricks upon us. - -That Nature sometimes seems to do this, and that it is dangerous to -follow our instincts blindly is of course a fact. But it seems to be -a fact also that the danger in following our instincts seems to come -only when we follow them blindly; and that, though there may be danger -sometimes in following them even under the guidance of our reason, -yet the only way in which we have ever progressed at all has been -by following our instincts under reason's guidance, and invention's -inspiration. - -And since the civilized world is in virtual agreement that civilization -is a happier state than savagery, and since we have been impelled -toward civilization by invention mainly, there seems no escape from -the conclusion that it is to invention mainly that we must look for -increase of happiness in the future. - -It may be, of course, that happiness does not come so much from a -condition or state attained as from the act of striving to attain it. -It may be suggested also by some one that life is merely a game, and -that happiness comes from playing the game and not from winning it, -just as children delight more in constructing a toy building with -their blocks than in the building when completed: for they no sooner -complete the building than they knock it down, and begin to build it up -again. But, even from this point of view, the desirability of fostering -invention would be apparent; because it would continually supply us -with new games to play, and new toys with which to play them. - -But that any thoughtful person could really think life a game is an -impossibility. No man with a mind to reason and a soul to feel can -contemplate the awful suffering that has always existed in the world, -and think life a mere game. No man can think life a mere game, who with -an eye to see and an imagination to conceive, gazes upon the infinite -sea of stars visible to his unaided vision, realizes how many thousands -upon thousands of stars there are besides, that the photographic camera -records, and realizes also that, though light travels even through air -at a rate exceeding 186,000 miles per second, yet that some stars are -so distant that the light now reaching us from them started ages before -the dawn of history. And no man who is able to follow the teachings -of science, even superficially, can note the enormous development of -civilization during the last few thousand years, and realize that a -development similar though infinitely grander, must have been going on -in all the universe for countless centuries, without realizing also -that "through the ages an increasing purpose runs." He may even note a -likeness between it and the development on an infinitely smaller scale, -of the conception of a merely human inventor. Possibly, his fancy may -even soar still higher: possibly he may even wonder if all this great -creation may not be in effect a great invention, and God its Great -Creator, because its Great Inventor. - -So, whether we fix our thought on what the scientists tell us of the -probable course of development of the universe during the countless -ages of the past, or consider merely the development of man since the -dawn of recorded history, we seem to find as the initiating cause of -both--invention. - -Let us therefore utilize all means possible to develop this Godgiven -faculty, the chiefest of the talents committed to our keeping. That way -lie progress, prosperity and happiness. How far and how high it may -lead us, God only knows; for the resources of invention are infinite. - - -The End. - - - - -INDEX - - - A - - Abel, 240 - - Acetylene gas, 219 - - Acheson, 312 - - Ægeans, 55, 56 - - Aerial Age, 326 - - Age of Bronze, 15 - - Age of Copper, 15 - - Age of Iron, 19 - - Age of Steam, 179 _et seq_ - - Air-brake, 278 - - Air-pump, 142, 143 - - Airships, 326 - - Alchemy, 208 - - Alexander, 69 to 97 - - Alexandria, 77 - - Alphabet, 58 - - Aluminum, 213, 302 - - Ampère, 198, 199 - - Analine dyes, 265 - - Antipyrene, 298 - - Antiseptic surgery, 274 - - Antitoxin, 328 - - Appleby, 292 - - Application of hot air to furnaces, 213 - - Arago, 198 - - Arc-light, 183, 235 - - Archimedes, 78, 79, 149, 176 - - Aristotle, 139 - - Arithmetic, 35 - - Arkwright, 172 - - Artificial limbs, 239 - - Artificial silk, 304 - - Assur, 38 - - Assyria, 39, 40 - - Astrology, 31 - - Astronomy, 24, 29 - - Atlantic cable, 266 - - Atomic Theory, 210 - - Atwood's machine, 163 - - Automatic arc-light, 235 - - Automatic car-coupler, 285 - - Automatic grain-binder, 273, 292 - - Automatic piano, 221 - - Autoplate, 318 - - - B - - Babbage, 201 - - Babbitt metal, 220 - - Babylonian measures, 32 - - Babylonian religion, 38 - - Bacillus of cholera, 298 - - Bacillus of diphtheria, 298 - - Bacillus of hydrophobia, 298 - - Bacillus of infantile paralysis, 329 - - Bacillus of lockjaw, 298 - - Bacillus of tuberculosis, 298 - - Bacillus of typhus fever, 329 - - Bacon, Francis, 139, 140, 162 - - Bacon, Roger, 124 - - Baldwin, 217 - - Balista, 44 - - Band wood-saw, 184, 302 - - Barbed-wire fence, 273 - - Barometer, 142 - - Battle of the Nile, 189, 190 - - Bazaine, 281 - - Bémont, 314 - - Becquerel Rays, 313, 314 - - Behel, 273 - - Bell, 287, 302 - - Berliner, 292 - - Bernoulli, 164 - - Bessemer's process, 248 - - Bicycle, 265 - - Bismarck, 283 - - Black, 171, 175 - - Blake telephone-transmitter, 294 - - Bonaparte, 177, 178 - - Bourdon, 244 - - Bow and arrow, 4, 5 - - Bowers, 302 - - Boyle, 141 - - Braithwaite, 214 - - Branca, 152 - - Brandenburg, 164 - - Branly's coherer, 305 - - Brewster, 186, 244 - - Britain, 91, 92 - - Brugnatelli, 182 - - Buddhism, 39, 263 - - Bullock, 274 - - Bunsen, 266 - - Burden, 218 - - Burleigh, 275 - - - C - - Cable-car, 265 - - Cæsar, 7, 85 to 95, 279 - - Calculating machine, 201 - - Carbide of calcium, 273 - - Carbolic acid, 218 - - Carbon telephone-transmitter, 292 - - Carborundum, 312 - - Carré, 269 - - Carthage, 83, 84, 85 - - Cartwright, 175 - - Cash-carrier, 286 - - Cash-register, 286 - - Catapult, 44 - - Cathode rays, 292 - - Caus, 151 - - Cavallo, 175 - - Cavendish, 170, 171, 175 - - Cawley, 153 - - Celluloid, 284 - - Cerebro-spinal meningitis antitoxin, 328 - - Channing, 246 - - Charlotte Dundas, 180 - - Chemistry, 208 - - Chloral hydrate, 217 - - Chloroform, 215 - - Christian Science, 277 - - Christianity, 50, 263 - - Chrome process of tanning, 302 - - Cigarette machine, 291 - - Circulation of blood, 140 - - Civil War in America, 269 _et seq_ - - Clay tablets, 24 - - Clerk Maxwell, 284, 285 - - Clermont, 180 - - Clock, 162 - - Coal-gas, 184 - - Cocaine, 248 - - Coins, 48 - - Color photography, 327 - - Colt, 219 - - Columbus, 125 _et seq_ - - Compressed-air rock drill, 275, 284 - - Confucianism, 39 - - Congress of Vienna, 260 - - Congress, U. S. S., 270, 271, 272 - - Constant battery, 219 - - Constantinople, 96, 97, 113 - - Constitution of the United States, 263 - - Cooke, 220 - - Copenhagen, 192 - - Copernicus, 132, 133, 134 - - Corliss cut-off, 244 - - Cornwallis, 174, 175 - - Cortez, 128, 129 - - Corvus, 84, 85 - - Cowles, 302 - - Craske, 269 - - Crawford, 220 - - Cretans, 48 - - Croesus, 48 - - Crookes, 292 - - Cumberland, U. S. S., 270, 271, 272 - - Cuneiform writing, 28 - - Curie, 314 - - Curtiss, Glenn, 327 - - Curved stereoplates, 269 - - Customs union, 261 - - Cyanide process, 303 - - Cyrus, 39 - - - D - - Dædalus, 57 - - Daguerre, 181, 182 - - Dalton, 210, 211 - - Daniell, 219 - - Daniels, 328, 330 - - Darius, 59 - - Davy, 181, 182, 183 - - Davy, Edmund, 219 - - De Chardonnet, 304 - - De Grasse, 174, 175 - - De Lesseps, 237 - - Decimal system, 32 - - Deisel Engine, 291 - - Della Porta, 151 - - Dennison, 242 - - Depth bomb, 339 - - Dewar, 201 - - Dias, Bartholomew, 125 - - Diet at Spires, 131 - - Diet at Worms, 131 - - Disc for polishing, 43 - - Divine Right of kings, 146, 147 - - Dodge, 274 - - Domestication of brutes, 13 - - Drager, 327 - - Draper, 221 - - Drebel, 142 - - Dry-plate photography, 265 - - Duodecimal system, 31, 32 - - Duplex telegraph, 285 - - Dynamics, 159 - - Dynamite, 277 - - Dynamo electric machine, 275 - - - E - - East India Company, 257 - - Eastman, 304 - - Eberth, 295 - - Eddy, 277 - - Edison, 123, 292, 310, 328, 285 - - Egyptian religion, 38 - - Electric light, 149 - Telegraph, 215 - Cautery, 239 - Locomotive, 245 - Candle, 290 - Railway, first, 293 - Welding, 302 - Furnace, 312 - Motor, 217, 218 - - Electrically propelled boat, 221 - - Electricity, 148 _et seq_ - - Electromagnetic theory of light, 284 - - Electron, 293 - - Electroplating, 182 - - Electrostatic induction, 247 - - Elevator, 272 - - Embalming, 35 - - Ericsson, 10, 68, 214, 220, 270, 271, 272 - - Ether as an anæsthetic, 221 - - - F - - Fahrenheit, 142 - - Faraday, 138, 199, 214, 247 - - Farmer, 246 - - Faure storage battery, 294 - - Feudal system, 145, 146 - - Field, Cyrus, 266 - - Finlay, 327 - - Finsen, 313 - - Fire alarm telegraph, 247 - - Fire, 5 - - First American locomotive, 217 - - First electric telegraph, 232 - - First successful aeroplane flight, 326 - - Fiske, 312, 326, 328 - - Fitch, 180 - - Flexner, 328, 329 - - Flute, 49 - - Flying boat, 327 - - Foucault, 235 - - Fox, Talbot, 247 - - Foy, 294 - - Franklin, 168, 169, 170, 256 - - Frederick the Great, 166 _et seq_ - - Frederick William, 165, 166, 279 - - French Revolution, 260 - - Friction matches, 213 - - Fulton, 180 - - - G - - Galileo, 135, 136 - - Galvani, 138, 200 - - Galvanization, 220 - - Galvanometer, 200 - - Gardner, 265 - - Gas engine, 291 - - Gas mantle, 302 - - Gatling gun, 273 - - Gaul, 86 to 95 - - Gaza, 73 - - Ged, 164 - - Geometry, 37 - - German Confederation, 261 - - Giffard, 265 - - Gilbert, 137, 138 - - Gimlet, 57 - - Goldschmidt, 327 - - Goodyear, 220, 284 - - Gorham, 286 - - Gorrie, 245 - - Gramme, 283 - - Graphophone, 302 - - Gravitation, Law of, 144 - - Great Eastern, 266 - - Greece, 45 - - Greek fire, 96, 97 - - Green, 269 - - Greener's hammerless gun, 294 - - Groves gas battery, 267 - - Guericke, 142, 143, 148, 149, 216 - - Gun carriage, 108 - - Gun-cotton, 240 - - Gun director system, 312 - - Gun, 101 to 110 - - Gunpowder, 39 - - Guthrie, 215 - - Guttenberg, 7, 111 - - Gyroscopic compass, 326 - - Gyroscopic stabilizer, 327 - - - H - - Hadley, 145 - - Hales, 184 - - Hall, 308 - - Hammurabi, 38 - - Hanaman, 327 - - Hand photographic camera, 298 - - Hannibal, 84, 85 - - Hargreaves, 172 - - Harvey, 140, 141 - - Harveyized armor, 304 - - Heat, a measure of work, 212 - - Hebrews, 45 - - Hellenistic civilization, 76, 77 - - Helmholtz, 246 - - Henry, 214, 216, 252 - - Herman, 247 - - Hero, 149, 150, 151 - - Hertz, 304, 305 - - Hewitt, 326 - - Hibbert, 244 - - High speed printing press, 327 - - Hoe, 235, 242 - - Holy Alliance, 260 - - Homer, 205 - - Hooke, 145, 162 - - Horseshoe machine, 218 - - Howe, 236 - - Huygens, 162 - - Hyatt, 284 - - Hydraulic dredge, 302 - - Hydraulic jack, 176 - - - I - - Ice machine, 245, 287 - - Illuminating water-gas, 286 - - Image making, 117, 118 - - Incandescent lamp, 292 - - Induced currents, 214 - - Induction transmitter, 293 - - Ingersoll, 284 - - Internal combustion engine, 291 - - Interrupted thread screw, 242 - - Invasion of England, 193, 194 - - Ironclads, 248 - - - J - - Jablochkoff, 290 - - Jacobi, 218, 221 - - James, 217 - - Janney, 285 - - Jansen, 135 - - Jewish religion, 45, 46 - - Joly, 327 - - Judaism, 263 - - - K - - Kaleidoscope, 186, 187 - - Kepler, 134 - - Kinetograph and kinetoscope, 310, 328 - - Kingsland, 265 - - Kirchoff, 266 - - Knitting machine, 184 - - Koch, 295, 298 - - Kodak camera, 304 - - König, 186 - - Königgratz, 280 - - Krag-Jorgensen rifle, 309 - - Krupp, 243 - - Kuno, 298 - - - L - - La Gloire, 265 - - Laennec, 197 - - Laplace, 209 - - Laughing gas, 234 - - Lavoisier, 171, 172, 208, 211 - - Laws of electrolysis, 247 - - Laws of electromagnetic induction, 247 - - Laws of electrostatic induction, 247 - - League of Armed Neutrality, 192 - - Lee magazine rifle, 294 - - Leges Juliæ, 85 - - Legion, 83 - - Leibig, 215, 217 - - Leupold, 153 - - Leyden jar, 168, 169 - - Liberal government, 255 _et seq_ - - Light, 235 - - Linde, 312 - - Link motion, 217 - - Linotype machine, 301 - - Lippman, 327 - - Liquefaction of air, 312 - - Liquefaction of gases, 201 - - Lister, 274 - - Lithography, 177 - - Locomotive, 185 - - Loeffler, 298 - - Long, 221 - - Loom, positive motion weaving, 284 - - Lowe, 286 - - Lumière, 327 - - Lundstrom, 247 - - Luther, 130 _et seq_ - - Lyall, 284 - - - M - - Machine for making barbed-wire, 286 - - Mack, 194 - - Maddox, 284 - - Magazine gun, 243 - - Magellan, 128 - - Magneto electric machine, 216, 217 - - Malleable iron castings, 184 - - Marathon, 59, 60 - - Marble, 302 - - Marconi, 306, 313 - - Martel, Charles, 110 - - Martin's steel process, 274 - - Match-making machine, 242 - - Matteson, 302 - - Maxim, 327 - - McCormick Reaper, 218 - - McMahon, 281 - - Melhuish, 247 - - Merchant adventurers, 257 - - Mercury-vapor light, 326 - - Mergenthaler, 301, 308 - - Merkle, 177 - - Merrimac, C. S. S., 68, 270, 271, 272 - - Metternich, 261, 262 - - Michoux, 265 - - Middlings purifier, 287 - - Militarism, 282 - - Military machine, 279 _et seq_ - - Miller, 180 - - Miltiades, 59, 60 - - Milton, 205 - - Miners' safety lamp, 183, 184 - - Mohammedanism, 263 - - Moltke, 279 - - Moncrief's disappearing gun-carriage, 276 - - Monitor, 68, 270, 271, 272 - - Monroe Doctrine, 256 - - Montgolfier, 175 - - Morse, 215, 232, 233, 234 - - Morton, 215 - - Motion, Laws of, 144 - - Multiphase currents, 303 - - Mungo Ponton, 221 - - Murdock, 184 - - Muschenbroek, 168 - - Musical telephone, 267 - - Muybridge, 310 - - Mythology, 53 - - - N - - Napier, 136, 137 - - Napoleon, 187 _et seq_, 257 - - Nasmyth, 221 - - Needle telegraph, 220 - - Nege, 277 - - Neilson, 213 - - Nelson, 190, 192, 194, 197 - - Newcomer, 153 - - Newton, Isaac, 143, 144, 145 - - Nicholson, 186 - - Nickel steel, 308 - - Nicolaier, 298 - - Niepce, 181 - - Nineveh, 39 - - Nitroglycerin, 241 - - Nobel, 277 - - - O - - Oersted, 198, 199, 200 - - Ohm, 213 - - Oleomargarine, 277 - - Omphalopsychites, 345 - - Open-hearth process for steel-making, 274 - - Ophthalmoscope, 245 - - Otis, 272 - - Otto, 291 - - - P - - Pacinnotti, 217, 283 - - Page, 245 - - Painting, 56 - - Paper, 101 - - Papin, 153 - - Papyrus, 25, 33 - - Parson's steam turbine, 309 - - Pasteur, 298 - - Patent office, 111 - - Paul, 172 - - Peloponnesian War, 63, 66 - - Pericles, 62 - - Perkins, 265 - - Perry, 315 - - Persian Gates, 74 - - Phalanx, 68, 69 - - Philip of Macedon, 66, 67 - - Phoenicians, 45 - - Phoenix, 181 - - Phonetic writing, 27 - - Phonograph, 291 - - Photographic roll films, 247 - - Photography, 181, 221 - - Photometer, 212 - - Pictet, 287 - - Picture-writing, 27 - - Pitt, 261, 262 - - Pixii, 216 - - Pizarro, 129 - - Planté, 266 - - Platinotype process, 285 - - Plotz, 329 - - Pneumatic caissons, 221 - - Pneumatic tire, 235 - - Pneumonia bacillus, 295 - - Poetry, 62 - - Portable fire engine, 214 - - Portland cement, 291 - - Porus, 75 - - Potassium, 182 - - Power-loom, 175 - - Prehistoric inventor, 23 - - Prescott, 302 - - Priestley, 171 - - Primeval weapons, 1 to 20 - - Princeton, U. S. S., 220 - - Principia, 143 - - Printing press, 186 - - Printing telegraph, 237 - - Printing, 110 to 115 - - Pulmotor, 327 - - Pump, 243 - - Punic Wars, 84, 85 - - Pyramids, 35, 36 - - - Q - - Quadruplex telegraphy, 285 - - - R - - Radio activity, 314 - - Radio control of moving vessels, 326 - - Radium, 314 - - Ramsay, 180 - - Rear driven chain for bicycles, 302 - - Reece, 298 - - Regenerative furnace, 265 - - Reis, 267 - - Renaissance, 112 - - Revolver, 219 - - Rock drill, 247 - - Rocket, 185 - - Röntgen, 293, 312 - - Rubicon, 94 - - Ruhmkorff coil, 246, 293 - - Ruin of the machine of civilization, 226-230 - - Rumford, 212 - - Runge, 218 - - Russian campaign, 196, 197 - - - S - - Sadowa, 280 - - Safety matches, 247 - - Sailing vessels, 47 - - Salamis, 61 - - Santos Dumont, 326 - - Sargon, 41 - - Savage, 241 - - Savannah, first ocean steamship, 202 - - Savery, 152, 153 - - Schmid, 298 - - Schneider, 308 - - Schonbein, 240 - - Schultz, 302 - - Schultze, 273 - - Schweigg, 200 - - Scott Archer, 245 - - Screw propeller, 220 - - Sculpture, 62 - - Secondary battery, 266 - - Seebeck, 200 - - Self-binding reaper, 286 - - Self-induction, 215 - - Selligne, 221 - - Senefelder, 177 - - Sennacherib, 41 - - Sewing-machine, 236 - - Sextant, 145 - - Seymour, 245 - - Seytre, 221 - - Shakespeare, 205 - - Shell ejector, 274 - - Shintoism, 263 - - Shoemaking machine, 269 - - Sholes, 276 - - Siemens, 216, 265, 275, 294 - - Silencer for fire arms, 327 - - Sleeping-car, 265 - - Smeaton, 153 - - Smith and Wesson revolver, 247 - - Smokeless gunpowder, 273 - - Sobrero, 241 - - Sodium, 182 - - Soubeiran, 215 - - Sparta, 62 - - Spectroscope, 266 - - Sperry, 326 - - Spinning machine, 172 - - Sprague electric railway and motor, 303 - - St. Vincent, 190 - - Statuary, 56 - - Steam engine, 150 _et seq_ - - Steam hammer, 221 - - Steam plough, 294 - - Steam presser gauge, 244 - - Steam saw-mill, 291 - - Steam whistle, 218 - - Steel pen, 184 - - Stephenson, 185, 218 - - Stereoscope, 244 - - Stereotyping, 164 - - Sternberg, 295 - - Stethoscope, 197, 246 - - Stevens, 181 - - Sturgeon, 217 - - Suez Canal, 237 - - Sulphite process, 276 - - Syphon, 286 - - Syria, 45 - - - T - - Tainter, 302 - - Talbot, 221 - - Talleyrand, 261, 262 - - Taoism, 39, 263 - - Taupenot, 265 - - Telephone, 287 - - Telescope sight for ships' guns, 312 - - Telescope, 135, 136 - - Tesla, 303 - - Themistocles, 61 - - Thermit welding, 327 - - Thermometer, 142 - - Thermopile, 200, 201 - - Thermos bottle, 201 - - Thompson, Elihu, 302 - - Thomson, Benjamin, 212 - - Thomson, Sir William, 286 - - Thorium, 314 - - Threshing-machine, 177 - - Thurber, 231 - - Tilghman, 276 - - Time-lock, 241 - - Torpedoplane, 328 - - Torricelli, 142 - - Toulon, 177 - - Trafalgar, 195 - - Triger, 221 - - Tubular boiler, 214 - - Tungsten electric light, 327 - - Turtle for printing presses, 245 - - Twine-binder, 286 - - Typewriter, 231, 276 - - Typhoid bacillus, 295 - - Tyre, 72, 73 - - Tyrian Dyes, 48 - - - U - - Ulm, 194 - - Uranium, 314 - - Use of collodion in photography, 245 - - Uxian pass, 74 - - - V - - Van Depoele, 302 - - Vasco da Gama, 128 - - Veneti, 90 - - Vercingetorix, 93, 94 - - Vieille, 273 - - Villeneuve, 193, 194 - - Visibility of objects, 116, 117 - - Volta, 138, 170, 171 - - Voltaic arc, 182, 183 - - Vulcanizing rubber, 220 - - - W - - Walker, 213 - - Walkers, 304 - - War-chariot, 42 - - Washington, 173 _et seq_ - - Watch, 162 - - Watch-making machine, 245 - - Water-gas, 221 - - Watt, 154 _et seq_ - - Webb-feeding printing press, 274 - - Wedgwood, 181 - - Wegmann, 286 - - Wells, 234 - - Welsbach, 302 - - Westinghouse, 278, 285 - - Wheatstone bridge, 285 - - Wheatstone, 220 - - Wheel, 42, 43 - - Whitehead torpedo, 275 - - Whitney, 177 - - Wilde, 275 - - Willis, 285 - - Wireless telegraph, 305, 306 - - Wöhler, 213 - - Wood pulp, 247 - - Wood, Henry A. Wise, 318, 327 - - Woodruff, 265 - - Worm, 245 - - Wright, Orville and Wilbur, 326 - - - X - - X-Rays, 293, 312, 313 - - Xerxes, 60 - - - Z - - Zankerode, 293 - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - - -Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained. - -Inconsistent hyphenation, e.g., "co-operation" and "cooperation", has -been retained unless one form predominated. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. - -Page 174: "and sheet force of will" is misprint for "sheer". - -Page 249: Several colons would be semi-colons in modern practice. - -Index was not well-alphabetized; corrected here. Diacriticals and -ligatures have been alphabetized as plain letters. - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Invention, by Bradley A. 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